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He regulates the rotation of duty among its com- 128 ADLER ponent parts, and gives out the daily orders; at the same time, he is a sort of clerk to his chief, carries on the correspondence with de- tachments and with the superior authorities, arranges the daily reports and returns into tabular form, and keeps the journal and statis- tical books of his body of troops. Larger bodies of troops now generally have a regular staff attached--taken from the general staﬂ? of the army, and under a “chief of the staff,” who takes to himself the higher functions of adjutant, and leaves him merely the transmis- sion of orders and the regulation of the inter- nal routine duty of the corps. The arrange- ments in such cases, however, are so dif- ferent in different armies, that it is impos- sible to give even a general view of them. In no two armies, for instance, are the functions of an adjutant to a general commanding a corps d’armée exactly alike. Beside these real adju- tants, the requirements of monarchical institu- tions have created in almost all European states hosts of titular adjutants-general to the mon- arch, whose functions are imaginary, except when called upon to do duty with their mas- ter; and even then, these functions are of a purely formal kind. ADLER, Cnnrsrmn, born 1787, director of the royal porcelain works in Munich. Having been invited by Professor Melchior, he studied in the academy of Munich, and in 1815 received the appointment of superintendent of painting in the manufactory. He has produced a number of splendid designs for vases and salvers. ADLER, Jno. Gnons C1-nusrran, a Ger- man orientalist, born at Arnis, in the duchy of Schleswig, in December, 1755, died 1805. His earliest work on Hebrew documents ap- peared when he was only 16 years of age. His contributions toward our knowledge of Arabic and Syriac are very important, besides which he published, Reisebemerkurzgen auf einer Raise nach Rom. ADLER SALVIUS, J onan, born in Streng- ntis, Sweden, in 1590, and died at Stockholm in 1652. Of indigent and obscure parentage, he was indebted solely to his own talents and indus- try for the high positions which he afterwards ﬁlled. He entered the university of Upsal in 1610, but soon left it in order to visit in turn the most famous seats of learning in Germany, France, and Holland. He received the degree of master of arts in Helmstadt, and that of doctor of laws at Montpellier. He was ennobled by Gustavus Adolphus, in 1624, and afterward sent on various missions of importance to the Protestant courts of Germany. He accom- panied this monarch on his expedition to Ger- many, in 1630, and drew up the declaration of war which Gustavus published against the em- peror. During the thirty years’ war he enjoy- ed the fullest -conﬁdence of Gustavus and Christina, and as the chief representative of ' Sweden at the congress of Westphalia, he exerted a great inﬂuence upon the deliberations of that body. Some time after the conclusion ADLERSPARRE of peace, Adler Salvius returned to Sweden, was made a councillor and a baron, and was appointed to form a treaty with Poland. But his last sickness prevented the acceptance of this mission. Through life a warm friendship, founded on mutual esteem, existed between him and the celebrated Chancellor Oxenstiern. ADLERBETH, Gunmunn J (inns, a Swedish author, born at J oenkoeping, in 1751, died in 1818. He was a protegé of Gustavus III., at whose suggestion he wrote in conjunction with a man much superior to him in poetical genius, Count Gyllenborg, the drama Birger Jarl. Ad- lerbeth left some translations, of which that of %)he Eneid and of Racine’s Iphigenie are the est. ADLERCREUTZ, KARL J cum, count, a brave Swedish general, born April 27, 17 57 , died Aug. 21,1815. At the age of 13 he entered the Finnish dragoons as corporal, and was cap- tain in 1788, at the commencement of the war with Russia. At Palkokoki he commanded the advance guard, and in 1790 he fought as major at Pirtimaki. At the outbreak of the Finnish war, in 1808, he commanded a brigade. When the adjutant-general Count Liiwenhjelm fell into the hands of the Russians, Adlercreutz succeeded to his place. Upon his return to Stockholm he joined the party opposed to the insane policy of Gustavus IV., and it was he who, March 13, 1809, in the name of the na- tion, imprisoned the deposed king. In 1809 be accompanied the Swedish army to Germany as chief of the general stall‘, and in 1819 was created count. ‘ ADLERFELDT, GUSTAV, Swedish histo- rian, born in the environs of Stockholm, 1671, died July 8, 1709. He was the chamberlain and biographer of Charles XlI., and accom- panied him in all his expeditions. He was killed at the battle of Pultowa, and his manu- scripts fell into the hands of the Russians, who generously restored them to his brother. His military history of Charles XII., from 1700 to the battle of Pultowa,in 1709, has been trans- lated into German and French. ADLERSPARRE, Gxone, count, born in the Swedish province of Jtimtland, in 1760, died at Wermland, Sept. 23, 1835. Having entered the army at the age of 15, he received from King Gustavus III., in 1791, asecret com- mission to excite the Norwegians to rebellion. After the death of the king he left the army and devoted himself to science. In 1797-1800, he published a periodical, and the liberal spirit in which he conducted it brought upon him the suspicions of the government. In 1809 he un- expectedly received the command of a part of the so-called western army, and was shortly afterward promoted to the post of lieutenant- colonel. He was engaged in the conspiracy against Gustavus IV., and received many dis- tinguished honors at the hands of the new government. Having received the command of the army, he was commissioned to excite the Norwegians against Denmark, in which he ADMETUS Was unsuccessful. After the sudden death of the crown prince he retired from public life, but still continued to receive marks of royal favor, notwithstanding the liberality of his sentiments. His oldest son, Karl August, has distinguished himself as a poet. ADMETUS, king of Thessaly. Being dan- gerously ill, the oracle declared that he must die, unless some person would voluntarily take his place, which was done by his wife, Alcestis. After her death, Hercules visited Admetus, and promised to restore his wife, which he did, forcing Pluto to give her up. ADMINISTRATION, a collective term sig- nifying the ministerial or official department of the government, apart from the legislative and the judicial functions. The business of the administration is theoretically the same in all governments; the limits of its action are in- terpreted according as the form of government approaches despotism or republicanism. In Russia, where the czar is both head of the state and head of the church, the administra- tion takes charge of every thing; in Austria, where the church is an qlmperium in imperio, the ecclesiastical affairs are to a great extent withdrawn from the action of the administra- tion. ' ADMINISTRATOR, an officer appointed by a competent court, in a case of intestacy, to take possession of the personal estate of the deceased, pay his debts and distribute the res- idue amongst his next of kin.—Punmo An- mxrsrnaron, an ofﬁcer created by statute in large cities, to take charge of and administer the effects of strangers. ADMIRAL, a naval oﬁicer of the highest rank. The title was introduced by the Genoese and other Italians into Europe, and was probably de- rived from the ‘Arabic word Ameer, which was also used in reference to shipping, by the Greeks of the lower empire. In Britain there are three classes of admirals, red, white, and blue, with vice and rear admirals of each ﬂag. The pay of a full admiral is $25 per day, but he has a number of perquisites which greatly increase his income, especially while on active service, either at sea or in port. A rear-ad- miral receives $15 per day. The management and superintendence of the ﬂeet of England was formerly vested in a lord high admiral. James II. when duke of York, held this oﬂice, and when king, on account of his predi- lection for the naval service, kept it in his own hands. Prince George of Denmark, hus- band of Queen Anne, was also lord high admi- ral. The last incumbent of the ofﬁce was the duke of Clarence, afterwards William IV., who held it from May, 1827, till Sept. 1828, since which time the oﬁice has been put in commis- sion, the duties being performed by the lords of the admiralty, who are six in number, the ﬁrst lord having a seat in the cabinet. His pay is $22,500 per annum. ADMIRAL, HENRI L’, a French political assassin, born at Aujolet, in Auvergne, in 1744, VOL. I.-9 ADMIRALTY ISLANDS 129 guillotined in Paris, in 1794. He had been a servant in an aristocratic family, and as the revolution had deprived him of his means of living, he determined to take revenge upon some of its principal. leaders. His ﬁrst Wish was to shoot down Robespierre, and for that purpose he dogged his steps for some time. Not getting a favorable opportunity he turned upon the actor and montagnard Collot d’Her- bois.- On the night of the 1st Prairial, year II. of the republic, May 22, 1794, he ﬁred two pistol shots at the latter without success. The con- vention connected this attempt upon the life of Collot d’Herbois with another attempt made by the young girl Renaud on Robespierre, and charged that both were bribed by Pitt. A plot was believed in, and 52 victims were thrown into prison on the joint account of l’Admiral and Renaud. L’Admiral persisted to the last in say- ing that he had no accomplices. ADMIRALTY Cour/rs are courts having cognizance of questions exclusively arising out of maritime aﬁairs; or of crimes committed at sea. The law administered in admiralty is partly traceable to the civil laws or to the law of Oleron. The Instance court deals with marine contracts, such as seamen’s wages, claims for repairs, hy- pothecation claims, and claims arising between part owners of vessels. The court also decides salvage claims and claims of damage from col- lision on the high seas. In some of these cases the courts of common law exercise a concurrent jurisdiction. Another and peculiar function of admiralty courts is the adjudication of prizes captured in war. When vessels or other property are captured at sea, or on the seaboard, in time of war, it is the practice to submit the legality of the seizure to a competent court, before which the owners as well as the captors may be heard. The property seized being then ad- judicated lawful prize of war, is disposed of ac- cording to the rules of the service. Customa- rily the judges of the ecclesiastical courts in England sit also in civil admiralty cases. This is not, however, ea:-oﬁicio, but because the prin- ciples of the law administered are drawn from the same fountain-head, the Roman civil law. In questions of nautical skill the judge is usual- ly assisted by one of the Trinity masters. The chief judge in admiralty was formerly the dep- uty of the lord high admiral, but he now holds his oﬁdce as other judges ; vice-admiralty courts are found in the colonies. The admiral- ty formerly took cognizance of offences com- mitted on the high seas. This jurisdiction has been modiﬁed and partially transferred to the ordinary criminal tribunals. In the United States the admiralty courts are merged in the circuit and district courts of the Union.- ADMIRALTY ISLAND, off the coast of Rus- sian America, is 90 miles in length from north to south, and 25 in breadth; lat. 58° N., long. 134° W. ' ADMIRALTY ISLANDS, a cluster of islands in the Paciﬁc, between 20 and 30 in number, the largest some 60 miles long, in long. 146° 44' 130 ADMONITION E. and lat. 2° 18' S. They are thickly wooded, and supposed to be numerously inhabited. ADMONITION, a part of ancient church discipline. If the offence was of a private na- ture, the warning was given in private ; other- wise before the assembled church. If the per- son censured did not amend his ways, excom- munication followed. ADOBE HOUSES, dwellings built of unburnt brick, which are in common use in Mexico, Texas, and Central America. Adobe bricks are made from earth of a loamy character contain- ing about two-thirds ﬁne sand mixed thoroughly with one-third or less of clayey dust or sand. Stiif clay is avoided, as the rays of the hot sun would crack it in pieces. The loamy substance under the action of the sun becomes a hard compact mass without a crack. Four men gen- erally work at the making of adobe bricks-— one in the hole to mix the mass, two to carry it on a common hand-barrow, and one to mould the prepared substance into bricks. The moulder has a double mould, each 18 inches long, 9 inches wide, and 4 inches thick. It has projecting handles at each end by which it can be raised. It has no bottom, the adobe brick being deposited on the surface of the ground made tolerably level. The mould is raised care- fully and slowly away from the moulded masses. Before recommencing with another couple, the inner sides of the mould are washed with water ; this process prevents the mud from sticking and spoiling the brick. The dumping of the mud from the barrow upon the adobe mould is facilitated by casting into the barrow a little ﬁnely -powdered dry manure or dust. The adobes are sometimes made 16 inches long and 12 inches wide. In the hot spring and summer seasons 2 or 3 days are suﬁicient for the ﬁrst drying. The adobes are then care- fully turned upon edge so as to expose the wet under surface to the action of the sun. In this position they should be left a week or a fort- night, according to circumstances, after which, if not immediately used, they may be stacked on edge and preserved from the weather. The four workmen, employed as before described, are able to make from 400 to 480 adobes per day. The adobes are laid with mud mortar made from the earth at the foot of the wall. The adobe house is not built continuously from day to day, as houses of wood, brick, and stone are. After the erection of every 2 feet of wall, the construction is left to harden for a week of good drying weather, and the same practice is repeated after the walls are com- pleted and before the roof is laid on. These houses are seldom built above one story high. The inside plastering is generally done before the roof is put on, and so as to dry with the wall. If the wall has to be left unﬁnished through the fall and winter rains, the top is cov- ered with a bushy weed called cachanilla, and this topped with a covering of earth protects the adobe until the ensuing spring. The door and window frames are inserted at pleasure, ADOLESCEN CE either while the house is building, or spaces are left for their insertion after the house is ﬁnished. The roof covering is thus made: heavy joists (in Spanish cigas) are laid about 2 feet apart on the top of the walls, strong enough to bear nearly a foot of earth all over. The vigas are supported upon boards where they rest upon the wall, so as to distribute the weight of the roof and prevent the joists from crushing into the walls. Across the vigas and over the whole roof, poles are placed (called lattillas) averaging 2 inches in diameter, the largest on the highest side of the roof to begin the slope; on this they place a close covering of the cachanilla, above mentioned. It is evergreen, aromatic, bug defy- ing, and of suitable length. In default of cacha- nilla small willow brush is used. The earth cover- ing of the roof is now put on, extending all over the roof to the parapet above the vigas, which rest on half the width of the wall below them, and prevent leaks into the room below. The upper coat of earth is from 4 to 6 inches thick, and is of the same loamy soil of which the adobes are made, mixed with mud mortar, and graded so as to give the roof a slight slope to the water-spouts. When this has hardened enough for a man to walk on it without leaving the impression of his foot (but it must not crack to any extent), another coating of earth, similar to the ﬁrst, is put on. The ad- vantages of an adobe house are great ; it is warmer in winter and cooler in summer than either wood or brick. No furrowing or lathing is necessary, the plastering sticks well on the rough inside surface. Their duration is extraordinary. Buildings of adobe brick, 50 feet high, can be seen yet ﬁrm and hard as a rock, which are a hundred years old. They prove excellent fortiﬁcations, as was seen in the campaigns of the ﬁllibuster General Walker, who was seldom able to drive out a company of Central Americans when ensconced in an adobe house. There is no reason why this style of fabric should not be introduced into our western states. They cost nothing, or almost nothing to make, and would be very suitable for our poorer farmers. The Central American type of adobe houses might be improved upon, by build- ing them on a stone foundation, or on one of mortar and cement raised one foot above the earth. This would be necessary in marshy lo- calities, to protect the walls from the wash of rain, or the river ﬂooding, and also everywhere against the melting of the snow. The roof might be improved by making the vigas (like the eaves of straw-thatched cottages) project eight- een inches or two feet beyond the wall all round. This contrivance would also protect the wall below from the action of driving rains. ADOLESCENCE (Lat. adolesccre, to grow), that portion of human life beginning with in- fancy and ending with the attainment of man- hood. It continues as long as the ﬁbres are in- creasing in size and ﬁrmness. The ﬁbres having acquired a degree of strength suﬁicient to sup- port the parts, their further growth is arrested. ADOLPHU S I. ADOLPHUS I., count of Oleves, was elected bishop of Munster in the last half of the 14th cen- tury. In 1380, he reéstablished the order of Fools; 35 lords and gentlemen entered into the society, which seems to have been intended to cultivate good fellowship and unity among the nobles of the county of Oleves. The badge of the society was a silver fool embroidered on the cloak. They reassembled every Sunday after Michaelmas, and had a succession of splendid suppers at the expense of the common fund. The body then set about arbitrating upon the differences that had arisen between the mem- bers. The order has long since vanished. ADOLPHUS on Nassau, emperor of Ger- many, 1292—1298, successor to Rodolph of Hapsburg, in whose court he was brought up. He was a man of knightly valor and dis- cretion, and was elected by the princes of the empire, who feared the great parts and im- perious will of Albert, Rodolph’s son. The disappointed expectations of some of his sup- porters, and especially of the elector- arch- bishop of Mentz, caused them to withdraw from his cause, and he was summoned before a diet, held at Mentz, to answer some alleged offences. He refused to attend, and for this pretended contumacy, he was declared to have abdicated, and the crown was decreed to Albert. Adolphus was not, however, to be thus summari- ly expelled; he ﬂew to arms, and the rivals met in person at Gellheim, not far from Worms, July 2, 1298. Both spurred their horses furiously against each other, but Adolphus was unhorsed, and was killed by one of Albert’s followers. ADOLPHUS, Fnnnnmo, duke of Holstein Gott-orp and king of Sweden, born May 14, 1710, died Feb. 12, 1771. In order to counteract the designs of the Russian czar upon Sweden, the diet of that country elected Adolphus king of Sweden. He ascended the Swedish throne April 5, 1751. His reign was not an easy one, as the nobles inflicted on him many humiliations, and made him a more puppet. In 1757, he was compelled, against his will, to take a part in the seven years’ war against Frederic of Prussia, whose sister he had married. He once threat- ened to resign the sovereignty unless the diet was convoked. This threat brought about the convocation of that body, which maintained his rights, and preserved him from the usurpations of the nobles. - ADOLPHUS, J orm, English advocate and author, born in London, in 1766, died July 16, 1845. He served his time in London, and was admitted attorney and solicitor in 1790. Naturally eloquent, acute, and ready, he aspired to the higher honors of the profession, and was called to the bar in 1807. He soon obtained _ the character of an adroit, skilful counsellor, and practised chieﬂy at the Old Bailey, in criminal cases. His forensic reputation was not fully established until 1820, when, on the trial of the “ Oato-street Gonspirators,” he defended Arthur Thistlewood, charged with high treason, with ADONIS 131 such marked ability, that though his client was convicted, his own skill and eloquence were highly commended. From that time, his practice at the bar was large and lucrative. N 0 man managed a case with more tact, but his warmth of temper frequently led him into undigniﬁed squabbles with his professional brethren. His reports are referred to as authority. It is to his pen, however, that Mr. Adolphus will owe his permanent reputation. As a historian and biographer, he displays learning, industry, re- search, and a style at once digniﬁed and elo- quent. His principal works are “The History of the Reign of George HI.” in 7 vols., of which a new and enlarged edition appeared shortly before his death, “Biographical Memoirs of the French Revolution,” a “History of England,” “The British Cabinet,” “Political State of the British Empire,” and “ Memoirs of John Ban- nister, Gomedian.”—-JOHN Lnronsrnn, barris- ter, son of the foregoing, highly distinguished himself at the university of Oxford, and publish- ed in July, 1821, a work which Lockhart says “ was read with eager curiosity and delight by the public, with much diversion, besides, by his (Sir. W. Scott’s) friends, and which Scott him- self must have gone through with a very odd mixture of emotions.” This book is entitled “Letters to Richard Heber, Esq., containing critical remarks on the series of novels begin- ning with Waverley, and an attempt to ascertain their author.” The purpose of this book was to prove, from his own acknowledged writings, and from other known circumstances connected with his personal history and position, that Scott, and none other, could be the author, sole and unassisted, of the Waverley novels. From the time this well-written volume appeared, Scott felt that his incogmlto was ended, and thence- forth he wore his mask loosely. Mr. J. L. Adolphus visited Scott, at Abbotsford, several times between 1823 and 1831, and his diary, during those visits, forms an interesting portion of Lockhart’s Life of Scott. ADONAI, one of the appellations of the Sn- preme Being in the Hebrew scriptures. It is the plural of Adoni, which signiﬁes my lord. The Jews, who dare not utter the name of Je- hovah, substitute Adonai in its place where it occurs in the Hebrew text. The ancient Jews were less scrupulous, and there is no ordinance even now prohibiting the use of the name of God in their services. ADON IA, feasts anciently held in honor of Venus and Adonis. They lasted two days ; the ﬁrst was spent in tears and lamentations, the second in mirth and feasting. The festival typiﬁed the dying and resurrection of nature. ADONIG VERSE consists of a dactyl and a spondee, or trochee, as clld mcirttt and is adapt- ed to sprightly poetry. It is seldom used alone, but combined with other metres. The Anglo-Saxons used this verse in their rude compositions. ADONIS, in Greek mythology, a beautiful youth beloved by Venus. The story of his 132 ADONISTS birth and parentage is variously given, but ac- cording to the more common account received from the cyclic poet Panyasis, he was the 8011 of Theias, king of Assyria, and his daughter Smyrna. Venus discovering the beauty of the child, hid him in a chest which she intrusted to Proserpina. Hence resulted the dispute be- tween these goddesses as to which of them Adonis should belong to, which was settled by the judgment of Jupiter that he should remain with each of them an equal part of each year. Adonis died of a wound received from a wild bear in the Idalian woods, and the sorrow of Venus for his loss was so great that the gods allowed his return to earth for six months of every year to console her. Her grief has been celebrated not in Greek literature alone, but also in that of many modern nations. ADONISTS, a party among divines and critics, who held that the Hebrew points at- tached to the consonants in the word Jehovah belonged properly to the words Adonai and Elohim, and are intended to remind the reader to read Adonai, and not Jehovah. ADOPTIANI. The speculations of the early theologians on the two natures of Christ had given rise to views more or less differing from that which had been espoused by the church in the council of Nice (325). From Praxeas (200) and Sabellius (250), the controversy on the two natures was brought down by Apolli- naris (3 62), Nestorius (428), and Eutyches (450), to the invasion of the Saracens and the sub- jugation of Spain (711) to the sway of Islam. The council of Chalcedon (451) declared the in- separable but unconfused union of two natures in one person; and at every reappearance of Nestorianism it was promptly put down by coun- cils. But under the immunities which a refusal of the Mohammedan government to interfere in the religious disputes of its subjects secured, Eli- pandus, bishop of Toledo (783), and Felix, bish- op of Urgel, pushed the doctrines of Nestorius to their extremest conclusions, and began to disseminate views concerning the two natures of Christ which were in opposition to the tenor of the church councils for four centuries. They aﬂirmed that Jesus was really the son of God only in his divine nature, and the son of God by adoption merely, in his human nature, and so divorced his two natures from each other. It is said that Elipandus and Felix were provoked by the hostility of Mohammedanism to Chris- tianity, to the investigations which conﬁrmed them in the doctrine of adoption. So long as they conﬁned their efforts to spread their views to the Mohammedan territory, no notice was taken of the heresy. But when in 787 Felix acted the propagandist of adoptionism within the precincts of Charlemagne, the subject was brought to the notice of that emperor, and the synod of Regensburg was convened (789), and that of Frankfort (794), and of Aix-la-Chapelle (799), each of which condemned in turn the doctrines of Elipandus and Felix as heresies. Felix made an insincere recantation, but Eli- ADORNO pandus, secure in his Spanish bishopric, lived in the undisturbed promulgation of his opin- ions. The conduct of Charlemagne in the mat- ter is generally commended by historians as magnanimous and impartial. The discussion out of which adoptionism sprung appears now and then in the after history of the church, to the present time. ADOPTION, a taking of another’s child as one’s own, not recognized in English or Ameri- can law, but still regulated by law in Germany and France, as it was in Rome. Where the party adopted is under age, and actually under the parents’ power, it is called adoption proper, or, where it is of age, sud juris, adrogation. The abstract rule that adoption must imitate nature, though derivable from regulations of the Roman law, such as that forbidding eunuchs to adopt, and that requiring the adopter to be at least 18 years older than the adopted, is not fully carried out, since by the same law these incapable of procreation may adopt. In Ger- many, while the child is more completely absorbed into the family of the adopter than he was in Rome, numerous subtle distinctions have been ingrafted upon this title of the law, while the code Napoleon admits adoption only to a limited extent. A prerequisite to adoption in Rome, was leave from the college of priests, in Germany the sanction of the prince or judge is required. In Texas, a person may adopt an- other to be his legal heir by ﬁling a statement, authenticated like a deed, expressing his inten- tion so to do, with the county clerk, thereby entitling him to all the rights and privileges of a legal heir, except that if the adopter have a legitimate child or children, the adopted shall in no case inherit more than a fourth part of the testamentary estate of the adopter. ADORATION (Lat. ad, to, and os, oris, the mouth), the act of rendering homage to a deity, or to a superior, as if he were a god. It means literally to raise the hand to the mouth, this gesture importing in the East the profoundest respect. ADORNI, OATHARINE Fmscm, a poetess, born at Genoa in 1447, died Dec. 14, 1510. When very young, she married Adorni, a Genoese nobleman, whose immoral conduct caused her to separate from him and conse- crate herself to a life of piety and charity. Beside poetry, we have some treatises from her on subjects relating to the welfare of the soul. ADORNO, the name of several doges of Genoa. I. Anonxo GABRIELE (1354), a mer- chant, and partisan of the Ghibelines. When the Genoese passed their sentence of exclusion from the principal ofﬁce of the state upon the four noble families who had shared all public employments between them, Adorno was made the ﬁrst plebeian doge. But the Genoese soon found that ambition and personal self-seeking were not peculiar to patricians, and Adorno was supplanted and forced to ﬂee. II. Amo- mo, elected doge 1384. He leaned to the dem- ocratic side, and was dispossessed and reestab- ADOUR lished three times in succession. He persuaded his fellow-citizens to surrender themselves, cer- tain reserved rights excepted, to the sover- eignty of Charles VI. of France. The treaty was signed Oct. 26, 1396, and the ensuing month Antonio surrendered the insignia of his ofﬁce to the French commissioners. But this arrangement did not last; the turbulence of the Genoese soon undid what Adorno had per- suaded them to do. HI. Pnosrnno, elected doge in 1461, died in 1486. He made himself famous by driving out the Sforzas and their Milanese troops from his native city, which had been seized by Galeas Sforza. He took the title of defender of Genoese liberty, and was the idol of the people for a short time. By a sudden change of opinion he became detested, and to save his life had to escape from Genoa by throwing himself into the sea and swimming to the' galleys of the king of Naples, under whose protection he lived until his death. IV. Fnanonsoo, a Jesuit, born 1531 at Genoa, died Jan. 13, 1586. He composed several treatises, some of which are still extant in the Ambrosian library. ADOUR, a river in the S. W. of France, about 180 miles in length, 70 of which are nav- igable. Its course is nearly semi-circular. It empties into the Bay of Biscay. Though many streams unite with it, its volume of water is small, except_during the melting of the snows in the Pyrenees, when it often inundates the surrounding country. ADOWA, one of the chief towns of Abys- sinia. It is the great depot of the trade be- tween the coast and interior. The chief man- ufactures are cotton cloths. Population, 8,000. ADRAIN, Ronnncr, LL.D., born in Ireland, Sept. 30, 1775, died at New Brunswick, Aug. 10, 1843. He came to this country during the rebellion of 1798, and was for some years en- gaged in teaching. In 1810 he was made pro- fessor of mathematics and natural philosophy in Rutgers college, at New Brunswick, New Jersey, and three years after was appointed to asimilar ofﬁce in Oolumbia college, New York. From 1827 to 1834 he ﬁlled the professorship of mathematics in the university of Pennsylvania. In addition to other publications, he edited “ Hutton’s Mathematics.” ADRASTEA, daughter of Zeus and Anangke, was the minister of the vengeance of the gods; named after Adrastus, who built her a temple. ADRASTUS, king .of Argos, in the early history of ancient Greece. His father was Ta- laus, king of Argos, and his mother is variously named Lysimache, Lysianassa, and Eurynome. Being expelled from Argos he took refuge in Sicyon, and there succeeded to the throne, and instituted the Nemean games. He was subse- quently restored to his native city, and married one of his daughters to Polynices, the exiled king of Thebes. He now formed a union of Greek heroes to restore his son-in-law to his throne, and led the famed expedition of the “ seven against Thebes,” the abundant theme of ADRIAN 133 later tragedy. Adrastus alone survived, saved by the ﬂeetness of his horse Arion. Ten years later, he prompted the seven sons of the defeat- ed heroes to renew the war. Their expedition, known as that of the Epigoni or descendants, set out with promises of success from the ora- cle, and ended with the capture and complete demolition of Thebes. The son of Adrastus was the only Argive hero that fell, and Adras- tus himself soon after died of grief. The le- gends of his life are interwoven into some of the masterpieces of Greek literature. ADRETS, Fnamgors DE Bnnumorrr, a blood- thirsty French warrior of infamous reputation, born in Dauphiné, 1513, died Feb. 2, 1587. In consequence of ill success in a law-suit, which ill success he attributed to the Guises, he turned Huguenot and committed savage excesses in Dauphiné and Provence. After the peace he appeared before the royal council of Charles IX. and saved his life by abjuring Protestantism. ADRIA, an ancient seaport in Oisalpine Gaul, between the mouths of the Adige and P0. The inundation of these rivers gradually rendered the country uninhabitable, and their deposit of soil caused the sea to recede until the town is now 14 miles inland. The ruins of ancient Adria lie south of the modern town of that name. It forms part of the Lombardo- Venetian provinces. Population, 10,000. ADRIAN, shire-town of Lenawee Oo., Michi- gan, is situated on a tributary of the Raisin river, 70 miles W. S. W. of Detroit. The Erie and Kalamazoo railroad, constructed in 1836, joins Adrian with Toledo, 32 miles off, and the Mich- igan southern road passes through the town. The completion of these lines of road has greatly accelerated the growth of the place, which now commands the trade of an extensive grain- growing region. It has two banks and several ﬁne public ediﬁces. The stream on which it stands furnishes a water power which is used by several mills. Population, 4,000. ADRIAN, Roman emperor. See HADRIAN. ADRIAN, the name of several popes. I. Born at Rome, ascended the pontiﬁcal chair in 772. During his reign the Longobards invaded the provinces which Pepin had presented to the Roman see. Adrian solicited the assistance of Oharlemagne, who entered Italy, and over- threw the power of the Longobards in 774. In return he received from Adrian the title of king of Italy and patrician of Rome. In 791 Rome was inundated by the Tiber, when Adrian alleviated the distress of the populace by dis- tributing provisions, in boats, which visited all parts of the city. He also rebuilt the fortiﬁca- tions of Rome, and was charitable to the poor. He died in 793. II. Born at Rome, became popein867, and died in 872. He had been married, but left his wife to live in celibacy. During his pontiﬁcate the schism between the Greek and Latin churches was formed, which still exists. IH. Born at Rome, was made pope in 884, and died in 885, on his way to the Diet at Worms. IV. Nicholas Breakspear, the only 134 ADRIAN Englishman who ever ﬁlled the papal chair, be- came pops in 1154, and died in Sept. 1159. He was made bishop of Albano by Eugenius III., who sent him as his legate to Sweden, and on his return he was, much against his will, elected pope. Rome was at this time in a state of great confusion, resulting from the preaching of Arnal- do, a monk of Brescia, who was advocating a re- form in the church. At the request of Adrian he was given up by Frederic Barbarossa, to whose dominions he had ﬂed for refuge, and executed. Frederic was soon after crowned emperor of Germany by Adrian, after a dis- pute as to the forms to be observed. After the ceremony a general conﬂict took place between the Romans and Frederic’s troops, in which many lives were lost. Adrian afterward be- came involved in numerous quarrels with Fred- eric, which was the origin of that feeling of bitter enmity between the pope and the house of Hohenstauifen, only terminated by the fall of the latter. V. A Genoese, pope in 1276, died ﬁve weeks after his election. VI. Born at Utrecht, was the preceptor of Charles V. and elected pops in 1522. He died in September, 1523, after vainly attempting to prevent the Lutheran schism by a reform of the abuses of the church, which he did not live long enough to accomplish. ADRIAN THE AFRICAN, ﬂourished in the seventh century, and came to England with Theodore, archbishop of Canterbury, where he was made abbot of St. Peter’s. Bede speaks in high terms of his intellectual inﬂuence on the English nation. ADRIANISTS, the name of two religious sects. The ﬁrst were followers of Simon Ma- gus, about the year 34. The other was founded by Adrian Hamstead the Anabaptist, and held some peculiar views concerning Christ. ADRIANOPLE, the second city in European Turkey, situated in 41° 44’ N. lat. 26° 34’ E. long. 135 miles W. N. W. from Constantinople, on the banks of the Hebrus. It stands on the side of a hill, is surrounded by old walls, and intersected by narrow and crooked streets. The population is about 100,000. It contains 40 mosques, the most famous of which, that of Selim II., was built of materials furnished by the ruins of Famagusta, in Cyprus. One of its most important ediﬁces is the bazaar of Ali Pasha, 300 paces in length, built of red and white bricks, placed alternately. In it are sold the more valuable articles of merchandise, as shawls and jewelry. The river adds to the traﬂic of the place. It has manufactures of silk, woollen, and cotton; dyeing, distilling rose- water and other perfumes, and tanning, are also carried on. It exports wool, leather, ﬂax, and opium. A Greek archbishop has his residence here, and likewise a British consul. Adrianople was originally a Thracian town, and takes its name from the Emperor Adrian, by whom it was rebuilt. In 1360 it was taken by the sultan Murad I., and was the metropolis of the Turkish empire from that time until the taking of Con- ADRIATIC SEA stantinople in 1453 ; the sultans frequently made it their residence till the beginning of the eighteenth century. The Russians captured the city August 20, 1829, which resulted in the conclusion of a treaty of peace between Russia and Turkey at Adrianople, on Sept. 14 of the same year. By this treaty they restored Moldavia and Wallachia, and all their acquisitions of territory in Bulgaria and Ron- melia. The Pruth, and from its mouth the Danube, was made the dividing line between the two countries, and the boundaries of their respective Asiatic possessions were agreed upon. Russia obtained the privilege of trading with all parts of the Turkish empire, the navigation of the Danube, the Black Sea, and the Medi- terranean, and the passage of the Dardanelles, upon the same terms with the most favored na- tions, and a full indemnity for her expenses during the war. ADRIATIC SEA, the portion of the Medi- terranean lying between Italy on the W. and Illyria and Albania on the E., takes its name from the city Adria. Its length from the strait of Otranto (which connects it with the Ionian Sea) to the mouth of the Tagliamento, is 480 miles ; its average width about 130 miles, which, northward from the mouth of the P0, is reduced to about 60 miles by the peninsula of Istria. The Adriatic receives few rivers of importance, except the Adige and the P0. The western coast is generally ﬂat and swampy, and consequently unﬁt for habitation; its harbors are few and poor. The eastern shores are steep and rocky, and the numerous islands along the coast fur- nish vessels a safe shelter from storms. The north-western part of the Adriatic is known as the gulf of Venice, the north-eastern as the gulf of Trieste. On the western coast lies the gulf of Manfredonia, bordering the kingdom of Naples, and on the eastern the gulf of Cattaro in Illyria, and of Drino, in Albania. During summer the navigation of the Adriatic is free from danger, but the S. E. winds that blow in winter produce disastrous shipwrecks. Its depth between Dalmatia and the outlets of the P0 is 22 fathoms; but opposite Venice and in a considerable portion of the gulf of Trieste, less than 12 fathoms. To the southward it deepens rapidly. Its waters are more salt than those of the Atlantic. The tides are almost im- perceptible. There can be little doubt that the dimensions of the Adriatic were formerly much greater than at present, and that they have been contracted by the deposits of mud made by the streams that empty into it. On the western coast, several lagoons produced by sand-bars, are being rapidly transformed into meadows by this process. The original depth of the gulf has likewise been greatly diminished by the accu- mulations of sandy marl and testaceous incrusta- tions at the bottom, similar in character to the strata forming the hills of the Italian peninsula. Within the last 2,000 years the shores of the gulf of Trieste, near Karama, have advanced from 2 to 20 miles into the sea. ADULE ADULE, now Zulla, the remains of an ancient town of Abyssinia, is situated on the west coast of the Red Sea, on Annesley Bay, in 15° 35’ N. lat. and 35° 59’ E. long. In the 6th century it was the port of Axum, and its merchants dealt in slaves and ivory. ADULLAM, one of the cities of the plain, in the tribe of Judah, fortiﬁed by King Rehoboam. The “cave of Adullam,” where David hid when pursued by the Philistines, was probably near the Dead Sea. ADULTERATION, a term applied to the contamination of different articles of food, drugs, &c., by mixing them with cheap and inferior substances. In every branch of trade in which the practice could be applied, it has been intro- duced, till few can now tell what they eat and drink, and the physician is quite unable to pre- dict with certainty the effect of his prescrip- tions. So far has the evil spread, that it has become necessary for governments to cause in- vestigations to be made, and laws to be enacted, with the view of exposing and checking the numerous frauds. The aid of science, with her modern discoveries, has been invoked, and new methods of detecting the minute differences which distinguish similar organic structures have been applied with wonderful accuracy to this subject. The microscope has become a very important instrument of chemical analysis, and must hereafter be used for distinguishing from each other the innumerable varieties of organic bodies, whose properties depend, not on the proportions in which their elements are com- bined, but on the hidden modes or arrangements of these combinations, and on the presence of some peculiar essences of too subtle a nature to be detected and recognized by the mere appa- ratus of our laboratories. The form, however, that these combinations and essences impress upon the structure of the organic body, is as ﬁxed and characteristic, as is the form of the crystal, which distinguishes the mineral species; and so constant is it, that though the substance be ground to powder or burned to ashes, the powder and the ashes still retain the character- istic marks, and reveal to the skilful observer the very name of the plants from which they were derived. As in geology, so in vegetable physiology, nature has provided many wonder- ful modes of preserving complete the record of her doings. An illustration of this may be cited common to both these departments. The ashes of the hard, stony anthracite do not fail to bear their testimony to the vegetable origin of this fuel; and in them the microscope dis- covers the very family of plants, which pro- duced it. Applied to the fraudulent mixtures of foods and drugs the microscope becomes in- valuable. In wheat ﬂour it detects the mixture of rice flour, and in the Maranta arrowroot it exposes the peculiar structure of the cheap po- tato ﬂour and sage. In mustard and coffee it brings out the peculiar forms of chiccory root; and in the former turmeric has been detected by it, when this was added only in the proportion ADULTERATION 135 of 3% part. Delicate farinaceous preparations recommended for invalids and infants, and sold at high prices, with such names as “ Prince Arthur’s Farinaceous Food,” and “The Prince of Wales’s Food,” are resolved by the micro- scope, the one into plain wheat flour baked, and the other into potato ﬂour. The impurities of vegetable drugs are likewise detected by the same instrument; and the genuine articles are easily recognized. Poisonous ingredients being mostly of a mineral nature, are subjects rather of chemical analysis, than of microscopic examinations. There is an instance, however, of cattle having been poisoned by eating rape or oil cake, in which were detected by Dr. Has- sall the ground seeds of the mustard. Chemi- cal analysis in such a case could discover nothing. It is to Dr. Hassall, the author of scientiﬁc papers in the “ London Lancet,” and of several works on food and its adulterations, that the credit is principally due for the progress made in this department of science, at least in its applications to this subject. Even in 1851 the chancellor of the exchequer quoted in the house of commons, as the deliberate opinion of three eminent chemists, “that nei- ther by chemistry, nor by any other means, could the admixture of chiccory with coffee be detected.” N ow nothing is more certain and precise than the discrimination by the micro- scope of the various forms of vegetable tissues. In making use of this instrument for detecting adulterations, it is ﬁrst necessary for one to become familiar with the appearance, in its pure state, of the article to be examined. If it be a powder, as ﬂour or arrowroot, a very minute portion is to be put upon the glass slide of the instrument, a drop or two of water added, through which the powder is to be dif- fused in a layer so thin, that the light may easily pass through it, and one of the thin glass covers is to be placed over it, when it is ready for examination. In case the substance is a root, stem, or seed, thin slices are to be shaved from it with a razor, and these submitted to the microscope. When the structure of the pure article is made familiar, it is to be replaced with the doubtful one, and a mere glance is then often suﬁicient to determine the presence or absence of strange ingredients. According to the extent of our acquaintance with the struc- ture of various vegetable substances, will be the ease of recognizing the number and nature of those which may be present. In some vege- table powders, Dr. Hassall has succeeded in detecting no less than nine different vegetable productions. The knowledge of the observer may be limited to a class of substances he is particularly interested in, and the results of his examinations may be practically correct. But it is advisable for all who turn their attention to this subject, to acquire a knowledge of vege- table anatomy by the study of books, and by ob- servation to gain some familiarity with the characters of the different tissues and ﬁbres of plants, with the structure of the leaves, stems, 136 ﬂowers, and roots, with the seeds particularly, and with the ‘granules of the starches. But it is not upon the microscope alone, that we can depend for the detection of the substances used for adul- teration. Chemistry still furnishes the only tests for the great majority of these and for the most dangerous of them. The mineral poisons, that are made use of to give light colors to con- fectionery, and the ﬁne green shades to pickles and to tea, are only brought to view by the slow processes of chemical analysis. By these, however, they are separated quantitively, and in forms that are recognized by every one. The description of these processes does not properly come within the scope of this article. In this country, as well as in Great Britain, public attention has at times been awakened to the immense frauds practised in adulteration ; yet the laws enacted by the government have probably done less to check the spread of the evil, than have the voluntary eﬁbrts of individuals, and the publicity they have given to these practices. In London, from 1850 to 1854, the names of the traders who were detected in their dishonest dealings, were published in the “ Lancet,” with an account of the adulterations they practised. The effects of this exposé, combined with the exposure re- cently made before the committee of parlia- ment, has been to reduce the amount of adul- teration _ to probably one-twentieth of what it formerly was. The change in many articles of confectionery, pickles, sauces, and bottled fruits and vegetables, is apparent to the eye. The same reform is much needed in our own country, and can be accomplished by the same means better than by the action of legislatures. There is no doubt that the lives of many young children are yearly sacriﬁced in our cities by the improper mixtures sold as milk. It is pos- sible that, if a calculation were made here like that which was made in London, it might be found, as it was there, that the whole number of cows supplying milk is insuﬂicient to furnish each person with more than a table- spoonful of milk per day. Against such frauds the poor have no protection. Their purchases must be made at the cheapest rates. The un- scrupulous dealer thus undersells the honest tradesman, vice is sustained, and the moral as well as the physical health of the com- munity is corrupted. Fortunately the system of tampering with the important articles of ﬂour and bread is not introduced into this country, as ‘it has been in England; though by an investigation into the qualities of the ﬂour sold to the poor, and of the bread and its actual weights which this class purchases, de- velopments would no doubt be made that are not now dreamed of. Unwholesome damaged ﬂour would be found mixed with good, and in- jurious mineral substances added to conceal the fraud and increase the whiteness of the bread. The mistaken taste of the public for very white bread, leads the bakers to select the ﬂour from which the more nutritious portion of the grain ADULTERATION has been separated by the miller, and to make this ﬂour still more white he adds to it a quan- tity of alum. Though the use of this substance in bread is forbidden by law in England, it was found in every one of 53 samples that were examined for it. Sometimes it happens that the millers make the adulterations, and the bakers, unaware of this, give the ﬂour another dose. Cheaper, and less nutritious kinds of ﬂour, as of rice, potatoes, corn, beans, rye, &c., are mixed with wheaten ﬂour, some of which beside their direct eﬁ"ect in lessening the value of the article, also cause the bread to absorb much more water, and thus add to its weight by sub- stituting water for ﬂour. Carbonate of lime, and sulphate of lime, silicate of magnesia in the form of soapstone, white clay, carbonate of magnesia, bone dust, and bone ashes, have all been detected in England in ﬂour. In the adulterations of tea, especially green tea, the in- genuity of the Chinese is taxed before it leaves their country, and that of the English on receiv- ing it in their own. The list of other plants which furnish leaves for the tea chests, and which are recognized by the microscope, is too long for repetition here, and so of the poisonous mineral ingredients including arsenite of copper, which are skilfullyused to make good green teas of unsalable black teas. Coffee fares somewhat better, its adulterating mixtures being of a more harmless nature, such as chiccory, acorns, man- gel-wurtzel, peas, and beans, and for the use of the poor in London roasted horse-liver. Su- gars are more decidedly free from adulteration, but the brown sugars, as usually imported, are found from the accidental impurities present, and from the immense numbers of live animal- cules, to be in a state unﬁt for human con- sumption. The white lump sugars are very pure, and probably more free from sand than they have credit for. Any insoluble sub- stance like this can be easily detected. No ar- ticles, however, have been the subjects of such a reckless system of adulterations as the colored sugar confectionery. Though expected to be used principally by children, the colors painted upon the candies and sweetmeats are the product of virulent mineral poisons; and it is wonderful- what a variety of these have been made appli- cable to this purpose. Their use, however, is not now nearly so great as it was in former times, and is discountenanced by reputable dealers in these articles. Wines and spirits, from their high value and general use, as also from the diﬁiculty of detectin the cheap mix- tures added to them, are most universally adulterated to some extent; while many that are sold have no sort of right to the name they bear, being spurious imitations made up entirely of ingredients wholly foreign to the country which produces the genuine wine. The substances added with a view of preserv- ing wines are sometimes poisons, lead and cop- per both being used, the former in the state of litharge. In England the favorite port wine is thus most shamefully treated, besides being ADULTERATICN manufactured on a very large scale, after a va- riety of curious recipes, from thousands of pipes of spoiled cider imported for the purpose, bad brandy, and infusions of logwood and other dye stuffs. The champagnes, which are more in demand in this country, ﬁnd here as ingenious imitators ; and from our native ciders with a due mixture of cheap French wine, sugar, brandy, and a little lemon or tartaric acid, more champagne is bottled and set off with showy French labels, than ever crosses the Atlantic. If gooseberry wine is easily obtained, it is used in- stead of cider for making good champagne. The impossibility of supplying the demand for French brandy, and the consequent high price of the article, have led to its extensive manufacture in France from very cheap materials. In like manner the Chinese never allow orders for par- ticular qualities of tea to go unﬁlled, even though they amount to many times the quantity of this tea grown. The materials for adulterating and concocting French brandies are water, and spirits obtained from molasses, beet root, and potatoes, and more particularly cheap whiskey, which is sent from this country in large quantities to come back brandy. Burnt sugar gives the de- sired color, and the ﬁne ﬂavor is made to suit the taste by skilful admixtures of essential oils and distilled murk, which is the refuse skins and pips of the grape left after the distillation of the wine. This stuff is actually imported in- to England, to be distilled with molasses for making brandy. Gin is largely adulterated with water, and as the effect of this is to make the liquor whitish and turbid, other substances must be added to correct this and “ ﬁne” the gin. These are alum, carbonate of potash, and the poisonous acetate of lead. To restore its strength and pungency, cayenne in the form of tincture of capsicum, or grains of paradise, are employed; and its peculiar aroma is happily preserved by some extraordinary compounds called “ gin ﬂa- vorings.” These are made according to estab- lished recipes, the ingredients of which are juniper berries, coriander seeds, almond cake, angelica root, liquorice powder, calamus root, and sulphuric acid. The common whiskey of the country is largely diluted in the distilleries with water, and then to restore the strength, the lye of ashes, which is prepared for the purpose, is added in suﬁicient quantity to give the liquor the character which is express- ed by the common name by which it is called, of “ rot-gut.” It has been supposed that the adulteration of drugs was very generally prac- tised, and almost without check. Were this the case, medicine would indeed be in bad re- pute ; for in no department would this practice be followed by more disastrous consequences. That it is largely adopted, the analyses of our most respectable druggists prove ; but these also show that the system may be exposed, and in a great measure checked by those disposed to do SO ; and further, that the articles used for so- phistication are generally of a very harmless nature, thus, according to the notions of some, 137 decidedly improving rather than injuring the medicine. In July, 1848, a law went into ef- fect in this country, forbidding the importation of these dangerous mixtures. But while the effect of this has been to exclude foreign adul- terations, the manufacture of them at home has been greatly increased. In the ﬁrst year after its establishment, it appears by the report of Dr. J . M. Bailey to the New York academy of medicine, that over 90,000 pounds of drugs, comprising Peruvian bark, rhubarb, jalap, sen- na, and various other kinds, had been rejected and condemned in the ports of the United States. It is very questionable, however, among drug- gists, whether after all the sale of spurious med- icines has been seriously diminished. The adulteration of Turkey opium is carried on as a regular business at Marseilles. It is there literally made over again. The greatest variety of im- purities are introduced into it, as beside extracts of the poppy and other plants, sand, ashes, gums, aloes, small stones, pieces of lead and iron, seeds and stems of plants, are freely used. In England too the same practice has been so successfully pursued, that what appeared to be the best Turkey opium has proved en- tirely destitute of the active principle of the drug. A large manufacturing establishment at Brussels, in Belgium, at which the spurious drugs for this country were prepared with sin- gular skill, and which maintained a travelling agent in our seaport towns, has been, it is said, since the passage of this law, transferred to this country. Certain it is that many high1y-sophis- ticated articles are still detected., The essential oils used more particularly for perfumery, are especial objects of adulteration. Oil of worm- wood, we notice upon the test book of one of our most respectable druggists, “ warranted pure from Boston,’7 contained about 40 per cent. of a mixture of chloroform and alcohol, besides some resin or ﬁxed oil. Such adulterations may be detected by the greatly-reduced boiling point of the ﬂuid. “ Precipitated chalk from Poult- ney” was found by the same ﬁrm to be nothing but gypsum or plaster; and “ precipitated sul- phur” contained 49 per cent. of the same cheap mixture. Scammony, which is largely imported by them, and is extensively used as a powerful drastic purgative, was, before the passage of the law, always very impure. At Smyrna, its adul- teration is still a regularly-established business, and conducted according to an understood scale. The article called cake-soammony, bought and sold in this country, is considered good, if it is found to contain 20 per cent. of the genuine material; and virgin-scammony passes, if it contains no more than 20 per cent. of foreign matter. This is usually starch. Chalk and ﬂour are also used. When the new law went into effect, this powerful medicine, sent to the drug- gists far purer than they had been accustomed to receive it, must have entered into the pre- scriptions of physicians in a much larger pro- portion than they could have anticipated ; and probably in many cases with the most serious 138 ADULTERY consequences. The list of adulterations might be extended through nearly all the articles of food, and drink, and drugs, till we may well fear, that with every substance taken into our stomachs we imbibe some dangerous poisons, and aid to sustain villainous fraud. The rem- edy for these evils is in the hands of every one who has the taste and capacity for the micro- scopic and chemical investigations, by which they may be surely detected and exposed. The talents requisite for this could be directed to no more praiseworthy objects. By systemat- ically making public the results of examinations of articles purchased of different dealers, to- gether with the names of these dealers, as was done in the reports in the “ Lancet,” the com- munity, and the poor especially, who in these matters are utterly helpless, are protected against these evils, and honesty instead of fraud is sus- tained and rewarded. ADULTERY is the offence of incontinence between persons, one or both of them being married. The laws of modern states generally treat adultery as an offence against the moral law, for which the offender is accountable to the injured party. Some states, however, still preserve the theory of the Jewish law, by which adultery is constituted a crime against society. By the Mosaic institutions, the in- vader of a husband’s rights and the wife herself are criminals, liable to capital punishment. The incontinence of a married man was not, however, by any means to be viewed in the same light. The Roman civil law takes the same view, and in this respect the laws of an- cient Rome and the laws of the Jews, and even of the Goths and Teutons, were singularly ac- cordant. The Romans, indeed, did not ju- dicially punish the adulteress with death, but then the next of kin was at liberty to expiate the disgrace to the family, by putting the of- fender to death; and the French penal code expressly authorizes the death of the par- ties if caught in the act, while the English law considers it a sufficient provocation for homicide. During the commonwealth in England, adul- tery was made a capital felony, but at the restoration the law was repealed. Traces of this usage are still to be found in the New England states, in which the old laws were founded upon scriptural precedent. The pun- ishment of adultery in the United States gen- erally is ﬁne and imprisonment. But we think that the public sentiment is against treating it as a criminal offence. In France, before the revolution, an adulteress might be sent into a convent or hospital. If the husband at the end of two years received her again, she was free; if not, her head was shaved and she was a perpetual inmate. By the present laws, an adulteress may be condemned to imprisonment from 3 months to 2 years. Among savage nations, both ancient and modern, a variety of punishments of every degree of ingenious cruelty, are adopted for the repression of this oifence. In all countries the offence of incontinence by the man is very ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE diiferently regarded from the same offence in the woman. The history of the laws in this, as in many other respects, indicates that they are made by one sex. A curiously-striking instance of this distinction in the degree of turpitude is to be found in the case of Judah and his daughter-in-law, Tamar, in Genesis. By the modern French laws, while the woman, as we have shown, was to be imprisoned, the man cannot be even charged with the offence, unless the offence be committed in the conjugal dwell- ing. The Jewish law deals with wives as property, and upon this same theory is founded the civil remedies by which a husband may ob- tain damages from the invader of his domestic peace. On this assumption, all the wife’s property vesting in her husband, the law con- sistently denies her any equivalent for feelings outraged by a husband’s inﬁdelities. The Eng- lish action for criminal conversation is justly a. frequent point of attack for satirists. The grounds of divorce differ in different countries, but adultery is everywhere a ground of di- vorce. By the code Napoleon, adultery of either party is a ground of absolute divorce, on the petition of the party aggrieved. So in the United States, and in Scotland. In Eng- land, it is only the husband who may be di- vorced on adultery of the wife; adultery by the husband only entitles the wife to a decree of separation, technically, a divorce a memo ct thoro (from bed and board). The greatest legal authorities have lately aﬁirmed this maxim of the English law, on the ground that it is con- sonant with the gospel, and further, because the unfaithful wife may impose false heirs on her husband, while the husband’s misconduct can only personally affect the wife, a doctrine eminently savoring of hereditary legislation. The social question of adultery is determined by the moral tone of the country. Although probably no foreigner can judge infallibly of the manners and habits of other countries, there are undoubtedly countries in which the mar- riage vow is held in very light esteem. Vol- taire tells us that in his day the word adultery had become unfashionable, and unﬁt for ears polite. Even in our own day, there are com- munities among whom the fact is so common that the opprobrium is lost. In countries where public opinion is more energetic, it is seldom levelled at the man. In polite society, the ab- surd practice of the duel puts the aggrieved and the offender on a level; otherwise, the seducer is exempt from condemnation, while the weaker offender always remains a monument of folly or weakness, serving to point amoral. ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE, ASSOCIA- TIONS non Tnn.--THE Bnrrrsn ASSOCIATION ron THE Anvsnonmnnr or Scrmvcn was formed in 1831, principally through the energy of Sir David Brewster, supported by Sir Humphrey Davy, Sir John F. W. Herschel, Mr. Charles Babbage, Messrs. Forbes, Johnston, and Robi- son of Edinburgh, and Mr. Murchison of Lon- don. No effective society for the promotion of ADVEITAM science then existed in England, and it was the sense of this deﬁciency that led to the formation of this new body. The main feature which dis- tinguishes it is an annual gathering of its members, at which each one who has made what he supposes a real advance, reads his pa- per for the criticism of laborers in the same de- partment of science. New suggestions are thus made to those most likely to avail themselves of that aid, and the claims of each discoverer are tried by a jury of his fellows. The association also procures reports upon the state of each particular science, its progress, and its needs, as a guide to inquiry. The effect of the formation of this society upon the state of science in Eng- land, has been very marked. The ﬁrst meeting, in Sept. 1831, consisted of about 200 members; the second, June, 1832, numbered 700; the third, 900; and the fourth, in Sept. 1834, 1,390. The transactions are annually publish- ed in octavo volumes of about 500 pages, and contain a record of nearly every important step taken in British science during the past 25 years. In the reports, included in these trans- actions, are also found the discoveries of conti- nental and American men of science.—Tnn AMERICAN Assoomnon non THE Anvanoa MENT or Somnon was formed in Sept. 1847, by the association of American geologists and nat- uralists. The ﬁrst meeting of the new associa- tion was held in Philadelphia, in Sept. 1848, and although the original association of geolo- gists consisted of only 21 members, 461 names were enrolled in the ﬁrst list of members of the new society. Among the members of the old association were Lewis C. Beck, James Hall, Walter R. Johnson, Henry D. Rogers, and Richard C. Taylor. The new association em- braces nearly every scientiﬁc man in the Unit- ed States. The second meeting was held at Cambridge, August, 1849; the third at Charles- ton, March, 1850; the fourth at New Haven, Aug. 1850; the ﬁfth at Cincinnati, May, 1851 ; the sixth at Albany, Aug. 1851; the seventh at Cleveland, July, 1853; the eighth at Washing- ton, April, 1854; the ninth at Providence, Aug. 1855; the tenth at Albany, Aug. 1856; and the eleventh at Montreal, Aug. 1857. The ob- jects and methods of the association are iden- tical with those of the British society. The proceedings of each meeting form an octave volume of about 300 pages, and this series of volumes contains the most valuable results of American scientiﬁc inquiry during the last 10 years. The mathematical papers are not usu- ally published in detail, but the titles of all papers offered at the meeting are published, and thus the volumes furnish at least a rec- ord of the growth of American science during the last dozen years, a growth partly due, as is well known, to the inﬂuence of this association. The usual number of members is about 7 00. ADVEITAM, the name of a philosophical sect among the Hindoos, who deny the existence of the material universe, regarding it only as a ADVENTURERS 139 phantasm, and ascribing real existence to the Deity alone. ADVENT, the period of 4 weeks preced- ing Christmas, appointed by several Christian churches to be obserired in honor of the ap- proach of the anniversary of Christ’s nativity. It formerly occupied six weeks, and that is still the case in the Greek church. It commences with the Sunday nearest to St. Andrew’s day (the 30th of November). InEngland and some parts of the European continent, marriages can only be performed by special license during this period. ADVENTURE, BILL or, a writing signed by a merchant, whereby goods shipped on board a certain vessel are shown to be at another-’s ven- ture, the merchant himself being answerable only for their produce. , ADVENTURE BAY, S. E. coast of ‘Austra- lia, lat. 43° 21’ S. long. 147° 29' E., discovered in 1773 in Captain Cook’s expedition. The an- chorage is good and well sheltered, with abun- dance of wood and water. At the head of the bay there is a ﬁne sandy beach, but the shores else- where are hilly, and covered with tall trees and vegetation. The waters abound with ﬁsh, and on shore kangaroos and feathered game are plentiful. ADVENTURERS, persons who lack the ne- cessary discipline and balance of mind, to submit themselves to the laws of society, while at the same time they are devoured by the ambition of distinguishing themselves, of making a fortune or a sensation. They stand in the same relation to the chevalier d’in- dustrie as the pirate to the pickpocket, while to men of genuine ambition they compare as a coxoomb to a man of the world, or a poacher to a sportsman. Adventurers are rarely without a redeeming love of glory, and if they are suc- cessful they become heroes like Napoleon. On the other hand, they seldom listen to the ap- peals of conscience, and if they are unsuccess- ful, they become scamps like Oagliostro. In the historical records of men of brilliant fame, we ﬁnd as many adventurers as persons of in- famous repute in the police returns. They are to be found daily in the walks of private life, as well as in the realms of ﬁction. Micaw- ber, in David Copperﬁeld, would have been a great adventurer, if he had not been destined to become the great Micawber. He was always waiting for something to turn up. This pecu- liar state of expectation is, in fact, the normal state of mind of an adventurer. As long as this state of suspense lasts, he keeps wisely in the background, ransacking earth and heaven, his brain aching with thought, his heart swell- ing with hope, his very soul bursting with ambition, but as all the while his pocket is empty, and as he does not perform any honest labor for the purpose of ﬁlling it, his life is that of an outlaw. His name, nay his very existence, is utterly unknown, except to his un- fortunate family and his miserable creditors. But of a sudden his corroding ambition is grat- 140 iﬁed, the dreams of his life are realized. Some- thing has turned up. He jumps into some con- spicuous or notorious position. The fact of his existence is a new revelation to mankind. His name falls like a bomb"upon the public ear. “Who in the world is he?” ask athousand voices, and echo answers: “ An adventurer.” If he is a person of military turn, he becomes a ﬁllibuster, like Lopez or Walker. If of an energetic, semi-intriguing nature, he be- comes a rajah, like Sir James Brooke of Sa- rawak. If his predilections are of the ﬁnancial order, he becomes a railway king, like Hudson, or a colossal swindler, like Law. If of a re- ligious disposition, he becomes a prophet like John of Leyden, or Joe Smith. The word ad- venturer is derived from the latin adocnire. The knight-errants were called adventurers, and the poets of the middle ages exalt the “Dame Aventuire,” as she was called, to the dignity of a goddess, and represent her as a woman of angelic beauty, possessed, like Gy- ges, of the power of making herself invisible, by putting on a mysterious ring, which enables her to travel incog. all over the world, and to observe, without being observed, the doings of mankind. In order to make her divine Paul Pry mission more comfortable, she carries a staff in her hand, which has the magic power of helping her over land and sea. The troubadours were called adventurers. The explorers of foreign lands, like Americus Vespucius, Almagro, &c., the Algerine pirates, the buccaneers, the ﬁllibus- ters, and the fréres do Za cdto in the Antilles, the corsairs of the French Republic and empire, the corps ﬁmzcs in France in the years 1803-15, were all called adventurers. Many of the “ bad subjects” who joined the crusades, were called adventurers. Walter the Penniless was con- sidered, in those remote times, the very ideal of an adventurer. In the 10th and 11th centuries the name was applied to mercenary soldiers in Italy. When the unity of Italy was destroyed by civil wars, and the country turned into lit- tle principalities, whole armies of adventurers swarmed forth from beneath the rubbish of the empire, like a swarm of ﬂies from a dung- hill. The land par excellence for adventurers is France. This was as true of the times of Hugh Capet, whom Dante calls the son of a butcher of Paris, as it is of the times of Louis Napoleon, the nephew of a soldier of Corsica. From the beginning of the 12th century to the end of the 14th, from Louis the Young to Charles V., the great mass of adventurers made it necessary to distinguish them from each other by various names, and frequently by the names of the province which had the happiness to lose them, or of that which was doomed to receive them, as: The Allaquais, Aragonais, Armagnacs, Bandes noires, Bandits, Bandouillers, Barbutes, Basques, Bidaux, Braban<;ons, Brigants, Cantatours, Cha- perons, Compagnies blanches, Condottieri, Cot- tereaux, Escorcheurs, Grandes compagnies, Guilleris, Lances vertes, Lansquenets, Laquais, Linfards, Mainades, Malandrins, Margots, Mille ADVENTURERS Diables, Navarrois, Paillers, Pastoureaux, Piqui- chins, Retondeurs, Ribauds, Routiers, Rustres, Soudoyers, Tard-venus, Tondeurs, Tuchins, and Varlets, all brigands, who, like the Lazza- roni of Naples, were ready at all times for any little ﬁllibuster or banditti job for a certain consideration; but much toil was required to obtain their services, as with the recklessness of the highway robber, they blended a savage sense of independence and a romantic love of roving. Politicians, princes, and generals got hold of them by playing upon their individual passions and wooing them separately. It was a hard task to bribe them in a lump. If they were not too much engaged in ﬁghting each other, they were generally ﬁghting as hirelings. The adventurers were then, what the Swiss in Italy and France are in our days. Whenever a bloody job had to be done, the services of the adventurers were called into requisition. Dur- ing the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries, they ﬁg- ure conspicuously on many occasions. Sis- mondi sketches a famous oondottiere, Guar- nieri, who organized a species of ambulating empire with an army of adventurers from Italy. According to Hallam and other his- torians, these armies covered Italy with dis- grace and infamy. After having plundered France, they desolated Germany. In 1348, Guar- nieri and his adventurers made their appear- ance again in Italy, and this time they favored the papal states with their presence. In the 16th century, Francis I. took measures to stop the nuisance, and the citizens of Autun were the ﬁrst to turn out in a body against this des- perate gang. Francis kept them in awe, but as soon as this monarch was put into prison the adventurers turned up again. When Charles V. invaded France, Francis himself was brought to the humiliating necessity of employing as sol- diers, the very men whom he had hunted like wild beasts. It was not till the reign of Henry IV. that France was purged of their presence by incorporating theni into the regu- lar army, and breaking the dangerous spell of their banditti, gypsy life. They were a set of monstrous rogues ; dirty like pigs, halfnaked like savages, swearing like ﬁends, carousing like de- mons; they looked like a gang of drunken galley- slaves let loose on their orgies, and bent upon plunder and murder. Macchiavelli says that Italy would never have been invaded by Charles VIII., never have been desolated by Louis XII., never have been oppressed by Ferdinand, never have been insulted by the Swiss, if it had not been for the infernal adventurers. The ten- dency of adventurers in modern time is per- haps more to shine as ﬁnanciers than as sol- diers, excepting during the Russian war, when the Crimea was full of all sorts of them,—bold journalists in search of bloody paragraphs, third and fourth rate feuilletonists and artists in search of some melo-dramatic incident, or of pictures to rend the hearts of grisettes, of daughters of the regiment in search of customers, and other lady adventurers making love to grim ADVEN T URERS warriors. But the ﬁnancial temperament preponderated even upon the classic grounds of Alma and Balaklava, where at the points sa from the intrusion of bullets, little Jew a enturers tremblingly peeped into the smoke of the battle ﬁeld in the hope to ﬁnd something by which to turn an honest penny. Along the shores of the Mediterranean, in Greece, Turkey, and Armenia, the name of adventurer is frequent- ly applied to persons who by some sudden turn of fortune achieve ﬁnancial eminence. In Asia, in Tiﬂis, Bombay, Madras, Calcutta, Lahore, &c., hanging around the courts of the native princes, and the oﬂices of the rich Persian brokers, a great number of adventmers are found, chieﬂy English and Scotchmen, broken down military men or decayed merchants, or diplomatists upon their own account. At Cairo near the court of the pasha of Egypt, in Alex- andria and Constantinople, adventurers, chieﬂy French, Italians, Germans, Greeks, with a fair sprinkling of orientalized English, still reap golden harvests. As a general rule, French adventurers succeed by ﬁnesse, Italians by treachery, Greeks by tact, Germans by deep- laid plots, English by pluck and rascality. In almost all Asiatic and South American countries, European adventurers are as plenty as black- berries. Courts like that of King Soulouque, of Hayti, or of Queen Pomaré, of Otaheite, are perfect gold mines for adventurers, princi- pally French. Wherever the throne of a coun- try is occupied by persons of questionable ca- pacity or questionable morality, adventurers ﬂit around it, like the moth around a light. Athens, Madrid, Lisbon, Parma, Naples, afford ample evidence of this fact. The chief conﬁ- dant and minister of the late duke of Parma was an English groom, and there are many more such instances of the success of adventurers, wherever the imbecility or proﬂigacy of a court countenances their presence. London, Paris, Rome, St. Petersburg, Berlin, Rio de J aneiro, New York, San Francisco, Melbourne, New Orleans, and many other populous cities, are the favorite resorts of commonplace ad- venturers. But the more knowing ones ﬂourish in distant and isolated parts of the east, where there is less competition, and where some stray savage prince or princess, some doting pasha or foolish mandarin, offers an easier, and at the same time a more bril- liant ﬁeld for their peculiar genius. London is a great focus for commercial adventurers, who make their appearance on ’change under the auspices of some East Indian or American house, and vanish without even having given evidence of their power by a right-down fail- ure. They simply disappear, gliding out of ’change with the same eel-like smoothness with which they have insinuated themselves into it, but after ayear or so, the gay deceiver hires an of- ﬁce at San Francisco or Havana, or makes his ap- pearance again in London. In all the great capi- tals of Europe, and of late also in the United States, adventurers abound in the shape of 141 German barons, Polish counts, and Italian or French marquises, while the American adven- turer’s badge is often concealed under the unassuming business-like pretence of selling some patent invention. In the fashionable watering-places of Europe, like Baden-Baden, Wiesbaden, and Spa, adventurers are as abun- dant as croupiers at the gaming table. Some go there to look out for acquaintance with inﬂu- ential persons, others preserve an elegant neutrality, and seem only desirous to secure the beneﬁt of the tacit prestige of their pres- ence among a host of notabilities. All over continental Europe, in almost every ﬁrst-class hotel, there is a constant supply of Irish, Eng- lish and Scotch adventurers, scanning the ad- vertisements of newspapers with argus eyes, and waiting for something to turn up, until the patience of the landlord is exhausted, when they favor some other place of the continent with a short visit. But although they are short of money, these men are not chevaliers d’industrie ; they are adventurers who temporize and keep in the background until their plans are ripe. Female adventurers are also pretty numerous. Nell Gwynn, Lady Hamilton, Ma- dame de Pompadour, Lola Montez, all come more or less under the category of adventurers. In Italy female adventurers abound among the princesses and highest nobility. In Europe and America they occasionally make their appear- ance as governesses and teachers of foreign languages. In new coimtries, like America and Australia, the adventurer is most in his ele- ment. In America, as soon as a new territory springs into existence, the adventurers of all parts of the Union run there en masse. This was so in the case of California, Oregon, Texas, and recently in the case of Kansas and Nebraska. Men of unruly nature, they cannot brook the fetters of civilization, and in the comparative anarchy which prevails in a new territory, they feel as much at home as the wild beasts in the wilderness of Africa. On the whole, however, in America, where most men are obliged to work for a liv- ing, the term adventurer is not so frequently applicable as in Europe, where the ambition to leap at one bound over the wide gulf existing between the different classes of society, consti- tutes a great temptation to adventurous pro- pensities. Adventurers are, as a class, unprinci- pled, but downright jovial fellows, with a slight tinge of romance in their nature, which, at once, wins the sympathies of sentimental ladies and credulous gentlemen. Since the days of Don Quixote de la Mancha, the aims and occu- pation of the adventurer have undergone many changes, but he ﬂourishes now as he did then, although his career in our days is rather pecu- niary than knightly. ADVENTURERS, SOCIETY or, originated in Burgundy in 1248, and was an association of traders for the discovery of unknown lands, &c. Subsequently it was removed to England, and called merchant adventurers. I42 ADVERB ADVERB, in grammar, a word qualifying the meaning of a verb, participle, adjective, or other adverb, by expressing some condition as of manner, time, place, or quality. Thus in the sentence “ he writes well,” the sense of the verb “ writes” is enlarged and modiﬁed by the adverb“ well,” which succeeds it. The adverb derives its name from the preposition ad, to, and oerbum, a verb, and is usually placed near the word which it qualiﬁes. ADVERTISEMENT. The announcements in the publicjournals, known as “advertisements,” did not spring up until long after the institu- tion of newspapers, which existed, but scarcely ﬂourished, in Italy and Germany, prior to their establishment in England. The ﬁrst regular London newspaper did not appear until 1622, in the reign of James I., under the name of the “ Weekly News.” It contained intelligence, but not a single advertisement. Nor was it until 30 years later--the republic having been establish- ed in the interval——that the people used the press as a means of making known their wants, and of giving publicity to their wares. The earliest English advertisement appeared in 1652, in a journal issued by the parliament and en- titled illercuwius Politicus, and announced a book eulogizing Cromwell’s victories in Ireland. In the eight succeeding years to the restoration, booksellers were the principal advertisers. Next came what are still called “hue and cry” ad- vertisements, inquiring after runaway appren- tices, house-thieves, horse-stealers, &c. Then followed notices of journeyings by stage coaches, ﬁrst established on the great roads, under Crom- well’s rule, when a trip to Salisbury occupied two, and a journey to Exeter was completed in four days; the ﬁrst distance being now achieved in three, and the latter in seven hours. In these early days of journalism, though books were freely advertised, few tradesmen in London turned the newspaper to account in making known their goods to the world. The very ﬁrst who did so, only a year before the death of Cromwell, announced that the “China drink called by the Chineans Tcha, by other nations, Tay alias Tee,” was sold at a “ Cophee-house” near the Royal Exchange, an intimation which shows that coffee as well as tea was then get- ting into use. On the restoration of Charles II., advertisements greatly increased in number and variety, though not a single newspaper was published out of London during the reign of Charles, nor indeed for nearly ﬁfty years after. The “London Gazette” itself, at the revolution of 1688, was the only printed paper (there were a. few in manuscript), and was then, what it has ever since continued, the court or ofﬁcial journal. In the reign of Charles II. advertisements of theatrical and other public amusements ﬁrst ap- peared--play-houses, exhibitions, and the lot- tery occupied considerable space. When the great plague decimated London, announcements of antidotes and remedies became frequent. Newspapers were discountenanced during the reign of James II., and seldom as many as a ADVERTISEMENT dozen advertisements appeared in any single pe- riodical. While the licensing act was in force, the only newspaper was the “London Gazette,” edited, says Macaulay, “by a clerk in the o§ce of the secretary of state, and which conta' ed nothing except what the secretary of state wished the nation to know.” In April, 1695, this censorship of the press expired, and a consider- able number of newspapers sprang up, feeble enough, it is true, as compared with the energy, expedition, and intelligence of later journals, but decided improvements on all that had preceded them. As the government became settled and ﬁrm under the sway of William, the press also grew into importance. The stability of the royal rule encouraged enterprise, which gladly availed itself of the newspaper to advertise its desires and designs, its aims and plans, its ex- pected individual gain as well as the various beneﬁts which it promised to bestow on the public. A proof of the progress of advertising may be found in the fact that a gratuitous jour- nal was set up, limited to advertisements, and the wonder should be, not that it was so unre- munerative as to fall to the ground, but that it had so much patronage extended to it, as to keep it alive for two years. The idea was premature, but there are now in Dublin and Edinburgh two advertising journals, with ex- tensive gratuitous circulation all over the United Kingdom, established at vast cost, but now per- manent and proﬁtable “institutions.” From 1701 (when announcements of theatrical amuse- ments began to appear regularly), advertise- ments may be considered as declaring the wants, the losses, the amusements, the litera- ture, the money-making eagerness, the fashions, the prevailing foibles, the charities, the occa- sional eccentricities, the political tendencies of the people. As early as 1710, Addison devoted a number (224) of the “ Tatler” to a review of the current advertisements of his time, their objects, their tendency, and the ad captcmdum style in which they were drawn and printed, “with little cuts and ﬁgures,” with which a pro- vincial editor would scarcely disﬁgure his jour- nal at present. “ As we read,” says a recent periodical writer, “ in the old musty ﬁles of papers, those naive announcements, the very hum of bygone generations seems to rise to the ear. The chapman exhibits his quaint wares, the mountebank capers again upon the stage, we have the living portrait of the highwayman ﬂying from justice, we see the old china auc- tions thronged with ladies of quality with their attendant negro boys, or those ‘by inch of candlelight’ forming many a Schalken-like picture of light and shade: or, later still, we have Hogarthian sketches of the young bloods who swelled of old along the Pall-Mall. We trace the moving panorama of men and man- ners up to our own demonstrative, but more earnest times, and all these cabinet pictures are the very daguerreotypes cast by the age which they exhibit, not done for effect, but faithful reﬂections of those insigniﬁcant items ADVERTISELENT of life and things, too small, it would seem, for the generalizing eye of the historian, however necessary to clothe and ﬁll the dry bones of his history.” In truth, much may be learned from the newspaper advertisements of former times; the variations of taste, and the extravagance of fashion, the luxuries and the wants of society are recorded there, which “ he who runs may read.” For example, in the London newspa- pers of 1709, we ﬁnd notices of runaway ne- groes, and of negroes to be sold, apparently as much matter-of-course announcements as if they appeared in the present day, in a news- paper published in New Orleans, Charleston, or Savannah. In 1745, the “ General Advertiser” was commenced in London, the ﬁrst successful attempt to depend wholly for support on adver- tisements. Here, also, was the ﬁrst classiﬁcation of such announcements, ever since a necessary feature in the modern newspaper. Twenty years later, English journalism was fully established, in the provinces as well as in the capital; and at the commencement of the present century, ad- vertising had become a system, reﬂecting the “very form and pressure of the time.” The his- tory of advertising in England is very nearly identical with its history elsewhere. There was the same slow growth, with the national charac- ter stamped as it were in the same way upon it. In France there may be a greater dash of gaiety——in Germany, there is an evident infu- sion of sentiment—in Russia, an unmistakable impress of authority, shown by strangers’ announcements of their intended departure, without which their exit from the country is forbidden--in Australia, crowds of notices em- anating from the gold diggings—in South America, the illustration of announcements by the antiquated media of poor engravings. In the United States, where journalism has thriven in a more remarkable manner than in any part of Europe, the rise and progress of advertising has been proportionably rapid. A New York newspaper, issued just a century ago, contained a few advertisements straggling over four small pages-—a ship announced to sail about a par- ticular date; a tradesman having received an invoice of goods, which he would dispose of cheap; an apprentice run away, with a reward for his apprehension; and the escape, from Hackensack prison, of rogues from “the Jer- seys.” At present, hardly inferior in general character to their most celebrated rivals across the Atlantic, the American newspapers, partic- ularly the leading ones published in New York, contain, proportionably, more advertisements than those of London. One principal reason for this, is the greater cheapness of advertising in this country. For with that ingenuity which, in England, subjects every thing to taxation, no sooner did advertisements constitute a feature in newspapers, than a duty of nearly one dollar was imposed upon each announcement--no dif- ference being made for length, so that the mil- lionnaire who made public the intended sale of his estate, paid no higher tax than the out-of- 143 place servant girl who sought for employment. In 1836, this tax was reduced from three shil- lings and sixpence to one and sixpence on each advertisement, and this last was wholly abol- ished in 1853, since which time British adver- tising, considerably cheapened, has much in- creased. The whole amount accruing to the British revenue, from this duty, when removed, was under £200,000 per annum, a sum much too inconsiderable compared with the check it put upon business. The London “ Times,” which is very generally cited from the great number of its advertisements (it had over 2,575 in a single day, May 24, 1855), has a daily circulation of about 70,000, and, with six readers to each copy, an advertiser addresses 420,000 persons through its columns. Avoiding what is called the “ display” of its advertisements, its charge is no greater, in ordinary cases, than that of many journals of very inferior circulation. In the railway-mania of 1845, however, it charged so heavily, that it received in the month of October alone (four weeks) over £25,000 for advertisements. Its present receipts may average £5,000 a week from all sources. It is generally known that the proﬁts of a daily journal arise mainly, if not altogether, from the advertisements. It is not so well understood, but is no less true, that those who succeed in obtaining the largest trade from the public, advertise most constantly; and though such publicity, on the whole, is more general in this country than in Europe, the in- dividual expenditure, on this account, is rarely so large. For example, with the exception of one New York newspaper-proprietor, who by copiously advertisinglit at vast cost, has forced his journal into a large sale, there is no instance in America of a person annually disbursing $150,000 per annum for advertising his pills ;—- of another expending $50,000 for recommend- ing Macassar oil, to improve the growth of hair ; —of a third paying $50,000 for advertisements of the sanative effects of cod liver oil ;—of a fourth paying a like amount to induce the public to patronize his tailoring establishment. Yet such disbursements have been made by London tradesmen and speculators year after year, and with undoubted success. It is only in Great Britain and the United States, that ad- vertising has ﬂourished largely‘. The European journals, generally, have not cultivated the art, or rather, their readers have not much regarded it. In Paris, where it might be expected that the thousand-and-one elegancies of use or luxury would be announced through the journal, the advertising is comparatively scanty, and their " extensive display—with large type and extra wide columns—is what newspapers chieﬂy de- pending on proﬁts from advertisements could not afford, space being money to such. When the announcement of a few books is spread over half a page, in particularly full-grown type, it may be presumed that the journal mainly de- pends on its sale. The charges for advertising are generally larger in England than in America. The quality as well as the extent of circulation 144 should be borne in mind when prices are con- cerned. Some journals have what may be called class-circulation, and advertisements, to answer their purpose, should be addressed to those who are likely to be interested in them. Thus, a theatrical manager who advertised in the “Re- cord” in London or the “Churchman” in New York,would literally be wasting his money, as the ordinary readers of these religious journals are not play-goers. Again, a publisher wishing to ad- vertise a new book, ﬁnds that the London “Times” will charge three times as much as an- other paper. But the “Times” has a circulation among all classes of 70,000, while the other jour- nal, charging one and sixpence, may circulate only 1,000 copies—the average of country newspapers in England and the United States. Therefore, to give the announcement as great publicity as the “Times” commands (to say nothing of the fact that the metropolitan journal is read by the wealthier classes)‘ the publisher should advertise in 70 of the low- circulation journals, and whereas he should pay 5 shillings to the “Times” he must pay 350 shillings to all the other papers, and yet derive less beneﬁt for the increased out- lay. The “ Illustrated London News” charges at the rate of a dollar a line for each adver- tisement, but the mere paper on which it is printed costs the proprietors 3 dollars an inch (exactly a third of the gross payment made), and estimating the circulation of that journal at 180,000, every advertiser addresses 900,000 persons through its columns, at the usual allowance of 6 readers to a newspaper, though it is probable the the journal in ques- tion, from peculiar circu stances, may be yet more generally perused. In England and America some newspapers are distinguished by class advertisements. The “ Times,” in its multi- farious announcements, may be taken as a mi- crocosm of English society, more especially of that inLondon. But the “Morning Post” almost exclusively monopolizes the advertisements which relate to fashion and high life; the “ Morning Advertiser,” the organ and property of the liquor venders, obtains the lion’s share of whatever is connected with that craft; the “ Morning Herald,” even yet, though its circula- tion is greatly reduced, contains a goodly array of auction sales of property; the “Era” and “ Sunday Times” contain a majority of theatrical announcements; the “ Shipping Gazette” chroni- cles the times, rates, and ports of departure, for the commercial marine; “ Bell’s Life” contains little out of its news columns, but ispaid for in- telligence of forthcoming events in the sporting world; the “ Athenaeum” has the principal por- tion of the book advertisements, and so on through an extensive series. So, too, in New York, which is the London of America, as re- gards journalism. The “ Herald” and the “ Sun” engross the greater part of the “ wants” and “boarding” advertisements; the “ Tribune” and “Evening Post” have a considerable pro- portion of the literary and real estate announce- ADVERTISEMENT ments; the “Courier and Enquirer” has long been a favorite organ of the auctioneers ; the “ Journal of Commerce,” “ Commercial Advertiser, and “ Express,” have their full share of the shipping notices ; and the “Daily Times” has exclusive possession of the bank re- turns, published every week by legislative au- thority. The list of newspapers with such spe- cialties might readily be extended. All through the United States, the best and most prosperous newspapers are those which contain the great- est number of advertisements, which, indeed, provide the pecuniary means for the requisite expenditure on literary labor, and general and special intelligence. It is not easy to say what is, or is not, an advertisement. In Europe, the usual custom is not to publish any of the deli- cate announcements (there called “ puffs,” and here classed as “ business notices”), without preﬁxing the word “advertisement,” as an in- timation that it is not an editorial opinion, but the praise of an interested party, with its in- sertion duly paid for. In most newspapers of this country no such preﬁx heralds the puﬁ", but it is generally understood, from its position in the sheet, and the type employed, that it is only an ingenious way, at considerable increase of cost, of drawing the reader’s attention to the an- nouncement. These “ business notices” at- tract additional attention, but their real charac- ter is generally known. Though appearing, for the most part, in newspapers, advertisements are not exclusively conﬁned to these organs of communication. They stare us in the face from dead walls; they are insinuated into our hands as we walk the streets; they appear at theatres, on the scenes of plays and panto- mimes; they are posted in steamboats, stages, railway-cars, and hotels; they are inked upon the pavement; they glare on us from the rocks in railway cuttings, as we pass rapidly along; they have been showered down from balloons ; and “ try Warren’s blacking,” was painted, in mammoth letters, on the summit of the pyra- mids of Egypt, was noticed by Lord Byron on the Acropolis of Athens, and was seen by Mr. Thackeray painted up over a half obliterated inscription to Psammeticus on Pompey’s pillar. Formerly, the advertising sheets of popular pe- riodicals were bulky and proﬁtable. By such additions, reviews and magazines assumed a factitious extent, and it may be remembered that when the “Pickwick Papers” were in the fulness of prosperity, with a circulation large beyond precedent, some numbers of 96 pages each, obtained the extensive bulk of stout octa- vo volumes by the extent of their advertising sheets. The newspaper, however, by general consent and custom, is the receptacle and re- cognized organ of advertisements. Nor, seeing the variety of interests which they repre- sent, can the future historian, anxious to learn more than statelier and more formal annals can show, neglect a searching and analytic examination of newspaper advertisements, transitory and fugitive though they may seem ADVOCATE in the present hour. They will be found to reﬂect back to the curious research of future inquirers, various phases of the manners, mor- als, customs, amusements, literature, inventions, charities, and vices of the time. ADVOCATE, counsellor, counsel (Fr., aco- cat, aooué, procureur, Ger., adoocat), is a per- son who conducts the cause of another in courts of law. The title is taken from adeocare, to plead for, and the practice of the modern advocate is traceable to the practice of the ancient patri- cian of Rome, to assist and defend his clients or dependents by his advice, and afterward by his open pleading of their causes before the tri- bunals. It was to this the old legionary alluded when he asked Augustus to assist him in a cause which was about to be tried. Augustus deput- ed one of his friends to speak for the vete- ran, who, however, repudiated the vicarious patron: “It was not by proxy that I fought for you at the battle of Actium.” Augustus acknowledged the obligation, and pleaded his cause in person. This relation of patron and dependent degenerated into a practice of hiring the aid of patrons, who were inﬂuen- tial either by their oratory or their social po- sition. This feeing of advocates was prohib- ited by several Roman laws, but without suc- cess. In modern times, the advocate is regularly trained and qualiﬁed for the practice of the law. In civilized nations, the laws, however simple in principle, become complex from the ramiﬁ- cations of society, and the endless variety of attendant circumstances with which each par- ticular case is enveloped; and the desirableness of uniformity being admitted, judicial decisions have the force of original laws, and so amplify the laws themselves that their study becomes a speciality. How far this state of things is neces- sarily the case need not be here inquired.——The duties of advocates are of a two fold charac- ter : the preparation of cases for trial, and the pleading in open court. With us the two duties are of right discharged by the same in- dividual, except in the supreme court of the United States, although for convenience they are occasionally separated. In other countries, as in England and France, the business of the attorney or practitioner, and of the counsellor or pleader, are distinct branches of the profession. The counsellor is considered as following the more honorable profession, and the dignities and emoluments of the law are exclusively conﬁned to him. The reason of this advantage is not quite obvious. For the practice of the law in all countries a preliminary preparation is required, and an examination must be un- dergone. The duration of this probationary period, and the reality of the examination, vary considerably in different countries. The ad- vocate is bound to exercise reasonable skill and diligence in behalf of his client, and failing this he may be sued for the damage his client has sustained by his negligence. In the perform- ance of his public duty he is allowed a very ex- tensive freedom of remark and of inquiry, and VOL. I.—10 145 this freedom of speech at the bar, has been justly esteemed one of the most solid bulwarks of liberty, and has often been exercised by independent and high-spirited lawyers in de- fence of their clients against despotism or oppression. The obligation of a lawyer to his client has been the subject of much discussion. Dr. Johnson broadly aﬁirmed that a lawyer’s duty to his client was to do the best he could for him. Public opinion has, however, pre- scribed a limit to this, and it may be well doubt- ed whether the professional tactics habitually pursued in the advocacy of a client’s case are not a ﬂagrant violation of the golden rule; and whether the duty of the citizen ought not al- ways to be paramount to that of the advocate. The maintenance of notorious falsities as irre- fragable truths; the imputation of personal dishonor to the opposite parties; the injury of witnesses’ characters under pretence of a search after truth; the thousand ingenious devices to screen guilt or to fasten odium on an antagonist, surely transcend that which should be the scope of the lawyer’s duty to his client. In the courts of the United States the fees of advocates and attorneys are open to every kind of arrange- ment. By the New York code of procedure, a certain moderate ﬁxed remuneration is allow- ed for certain deﬁnite services. But, beside this, it is also provided that other more liberal remuneration may be claimed for services ren- dered, to which provision a somewhat latitudi- narian interpretation has been given. The advocate may also make any bargain with his client, precisely as any other agent or em- ployee may do. In the courts of Europe this is discouraged. In England, the attorney is allow- ed a ﬁxed scale of charges; all bargains for any thing beyond these charges, or in anywise de- pendent on the success of the suit, are illegal; and, even after payment, an attorney’s bill of charges may be reviewed and moderated by the ofﬁcers of the court in which the business is done. The stringency of legislation on this head has increased rather than decreased in late years. The counsel may not recover any fees whatever; the theory of his calling is, that he labors gratuitously for the beneﬁt of suitors. In practice, his fees are all paid beforehand, for as there is no contract between the counsellor and his client, the fees are irrecoverable, in case the counsel neglects his duty. His fee is a quid- dam honoramlum, and the maintenance of this theory has been considered by the highest authorities essential to the honesty and integrity of the bar, although to the uninitiated the reasoning may not seem perfectly conclusive.-— It is natural that lawyers, having practised powers of speech, should take a prominent lead in public affairs. But it has been remarked that lawyers, especially practising lawyers, are not remarkable for the breadth of their views, or a statesmanlike grasp of intellect, but rather for a keen perception of the weaknesses of human nature, and for an apprehension of the right use of words. Not only in the United States is 146 ADVOCATES’ LIBRARY there a very large proportion of lawyers en- gaged in public and political life, but in Europe, where class interests and landed property are commonly supposed to have greater weight than with us, the same fact is observable. In the last British house of commons there were no less than 111, or rather more than one-sixth.--In most European countries, there are societies of lawyers having for their objects the defence of the legal profession and the maintenance of its privileges. The laws of court in London are very ancient, and the heads of the societies have the exclusive privilege of judging of the capacity of students and of calling them to the bar. The qualiﬁcation formerly was a three years’ resi- dence and study in the laws of court ; but this had of late years degenerated into a form; presence in the common hall and eating the society’s dinners for twelve successive terms, being accepted as evidence of the study. Hence, in process of time the capacity for dining came to be regarded as the qualiﬁ- cation. This absurdity notwithstanding, the bar of England has never been wanting in tal- ent of the highest order; and of late years the prandial course of study has been amended, and a return to the ancient system adopted, and a rigorous examination of candidates pre- scribed. In France there are similar societies. Napoleon established ohambres dos aooués. These chambers are attached to each court, and have the power of suspension or dismissal. An appeal against the decision of the chamber is permitted to the party aggrieved. In Belgium, Geneva, and Italy, they have councils of discipline. ADVOCATES’ LIBRARY. The library of the faculty of advocates at Edinburgh is the largest and most valuable in Scotland. Though strictly private property, it is open to the pub- lic. There are about 150,000 volumes, and it is inferior only to the library of the British museum and the Bodleian. The most com- plete department of the library is the histori- cal, comprising every work of importance published in Europe. The law department is very rich. The MSS. are not numerous. The library is under the charge of ﬁve curators, a keeper, an assistant-keeper, and two or three under-assistants. The funds of the library are derived from the faculty of advocates, who set aside £3,000 per annum for its use. The books are freely lent to advocates and to all persons introduced by advocates, and notwithstanding this liberality, there have been few losses. David Hume, the historian, was one of the keepers. ADVOCATUS DIABOLI, in the Catholic church, the speaker or writer who shows cause against the canonization of a person proposed for sainthood. The advocate who defends the proposed saint is called adoooatus Dot. The adoocatus diaboh insists upon the weak points of the good man’s or woman’s life. Hence the name is sometimes popularly applied to all those who delight in detracting from the characters of good men. EIDILES Q ADVOWSON, in English law, is the right of presenting to a vacant living in the church. Advowson, according to Blackstone, signiﬁes taking into protection or patronage. When the lord of a manor built a church and endowed it, he acquired a right of nominating the ministers, provided they were canonically qualiﬁed. Advowsons are property, and as such purchasable, provided that certain laws for the prevention of simony are not infringed in the purchase. These laws are, however, more fre- quently evaded than obeyed. The most ordi- nary form of advowson is the presentation of a duly-qualiﬁed clergyman to the bishop for in- stitution into the living. The bishop has the right of himself presenting to the living; and in a few rare cases, the patron has a right of presenting a person without the bishop’s inter- ference. The beneﬁces of the church of Eng- land are in every case subjects of presentation. The incumbents are maintained by tithes, or since the tithes commutation act, by taxes in lieu of tithes. The elective right of the con- gregation is unknown in the church of England, except in regard to those clergymen who per- form duties in excess of the regular duties of the rector or vicar; such for instance as lec- turers, who are paid by voluntary contribu- tions. The beneﬁces of the church of Eng- land are 11,342, of which there are in the pa- tronage of The crown, 1,048 Universities, . 597 Bishops, . . 1,801 Other colleges, . 146 Deans and chapters, . 982 Private persons, 6,619 Chapels in private patronage, . The valuable patronage of the crown is ex- ercised by the lord chancellor, formerly an ecclesiastic and keeper of the king’s conscience. ADY, a palm tree which grows in the island of St. Thomas. The Indians extract a juice from it which they use as a beverage, and an oil which makes a substitute for butter. Its fruit is used as food. ADYTUM, the most secret chamber of a temple, which only the priests could enter. It seems to have been almost exclusively conﬁned to the temples of the Egyptians. EACUS, according to the ancient tradition, son of Jupiter and ﬂlgina, and ﬁrst king of the island .£Egina. He was renowned for his jus- tice, so that he was called upon to settle dis- putes not only among men, but even among the gods. His reputation was such that, on the oc- casion of an excessive drought in Greece, he was appointed by the oracle of Delphi to intercede with the gods for rain, and his prayers were suc- cessfuL After his death, Pluto made him one of the three judges of Hades. He was regarded by the Zllginetans as their tutelary deity. iEDILES (Lat. wales, a building), Roman ma- gistrates who exercised various functions, among which were the superintendence of buildings, especially those of a public character, the care of the highways, the regulation of the price of provisions, and the custody of the decrees of the people. EGEAN SEA EGEAN SEA, the name anciently given to that part of the Mediterranean now called the Archipelago. Many islands dot its surface, some of which were undoubtedly formed by volcanic action. 1?EG.¢EON, a fabulous giant of antiquity, son of Titan and Terra. He is described as having possessed one hundred hands. He was vanquished by Jupiter, and loaded with chains. ZEGEEUS, king of Athens, and father of Theseus. Having received false intelligence that his son had been killed in his contest with the Minotaur, he cast himself into the sea. ZEGIN A, or EGINA, ENGIA (Turkish Aina), an island in the Saronic gulf, 20 miles from the Piraeus, about 8 miles from N. E. to S. W., and about 6 in a transverse direction. Its western side consists of stony but fertile plains, which are well cultivated and produce luxuriant crops. The rest of the island is mountainous. The climate is the most healthy in Greece. From its hills a magniﬁcent prospect unfolds itself. The acropolis of Athens is 18 miles dis- tant N. N. E.; that of Corinth 37 miles to the N. W. At the present time it numbers about 6,000 inhabitants, and has ﬂourishing schools. Its chief interest, however, depends on its past history and its antiquities. It was a Dorian settlement, and was one of the ﬁrst places in Greece noted for its maritime ascendency. As early as B. O. 563, jﬂgina had a factory in Egypt. It was a great rendezvous for pirates and slave-traders ; also for fugitive criminals and insolvent debtors, in this way discharging to populous Athens the same functions that the Isle of Man has long discharged to Great Britain. It had a silver coinage at a very early date; many of these coins still exist, with a sea- tortoise on the obverse. The people of £Egina, with their contingent of 30 ships, played a brilliant part in the great sea-ﬁght of Salamis. Its earliest enemy was Athens, which state eventually, 430 B. C., took possession of the island and expelled its inhabitants. 1Egina, though often mentioned in the Greek authors, never recovered any political or commercial importance. Sulpicius, the friend of Cicero, in one of his letters descriptive of a cruise in the Saronic gulf, speaks of Z-Egina as a monument of departed greatness. Its chief temple was that of Zeus Panhellenius. Cicero speaks of it as in ruins. In May, 1811, a company of Ger- man and British scholars, including Messrs. Haller and Linckh, Cockerell and Foster, cleared away the rubbish which had accumulated in the course of 2,000 years at the base of the temple, and after 20 days excavating were rewarded by the discovery of 16 statues of an early type of Greek sculpture. These statues are now in the Glyptothek of Munich, and have been restored by Thorwaldsen. The subject is supposed to be the struggles of Ajax, one of the £Eacidae, the local heroic family of ﬂllgina, to save the body of Achilles from the Trojans. ZEGINETA, Paunus, a writer on medicine, ENEAS 147 who ﬁrst discovered the use of rhubarb as an aperient. He died A. D. 630. AEGINETAN ART. Many ancient writers, with Pliny and Pausanias among them, speak of the ZEginetan school in art as equal to any which Hellenic civilization produced. Still to us moderns, ZEginetan art is a mere name like the Pelasgians and the Cyclopian walls. We have the names of several ﬁilgine- tan sculptors classed with Phidias and his com- peers, but no relic of theirs has escaped the con- joint ravages of time and barbarian invasion from Mummius the Roman general down to the Ottoman Turks. Good judges have decided against the right of the Panhellenian sculptures, described in the article on iEgina, to be con- sidered as belonging to the latest and most ﬁnished school of £Eginetan art. AEGIS (Gr. a¢§, aryor, she-goat), the appella- tion of the shield of Jupiter and Minerva, which was covered with the skin of the goat Amal- thaea, by which Jove was nourished in infancy. ZEGISTHUS, son of Thyestes, and cousin to Agamemnon. He formed an adulterous connec- tion with Clytemnestra, the wife of that prince, during his absence at Troy, and assisted in his murder, on his return. He was slain by Orestes, the son of Agamemnon. AELFRIC, archbishop of Canterbury, died Nov. 16, 1005. At an early age he became a Benedictine monk, and gradually rose through the various subordinate offices of the church, until he was made archbishop in 994. He dis- played a commendable zeal through life for the spread of learning. A translation in Saxon of most of the historical portion of the Old Tes- tament, and a Saxon grammar in Latin, are among the works ascribed to his pen. ZELIA CAPITOLINA, a name given to Je- rusalem by the emperor Hadrian, who, after a rebellion of the Jews in his reign, drove them from the city, and settled it with Roman colo- nists. It went by this title until the time of the Christian emperors. JELIANUS, Cnaumus, a Roman writer in the third century of our era. His compilation, entitled Varies Histories, is still extant, as well as an original treatise, De natum anvlmalium. These works are written in Greek. .ZEMlLIUS, Paunus. I. Twice consul of Rome, died B.C. 160, aged 70. He vanquished Perseus, king of Macedon, and incorporated that coun- try with the Roman empire. II. An eminent historian, born at Verona, died in Paris, May 5, 1529. In consequence of his celebrity as a writer in Italy, the cardinal of Bourbon made him a canon of the cathedral of Paris, and em- ployed him to write a history of the kings of France, in Latin. The ﬁrst six books of his history were published during his life, and the remaining four were collected from his papers and issued after his death. ZENEAS, son of Anchises and Venus, a Trojan prince, to whom tradition ascribes the commencement of the Roman empire. When Troy fell, he quitted the city with his followers, 148 ZENEAS SYLVIUS accompanied by his father and son. After visit- ing various countries, they landed on the shores of Latium, where they met with a friendly reception from King Latinus. They settled there, and soon became involved in hostilities with the people of the country, in the course of which Latinos was slain. ZEneas was ﬁnally victorious. He married Lavinia, the daughter of Latinus. ZENEAS SYLVIUS (Piccolomini), born in Sienna, 1405, died Aug. 14, 1464, was raised to the papacy under the name of Pius II., in 1458. He acted as secretary at the famous council of Basel, A. D. 1431-1439, and has left an account of it, Oommentarius do gestis Basil concilii. He was at this time an earnest advo- cate of the supremacy of the council, and main- tained its right to depose the pope, “who ought rather to be considered as the vicar of the church than as the vicar of Christ.” The emperor Frederic III. was much pleased with Sylvius, and offered him the post of imperial secretary, and sent him on many missions. He wrote several works in support of his master’s prerogative. He was subsequently sent on a mission to Pope Eugenius; the pope forgave him and appointed him apostolic secretary. He gave up the German employment, as an Italian residence was preferable to him. From this time forth he became an ardent ultra- montane. Nicholas V. made him bishop of Trieste, and afterwards of Sienna, and sent him as papal nuncio into Germany and Bohemia, where he had conferences with the Hussites, which he relates in his epistles. He recom- mended mild measures to reclaim the stray sheep of Bohemia, and wrote a work on the his- tory of Bohemia and the Hussites, in which the doctrines of the latter are set down without exaggeration. He relates the burning of John Huss and Jerome of Prague, and speaks of their fortitude as exceeding that of any of the philoso- phers of antiquity. In 1452 he delivered a great oration in the presence of the pope, the emperor, and other German and Italian princes, and the ambassadors of other European courts, for the purpose of exhorting them to the de- fence of Constantinople against the Turks, to which object he devoted the rest of his life. Calixtus III. made him a cardinal, and at the death of that pontiff he became pope himself. The main efforts of his pontiﬁcate were direct- ed toward forming a confederacy among the Christian princes, for the common defence of Christendom. For this, Macchiavelli praises him. The Italian princes were willing to join him, but France and Germany kept aloof. By a bull addressed to the universities of Paris and Cologne, Pius condemned his own writings in defence of the council of Basel, concluding with these memorable words: “ Believe what I, an old man, now say to you, and not what I wrote when I was young,—believe the pontiff rather than the private individual, reject ﬂﬁneas Sylvius and accept Pius II.” He was at the trouble of writing a letter to the sultan EENEID Mohammed II. to convince him of the errors of Mohammedanism, and engage him to become a Christian. In the year 1464 an armament against the Turks was directed to assemble at Ancona. Matthias Corvinus, king of Hungary, and Charles the Bash, duke of Burgundy, had pledged themselves to join it. The Venetians had promised a large ﬂeet. Pius II. set out from Rome to give the expedition his blessing, but found it in a disorganized and utterly un- prepared state, only a few galleys having made their appearance. This lapse from duty on the part of the European princes and republics, broke the heart of the aged pontiff, and he sank under the disappointment. Several bi- ographies of him have been written; the most notable are those of Campanus, bishop of Arezzo, and Gobillenus, his secretary, entitled Pii II. Pant. Mam. Oommentarii rermn memo- rabzlzium gum temporibus smls convigerunt. £ENEID, the great epic poem of Publius Virgilius Maro, ranks with the Iliad and the Odyssey, making one of the three greatest poems bequeathed to posterity by the ancients. The author wrote it in the time of Augustus Caesar; it was commenced about the year 724 U. C., or B. C. 30; and it was left unﬁnish- ed at the time of the author’s death, B. C. 20. He was said to be so diﬂldent as to the merits of the production that he directed his friends to burn the manuscript. The emperor Augus- tus interfered to save it, and intrusted its pub- lication to two learned friends of the author. Many lines are left imperfect, and this is alleg- ed as proof that the poem never received the ﬁnishing touch of Virgil. The burden of the £Eneid is the adventures of ﬂilneas after the fall of Troy and his ﬁnal settlement in Italy, where he and his followers became, ac- cording to the received opinion, the founders of the Roman name. It deviates in many par- ticulars from the ordinary legend concerning Eneas. In the 1st book we have the story of Eneas being driven by a storm on the coast of Africa, and being hospitably entertained by Dido, queen of Carthage, to whom he relates the fall of Troy and his wanderings in the 2d and 3d books. In the 4th book the poet has elaborated the story of the passion conceived by Dido for her Trojan guest, the departure of Eneas in obedience to the will of the gods, and the suicide of Dido. The 5th book con- tains the visit to Sicily and the burning of the ships, and the 6th the landing of Zﬁneas at Cumae, in Italy, and his descent to the infernal regions, where he sees his father Anchises, and has a vision of the future glories of his race and the greatness of Rome. These 6 ﬁrst books are modelled upon the Odyssey, and are supe- rior to those which follow. The 6 last books partake rather of the spirit of the Iliad. They are monotonous, and relate the struggles of Eneas in Italy, his alliances with Latinus, king of the Latini, and his projected marriage with Lavinia, the daughter of Latinus. The 12th and ﬁnal book closes with the fall of Turnus, ENIANES king of the Rutuli, and rejected lover of La- vinia, by the hand of Eneas, after a Homeric combat, leaving the projected marriage yet un- completed. The ZEneid is often compared with ;the Iliad. The main distinction between them is that the Iliad was, like Ossian and the Nibe- lungen Lied, the spontaneous evolution of a people in its heroic and patriarchal period, or just emerged therefrom, while the Hineid is the laborious work of a scholar, living in a late period of society, and imitating the spirit of heroic times for the ediﬁcation of a select class of readers. The ZEneid was intended to be read in a saloon, the Iliad to be recited in snatches to a populace assem- bled at festivals and fairs. This difference gives to the Iliad a fresher ﬂavor; by its side the Eneid appears to lack originality and ver- isimilitude. The characters of the ZEneid are deﬁcient in individuality, create no interest, and leave no powerful impression behind them. I/Eneas is as insipid a gentleman as one of Thackeray’s heroes. In descriptions of natural scenery, and in that natural quality of a reﬁned society, sentimentality and pathos, it is supe- rior to the Iliad. The poem is replete with modern allusions to the glories of Rome, Au- gustus Cznsar, and the Julian house, to which Augustus belonged. In this respect the hits are almost as direct as those of Spenser in his Faerie Queen, at Queen Elizabeth of England. ENIANES, an ancient tribe of upper Greece, of very remote and uncertain origin, whose frequent migrations, in early times, are spoken of by many writers of antiquity, espe- cially by Plutarch, in his “ Greek Questions.” He asserts that they occupied, in the ﬁrst instance, the Dotian plains, on the conﬁnes of Thessaly and Macedonia; that they moved thence into Epirus, and, in their last migration, went from Crissa, on the gulf of the same name, which is itself merely an embayment of the Sinus Corin- thiacus, or gulf of Lepanto, to the valley of the Inachus, on which they ﬁnally settled. Their exact situation is not easily to be ascer- tained, so far, at least, as regards their boun- daries; but, generally, they lay to the N. of Doris, the E. of lEtolia, and the S. of Thessaly; and occupied the country about the conﬂuence of the Inachus, now called the Vistritza, with the great river Spercheius, or Elladha, which is the principal stream debouching into the Sinus Maliacus, or gulf of Zituni. That learn- ed and accurate traveller, Col. Martin Leake, assigns to the .ZEnianians the lower valley of the Spercheius, down to the plains of Melis, immediately N. of the pass of Thermopylae, the upper glens, about the sources of the river, being in the possession of the Driopians. The Spercheius, or modern Elladha, is a consider- able stream, and the Inachus, or Vistritza is little inferior to it in size, or quantity of water. The valley along the course of the two torrents —for all the rivers, in this part of Greece, ﬂowing out of gorges in the mountain ranges, partake of this character—lying between the EOLIAN HARP 149 mountain ridges of (Eta, the modern Katavo- thra, on the S., and those of Othrys on the N., is beautiful, and, where suﬁiciently irrigated, luxuriantly fertile; but it is said to be un- wholesome, owing to the exhalations from the inundated rice-ﬁelds. Col. Leake discovered in the Greek village of Neopatra, on the ex- treme point of a ridge descending from Mt. (Eta, in anortherly direction, to the river, many foundations of old Hellenic walls and fortiﬁca- tions, as well as other remains of columnar shafts and inscribed stones, which indicate this wretched place to be the site of the ancient Hypata, which he shrewdly supposes to be a corruption of Hypoeta, or the city under (Eta; and which further prove that this Hypata was no other than the capital of the I/Enianes; by which fact, also, he accounts for the non-ex- istence of any coins of Hypata, “the money coined here having probably all had the in- scription Amavmv.” The antiquity and early importance of this people are attested by the fact of their belonging to the Amphictyonic council. At a later period, they joined the confederation of the other Hellenic states, against Macedonia, which gave rise to the La- miac war; but, according to Strabo, in his time they had no longer a national existence, having been nearly exterminated by the Alto- lians and Athamanians, their northern and western border neighbors, people of wild and predatory habits. ENESDEMUS, a native of Cnosus, born soon after the time of Cicero, taught scepticism at Alexandria. He held truth to consist in the common consent of mankind as to the effect produced on the mind by objects in the ex- ternal world. EOLIAN HARP, a musical instrument, from which sounds are given out by the sweep- ing of the air over its strings. It is supposed to have been known to the ancient Jews, for the harp of David is said to have sounded of itself when the north wind blew upon it. The modern invention, however, was by Athanasius Kircher, who describes it in his Musurgia uniocrsalis. It was introduced into England above 100 years ago. The following is the com- mon method of construction: A box is to be made of thin board 4 or 5 inches deep, and 5 or 6 wide, and the length of the window in which it is to be placed; on the top at each end a little strip of wood 4 inch thick and % inch high is to be glued on for the bridge for the strings, and across each end inside is to be fastened a piece of hard wood an inch square for holding the pegs. Into one of these ﬁx as many pegs as there are to be strings, and into the other as many small brass pins. The instrument is then to be strung with small catgut, one end of which is attached to the brass pins, and the other wound round the pegs. The strings, which should not be drawn tight, must be tuned in unison. A thin board should be placed over the strings about 3 inches above _the sounding-board. The box is to be placed in a 150 EOLIAN S window partly open, so that the draught of air shall play upon the strings. -IEO S, aname of one of those divisions of the primitive Hellenic people who play no part in positive history. They are said to have dwelt in Thessaly, but the one fact we can pred- icate of them is, that there were twelve .ZEolian cities, or states, planted in that part of the west- ern coast of Asia Minor, which went by the name of .ZEolis. We hear also of an ZEolic dia- lect of the Greek tongue; but we possess no entire work written in it, such small specimens as we have seem to bring it nearer to the Doric than the Attic. Mythologically the .H:l01i:1I1S were descended from Atolus the son of Helen. EOHPYLE and ZEQLIPILE (Aw7\ov-1rv?\cu, the doors of Eolus ; or, more probably, .z.E'olz'- pila, the ball of ﬁlolus), a hollow metallic ball, with a curved tube connected with a small ori- ﬁce. Water or alcohol being introduced in it and boiled, it was used in old times to exem- plify the force of steam, or as a blow-pipe when adjusted to a lamp. In 1615 Solomon de Cans noticed in using it the eifect of steam in caus- ing water, by the assistance of heat, to mount above its level. The original application of this machine was to discover the cause of the winds. ‘ ZEOLIS, in ancient geography, a province in Asia Minor, originally settled by colonies of .£Eolian Greeks. In its broadest signiﬁcation it includes Troas and the shores of the Helles- pont as far as the Propontis. iEOLUS, the reputed son of Jupiter and Acasta, daughter of Hippotas, god of the winds, resided in the island now called Strom- boli. Strabo believes him to have been a real personage, skilled in meteorology and naviga- tion, whence his fabled divinity. EON, a Greek term signifying age. Also used by the Valentinians, an early Christian sect, as a mystical word signifying a virtue or moral attribute, all of which are summed up in the deity. ' .ZEPIN US, J onannns, at ﬁrst a Franciscan friar and afterwards a Protestant theologian, and follower of Luther, born at Brandenburg in 1499, died at Hamburg May 13, 1553. He studied theology at Wittenberg under Lu- ther, was driven out from his native country on account of his opinions, and ﬂed to Ham- burg, where he became, in 1529, pastor of the church of St. Peter. He endeavored to turn the heart of Henry VIII. of England toward Protestantism, and was one of the theologians who, in 1537, signed the articles of Smalkalde, drawn up by Luther. He opposed the ad in- terim propounded by Charles V. until a new council should assemble His proper name was Hoch, but according to the fashion in those days of changing plebeian German names into Latin or Greek equivalents, Johann Hoch became Johannes Epinus from the Greek am"WO$‘, large. ——FBANZ Maura Unnron Tmsonon, born at Ros- took, Germany, Dec. 13, 1724, died at Dorpat, Russia, in 1802, a German savant whose proper AEROLITE name was also Hoch. He studied medicine, physics, and mathematics. Some treatises which he published caused his appointment as member of the academies of Berlin and St. Petersburg. In 1757 he was made professor of physics at St. Petersburg. In 1759 he published there a Latin treatise on the theory of electricity and magnetism, which Hauy translated into French. The transactions of the learned academies of which he was a member contain many memoirs by him written in Latin, French, and German. He is regarded as the inventor of the condenser and the conductor of the electrical machine. He improved microscopes. Catharine II. hon- ored him greatly, and intrusted to him the charge of instructing the grand-duke Paul. AERIAL PERSPECTIVE treats of the laws which regulate the apparent distance of bodies, arising from changes in their brightness, due to variations of the light, and of the clearness of the air, combined with the differences in their actual distance. AERIANS, a semi-Arian sect of the 4th cen- tury, named from Aerius, a monk, and holding middle ground between the Arians and the Niceans. The Niceans were Homoousians, and the high Arians were Heterousians, while the Aérians were Homoiousians. The Aérians in church government denied the distinction be- tween a bishop and a presbyter. They were op- posed by a small counter-faction of the Aérians, denominated Aétians, from one Aétius, who claimed to have received divine revelations. AERODYNAMICS, the science which treats of the mechanical effects of the air when put in motion. AERCE, a Danish island, in the duchy of Schleswig, in the Baltic, situated 10 miles S. of Fiinen. It is fertile and well cultivated, about 10 miles long by 5 broad, and sustains a population of 10,200. AEROLITE (Gr. aqp, air, and M509, stone), stones that have fallen from the air. The fact is fully conceded, and it is also established that their composition differs from that of any other substances we are acquainted with. Aerolites have been met with in almost all parts of the world. One in South America is estimated to weigh 30,000 pounds, and another 14,000 pounds, and there is a large one in the Yale college cabinet from the Red river in Ar- kansas, which weighs 1,635 pounds. Pallas discovered one in Siberia, which weighed 1,600 pounds, and contained embedded crys- tals of chrysolite. They are described by Livy, Plutarch, and Pliny. The latter speaks of one as large as a wagon, that fell in the Hellespont. By the ancients they were held in great reverence. Iron is the principal in- gredient in these stones, varying from 35 to 90 per cent. of their weight; next 1S mckel, from 6.5 to 10.7 per cent., and then follow a long list of metals, which are nearly all found in every analysis, viz., cobalt, copper, tm, mag- nesium, aluminum, chromium, potassium, so- dium, manganese, and other substances, as sul- AEROLITE phur, carbon, silica, phosphorus, oxygen, and hy- drogen. To the metals named, lead is now to be added, on the authority of Mr. Gleig of Eng- land, who has discovered it in small globules in a mass of meteoric iron from Tarapaca, Chili. These substances combine to form a number of mineral compounds, some of which are often met with in the terrestrial rocks, and one is pe- culiar to aérolites. This compound is named schreibersite, and is phosphuret of iron and nickel, expressed probably by the formula Ni2 Fe, P. It occurs in small particles and little ﬂakes, disseminated through the mass, and so closely resembles magnetic iron pyrites, that it may easily be mistaken for it. It is of a yellow or yellowish-white color ; hardness=6; speciﬁc gravity 7.017. It possesses magnetic proper- ties, and may acquire polarity. Its greater sus- ceptibility to the action of the magnet serves to distinguish it from magnetic iron pyrites. It may be separated, both chemically and mechanically, from the meteoric iron--hydrochloric acid taking up the iron and leaving this insoluble portion. The diﬁiculty of obtaining it by either method perfectly pure causes the analyses to differ somewhat in their results, but its compo- sition is believed by Dr. J . Lawrence Smith to have been determined with suﬂicient accuracy to justify the formula given above. The follow- ing analyses were made by him, with the excep- tion of the last, which was by Mr. Fisher: 1. 2. 3. Iron, 57.22 56.04 56.53 Nickel, 25.82 26.43 28.02 Cobalt, 0.32 0.41 0.28 Copper, . . traces not estimated. Phosphorus, . .92 14.86 Silica, . 1.62 Alumina, 1.63 Zinc, trace. Chlorine, 0.13 100.66 99.69 These stones are often called meteoric iron, from the metal of which they are principally composed. In appearance they resemble mal- leable iron ; they are black on the outside and grayish white within, and like iron affect the magnetic needle. Their speciﬁc gravity varies with the relative proportion of metallic and earthy substances. According to Brande and Thompson, it is from 3.35 to 4.28, but accord- ing to Dana (“Mineralogy ”) it is rarely as low as 6, and a fragment from North Carolina gave 7.318. Van Marum, in the Haarlem Transac- tions, describes one from the Cape of Good Hope of sp. gr.---7 .604, which is about the sp. gr. of malleable iron. A small one which fell in Tennessee in 1855 has the sp. gr. of only 3.2. In whatever part of the world they are found, they present so remarkable a similarity of composition and appearance, that we are compelled to assign to them a common origin. Their composition differing from any thing be- longing to the earth (though presenting no new elements), in connection with the circum- stances attending their introduction, make it probable that their origin is in some other body than the earth. They appear instantaneously 151 as meteors, surrounded with a bright halo, and rushing through the air in an oblique direction, toward the earth with immense velocity. They shine with intense splendor, and then ex- plode with a loud noise, sometimes at the height of 30 or 40 miles above the surface. In Normandy, in France, in the year 1803, they ap- peared in the form of a ball of ﬁre, accompanied with a small rectangular cloud, which did not move, and from which explosions came, the vapor being sent out in all directions on each ex- plosion. This cloud was so high that it appear- ed at the same instant immediately over the heads of observers a league apart. Stones fell from the cloud with a hissing noise, as if projected from a sling, and were scattered over a tract of country 2% leagues long by 1 broad. Above 2,000 were collected, the largest weighing 17 % pounds. Fortunately for mankind, the visits of these strangers are seldom in such numbers. They most frequently come singly, and as the unfrequented parts of the earth and those cov- ered with the waters present by far the greatest surface, their fall is for the most part remote from the habitations of man. In their fall they bury themselves in the earth, so great is their velocity, and for some time they continue so hot, that they cannot be handled. As these bodies sometimes illuminate a tract of 100 or 200 miles in extent, it is probable that only a por- tion of the mass reaches the earth, while the mainbody keeps on its way through the heavens. Three hypotheses have been proposed to ac- count for the source of aérolites: First, that they are meteors formed in the atmosphere by the aggregation of their particles, as rain and hail are formed. Second, that they belonged to the moon, and were projected from its vol- canoes with such force, as to bring them within the sphere of the earth’s attraction. This is the theory of Laplace. He calculated that a body projected from the moon with the velocity of 1,771 feet in the ﬁrst second, would reach our earth in about 2 § days. This velocity is less than 4 times that commonly given to a can- non ball. The third hypothesis is that of Chladni, the German philosopher, who pub- lished his views in a tract at Riga and Leip- sic in the year 17 94, and still more fully in his great work on this subject published in Vien- na in 1819. It is that these bodies are small planets or fragments of planets moving through space, which on entering om‘ atmosphere lose their velocity and fall to the earth. The ﬁrst hypothesis is a mere supposition, which leaves unexplained the source whence the va- pors are derived, as none such have ever been detected in the atmosphere, and also how, if collected, the velocity could be given to the aérolites which they are observed to have. It is not now regarded as at all plausible. La- place’s theory, as proposed by him, is objected to by Olbers and other astronomers, on the ground that the actual velocity of the meteors is greater than they could have received from any forces belonging to the moon. And he- 152 AEROLITE sides, if all the supplies of these bodiesthat are known to have fallen upon the earth, and still continue to fall, and of those, moreover, which may be supposed to be projected in other direc- tions than toward the earth, be abstracted from the moon, this satellite must rapidly diminish in material, till it is itself reduced to a moder- ate-sized meteor, and explodes like the rest. And yet it is by no means improbable, that solid materials may be thus sent forth from the volcanoes of the moon beyond the reach of its attraction; for this sphere, from the in- ferior gravity of the moon, does not extend to so great a distance from it, as is the case with the earth; and the resistance from gravitation is less for the same reason; and so is that pre- sented by the atmosphere, which iu the moon is of extreme rarity. Laplace’s theory there- fore may be received with more favor with this modiﬁcation—-that such bodies may have been sent forth from the moon, not directly to the earth, but into the space between the planets, and there sometimes they come within the range of attraction of our globe. But after all, this is taking only a limited view of the sub- ject; for there is a striking analogy between these bodies and many others that are ﬂoating in space among our planets, and also beyond the limits of our solar system, such as the aste- roids between Mars and J upiter.——“ Meteoric Planets,” as Prof. Nichol suggests, they may perhaps with propriety be called. So the zo- diacal light may be of similar nature. Such considerations lead us to the original hypothesis of Chladni. As ﬁrst proposed by him it is thus stated in general form by Prof. Nichol: “Through the interplanetary spaces, and, it may be, through the interstellar spaces also, vast numbers of small masses of solid matter may be moving in irregular orbits; and these as they approach any planet of powerful gravita- tion, such as the earth, will be disturbed and may fall toward its surface.” There is a fail- ure in this hypothesis to account for the heat of these bodies as they pass through our atmos- phere, and no theory of the compression of the atmosphere caused by their rapid motion has been able to explain it. But Prof. Nichol sug- gests, “ that the recent and apparently estab- lished conception regarding heat-—viz. : that it must be evolved as an equivalent for any de- stroyed mechanical eifect, wholly removes the diﬁiculty.” For “M. Joule has shown con- clusively, that in regard of the greater number of these bodies, the heat equivalent to the me- chanical eifect due to their original sis oioa, and destroyed by the resistance of the atmosphere, is such as would melt the body and dissipate it into fragments. In case of smaller velocities, nothing beyond inﬂammation or white heat might ensue; but far oftener than we imagine, these falling stars are utterly dissipated by the agency now spoken of, and reach the earth in the form of mere meteoric dust.” Aiérolites do not appear to be necessary accompaniments of meteors; for these luminous bodies have ap- AEROSTATION peared in our atmosphere in innumerable num- bers, particularly in the months of August and November, for a succession of years, with no precipitation of solid bodies to the earth. They are therefore regarded as sometimes of a gas- eous, as well as of a solid nature. It is interest- ing to observe that the phenomenon of aérolites may be detected as having probably occurred in periods anterior to the introduction of man. A mass of meteoric iron has been discovered in an alluvial deposit of the Altai mountains of northern Asia in excavations made for gold. It was met with at the depth of 31 ft. 5 inches, and weighed 17% pounds. Some doubt, how- ever, may well be entertained as to the age of this formation extending back from the historic epoch, when the fact is recalled to mind of the ancient huts and strange utensils exhumed from the same auriferous formation of the Naucoot- chie valley in the Cherokee region of Georgia, from almost as great a depth. Very complete ac- counts of aérolites that have been observed from time to time, are furnished in the “American Journal of Science.” Here are recorded the ob- servations upon this subject of Prof. Charles Upham Shepard and other distinguished scien- tiﬁc men, who have devoted especial attention to the composition of those which have been met with in this country. AEROMIETER (Gr. anp, 211‘, and perpoi/, measure), an instrument invented by Dr. Mar- shall Hunt, by which the necessary corrections are made in experimenting with gases to ascer- tain the mean bulk. AEROSTATION (Gr. aqp, the air, and 0"rao't9, standing), Annonxurros (Gr. app and vavs‘, a ship), the art of sustaining oneself in the air, and of navigating it. The discovery of hydrogen gas by Cavendish in England the latter part of the last century, and of its extraordinary lightness, which is only about 7% of that of com- mon air, suggested the possibility of using it as a means of lifting heavy bodies into the air, so that this might be navigated as the ocean is by ships. Cavallo the electrician ﬁrst tried the ex- periment in 17 82, on a small scale, and with lit- tle success. The next year, June 5, the broth- ers Stephen and Joseph de Montgolﬁer, paper manufacturers at Annonay, near Lyons, sent up a Montgotﬁére or balloon raised by rare- ﬁed air. They had tried hydrogen gas with- out success, as it escaped through the pores of the paper ballon, as they called the hydro- gen machine. This ﬁrst successful ascent was with a balloon 110 feet in circumference, and of the capacity of 23,000 French cubic feet, made of coarse linen lined with paper, and weigh- ing 500 lbs. As the air within was heated through the aperture in the bottom, the mass swelled out, and when liberated rapidly rose in the air. As the heat escaped it gradually returned to the surface. In August succeeding, a balloon capable of holding hydrogen gas was sent up from Paris; but held by a rope 100 ft. long, so that it should not escape. This excited the greatest interest among all classes; the AEROSTATION common people even saluted it with respect. The same month another was suffered to go up. This one continued in the air nearly an hour, and descended 5 leagues from Paris. In September the Montgolﬁers sent up from Paris a balloon with a car, in which were a sheep, a cock, and a duck. Next ventured M. Pilatre de Rozier, but only the length of a rope made fast to the ground. On Nov. 21, how- ever, he and the Marquis d’Arlandes per- formed successfully the hazardous and till then untried enterprise of navigating the air in a montgolﬁere. The machine was 70 ft. high and 46 feet in diameter, of the capacity of 60,000 cubic feet ; and able to carry about 1,700 lbs. The ascent was estimated at 3,000 feet above the surface. The horizontal distance travelled was about 5,000 toises in from 20 to 25 minutes; only a third of the fuel taken was consumed. The next ascent was made also from Paris by Messrs. Charles and Robert in a hydrogen balloon, Dec. 1. They alighted in an hour and three-quarters at Ncsle, 25 miles from Paris. M. Charles immediately re- ascended alone. The sun had set; but it soon rose to him again, as he said, “I was the only illuminated object, all the rest of nature being plunged in shadow.” He descended in safety in 35 minutes, 9 miles from the point he start- ed from. In his expedition the fall of the baro- meter and thermometer was noticed. The ﬁrst, sinking to 20.05 inches, indicated an ascent of about 9,700 feet. The thermometer sank to 21° F. In this voyage, the ﬁrst suspicions were excited of currents of air ﬂowing in diﬁerent di- rections at different elevations. The cost of this balloon was about $2,000, half of which was expended in making the gas. In March, 1784, M. Blanchard ascended from Paris in a bal- loon, to which were attached wings, with a rud- der and a parachute. The former proved en- tirely useless for controlling the movements of the balloon. In the last, he sent down a dog, which was landed safely. In September of the same year, the Duke de Chartres, afterwards Orleans, went up with Messrs. Robert and Charles and another person. They passed a dis- tance of 135 miles in 5 hours. In Jan. 1785 M. Blanchard and Dr. John J effries of Boston, Mas- sachusetts, crossed the Channel from Dover, and landed in the forest of Guiennes. These aérial voyages had now become frequent; but they were unattended with any incidents of particu- lar interest or importance. In June, 1785, how- ever, occurred the ﬁrst fatal disaster. M. Rozier, he who ﬁrst ventured to trust himself in a bal- loon, attempted with a young man named Ro- maine Lainé to cross from France over to England in a hydrogen balloon, to which a small montgol- ﬁere was attached below, for the purpose of being used as a regulator. The hydrogen, by its ex- pansion in the more rare atmosphere above, pressed down through the tubular neck of the balloon, and reaching the ﬁre of the montgolﬁere, the whole body of this gas was inﬂamed, and the voyagers were precipitated upon the rocks near 153 the sea-shore.-Balloons soon after this began to be regarded as important military machines for making reconnaissances. One was distribut- ed during the French revolution to each of the republican armies. A body of troops was raised in France in 17 94, at the command of the direc- tory, for the purpose of reconnoitring the posi- tion of the enemy by the aid of balloons. They were under the command of Col. Coutelle, and were ﬁrst employed at Maubeuge and Charleroi. The balloon was manned by two ofﬁcers, who communicated, by ﬂags or slips of paper, the results of their observations to the troops be- neath. The most favorable height was about 800 or 900 feet, although they sometimes mounted 2,500 feet in the air. The experi- ment was soon abandoned. The French army in Algiers, in 1830, carried a similar appara- tus along with them, but do not seem to have made use of it.—The ﬁrst ascent for purely scientiﬁc objects, was made on Aug. 23, 1804, at 10 o’clock in the morning, by Messrs. Gay Lussac and Biot, under the auspices of the French government. Various philoso- phical instruments were furnished for ex- perimenting upon the density, temperature, humidity, and electricity of the air at diﬁ'erent elevations, and also upon the phenomena of magnetism and galvanism, that might be devel- oped. A ﬂask, too, was prepared for bringing down the air from the highest elevation for analysis. At the height of 6,500 feet, the stra- tum of clouds they had passed through, present- ed, as looked down upon, a waving surface re- sembling a wide plain covered with snow. At 8,600 feet the thermometer had fallen from 61°7’ F. at the surface, to 56%’; at 12,800 feet it stood at 51°. The heat of the sun is more di- rectly felt during the day in the rare atmos- phere of these upper regions, than when it reaches us through the denser stratum below, or even at similar elevations on the sides of mountains, which are more or less enveloped in the vapors connected with the surface of the earth. The experiments upon electricity indi- cated its increase with the height attained. Terrestrial magnetism did not appear to dimin- ish. At half past 1 o’clock the aéronauts reached the surface about 50 miles from Paris, freeing themselves from the balloon with much risk and difﬁculty. On Sept. 15, at 9.40 A. M., Gay Lussac alone ascended again from the garden of the conseroatoiw des arts, to prosecute further researches and at higher elevations. He was particularly desirous to ob- serve the oscillations of the magnetic needle and its dip; the motion of the balloon, how- ever, which continually rotates, ﬁrst one way, and then slowly back the other, greatly inter- fered with the correct observation of these del- icate experiments. was that there was no sensible dilferen ce in the magnetism of the needle, as relates to its polar- ity, dip, and vibrations, at any elevation man can reach. The temperature varies with the different currents of air passed through as well The conclusion arrived at. 154 as with the elevation. At the highest point of the ascent, which was 22,912 feet above Paris, or 23,040 above the level of the sea, and near 3 o’clock in the afternoon, the ther- mometer had fallen from 82° F. at the surface to 14°9’. The only conclusion that could he arrived at as to the temperature, is that its gradation is not uniform, but proceeds with aug- mented rapidity with the increase of elevation. The humidity of the upper strata was less than that of the lower, but the changes in this respect ﬂuctuated from greater to less without uniformity. The air was admitted into the ﬂasks to be brought down for analysis, at the elevation of 21,460 feet, and again at 21,790 ft. At the greatest altitude to which man has ever ascended, more than 4% miles above the level of the sea, Gay Lussac found the air twice as thin as at the surface. The barometer stood at 12.95 inches. The cold was so excessive as to benumb him, for the air was dull and misty, and a stratum of clouds far above intercepted the rays of the sun. Breathing was diﬁicult, the pulse and respiration were much quickened, and the throat became parched. At 3.45 the balloon reached the surface, and was safely anchored about 16 miles north-west from Rouen. Gay Lussac hastened to Paris, and an- alyzed himself the air he brought with him. It was found to consist of exactly the same propor- tions of oxygen and nitrogen as the air from the surface:-In 1806 Carlo Brioschi, astronomer royal at Naples, in company with Andreani, the ﬁrst Italian aéronaut, attempted to rise from Na- ples to a greater height than Gay Lussac reached. By the expansion of the gas in the rare atmos- phere their balloon burst; but its fragments checked the velocity of the descent, and they fell to the surface with no immediate material inju- ry. Brioschi, however, contracted a disease, from which he suffered till his death in 1833. One of the most distinguished aéronauts of this period was M. Blanchard, who was the ﬁrst with Dr. J effries to cross the English Channel. He died in 1809, having made more than 66 ascents; one of which was in New York city in 1796. Madame Blanchard sometimes accompanied him, and after his death she continued to make these voyages. In 1819, having ascended from Tivoli, in Paris, and taken up some ﬁreworks, her bal- loon was inﬂamed by these, and she was preci- pitated to the earth and dashed to pieces in the Rue de Provence.—-In the year 1836 a very interesting aérial voyage was made by Messrs. Holland, Mason, and Green, from London. The balloon was of unusually large dimensions, being about 60 ft. high and 50 ft. diameter, containing 85,000 cubic ft. It was furnished with provisions for a fortnight, instruments of great variety, clothing in abundance, and apparatus for warming coffee and provisions by the heat developed in slaking lime. They set out at 1.30 P. M. on Nov. 7, and were wafted by a moderate breeze toward the south-east. In the evening they crossed over the channel near Dover, and during the night passed over many AEROSTATION villages and towns of France. The lighted streets of these, as they sailed over them, present- ed the most beautiful spectacle. But Liege, with the numberless brilliant ﬁres of its iron works, and the murmur of its busy population, surpassed all other objects in beauty and interest. Intense darkness soon succeeded, and the voyagers lost all knowledge of the course they were pursuing, or the rate at which they were carried along. A long rope they trailed along sometimes reach- ing the surface warned them to throw out bal- last and gain a greater elevation. At 3.30 A.M. in the midst of impenetrable darkness and pro- found stillness, a noise like an explosion came from the balloon, followed by a second and third report, and accompanied with a great rustling of the silk and shaking of the car. It proved to be the effect consequent on the collapsing of the balloon, when the air within became con- densed into less space, and of its swelling out by the expansion of the air as the balloon rose into a rarer atmosphere. At 5.10 in the morning they were at an elevation of 12,000 feet. The view spread over an area of 300 miles diameter. At 6.15 the sun rose to them. It set as they de- scended ; and rose and set again, and at last appeared the third time ascending the horizon. On approaching the surface in the morning they were utterly ignorant whether they had arrived at the plains of,Poland or the steppes of Russia. The locality in which, after many attempts, they succeeded in ﬁnding a resting-place, proved to be in the Duchy of Nassau, about 2 leagues from the town of Weilburg, a distance of 500 miles from London, which they accomplished in 18 hours. This is the longest aérial voyage on record.——One of the most interesting meteorolo- gical phenomena noticed by the aeronauts is the occurrence of the rain clouds in strata, which are separated by a clear space of some thousand feet, it'may be, in thickness. Any layer of clouds, from which the rain falls, is sure to he succeeded by a stratum of clear blue sky, and over this is found another cloudy belt. If rain fall from this too, the same succession of blue sky and clouds is looked for above it. These hazardous enterprises have so far resulted in no practical good, nor do they seem likely to lead to any useful object, except it be for military reconnoitring. Balloons must be wafted along by the currents of air, in which they ﬂoat, per- fectly independent of any power that can be applied to them from within. Enveloped in clouds, the aéronaut may be swept along with the swiftness of a tornado, with nothing to indi- cate to him, that he is not in the quiet of a calm ; and, of course, with no means of know- ing the direction of his progress, when he can- not be aware of any progress at all. As the course of the winds, at different eleva- tions, becomes more fully understood, balloons may to some extent be used for passing from one part of the country to another ; but this can be only along the lines of their currents, and in approaching the surface, the voyager must be exposed to its ﬂuctuating breezes with no abil- AERTGEN ity to select the place for his landing. Man has yet to discover some new principles that shall give him a partial control over the elements, or else thoroughly comprehend their operations, before he can apply to any important purpose the power he possesses of rising into the air. AERTGEN, a painter of distinction, born at Leyden, in Holland, 1498. He was originally a wool-carder, but obtained such eminence as an artist, that persons came from distant cities, to see his productions. He made it a practice never to work on Mondays, but to devote that day to the worship of Bacchus and Sile- nus. One of these days, as he was strolling about the town in a drunken mood, playing on the ﬂute, he fell into a dyke and was drowned, 1564. AERTSEN, Pmrna, surnamed Loneo, from his stature, was born at Amsterdam, 1519, and died there 1584. His father was a stocking- maker, and he was also brought up to that craft. He early showed an irrepressible taste for drawing and painting, and his mother, like Ben J onson’s in a like case, prevailed upon his father to allow him to follow the bent of his natural genius. He did not disappoint her hopes, and rose to eminence as a painter. One of his productions represented the cruciﬁxion, with the executioner in the act of breaking the knees of the two cruciﬁed thieves. This pic- ture was torn to pieces by a mob, in 1566, and Aertsen expressed himself indignantly at the outrage. The sympathizers were so enraged at the painter’s defence of himself and the execu- tioner of scripture, that they were with diﬂi- culty prevented from murdering him. ESCHINES. I. AnAthenian orator andrival of Demosthenes, born at Athens, B. C. 389, died at Samos, B. C. 317. He was the son of Atrometus and Glaucothea. Demosthenes says Atrometus was a freedman and Glaucothea a prostitute. .ZEschines, on the contrary, says his father was a true-born Athenian. It is certain that the father of ZEschines was a schoolmaster; Demosthenes upbraided him with this fact, as though it were a low and sordid occupation. “While a boy,” says Demosthenes, “thou wast brought up in great poverty, attending thy father in the school, making ink, cleaning the benches, and sweeping the room, occupations such as beﬁt a slave and not a free-born youth.” He was afterward clerk to a magistrate, and thus obtained some insight into the laws of his coun- try. Having a ﬁne voice and prepossessing ﬁgure, he tried his fortune on the stage, and ﬁnal- ly appeared as an orator on the public arena. At that period of the Athenian government, to be a leading orator was to be a leading statesman. We hear of him as public clerk for two years, and a satellite of the orators Aristophon and Eubulus. In 347 B. C. he was sent, along with Demosthenes, as one of the ten ambassa- dors to negotiate a peace with Philip of Mace- don. From this time forth he appears as a fa- vorer of the Macedonian alliance, and an oppo- nent of the patriotic party of Athens, which ESCHYLUS 155 was headed by Demosthenes. He formed one of the embassy who went to receive Philip’s oath to the treaty. Timarchus and Demos- thenes accused him on his return of malversa- tion in his embassy. He evaded the danger by a counter-prosecution against Timarchus on ac- count of his bad moral character, which suc- ceeded. Shortly after the battle of Chaeronea, B. C. 338, Ctesiphon, an Athenian, proposed that Demosthenes should receive from the state a golden crown. ZEschines indicted Ctesiphon for bringing forward an illegal and inappropri- ate resolution. The cause was not tried until 330 B. C., after the death of Philip, and when Alexander was in Asia. Ctesiphon was acquit- ted, and as £Eschines had not gained one-ﬁfth of the aggregate votes cast, he was liable to pay the penalty inﬂicted by the Athenian law on him who brought forward a factions resolution. Being unable to pay this penalty, he retired to the island of Rhodes, where he taught elocution for a livelihood, and became the founder of the Rhodian school of oratory. Three speeches of his are extant. The ﬁrst is on malversation in his embassy, the second is against Timarchus, and the third against Ctesiphon. His narrative and descriptive power is great, and his extant speeches are freer from personal abuse than those of his great rival. Demosthenes himself acknowledges, unwillingly, the graces of his manner in the tribune, and t agreeable quali- ty and volume of his voice. . An Athenian philosopher, a follower of S rates, and the son of Charinus, a sausage-maker. Socrates used to say that the sausage-maker’s son was the only man who knew how to honor him. Poverty obliged him to go to the court of Dionysius, the Syracusan tyrant. Plato, who was in the ascendant there at that time, treated his poor brother with much contempt, but Aristippus received him well, and gave him a large reward for his dialogues. He taught philosophy for a living at Athens. Phrynicus mentions him favorably as a model of pure Attic style. He wrote orations for the forum for hire. Several dialogues on ethical subjects have been ascribed to him, but their genuine- ness has been justly called in question by critical scholars. ZESCHYLUS, the eldest of the great Attic tragedians, the son of Euphorion. He was of a noble family of the class of the Eupatridae, and was born at Eleusis, a borough of Attica, in the 4th year of the 63d Olympiad, 525 B. C. It is probable that he traced his origin to Cod- ms, the last king of Athens; for among the life-archons, who succeeded the kings, was an Eschylus, in whose reign the Olympiads com- menced. It is believed that his father was con- nected with the worship of Demeter, whom the Latins called Ceres ; and he was probably, him- self, accustomed from his youth to the splendid and solemn spectacles of the Eleusinian mys- teries, into which he was afterward initiated. A portion of these he seems to have described in a strange fragment from his drama of the 156 Edoni, the remainder being lost, and the secrets of them he was accused for divulging in his fearful tragedy of the Eumenides. Pausanias relates of him, that Dionysus, or Bacchus, the god of whose worship tragic and dithyrambic odes and spectacles formed a part, appeared to him in a vision-as he himself asserted—when he had fallen asleep in the ﬁelds one day, when he should have been watching the vines, and commanded him to write tragedy. Such im- aginations were common to the poetical and sensuous temperament of the superstitious and ever-dreaming Greeks, and pre-suppose only the strong tendency of a mind, imbued with genius of a peculiar order, brooding over its own secret and half-developed instincts, until it creates, out of its own mystical yearnings, the bid- dings of a god, commanding it to follow out its natural vocation. In his 25th year, he made his ﬁrst attempt as a tragic poet, in the 70th Olym- piad, B. C. 499 ; but the next shape in which we ﬁnd him mentioned, is that of a warrior, not a poet ; when, with his two brothers, Cy- naegirus and Ameinias, he received public hon- ors for distinguished valor in that famous ﬁeld, where all were valorous, of deathless Marathon. Six years after that battle, he gained his ﬁrst tragic victory, and 4 years afterward, again fought at Salamis, where his brother Ameinias received the prize for the greatest courage, being the trierarch who sank the ﬁrst Phoenician ship, as the poet himself has related in his Persae, al- though modestly refraining from mention of this hero’s name. He again fought at Plataea, where the allied Greeks, led by Pausanias, utterly de- stroyed the enormous Persian host, under the command of Mardonius, and put an end to the Asiatic invasions of the sacred soil of Hellas. Eight years after this he gained the prize for a tetralogy, or series of 4 dramas, presented at a single representation, the Persce, the Phineas, the Glaaeus Potmlensia, and the Prometheus Ignq'f'er—the last a satiric drama. Of the lat- ter part of his life much is veiled in uncertainty. He was, it appears, defeated by Simonides, in an elegiac contest, for the prize offered for the best elegy to the honor of those who fell at Marathon; but, for many years, he continued the unapproachable lord of the tragic lyre, having composed, it is said, 70 dramas, 5 of which were satiric, the rest tragedies of the loftiest tone; and gained 13 tragic prizes, be- fore he was at length defeated by Sophocles; who brought a higher degree of ﬁnish, greater pathos, and a purer Attic style, to a younger audience, who had outlived the taste for the lofty tone of the older generation, in the 78th Olympiad, B. C. 468. Soon after this, whether in disgust at this loss of his poetic laurels, or at a trial to which he is said to have been subjected on an accusation of impiety for the disclosure of the Eleusinian mysteries, as related above, he retired to Sicily, where he was hospitably received by the puissant and liberal monarch, Hiero, in whose honor he composed a drama styled zEtna——a woman of a city lately founded i JESCHYLUS by his royal patron ; and where he died at Gela, in the 69th year of his age, Olymp. 81, B. C. 456. The real circumstances of his accusation and trial are unknown ; Clemens Alexandrinus sta- ting that he was tried by the court of the Areo- pagus and acquitted ; while .ZElian relates that he would have been stoned to death by the Athenians, had not his brother Cynmgirus awak- ened the sympathies of his would-be execution- ers, by baring his mutilated arm, from which the hand had been hewn by a Persian scimitar, as he was struggling to prevent the launch of a galley from the beach at Marathon. It is, more- over, doubtful whether he ever revisited his native country, between the period of his ex- patriation and that of his foreign death, al- though many of his pieces, among others the celebrated Oresteian trilogy, composed of the Agamemnon,the Choéphoroi,and the Eumenides, which gained the tragic prize, B. C. 458, were performed during this period. The latter fact seems to disprove the whole story of the accusa- tion of impiety, as it certainly disposes of its connection with his removal to Sicily, as the cause of his taking umbrage toward Athens. Most doubtful of all is the received account of - his death, which was occasioned, says the le- gend, by an eagle ﬂying overhead with a tor- toise in his claws, and dropping the reptile on the bald head of the philosopher which he mistook for a stone, intending to break the shell of his amphibious prey, but breaking, in- stead, the skull of the poet. That the eagle, pro- verbially the farthest and keenest-sighted of cre- ated things, should mistake a man’s head for a stohe, is absurd beyond the necessity of com- ment. Professor Anthon judges plausibly, that the legend is a “ post-mortem” invention to meet a supposed prophecy, made during his life, that he should meet his death from on high. ZEschy- lus was a great improver of the Attic tragedy; in fact, it is he who gave to it, ﬁrst, the tragic form, by introducing a second performer, with dialogue, emotion, and action. He also abridged the length of the dithyrambic odes; caused a regular stage to be erected; and, ﬁrst, produced his dramas with appropriate scenery, and clothed his heroes in beﬁtting costumes. Of his 70 dramas but 7 have come down to us entire,--the Seven against Thebes, the Sup- pliants, the Persians, the Prometheus Fet- tered, the Agamemnon, the Choéphoroi, and the Eumenides; with but a few fragments of the others, which are alone left to us, with their names, to show us how much we have to re- gret in their loss.——zEschylus is, undoubtedly, the grandest, the stateliest, and the most solemn of the Attic tragedians; and his style, though diﬁicult and at times rugged, is magniﬁcently sonorous with its many-syllabled compounds, and no less terribly expressive.-—His dark and solemn creed is that of a blind, over-ruling,_ever- present, inevitable necessity, against Wh10h it is vain to contend, from which it is hopeless to escape, yet which it is alike the duty and the glory of the great, good man to resist, to the ESCHYLUS end, undaunted-of ancestral guilt continually reproduced and punished by the successive guilt of generation after generation, of hapless kindred criminals, who would not be criminals, could they avoid it, but are goaded on to the -commission of ever new atrocities by the hered- itary curse of the doomed race. Such are the fearful legends of the Theban Labdacidae, and the Mycenaean Atreidae, predestined murderers, adulterers,- and parricides, vainly struggling against the fatal doom, inextricably involved in the meshes of the dark net of necessity. It is objected to jEschylus, that he deals with horrors only; that -his lyre has but one chord of dark and disastrous terror—that he is all iron, and has no key to attune the tenderer strings of human sympathies, to unlock the fount of pity, and Ope the sacred source of sympathetic tears. But they who ‘have thus judged him, have either not deeply studied, or have strangely misunderstood, his sublimer passages. It is doubtful whether there is to be found, in the whole range of Greek letters, deeper pathos than that of the divine woe of the beneﬁcent demigod, Prometheus, cruciﬁed on his Scythian crags, for his love to mortals--strange heathen antitype of the meek Christian Saviour—than -that of the choruses in the Agamemnon, de- scriptive of the disconsolate sorrow of Menc- laus deserted by his faithless Helen; and of the sacriﬁce, at the father’s bidding, of the devoted Iphigenia. Less polished, he is grander than Sophocles ; and with the effeminate, sophistical, and irreligious Euripides, he can no more be compared, than a son of Anak in his panoply of brass with a _pet-it mcttre of Louis XV. of France. The tragedies of Eschylus have been rendered into English verse by several well- known writers; the principal translations being that of all his dranias by Dean Potter, which is probably the best known, although very loose and unliteral, often incorrect, and of no high poetic merit-a. highly poetical version of the Prometheus, for it is so free that it can hardly be called a translation, by Mrs. Elizabeth Bar- rett Browning, possessing great merit of lan- guage and spirit, but deﬁcient, as might be expected of a lady’s Greek, in correct scholar- ship-—-a literal translation of the Prometheus and Agamemnon, by Mr. H. W. Herbert, and a singularly ﬁne, almost word-for-word rendering of that most difﬁcult drama, the Eumenides, by an anonymous writer, in “ Blackwood’s Magazine.” The popularity of Zdschylus has doubtless been affected by the difficulty of his style, and by its being so thoroughly idiomatic that it is barely possible to convey his beauties at all adequately in a foreign language; which drawbacks have conﬁned his admirers to a few thorough Gre- cians, and will probably always prevent his be- coming a general favorite; although, by those best capable of judging, he will ever be held one of the highest among those who have trodden the steepest and most diﬂicult paths of the Par- .ZESOP 157 nassian hill.-The most esteemed editions of Eschylus are by Schiitz, Hal. Sax. 1808-21; Dindorf, Lips. 1827. and Oxon. 1832; and Scholeﬁeld, Camb. 1830. Blomﬁeld’s edition is excellent as far as it is completed, but it contains only 5 of the 7 tragedies that are still extant. ESCULAPIUS (Ao'x7\171rws~), the god of medicine and the patron of the medical profes- sion. There are many conﬂicting mythological accounts of his descent. In the Homeric poems, he is only spoken of as the “blameless physi- cian,” whose sons were serving in the medical staff of the Greek army before the walls of Troy. The most common story makes him the son of Apollo. He went about healing diseases and rais- ing the dead to life. Pluto, god of Hades, took alarm at the latter exploit, and complained to Zeus that Esculapius was invading his bailiwick. He acknowledged the justice of the complaint, and struck ﬂlsculapius dead with a ﬂash of light- ning. The most renowned seat of .ZEsculapius’ worship in Greece was Epidaurus, an Argolic city. He had a splendid temple there, with a statue half as large as that of Zeus Olympius at Athens. The cock was commonly sacriﬁced to him, but the serpent was his favorite type. At Epidaurus a peculiar breed of holy serpents were kept about the temple, and into them the god was supposed to insinuate himself. When a city was aﬂiicted with a pestilence, it used to send to Epidaurus for one of these illlsculapian snakes, out of the sale of which the Epidaurian priests reaped large proﬁts. The presence of the god in the pest-stricken city in the form of a yellowish-brown snake, was held to be propi- tious, and likely to allay the rage of the pest. About’400 B. C. the Romans, under the presence of calamity, sent a solemn embassy to request the presence of one of these representatives of Esculapius. On a later occasion of the same nature (B. C. 293) the worship of .ZEsculapius was introduced into Rome. There were also famous temples erected in his honor at Cos, Cnidos, and Rhodes. In all these temples were tablets erected in commemoration of wonderful cures, on which were recorded the name and genealogy of the patient, his disease, and the mode of recovery. Pillars, commemorative of muniﬁcent benefactions bestowed by rich men who had been cured, were also to be seen there. The priests of these temples formed the yevos or race of Asclepiadae, or children of Hdlsculapius. They were the only regular practitioners of an- tiquity. Formerly the priesthood of ZEsculapius was hereditary, but in later times the priests took pupils and initiated them into the myste- ries of medicine, and these latter were regarded as regularly trained physicians. ZESOP. I. The fabulist, born about the year 620 B. C; was convicted of the crime of sacrilege while ambassador of Croesus at Delphi, and thrown from a precipice, about 564 B. C. His birthplace is not certainly known. While young he was brought to Athens and sold as a slave, but ﬁnally received his freedom from his master 158 Yadmon. So high was his reputation as a writer that Croesus, king of Lydia, invited him to re- side at his court. He visited Athens during the reign of Pisistratus, where he wrote the fable of Jupiter and the frogs. His works have per- ished. The current stories concerning him are taken from a life written by Maximus Planudes, a monk of the 14th century, and preﬁxed to a volume of fables ascribed to his pen. In this work, he is described as hideously ugly and misshapen, which statement is doubtless en- tirely false, as no personal defects of the kind are mentioned by any classical author. It is rendered still more improbable by the circum- stance that his statue was executed for the city of Athens by the famous sculptor, Lysippus. II. Cnonrus, a famous tragic actor at Rome, about A. U. C. 670. He was the contemporary of Roscius, and with him the instructor of Ci- cero in oratory. He was accustomed to iden- tify himself so completely with his part, that once while enacting the character of Atreus, and plotting how to avenge himself on Thyestes, he struck dead with his truncheon one of the stage attendants. He lived in the most luxu- rious manner, and once served up a dish of sing- ing birds that cost $4,000, at abanquet. AESTHETICS, the science of the beautiful in nature and art. This term has been intro- duced into the nomenclature of philosophy during the present century, and strictly signi- ﬁes “ that which relates to sensible impressions,” from aLo"5r11'u. 8 § '; .; 5 .*:= '5 '5 -c 5 In "5 m U2 .8 O 0 H --4 U '6 '1.‘ E .2 .5 Q E,‘ _.: 3. E; .53 8 ii :2 <3 5. :1 5‘ 8 Q In the Principality of Anhalt, 1 1 2 In the Grand Duchy of Hesse, . . 2 .. .. .. 2 In the Grand Duchyof Weimar . . . . . . . . 1 1 In the Duchy of Nassau, 1 . . . . .. .. 1 In the Electorate of Hesse, . 1 .. 1 In the G-ra11d Duchy of Baden, , , 1 , _ 1 In the DuchyofSaxe Meiningcn " .. 1 ,_ . . 1 In Russia, . . . . 2 10 51 4 1 08 Total, . . . . 22 54 214 48 14 The ﬁrst institution of the kind to be noticed in the United States is that being erected at Ovid, Seneca county, by the government of New York, aided by private effort. As early as the year 1887, the public mind was aroused to the importance of giving more attention to the subject of agricultural education, and a com- mittee was constituted consisting of Judge Buel, J oab Centre, Dr. Beekman, and Anthony Van Bergen,whose duty it was to collect subscrip- tions, select a site, and propose aplan of opera- tions. The committee met with such success in obtaining subscriptions, that they actually selected a place at the mouth of Kinder- hook creek, on the banks of the Hudson. But after all, the matter was suffered to drop. Still the gentlemen of the committee did not abandon the agitation, and in 1844: Dr. Beekman, being then president of the N. Y. state agricultural society, chose for the topic of his oﬁicial ad- dress, the importance of agricultural education. Hereupon John Delaﬁeld, esq., drew up a plan of organization which was adopted, and achar- ter was obtained from the state legislature. Mr. Delaﬁeld proposed to render the education not only thorough in theory but in practice, and to place it at a rate within the ability of the farmer in quite moderate circumstances. The course was intended to include the fundamental laws which underlie the science and art of hus- bandry, as well as the adjunct sciences. The pupils were to be regularly employed in the ﬁeld for a portion of the time, and be remu- nerated for their labor. This benevolent design was, however, frustrated by Mr. Delaﬁeld’s death in 1858. B. P. Johnson, esq., and the members of the executive department of the society, next urged the plan upon the notice of the public, and made application to the legisla- ture for aid. In 1856 asum of $40,000 was appropriated by the legislature, with the pro- viso that a like sum should be raised by pri- vate subscription. This was speedily accom- plished, and the commissioners accepting an oifer from citizens near the town of Ovid, a tract of some 400 acres was purchased. The tract is in full view of Seneca lake, and so far as the advantage of scenery and soil are con- cerned, the selection is excellent. The build- ings are intended for the accommodation of a 223 large number of pupils, and it is the purpose of the trustees to follow the best European models in respect to internal arrangements and course of instruction. The services of Dr. Asa Fitch, the eminent entomologist, have been secured as professor in his department.——The agricul- tural college of the state of Michigan has been established in obedience to a provision of the revised constitution of the state, adopted Aug. 15, 1850. To carry out this provision an act was passed at the session of 1855, providing for the purchase of land and the endowment and management of the institution. The course of instruction is to embrace all the branches necessary for a complete agricultu- ral education; and 011 Feb. 16, 1857, an amended act was passed appropriating $55,000, or the proceeds of the sale of 22 sections of the salt spring lands, originally given to the state of Michigan by the general government. The sum of $40,000 for the ensuing 2 years was likewise appropriated to the object of the in- stitution. A tract of some 676 acres was pur- chased by the trustees at 3,‘, miles E. from Lan- sing, the state capital. A building capable of accommodating 80 pupils was erected there, and on May 13, 1857, in the presence of the governor, the state dignitaries, and an immense concourse of citizens, it was formally dedicated. It opened with 61 pupils. The faculty consists of Joseph R. Williams, president and director of the farm; Calvin Tracy, mathematics; L. R. Fisk, chemistry; H. Goodby, physiology and entomology; D. P. Mayhew, natural science; Robert D. Weeks, English literature and farm economy; John C. Holmes, horticulture. The young state of Michigan has thus the honor of putting into actual operation the ﬁrst‘ state agricultural college in America, which derives its entire support from government.—There is at Cleveland, Ohio, an agricultural college, which, although it has in its faculty names of gentle- men highly distinguished in their profession, and is in a state noted for its magniﬁcent growth and present opulence, ﬁnds but limited support. The original projectors of the Ohio agricultural college were Prof. James Dascomb, Prof. James H. Fairchild, and the Hon. Norton S. Towns- hend. To their number have since been added Prof. Samuel St. John, and Prof. Brainard. The ﬁrst winter’s session consisted of a course of lectures delivered at Oberlin, O. ; but it was thought advisable to remove to Cleveland, where spacious and appropriate rooms had been offered them, and since that time the school has been continued there. Four daily lectures are given, commencing on the ﬁrst Monday of De- cember, and continuing for 12 consecutive weeks. The branches taught embrace whatever pertains to animals, vegetables, land, or labor. The charge for the entire course of instruction is $40, exclusive of board.—-For some 10 years past an annual course of 30 lectures on the chemistry and general principles of agriculture has been given at Yale college? It was established by the late Prof. John P. Norton, and subsequently con- 22-1 AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS tinned by Professors J . A. Porter, and Samuel W. Johnson. Professor Norton at one time attempt- ed to give a special course of agricultural la- boratory practice, but this not meeting with suﬁicient support has been discontinued. Prof. S. W. Johnson has passed some time in Europe in the laboratories of Liebig, Miiller, and others, and has already done good service in the ad- vancement of the science of agricultural chem- istry in this country. There are likewise pro- fessorships of agriculture in colleges in Georgia and Virginia. At West Cornwall, Conn., Dr. T. S. Gould has had in operation since 1845, a school for boys in which agricultural instruc- tion is introduced. The institution is entitled the “ Cream Hill Agricultural School,” and it is said to prove the possibility and proﬁt of min- gling agricultural studies with those of the usual education. Each pupil cultivates a portion of land, and small prizes are awarded for the best success attained in their separate plots. They are also encouraged to join in the general operations of the farm, care of stock, &c. The only pri- vate school exclusively devoted to agricultural education, is the Westchester farm school, com- menced at Mount Vernon, N. Y., in the spring of 1856, by Henry S. Clcott, and Henry C. Vail. These gentlemen purchased a farm with the view to the cultivation of the soil, and the gradual establishment of an agricultural school. Their course of instruction is designed to tend as much as possible to good practical results, and the theories of plant and animal growth and farm management, are illustrated in the daily labor on the farm. The instruction is given through daily recitations and occasional lectures. There is also established at College Hill, near Cincinnati, 0., an institution termed the farmer’s college, at which a practical course of agricultural study is pursued in connection with the branches of an ordinary English and classical education. This college is a successor to Cary-’s academy, and the large model farm attached to it is under the charge of Free- man Cary. The students have constant prac- tice on the farm. The institution is supported by a fund of $100,000 raised by the sale of scholarships. The Rev. A. Matoon is the pres- ident. The state of Ohio is about to make an effort to introduce a modiﬁcation of the system pursued at the agricultural colony at Mettray, France, which has for its chief object the refor- mation of vagrant boys. A tract of 1,170 acres has been purchased near Lancaster, Fairﬁeld county, 0., and the commissioners, Messrs. C. Reemelin, John A. Foot, and James D. Ladd, are making the necessary preliminary arrange- ments. There is also an experimental farm be- longing to the state of Massachusetts, at West- borough, which was purchased with a view to be- ing worked by the vagrant boys in the adjoining state reform school, and thus giving them a knowledge of agriculture. The agricultural portion of the project hasureeently been placed under the control of the state board of agricul- ture. An estate valued at $350,000 was be- AGRICULTURE queathed to Harvard college in 1842, by Mr. Benjamin Bussey, of Roxbury, Mass. (the leg- acy to take effect after the decease of certain relatives), one half of which, including his mansion and farm, was to be appropriated to the establishment of an agricultural school under the direction of the college.——The farm- ers’ high school of Pennsylvania, was founded by the agricultural society of that state. By its annual exhibitions up to the fall of 1854, the society had accumulated a fund of $10,000, which suggested to its intelligent and inde- fatigable president, Judge Frederick Watts, of Carlisle, the idea of establishing an agricul- tural school. The legislature passed an act to incorporate the farniers’ high school, and a board of trustees consisting of 9 members, with the governor, secretary of the common- wealth, and the president of the state society as ex-ofﬁcio members, was duly organized. Gen. James Irvin proposed to give the school 200 acres of ﬁne land, worth $60 per acre, with the privilege of purchasing 200 acres at the same price, within ﬁve years; to which the people of Centre county added. a subscription of $10,000. Mr. Elliott Cresson, of Philadelphia, by his will left to the school a legacy of $5,000, and with these resources the work of preparing the land, planting hedges and orchards, and erecting buildings, was commenced. At the last session of the legislature a law was passed appropriat- ing $50,000 to the school, half of which sum being dependent upon the raising of a like sum by individual contribution. This being accom- plished, the institution will be in possession of $100,000, in addition to the farm presented by Gen. Irvin. During the year 1856, a neat house and large barn were erected, orchards and nurseries were planted, and the grounds and “ campus” laid out—all under the super- vision of Mr. Wm. G. Waring. AGRICULTURAL SYSTEM, a theory of political economy invented by Francis Quesnay, physician to Louis XV. He taught that only those who cultivate the earth, or otherwise bring into use the natural powers of the vege- table, mineral, or animal kingdom, can be re- garded as really increasing the wealth of the community. According to this theory, artisans, merchants, scholars, public oﬁicials, and profes- sional 1nen, are unproductive persons. At the same time, they are necessary to the occupation of the farmer, herdsman, miner, or hunter, and are therefore useful. All wealth being derived from the earth, its net product alone should be subject to taxation. The adherents of this sys- tem also taught the doctrine of absolute and universal free trade. They were also known as physiocrats, a word derived from the Greek (]Jvo19, nature. They exercised a predominatmg influence in the French national convention. AGRICULTURE may be deﬁned as the art of cultivating the ground, and of obtaining from it the products necessary for the support of am- mal life. A complete history of agriculture from the earliest period down to our own times, AGRICULTURE would be the history of the labors and progress of man in one of the most important depart- ments of his industry; and thus, through its whole course, would continually give us indica- tions of his progress in the arts of civilization. Our limits will allow only a brief general view of the varying states of the art at different periods, with a few casual allusions to the sub- jects connected with it. We may conceive of a time when men subsisted on the spontaneous productions of the earth and the easy gains of the chase, on fruits, vegetables, _and animals, all of which were obtained with little exertion in suﬂicient quantities to support a limited popu- lation in the temperate and beautiful regions where the human race is supposed to have ori- ginated. But all must be left to conjecture and vague surmise previous to the ﬁrst record in which Gain appears as a “tiller of the ground,” and Abel, as a feeder or “keeper of sheep,” of- fering the “ﬁrstlings of his ﬂock.” Here we ﬁnd the two grand divisions of agriculture—— the tilling of the soil, requiring the active labor of head and hand, and the raising of animals, or the more passive watchfulness of shepherd life —and it is reasonable to suppose that these divisions continued as the human family in- creased. The change from a state of nature, in which the ﬁrst of the race must have lived, to the pastoral, or to any higher mode of living, must have been gradual, the work perhaps of ages. Experience and observation, on which improvements in the modes of life usually de- pend, are gained only by slow degrees. Re- liance on the spontaneous fruits of the earth was found to furnish only a precarious subsistence. The race was doomed to toil, and necessity soon sharpened the power of invention. In the course of time, during which the race mul- tiplied and wandered about from place to place, the countries watered by the Euphrates, the Tigris, and the Nile, were found to be most pro- ductive, and the dwellers in their fertile valleys naturally became engaged in tilling the soil; and we read that “Noah became a husbandman and planted a vineyard ;” while the dwellers in the hilly countries of Syria and the lands east of the Mediterranean, which were better adapted to grazing, very naturally became the owners of ﬂocks and cattle. It is well known that the chief riches of the early Jewish patri- archs consisted of cattle and fruits. Thus we read that Abraham was “very rich in cattle,” while Lot had “ﬂocks and herds and tents,” and their united stock increased to such a num- ber, that the country could not support them, and they were compelled to separate, the one departing to the east and the other to the west. So Jacob gave his brother Esau no less than 580 head of cattle. Still later, we ﬁnd that Moses was a shepherd; Shamgar, at the time of his appointment as a judge in Israel, was taken from the herd; Gideon was found threshing, and Saul, though a king, when the news of the dan- ger of one of his towns reached him, was driving a herd of cattle from the ﬁeld. David was fond voL. 1.-—15 225 of feeding his ewes, and Uzziah “ loved husband- ry,” and had “much cattle.” Elisha, when sought by Elijah to receive the mantle of a prophet, was found ploughing with twelve yoke of oxen. We know that Ohaldea and Egypt, from the remotest recorded times, were noted as the lands of corn. The exceeding fertility of the valley of the Nile, a strip of country from 4 to 5 miles in width, gradually sloping down to the river, and extending from 400 to 500 miles, is well known. It was overﬂowed during 3 months in the year, from about the 1st of August to about the 1st of November—and the Subsidiug waters left the richest possible top-dressing of slime and mud. Then the cultivator had only to cast in the seed, turn on a herd of swine to tread it in, and await the abundant harvest. Such a country, bounded on either side by the desert and the mountains, was not suitable for grazing, as was the region lying east of the sea, or the land of Canaan, a region occupied by keepers of cattle, who moved from one district to another with their ﬂocks and herds, like the wandering Arabs of the present day. Such a mode of life was in some respects agricultural, perhaps more so, at least, than the earlier state of hunting and ﬁshing, but still gave no indica- tion of any settled system of agriculture, like that which prevailed at the same time in Egypt and along the Euphrates and the Tigris. The agriculture of a people must, of course, be much inﬂuenced by the climate and natural features of the country. Its progress must also be dependent in a great degree on the larger or smaller population of the country. The wants of a scattered and limited population are com- paratively few and easily supplied, there is no stimulus to exertion or improvement, and hence, can be no settled system of agriculture. Man- kind, in a partially civilized state, will not work for the love of it, nor will there be need of real labor as long as the few fertile spots furnish an abundant and easy supply for all their wants. It is only when population increases that real im- provements commence, and civilization really begins to advance, and then progress is gradual and generally slow. In the beginning, the real nature and value of the products of the earth must have been learned by the evidence of the senses. The nutritious qualities of the cereal grains, as wheat, barley, etc., must have been ﬁrst discovered before there could have been any motive for their cultivation, and probably they were cultivated for ages before the idea occurred of increasing the natural fertility of the soil by manures. The processes employed must have been extremely simple at ﬁrst, being conﬁned without doubt to simply preparing the ground to receive the seed, without any attempt to stimulate its natural productiveness. So far at we have any certain knowledge on the subject, Egypt, (lhaldea, and China, were among the ﬁrst nations which extended the limits of agri- cultural practice in ancient times. This_ 1s shown by their records, which go back vflllh some degree of certainty to remote antiquity. 226 In these countries, it is probable that animal power was ﬁrst applied to agriculture; and among the hieroglyphics on the ancient tombs of Egypt, is found the representation of an im- plement resembling a pick, which was used as a plough. From Egypt a knowledge of agricul- ture extended to Greece, and we ﬁnd it in a tolerably ﬂourishing state 1,000 years before Christ, if we may believe the testimony of the “Works and Days” of Hesiod. Here we have a detailed description of a plough consisting of a beam, a share, and handles, though the whole structure is extremely rude, when compared with our modern ploughs. And we may infer that the early settlers of Sparta possessed no in- considerable knowledge of draining, since the site of the city was surrounded by swamps and marshes, and must have been well drained before it could be made even habitable. In Greece the art of farming gradually advanced, until, in the days of her glory, it may be said to have at- tained, in some provinces, a high degree of per- fection. We know the Greeks had ﬁne breeds of cattle, horses, sheep, and swine ; that many of the implements of husbandry‘ in use among them were not very unlike in principle, those of modern construction; that extensive importa- tions were made from foreign countries of sheep, swine, and poultry, for the purpose of im- proving the stock of Greece. The use and value of manures were known also; a knowledge which was probably derived from Egypt, or from the ancient Jews, who were well acquainted with their eﬁ'ects, though Pliny says that the use of manures was introduced by an ancient Gre- cian king, Augeas. So the Greek farmers com- posted with skill, and saved the materials for the compost with care, and we know that the im- portance of a thorough tillage was well under- stood by them; that they ploughed three times with mules and oxen, and sometimes subsoiled, and often mixed different soils as sand and clay; that they raised many of our own favorite fruits, as the apple, pear, cherry, plum, quince, peach, nectarine, and other varieties, together with ﬁgs, lemons, and many other fruits suited to the climate; we know, too, that they had a taste for rural architecture, and displayed a knowledge of its principles in their country houses. Moreover, they had the advantage of no small amount of agricultural literature, the names of several agricultural writers having come down to us, though the works of only a few of them have survived to our day, and of these, the treatise of Xenophon is the most val- uable. But in comparison with many other countries, Greece was not well ﬁtted for agri- culture, and the husbandman often had to struggle against a hard and intractable soil, or to reclaim and till swamps and morasses; these swampy grounds, when improved, however, frequently became the richest of his ﬁelds. Agriculture was not a source of pride with the Greeks as it afterwards became with the R0- mans. One cause of this was the fact that the land was tilled mainly by a subdued and menial AGRICULTURE race, the dominant race, the Greeks of history, being the masters, and cultivating other arts in which they took a deeper interest, but looking down with contempt, almost, on the tillers of the soil. The Greeks proper, the Greeks of history, cared more for building up and ad- vancing their cities than for cultivating the soil. On the contrary, a high appreciation of agriculture seems to have been a fundamental idea among the early Romans. A tract of land was allotted to every citizen by the state itself, and each one was carefully restricted to the quantity granted. It was said by the orator Curius, that “He was not to be counted a good citizen, but rather a dangerous man to the state, who could not content himself with 7 acres of land.” The Roman acre being about one-sixth less than ours, the law actually limit- ed the possession to about 6 acres. This, however, was only in the early days of Rome, and afterward, as the nation became more powerful, and extended its limits by conquest, the citizen was allowed to hold 50 acres, and still later, he could be the holder of 500. The limitation of the freehold in the earlier history of the nation, in connection with the old Roman love of agriculture, led to a careful and exact mode of culture, probably with the spade, and hence, large and abundant crops were ob- tained. Pliny, however, ascribed the produc- tiveness of the soil to the fact, that “ the earth took delight in being tilled by the hands of men crowned with laurels, and decorated with triumphal honors.” It is a very familiar re- mark, that no greater praise could be bestowed upon an ancient Roman than to give him the name of a good husbandman. Cincinnatus is called from the plough to ﬁght the battles of his country by every agricultural writer of modern times, and Cato the censor, distinguished as an orator, a general, and a statesman, is most loudly commended for having written a book on farming; and a very widely extended inter- est in agriculture among the people of Rome is inferred as well from other circumstances, as from the fact that so august a body as the R0- man senate ordered the 28 books of Mago, the most voluminous writer on agriculture in Carthage, to be translated into Latin for the use of the Roman people. But under the ancient limitation of land to 7 acres, it would be absurd to expect to ﬁnd any thing like farming as 1mderstood in our day, even though with the careful tillage of the spade, the largest crops may have been obtained, and we need not dwell on this part of Roman history. Rome had in later times, including a century previous to the Christian era, an agricultural literature unsurpassed by that of any other country, ancient or modern, with the exception, perhaps, of Germany, France, and England of the present day. The works of her best writers, or such of them at least as have been transmit- ted to us, abound in sound and sensible maxims. A few extracts may show the ideas and theories of agriculture then prevailing. “ Our ances- AGRIO ULTURE tors,” says Oato, “ regarded it as a grand point of husbandry not to have too much land in one farm, for they considered that more proﬁt came by holding little and tilling it well.” And Vir- gil says: “The farmer may praise large estates, but let him cultivate a small one.” Varro, an- other well-known Roman writer, says: “Nat1n'e has shown two paths which lead to a knowledge of farming, experience and imitation. Farm- ers hitherto, by experiments, have established many maxims, and their posterity generally imi- tate them, but we ought not only to imitate others, but make experiments ourselves, not di- rected by chance but by reason.” Speaking of the planting of trees as a means of protecting ﬁelds from high winds and storms, Pliny says: “Men should plant while young, and not build till their ﬁelds are planted, and even then they should take time to consider, and not be in too great haste. It is best, as the proverb says, to proﬁt by the folly of others.” The Roman farmers also paid much attention to the breeding of stock, though we have no means of knowing to what point of perfection they arrived, since on the decline of agriculture animals were suffered to deteriorate, and every thing in the shape of distinct races or breeds was lost. Oolumella mentions the points of a good milch cow to be “ a tall make, long, with very large belly, very broad head, eyes black and open, horns graceful, smooth, and black, ears hairy, jaws straight, dewlap and tail very large, hoofs and legs mod- erate.” The same writer prescribes a curious treatment of working oxen, as follows: “After oxen get through ploughing, and come home heated and tired, they must have a little wine poured down their throats, and, after being fed a little, led out to drink, and if they will not drink, the boy must whistle to make them.” The Roman agriculturists whose works have come down to us are Cato, Varro, Virgil, Col- umella, Pliny, and Palladius. But notwith- standing all that has been, or may be said, there were obstacles, in the very nature and constitu- tion of Roman society, which made it impossi- ble for the agriculture of Rome to reach a very high development, even in a practical point of view. In the earlier days of the state, as we have seen, it was honored and followed as a pursuit by many who were justly distinguished in other walks of life, but then the nation was in its infancy, extremely rude, and with a small population and a limited extent of territory.* t was a time, too, when commerce was looked upon as degrading, and war and agriculture were the occupations engaging the whole atten- tion of the Roman citizen, the farmer thinking himself able both to till and to defend his little farm. In this condition of things, though ag- riculture might be' more developed than any other of the arts of peace, it could not attain a full and complete development, or even reach a very high point. As the empire grew in power * Cincinnatus was appointed dictator by the senate 459 before Christ, 300 years before Cato wrote, and over 500 years before Golumella 227 and wealth, the operations of agriculture were entrusted mainly to the hands of bondmen, who had little or no interest in the soil they tilled, and this alone was sufficient to prevent the art from reaching its most perfect condition. “In the agricultural economy of Rome,” says Hallam, referring to the later periods of her history, “the laboring husbandman, a menial slave of some wealthy senator, had not even that qualiﬁed interest in the soil which the tenure of villanage afforded to the peasant of feudal ages. Italy, therefore, a country pre- senting many natural impediments, was but imperfectly reduced into cultivation before the irruption of the barbarians.” (Mid. Ages, iii, 365.) This imperfect cultivation was, without doubt, characteristic of the agriculture of Italy to some extent during the whole history of the Roman empire, for during the ﬁrst century at least, after the foundation of the city, it could hardly be regarded otherwise than as a. little company of brigands; and during the later historical periods, the evils alluded to, arising from the constitution of society, had a powerful influence in retarding agricultural progress, though improvements were vigorously pushed in individual instances, and generally, perhaps, in the vicinity of the city. We have, however, the statements of many successful crops, which show the interest manifested by individuals in different places. Thus Pliny says, that 400 stalks of wheat all grown from one seed, were sent to the emperor Augustus; and at another time 340 from one seed were sent to the em- peror Nero from Byzantium, in Africa, accom- panied by the statement, that “the soil when dry, was so stiff that the strongest oxen could not plough it, but after a rain, I have seen it opened by a share drawn by a wretched ass on the one side, and an old woman on the other.” As time passed on, improvements were made in the plough and other agricultural implements. The Roman plough, the exact model of which is still used in Italy, the south of France, and part of Spain, consisted of a beam to which the yoke was attached, a handle or cross-piece, by which the ploughman held a share ﬁxed into a share beam, 2 mould-boards, or 1 at pleasure, a coulter, and sometimes a wheel, which could be used or not, at will. There were ploughs for heavy soils and ploughs for light ones, and, indeed, nearly every variety, so far as the prin- ciples of construction were concerned, which is known at the present day. The Romans also used spades, hoes, harrows, rakes, and some other farm implements. With all these, however, the farmer’s work advanced but slowly. The ﬁrst ploughing required 2 days for about -2- of an acre, and the second 1 day. The difference of soils, and their adaptation to particular crops, were well understood. Manures were saved with care, the excrements of birds were es- pecially valued, and judiciously applied; com- posts were made in suitable places about the house, hollows being scraped out in the form of a bowl to receive the wash from the house, 228 and properly protected from the heat of the sun; lupines and clover were sown to plough in green, and the grain stubbles were often burnt over for the sake of the ashes. With these ap- pliances they raised wheat, rye, barley, oats, ﬂax, millet, pease, beans, turnips, the grape, and the olive. But perhaps the ancients suffered more inconvenience in their agricultural opera- tions-from their failure to apply the mechanical forces.of nature as a substitute for hard labor, than from any other cause. Who can form an idea of the vast numbers who must have been employed in grinding the corn to supply the wants of a vast empire; and yet this is but one instance in which the mechanic arts languished; the gigantic forces of nature still waited the hand of amaster to bring them into subjection, and employ them for the service of man. Even the water-wheel was not known till more than 100 years after Christ, and the wind swept over the hills of Europe till the 11th century without turning a single mill, while the mighty power of steam lay hid for ages, till at the call of ge- nius it came forth to alleviate the toils of man, accomplishing the work of 1,000 hands by a single wave of its stalwart arm. Meanwhile the myriads toiled on without knowledge or hope, civilization was conﬁned to the few whom the masses were compelled to serve, the progress of practical agriculture was slow, and even at the height of the glory of the Roman empire, far from reaching a point of development commensurate with its importance. With the exception of some casual allusions by Roman writers, we have no accounts of the agricul- ture of other nations at or before the time when the Roman empire had begun to decline. But there is every reason to suppose that the art had reached a greater degree of perfection in countries east of the Mediterranean and in Egypt, than in Italy. It is certain that the in- habitants of the east were familiar with many mechanical appliances unknown to the Romans, and there is reason to suppose that their agri- cultural systems were more complete. We know that the narrow strips around the northern and western shores of the Mediterranean were not the only thickly inhabited portion of the globe; that in some countries vast empires ex- isted; that the people of China, India, Babylo- nia, Egypt, and other countries, must have been supported mainly from the products of the earth, but of their modes of producing them, of the details of their husbandry and of their domestic life, history is silent, and our attention is ﬁxed upon Greece and Rome simply because they are historical, and have left authentic rec- ords of their progress in civilization. But we should not assume that those ancient nations which are not known to us through the historian, must have been inferior in all respects. They may, even in some departments, have excelled these heroes of antiquity. We know, indeed, that Rome herself, in the later days of her greatness, was supplied, to a certain extent, with the agri- cultural products of her conquered provinces, AGRICULTURE that the military operations she was constantly engaged in, drew off for many years the best portion of her population, while the rapid growth of wealth and luxury, reﬁnement and eifeminacy at home, left the tillage of the soil more and more exclusively to the hands of menial slaves. Then set in that vast tide of conquest from the north which swept over southern Europe, pouring over Italy, France, and Spain, a race of barbarians, who gradually became absolute masters of nearly every coun- try into which they penetrated, bringing on the long night of the middle ages, when might made right, and the will of the strongest was the only law which men were bound to respect. After the desolation of the Roman empire, which extended over what is now France, Spain, and some other countries, agriculture was ex- tremely depressed, and the condition of the serf to whom the tillage of the soil was left, was in some cases even more hopeless and piti- able than that of the Roman slave who had tilled the soil before him, because he had more ignorant masters. Scarcely a gleam of sun- shine in the shape of improved culture lights up the gloom of this period, with the important exception of the introduction of an extensive system of irrigation in Spain, where the Sara- cens appeared to check the inundation from the the north. These eastern invaders from the well-watered lands of Syria, Persia, and Egypt, established in the peninsula what has been termed the southern system of agriculture, in distinction from the more peculiarly northern system of drainage, and developed the agricul- tural resources of Spain to an extent wholly unparalleled at that time in Europe, building reservoirs, canals, and aqueducts with immense labor and skill, laying the foundation of the Spanish glory, and raising the annual revenues of that part of Spain under their dominion to nearly30,000,000 of dollars—-“a sum,” as Gib- bon very aptly says, “which, in the 10th cen- tury, probably surpassed the united revenues of all the Christian monarchs.” The traces of these gigantic works remain even to this day to mock the indolence and want of enterprise by which they are now surrounded. The downfall of the Roman empire took place in the 5th century, and from that time to the 16th century, when we begin to have many authentic records of the progress of agriculture, we ﬁnd nothing, with the exception alluded to, on which the mind can rest with any degree of satisfaction. Bruges and Ghent were important manufac- turing and commercial towns as early as the . 11th century, and agriculture and manufac- tures there grew up together, even before a large part of Europe had risen from a state of barbarism, but the agriculture of Belgium and Holland was long in attaining the perfection to which it has now arrived. In Britain, the R0- mans had made many alterations for the better, during their 400 years of occupation, as they were accustomed to do in all their provinces, but the agriculture of the island was extremely ~ AGRICULTURE 229 ‘ rude even when they left it, by far the greater part being covered with forests and marshes. Then the Saxons overran the country, subsist- ing mainly by means of the chase and by keep- ing large numbers of cattle, sheep, and especial- ly swine, which readily fattened on the mast of the oak and the beech,‘ which everywhere abounded. In general, the only grains they raised were wheat, barley, and oats, and they had but small quantities of these. The results of their labor were so uncertain and insecure, on account of the total inefﬁciency of the laws, and the inability of the government to protect property and even life, that all attempts at in1- proved agriculture would have been in vain, even if individuals had been disposed to engage in them. The suffering among the people was often intense, famines frequently occurred, and so little was done to furnish suitable winter food and shelter for the stock, that a large part of their cattle perished every winter, especial- ly in the more northerly parts of the island. The proportion thus dying annually has been estimated at one-ﬁfth part of the whole num- ber in the country, while frequently the most terrible murrain swept off a far larger propor- tion. When agriculture is in a low and imper- fect condition, the labors of the year are all con- centrated upon seed-time and harvest. This was the case with the Anglo-Saxons, very few intermediate operations being practised by them. No hoed crops or edible vegetables were culti- vated, and even as late as the reign of Henry VIII. Queen Catharine was obliged to send to Flanders or Holland for. salad to supply her table. Neither Indian corn, nor potatoes, nor squashes, nor carrots, nor cabbages, nor turnips, were known in England till after the beginning of the 16th century.* The poor peasants sub- sisted chieﬂy upon bread made of barley, ground in the quern or hand-mill, and baked by them- selves. The tenant peasantry had no security whatever for their property, till after the mid- dle of the 15th century. If the, estate was sold by the landlord they were obliged to quit all, giving up even their standing crops without compensation. * The question naturallg arises, how the people of those days could have lived,w en so few of the crops now re- garded as indispensable to comfort, were even known. A feast of a gentleman of the 12th, 13th, and 14th centuries is described in the “ Treasurie of Ancient and Moderne Times,” published in 1613 : “ The mcate served into the Ta- ble, was alwaies in great chargers ﬁlled with pease and Ba- con; Gammons of Bacon; huge N eats toongs salted ; great pieces Beafe, boyled Poultry with Pottage about them; boyled Mutton, Veale, and other grosse food almost in every ordinary family ; and they gorged in these victuals so long as they could- cram any more into their bellies. Afterwards they brought in other meates, answerable to theformer, but wasted and larded, oftentimes, with unsavory lard, but it would go for Pigs and Hares. After this second service had stood '3\Vl1llG on the Table, well-neere to no effect, then came 111 more dainty mcate of Foules; as Mallards, wild Ducks, Ringdoves, young Pigeons, Partridges, Woodcocks, Quailes, Plovors, Turtle, and others of like kinde, which are carried away like the second service, almost never toucht, for they (good men) had ﬁlled their stomackes with the ﬁrst course of meates, feeding hungerly on them, and drinking sower wines such as summer man-eth, so they left the best and daintiest meates, indeede, for their varlets and base ser- vants to feede on.” They were even liable for the . debts of the landlord to an amount equal to their whole property, and it was not till after that time that they were held only for the amount of rent due from them. This picture of the misery and suffering which prevailed in Britain, will give a tolerably fair idea of the state of things in Europe generally at the same time. It is dark enough already, and perhaps no language would be sufﬁciently strong to ex- press the whole truth, with regard to the low condition of agriculture and general civilization in the earlier part of the middle ages. Rather more attention, however, was paid to the cul- ture of the soil in the religious establishments. The lands of the church under the charge of the monks, oifering a more secure and permanent tenancy, were far better tilled, generally, than those of the lay nobility. Under their direction and partly by their own hands, extensive im- provements were made in draining swamps and reclaiming extensive tracts from the sea, some of which, even at this day, still bear testimony to their skill and industry. The feudal system established on the continent at a much earlier date, was introduced into England soon after the Norman conquest in the latter part of the 11th century. Though beneﬁcial in some re- spects as tending to ensure the personal securi- ty of individuals, which the then unsettled state of Eruope constantly perilled, it operated pow- erfully against progress in agricultural improve- ment. The crusades against the Saracens of the Holy Land, undertaken at the close of the 11th century, and which continued, at inter- vals, for nearly 200 years, elevated the condi- tion of the peasant in some degree, by increas- ing the value and importance of his labor, by making the acquisition of land somewhat easier, and by withdrawing from the country many hundred ignorant and despotic nobles, some of whom returned with a proﬁtable rec- ollection of the far higher culture and fertility of the beautiful Palestine. But the agriculture of this whole period was generally in a very low state of depression, as low indeed as was possible in an age making any pretension to civilization. The remark of Marshal Noailles .to the king of France, even so late as 1745, would not inaptly apply to the tillers of the soil in all parts of Europe at that time and long previously: “The misery of the mass of the people is indescribable.” We come to a period of which we have more authentic information, as we turn our attention to the present condi- tion of agriculture and its progress within the last century. And here at ﬁrst we feel some surprise at the slow rate of advancement of an art so important in itself, and so intimately connected with the whole progress and civiliza- tion of mankind. But a little reﬂection will show us that there are reasons for this slow growth. When the population of a country is limited, and capital scanty, the portions easi- est to cultivate are alone selected for tillage, and men are compelled to content themselves with such a living as their weak social condi- ~ 230 tion enables them to attain. But as society , in this struggle with nature, gradually becomes stronger, by the improvement of implements and the accumulation of capital and scientiﬁc knowledge, the richer soils of marshy lowlands are cleared of their forests and malarias, and brought into cultivation; while in every other way the earth is rendered more productive. But this is the result of social maturity, rath- er than of social youth; and we do not, therefore, look for great improvements in a country comparatively new and thinly settled. --Again, the differences of climate do much to prevent the rapid development of agriculture. The practices of one country are not adapted to another whose climate is different, and hence the experience gained in one country is of com- paratively little value in another. Each nation must, in its turn, begin anew, as it were, and acquire by slow degrees, a knowledge of the modes of culture best adapted to its climate and position. Differences of elevation are similar in effect to diﬁerences of climate, and present the same obstacles to progress, while the in- ﬁnite varieties of soil give rise to still other difﬁculties. Heavy soils and light sandy ones must be treated very differently, and a familiar- ity with one kind will hardly aid the experi- menter in obtaining a good crop from the other. All these varieties of soil frequently exist in close proximity to each other in the same prov- ince or town, or indeed upon the same farm. Moreover, as agricultural operations require a comparatively large ﬁeld, they tend to separate those engaged in them from each other, and thus is lost the great beneﬁt which is derivable from a frequent and familiar intercourse be- tween those occupied in the same pursuit. Im- provements are not as soon suggested and known, or as likely to be carried to perfection, as they would be if this cause were not in ac- tion. And so farmers are now discussing some of the same questions which were argued with as much zeal 2,000 years ago. If, however, we take an impartial survey of what has been done within the last century, and especially within the last half century, we shall ﬁnd that there has been some real and important progress both in the science and the practice of agriculture. Science, as applicable to the arts of life, is a de- duction from an accumulation of well-authenti- cated facts, obtained by long and laborious ob- servation and experiment; and the intelligent efforts of the last half century have laid the foundation, at least, of an agricultural science, even if they have done no more.——We may ﬁx upon the 16th century asthe time when Europe awoke from its long slumber. The invention of printing, the reformation, and the discovery of the new world, had excited a wholesome men- tal activity, ﬁlled the whole of Europe with wonder and amazement, and aroused a gen- eral spirit of enterprise. At this time, too, villanage and feudal despotism were begin- ning to disappear. These various causes con- curred to create a general intellectual vigor, AGRICULTURE which in its turn stimulated inquiry in every branch of knowledge, and led to discoveries and inventions, which tended to promote the com- fort and happiness of all classes of society. From that time to the present, the slow and gradual elevation of the middle and lower classes has continued, and agriculture has grad- ually and steadily advanced. The ﬁrst work on agriculture published in England was the “Boke of Husbandrie,” in 1534, by Sir An- thony Fitzherbert, who styles himself “ a farm- er of 40 years’ standing.” This was followed by another volume by the same author, in con- tinuation of the former, in 1539. In these works Fitzherbert points out the prevailing practices of his time, condemning some and ap- proving others. “ Ahousbande cannot thryve,” says he, “ by his come without cattell, nor by his cattell without come,” and adds, “ shepe, in myne opinion, is the most proﬁtablest cattell that any man can have.” From him it appears that marl was in common use in his day, as it had been in the island even when it was invad- ed by the Romans before the Christian era. Thomas Tusser’s “Five Hundred Points of Good Husbandry,” in a sort of doggerel verse, followed a quarter of a century later, and went through many editions. The editor of one pub- lished in 1812, says that he found ditﬁculty in procuring a complete copy, “ a proof that what was intended for practical use had been sedu- lously applied to that purpose. The copies were passed from father to son, till they crumbled away in the bare shifting of the pages, and the mouldering relic only lost its value by the casual mutilation of time.” Tus- ser mentions carrots, cabbages, and turnips, as having ﬁrst been introduced as kitchen vegeta- bles. Then appeared “The Whole Art of Hus- bandry,” by Barnaby Googe, “ The Jewel House of Art and Nature,” by Sir Hugh Platte, from whom we ﬁrst hear of the introduction of white clover into cultivation in England; and in 1652, appeared the “Improver Improved” of'“Walter Blithe, a work full of judicious max- ims and sound advice, giving us an insight in- to the prevailing practices of that time. Sir Richard Weston wrote about the same time, on the husbandry of Brabant and Flanders, an.d Hartlibb made important contributions to the agricultural literature of the 17th century. But the experiments and writings of Jethro Tull, in the early part of the 18th century, are among the ﬁrst important attempts at real progress in the agriculture of modern times. Tull was undoubtedly a man of genius. Writers before his time had conﬁned themselves mainly to plain statements of the practical details of farming, recommending such new practices as appeared to them worthy of adop- tion, and condemning the errors of their contemporaries. Tull did far more. He struck out new paths of practice, invented new modes of culture, and his investigations into the principles of fertility, fairly entitle him to the credit of being a “ great original discoverer,” AGRIO ULTURE though the errors into which he fell in his zealous enthusiasm, very naturally brought more or less discredit upon his whole theory, which it has been the work of time to dissipate. But we can excuse his failures and the errors of his system, when we consider that he, like all his predecessors, was groping in the dark, before chemistry and geology had made known the elements of the soil and of plants, and shown how the latter derive their support and nourish- ment. Tull invented and introduced the horse hoe, which has now become an exceedingly im- portant and labor-saving implement, and the drill-husbandry. The latter had, indeed, been known previously, in Spain, and, according to some, in Germany also, but it was not known to any extent in England; and to Tull, more than to any other, belongs the credit of having introduced it into modern English agriculture. He also invented the threshing machine, though the ﬂail was almost universally used in England till the close of the last century. His doctrine, that plants derived their nourishment from mi- nute particles of soil, and that repeated and thorough pulverization was therefore necessary, not only as a preliminary preparation, but dur- ing the growth of the plant, led directly to the practice of drilling grain crops, and the awk- wardness and prejudice of his workmen led to the introduction of the drilling machine, and the horse hoe, as a substitute for hand labor. So far Tull was right in practice, however incor- rect the reasons of his theory may have been. The best practical farmers of the present day believe in, and practise, frequent, deep, and thorough pulverization of the soil, not because the plant is supposed to live on minute par- ticles of earth, but to admit the air, and moisture, freely to the roots. Tull’s theory of the nutrition of plants has not been without its followers, however, Duhamel himself having adopted, and labored to spread it. Tull be- lieved, to some extent, in the use of manures, but chieﬂy as dividers of the soil, as a means of improving its physical texture, and not because he supposed them to furnish any nutriment to the plants themselves. His ignorance of the constituents of manures, as brought to light in modern days by chemistry, led him into this error. Had this science made such progress as to be able to teach the true nature of plants, and manures in his time, he would have been the last to adopt the mistaken views referred to. Tull’s system of husbandry found very few fol- lowers at ﬁrst, and those who adopted it were, in many cases, obliged to return to the old methods, for want of the necessary mechanical instruments for following his directions ; but it has been more recently revived, mechanical skill making it practicable and comparatively easy of application, while thorough drainage, trenching, and subsoil ploughing, have gained the assent of most intelligent farmers. Even his drilling system, for wheat and other grain crops, has been extensively adopted in Great Britain, and is fast gaining favor. After Tull, we ﬁnd 231 but very little progress in agricultural literature ' till toward the close of the last century. The chief gain in the art, in the intermediate time, was occasioned by an active competition in cat- tle breeding, by Bakewell, and others in England, which led to the most important practical re- sults. Arthur Young, to whom, perhaps, the world is more indebted for the spread of agri- cultural knowledge than to any other man, was born in 1741, and died in 1820. His journeys to obtain information on agricultural subjects, and his writings, had a powerful inﬂuence in creating a love for agricultural pursuits among the learned. He left numerous works, all of which are valuable as having contributed to agri- cultural progress. Arthur Young was one of the pioneers in improvement. His searching in- quiries and experiments on different soils, to as- certain the real causes of fertility, in the course of which he applied a great variety of substances, with a view of determining their effects, laid the foundation, at least, for more exact researches into the principles of fertility afterward. These experiments were conducted with special ardor from 1783 to 1786. He ﬁrst established the fact that common salt was a valuable manure, though it had been frequently recommended before his day. Previous to his time ammonia was thought to be injurious to vegetation, and natural phi- losophers had asserted that the food of plants was contained in acids. Young tried it in very many cases, and says : “ the volatile alkali con- tinues in this, as in every trial, to triumph.” And again: “ the volatile alkali has never failed being of great service,” and “ in every repeti- tion we can make,” he says again, “ upon vol- atile alkali, its superiority to all other additions is more and more conﬁrmed.” He tried various experiments also to learn the effect of the sun’s rays on the soil, and came to the conclusion “ that covering the soil is beneﬁcial to it.” Hence we may infer the error of the ancient practice of summer fallowing, which left the ground wholly unoccupied with crops every second or third year, a practice which continued in England down to a comparatively recent pe- riod, and even now prevails in many parts of Europe. He also found that nitrogeneous ma- nures increased the power of plants to avail themselves of mineral manures, thus showing the advantage of a proper use of both classes, a conclusion whose truth has been still more re- cently established by Lawes and others. He also tried the effect of different gases on vegetation, and perceived the value of a knowledge of chemistry to practical agriculture. In 1786, he says: “ To imagine that we are ever to see agri- culture rest on a scientiﬁc basis, regulated by just, and accurately drawn principles, without the chemical qualities of soils and manures being well understood, is a childish and igno- rant supposition.” Such were some of the ef- forts of Arthur Young ; they may be found em- bodied in the “ Annals of Agriculture,” and other useful treatises. But one of the ﬁrst sys- tematic works on the subject, which can be 232 said to have really advanced the art of agricul- ture, was the “ Practical Agriculture, or com- plete System of Improved Agriculture,” by R. W. Dickson, which Thaer, who had it trans- lated and published in Berlin, in 1807, calls the ﬁrst truly scientiﬁc work of the English, not even excepting Young’s writings. Dickson’s chief merit, however, is his excellent collection of the many valuable experiments and state- ments of distinguished members of the board of agriculture, and other farmers. In the pe- riod embracing the close of the last century, and the beginning of the present, we ﬁnd many important additions to the literature of agricul- ' ture. Such are the works of Marshall, the ad- mirable works of Young already alluded to; Elkington’s “Mode of Draining Land,” de- scribed by J ohnstone; “ Davison’s Phytolo- gy,” “Modern Agriculture,” and “Synopsis of Husbandry,” by Donaldson; the “ Gen- tleman Farmer,” by Lord Kames; “Ander- s0n’s Essays ;” the “ Communications to the Board of Agriculture,” and numerous agricul- tural reports. “ The Experienced Farmer,” and many others might be mentioned, all of which contributed, more or less, to awaken the spirit of inquiry and improvement, which have eminently characterized English agriculture for the last 50 years, and made it a model for the rest of the world. Nor has the agriculture of Scotland felt the inﬂuence of the spirit of pro- gress in a less degree. In 17 68 Lord Kames, in the “ Gentleman Farmer,” very forcibly de- scribed its miserable condition at that time. He says: “ Our draught horses are miserable crea- tures, without strength or mettle; our oxen scarcely able to support their own weight, and 2 going in a plough, led on by 2 horses; the ridges in the ﬁelds high and broad, in fact, enormous masses of accumulated earth, that could not admit of cross ploughing or cultiva- tion ; shallow ploughing universal ; ribbing, by which half the land was left untilled, a general practice over the greater part of Scotland; a continual struggle between corn and weeds for superiority ; the roller ahnost unknown ; no har- rowing before sowing, and the seed sown into rough, uneven ground, where the half of it was buried; no branch of husbandry less understood than manure; potatoes generally planted in lazy beds; swine but little attended to, and very few farms in Scotland proportioned to the skill and ability of the tenant!” “What a contrast,” exclaims Sir John Sinclair, 40 years after, ~“ to the present state of Scotch husbandry; and it is singular that, with hardly an exception, these imperfections have been re- moved. Had it not come from so high an au- thority, it is hardly possibly to credit, that within the memory of so many persons now living, our agriculture could have been so mis- erably deﬁcient, as it seems to have been at that time.” But in the course of these 40 years the Scotch farmers had acquired a habit of read- ing, and agricultural books were extensively distributed among them. Beside this, many AGRICULTURE of them visited other countries for the purpose of obtaining information, and observed the im- proved practices prevailing there to return and introduce them at home. Sir John Sinclair was born in 1754, and died at Edinburgh in 1835. His writings were numerous, and impor- tant. Hartlibb, a century and ahalf before, and more recently Lord Kames in the “ Gentleman Farmer,” had pointed out the utility of a board of agriculture, but it was left to the zeal and untiring effort of Sir John Sinclair, to call into life that valuable auxiliary to agricultural pro- gress, and the board was created in 1793. To its establishment, more than to any other move- ment of that day, England is indebted for the present high and prosperous state of her agriculture. It brought men together from all parts of the kingdom, made them acquainted with each other’s views, and with the modes of culture prevailing in sections of which they had previously been ignorant. Take away from our present knowledge of agriculture, or indeed of any other practical art of life, all that has been learned from the mere mental stimulus of associated effort and the attrition of mind upon mind, and there would be a comparative- ly small amount left. It was through the en- couragement of the board of agriculture chieﬂy that Sir Humphrey Davy was led to investigate the elements of the soil, and to apply the science of chemistry to the improvement of agriculture, and here begins, properly, the real progress of the art; for without a knowledge of the simple substances of nature, agriculture could not be expected to attain the rank of a science. Previous to this time it had been merely empirical, and handed down from gen- eration to generation, with only here and there an instance of bold departure from the old-es- tablished routine, as in the case of Tull, and . little real progress had been made. The lectures of Davy before the board of agriculture from 1802 to 1812, therefore, mark an important epoch in the history of modern agriculture. At that time it ﬁrst began to assume the shape of a science, and ceased to be merely a collection of facts, imperfectly understood and erroneously classiﬁed. The substance of these lectures was embodied in his “Elements of Agriculture,” published in 1813, and translated into German in 1814, and into French in 1829. This work oifered the very kind of information which Arthur Young declared to be the great want of his day. It opened to the reﬂecting farmer new and interesting views of the principles of fertility and vegetation. It embodied the re- sults of the labors of Darwin, Knight, De Gan- dolle, and other distinguished vegetable physi- ologists, explaining the functions of the roots and leaves, and the construction of plants, teaching that all vegetable substances consisted of charcoal and gas, that all vegetable tissues were made up principally of various combina- tions of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen or azote, only a small part of the plant being formed from the materials of the soil itself. AGRICULTURE Davy showed also how plants, soils, and ma- nures could be analyzed, and manures selected which would furnish the elements needed by the different varieties of plants. He found, as Tull had previously asserted, that plants absorb nourishment only in the form of gas or solution in water, and hence inferred that that manure was the best, other things being equal, which slowly and gradually furnished the greatest amount of soluble matter adapted to ‘ the wants of the plant through the various stages of growth. Davy continued his experiments with great diligence. We ﬁnd him, in 1807, trying to as- certain the effects of various salts on barley, grass, &c., in light, sandy soils, applying twice a week diluted solutions of sulphate, acetate, bi-carbonate, and muriate of potash, sulphate of soda, and nitrate, muriate, sulphate, and carbon- ate of ammonia; ﬁnding, as Young had found, that plants furnished with carbonate of ammo- nia grew most luxuriantly, a result which had been anticipated from the composition of car- bonate of ammonia. Davy experimented on specimens of guano sent to the board of agricul- ture in 1805, the existence of it in large quanti- ties on the South Sea Islands having been pointed out by Baron Humboldt. In 1806, elaborate analyses of guano were published by Fourcroy and Vauquelin. Davy, writing at this time, says: “ The dung of sea-birds has never been used in this country.” What changes a half century has produced in this respect! Davy recommended the use of bones as a manure, not so much because they con- tained phosphate of lime, as because they were ﬁlled with decomposable animal matter, as gela- tine, cartilage, fat, &c. The enormous sums now paid for this very phosphate of lime, ren- dered easily and speedily soluble by the applica- tion of sulphuric acid, show clearly enough what great progress chemistry itself, in its ap- plication to agriculture, has made since his day. But though the results obtained by Davy were imperfect, and in some cases erroneous, they yet made important advances in an almost un- trodden path of investigation, and his discover- ies form a suitable introduction to our survey of the present condition of agriculture both in England and in this country. The facts estab- lished by his researches as to the effect of ammonia on vegetation, may be regarded as the starting point of modern scientiﬁc investigations into the properties of this substance when used as a manure; for, though Young ﬁrst led the way in observing its practical effect on plants, his conclusions, from his want of chemical skill, had not the scientiﬁc certainty which characterized Davy’s, and which was necessary to give them their highest value. It may indeed be said that he was the means of drawing the attention of chemists to this particular branch of their science; for through the inﬂuence of the repu- tation he gained, the thoughts of other scientiﬁc men, and especially the chemists on the conti-_ nent, were turned in this direction. In general, the literature of agriculture had advanced more 233 rapidly on the continent than in England. In Germany, especially, many writers had treated of the subject more particularly in works on political economy. In the latter half of the last century, particularly, many treatises of practi- cal value appeared, such as those of Kretchmar, Reichart, Stisser, and Sprenger. At the same period the distinguished Duhamel wrote in France, and adopted, and labored to spread the views of Tull in regard to the nourishment of plants. In his treatise on the cultivation of the soil, he endeavors to determine the principles of agriculture by theories deduced from experi- ments, which subsequently received a more scientiﬁc form in the “Elements of Agricul- ture,” published in Paris in 1771. Duhamel, Buffon, and others, by their superior genius, made the study of rural economy attractive to scientiﬁc men in France, and hence there has been more original research in the department of agricultural chemistry, vegetable physiology, and other kindred branches, than in any other country except Germany. As early as 1730 there were no less than 13 agricultural socie- ties in France, with about 19 auxiliary societies. The survey of France by Arthur Young, in 1787, and ’89, also did much to excite an interest in the improvement of the soil, and to make the peculiarities and wants of the country more familiarly known even to Frenchmen them- selves. Merino sheep were brought into France in 17 7 6, and kept under charge of the govern- ment for the improvement of the stock of the country. Bonaparte, 'in his liberal policy toward agriculture, greatly increased the num- ber of societies, established professorships, bo- tanical gardens, &c., all of which concurred to elevate the study of agriculture in the estimation of those capable of bringing to its aid the prin- ciples of the abstract sciences; and this tendency has inﬂuenced the scientiﬁc minds of France to the present day, though, strange to say, the practice of the country has not kept pace with the development of theory, and i11 many of the departments the methods adopted and the im- plements used are still extremely rude. This is owing partly to the division of property, the holdings, as a general thing, being very small.-— The agriculture of the United States, previous to the present century, demands a passing notice. The earliest settlers found the country a wilder- ness, with many varieties of climate and soil, of which they were entirely ignorant, and to which the knowledge they had obtained in the mother country did not apply. Thus they had to contend with innumerable obstacles, with the wildness of nature, and their ignorance of the cli- mate in addition to the hostility of the Indians, the depredations of wild boasts, the diﬂiculty and expense of procuring seeds and farming im- plements, &c. These various diﬂiculties are quite sufﬁcient to explain the slow progress they made in the way of improvement. For many years agriculture was in an exceedingly back- ward and depressed condition. Stock and tools were poor, and there were obstacles and pre- 234 judices against any “innovations” in the estab- lished routine of practice. This state of things continued for many years, with very little change. Jared Eliot, a clergyman of Connec- ticut, one of the earliest agricultural writers of America, published the ﬁrst of a series of valu- able essays on ﬁeld husbandry, in 1747; but with this and a few other exceptions, no real eﬁbrts were made to improve farming till after the revolution, when the more settled state of the country and the gradual increase of popula- tion, began to impress the intrinsic importance of the subject upon the minds of a few enlight- ened men. They sought by associated effort to awaken an interest in the subject, and spread abroad valuable information. The South Caro- lina agricultural society was established in 1784, and still exists, and the Philadelphia so- ciety for the improvement of agriculture, estab- lished in the same year, and a similar association in New York in 1791, incorporated in 1798, and the Massachusetts society for the promo- tion of agriculture, established in 1792, were active in their ﬁeld of labor, and all accom- plished important results. The correspondence at this period, between Sir John Sinclair and Wasliington, shows how anxious was the father of his country to promote the highest interests of the people by the improvement of agricul- ture. But all the efforts of the learned, and all the investigations of the scientific, prove com- paratively unavailing, unless the people them- selves, the actual workers of the soil, are pre- pared to receive and proﬁt by their teachings. Many years elapsed before the habit of reading became sufficiently common among the masses of the actual tillers of the soil, to justify an ex- pectation that any proﬁt would arise from the annual publication of the transactions of the several societies. The improvements proposed fell dead upon the people, who rejected “ book farming” as impertinent and useless, and knew as little of the chemistry of agriculture as of the problems of astronomy. Such has been the increase of intelligence, and the growth of lib- eral ideas among all classes of men during the last half century, both in this country and in Great Britain, that we, at this distance of time, can with difﬁculty realize the extent of the pre- judices which blinded the eyes of the people of those days. The farmer who ventured to make experiments, to strike out new paths of practice, or to adopt new modes of culture, subjected himself to the ridicule of a whole neighborhood. For many years, therefore, the same routine of farm labor had been pursued in the older settlements, the son planting just as many acres of corn as his father did, “in the old of the moon,” using the same number of oxen to plough, and getting in his crops on the same day, after having hoed them the same number of times, as his father and grandfather did. All far1n practices were merely tradi- tional ; no county or town agricultural societies existed to stimulate effort by competition, There were no journals devoted to the spread AGRICULTURE of agricultural knowledge, and the mental ener- gies of the farmer lay dormant. The stock of the farm was such as one might expect to ﬁnd 1mder such circumstances; the sheep were small, and ill cared for in the winter, and the size of cattle generally was but little more than half the average of the present time. The value of manures was little regarded; the rotation of crops was scarcely thought of ; the introduction even, of new and labor-saving machinery, was sternly resisted and ridiculed by the American farmers of that day, as well as by the English la- borers. It was long before the horse-rake was brought into use in opposition to the prejudices it encountered. It was equally long before the horse-power threshing-m achine was adopted. In some parishes of Great Britain even so late as 1830, the laborers actually went about destroy- ing every machine they could ﬁnd. Now, on the contrary, the use of the ﬂail is a drudgery which very few are willing to submit to, and steam power has in many instances been substi- tuted for the horse, while new and improv- ed implements of all kinds are sought to an ex- tent unprecedented in the history of agriculture. Changes are gradually made everywhere, and the success which attends the introduction of new implements disarms prejudice. Within the last half century, chemistry, the indispensable handmaid of agriculture, has grown with great rapidity, and in each new discovery some new truth applicable to practical agriculture has come to light, while willing experimenters have labored in the ﬁeld to prove the truth or falsity of the theories proposed, and thus the well-es- tablished facts from which the science of agri- culture is derived, and the sound theories de- duced from these facts, are constantly increas- ing in number. The substitution of animal for manual power, and still more the saving of an- imal power by the substitution of natural and me- chanical forces, are the surest indications of im- provement. From the changes which have grown up in these respects, and from the more constant use of chemistry, to determine the qualities of soils and manures within the last 50 years, we may safely assert that the pro- gress made during that period, or perhaps with- in the last twenty years, is wholly unparalleled. A brief allusion to the advance in each of these departments will illustrate this faet.—And ﬁrst, with regard to farm implements. In the time of the Saxons, in England, as we have al- ready seen, the plough was an extremely rude and uncouth implement. It was made by the ploughman himself, under the compulsion of a law forbidding any one to hold a plough who could not make one, or to drive until he could make the harness. The progress made previous to the time of Jethro Tull, was comparatively slight, either in the manufacture of the plough or in any branch of agricultural mechamcs. Tull, as we have seen, invented the horse-hoe and the drilling-machine. Both of these were then rude, but they since have been vastly improved in their details. The plough was generally made AGRICULTURE of wood till the beginning of the present cen- tury, but its form has since passed through many changes. The old Dutch plough, one of the best everbrought into extensive use previous to the recent forms of the iron and steel one, was pat- ented in England in the year 17 30, the design having been brought over from Holland by Dutch engineers. This implement is said to have been ﬁrst manufactured under the direc- tion of Walter Blithe, author of the “Improver Improved,” already mentioned as one of the most important early works on agriculture. It went under the name of the Rotheram plough, from the place of its manufacture, but was generally known in this country as the Dutch plough. It was all made of wood, except the coulter, draught rods, and share, the mould-board being plated with iron. This was probably the best wooden plough ever invented, though as it was made by the village blacksmith without a ﬁxed pattern, it was liable to many modiﬁcations va- rying according to the skill of the maker. It was diﬁicult even for the same maker to form two ploughs exactly alike in every respect. The old “ Carey plough ” was also familiarly known in the United States for many years, with its wooden mould-board, plated over with tin, sheet iron, or sometimes with saw-plate, wood- en land-side and standard, and clumsy wrought- iron share. This was difﬁcult to hold, and re- quired twice as large a team as that now need- ed to do far better work. The “ Bar side- plough,” once a great favorite, also, had a wood- en mould-board, and did very poor work. The ﬁrst patent issued in this country for a cast-iron plough is believed to have been that obtained by Newbold ,of New Jersey, in 1797. Cast-iron ploughs had, however, been manufactured by Small, in Scotl.and, as early as 1763, and the founding of cast-iron having been introduced about the same time, it occurred to the manu- facturer to have exact patterns of the principal parts of his plough, as the mould-board, the sole, and land-side, cast, that he might secure the greatest possible uniformity in the manu- facture. This is the origin of the cast-iron plough used for many years in Great Britain, but whether the American inventor had any knowledge of the existence of the Scotch plough is not known. The state of feeling among farmers at the close of the last century and the early part of the present, as already mention- ed, was such as to prevent the adoption of new improvements to any extent, and this im- plement of course gained favor but very slowly. The efforts of modern inventors have been di- rected mainly to overcoming the friction and resistance, by an improved construction of the mould-board and by the use of better materials. The plough cannot yet be regarded as a perfect Implement of its kind, but it has most certainly been fast approaching towards perfection of late years, and the mode of manufacture has im- proved to an equal extent, the business having Increased so much as to require the employ- ment of a large amount of capital. Nor has 235 the improvement in other farm implements been less marked than in the plough. Spades and hoes are lighter and better constructed than formerly. The reaper and the mower have gained a ﬁrm footing, even within the last 10 years ; for though the ﬁrst reaping-machine known was used 1,800 years ago, in the shape of knives set into the end of a cart which was pushed along by oxen, and the wheat thus cut, and in modern times many efforts have been made, since the beginning of the present centu- ry, to construct such an implement, it is but a few years since the economy and practicability of using the machines was fully established. But the number of the machines made and sold in a single establishment in Chicago, to supply the demand in the western states, alone ex- ceeded 4,000in 1856, while innumerable other establishments exist in other parts of the country, doing almost as large a business as the one alluded to. Nearly 200 different patents have been granted within the last 8 years for reapers and mowers, and at a trial recently instituted and held at Syracuse, N. Y., nearly 100 different patents were entered for competi- tion. As labor and time-saving machines are now looked upon as wholly indispensable by all who raise grain and hay ona large scale, the reap- er and the mower may be regarded as types of the present, as the sickle and the ﬂail are types of the past. Among the other labor-saving im- plements which are now generally introduced upon farms of any extent allover this country and Great Britain, are the horse-rake, the im- proved horse-hoes, the seed and corn-sowers, the broadcast seed-sower, the improved sub- soil and trenching ploughs, the straw and root- cutters, the cultivators, the threshing and win- nowing machines, and many others of equal importance. It is safe to say that the improve- ment in the implements named, made within the last half century, has enabled the farmers of the United States to accomplish at least double the amount of labor with the same num- ber of teams and men. They can plough deep- er and more thoroughly, with less power ; hoe and spade with less expenditure of manual la- bor ; thresh hundreds of bushels of grain with the machine where only tens could have been threshed with the ﬂail; rake 10 acres with the horse-rake more easily than 1 by hand, and reap fro1n 12 to 15 acres of grain in less time and with greater ease, with the reaper, than 1 with the sickle or the cradle; to say nothing of the inﬁnite variety of other operations in which both time and labor are saved by the use of machinesinstead of the slow drudgery of hand labor; and thus many millions of dollars are an- nually saved by these improvements in agricul- tural mechanics. This is a grand and practical advance over all former periods in its history, and promises a future development of the re- sources of agriculture almost beyond the power of language to describe.--The progress which has been made in the application of chemistry to agriculture is hardly less gratifying. For 236 though from year to year there may seem to be little progress, yet when we compare any two pe- riods of 5 or 10 years, the increase of practical knowledge derived from the investigations of the agricultural chemist, as well as its impor- tance, is very perceptible. The most useful dis- coveries in agricultural chemistry have been made within the last 15 or 20 years, for though the labors of Young, Davy, and others, were ex- ceedingly valuable, as opening the way for later investigations, yet the processes of chemical analysis have become so much more complete and reliable since the time of their labors, as to make recent results far more valuable. Indeed, almost all that was known with certainty pre- vious to 1840, may be ascribed to the research- es of Saussure, and to Sir Humphrey Davy, for nearly all that appeared in the shape of ori- ginal researehes up to that time, was only a meagre abstract of their admirable works. Within the same period, nearly, the attention of practical farmers has been awakened to the importance of applying the results of chemical investigations. Probably Professor Liebig has contributed more than any other man to this awakening. His ﬁrst publication in 1840, ori- ginally designed as a report on the progress of agriculture to the British association for the advancement of science, opened a new world of , thought and study, and in some respects, essentially modiﬁed the practice of all civilized countries. To give only a single instance of this: he remarked in his “Organic Chemistry ” that, “ to manure an acre of land with 40 pounds of bone dust, is sufﬁcient to supply 3 crops of wheat, clover, potatoes, turnips, &c., with phosphates, but the form in which they are restored to the soil does not appear to be a matter of indifference. For the more ﬁnely the bones are reduced to powder, and the more intimately they are mixed with the soil, the more easily are they assimilated. The most easy and practical mode of effecting their divi- sion, is to pour over the bones, in the state of ﬁne powder, half of their weight of sulphuric acid, diluted with 3 or 4 pints of water.’7 The grand leading idea contained in this and simi- lar propositions of Liebig’s, opened the way for the whole system of artiﬁcial manuring which has extended so far in modern times. Be- fore this time the farmer had conﬁned himself to the use either of a compost of animal and veg- etable materials, or of other simple substitutes, as ashes, soot, salt, or something of the kind, not in accordance with any ﬁxed principle de- rived from reasoning or the results of observa- tion, but simply because experience had shown them to be beneﬁcial. His idea was that sul- phuric acid—the vitriol of commerce--would make the neutral phosphate of lime soluble, and give it a powerful action in the soil. For the subsequent discovery and use of mineral phos- phates, we are indebted to the same source, the development and application of the views ﬁrst advanced by Liebig. Immediately after, exper- iments were instituted, and with such satisfac- AGRICULTURE tory results, that manufactories were established in England, and the importation of bones from Germany and other. countries became of great importance to commerce as well as to agricul- ture, while the earnest researches of scientiﬁc men soon discovered the most approved for- mulas for the manufacture of superphosphate of lime, the ﬁrst being given by Prof. Johnston (Trans. High. Soc. 1845, pp. 91 and 96), an- other by Wm. Lawes (J our. R. A. Soc. V. pp. 68-596). Thus the best methods of prepara- tion were made known both by scientiﬁc and practical men. All must admit the advantages of these discoveries, for though the farmer may be liable to be deceived iii the purchase of a particular kind of superphosphate, yet there is no longer any doubt of its exceeding value as a fertilizer when properly made, while its intro- duction rendered substances previously of little worth, easily and quickly available for the nourishment of plants, and hence very val- uable. Guano also claims our attention. This substance has come into use entirely within the last 15 years, or since 1840; for though it was ﬁrst brought to public notice by Baron Hum- boldt and by Sir H. Davy, as already stated, yet it was not till that year that it was used at all in England. Twenty casks were then imported for experiment, and so satisfactory were the results, that the importation to Eng- land alone increased to nearly 2,000 tons in 1841, and in 1845 to over 200,000 tons, the English trade in that year employing 67 9 ves- sels. Since then the business has become of large commercial and agricultural importance in all parts of the civilized world. The means of detecting an inferior article, or of discover- ing adulterations of the true Peruvian guano, have become well known to chemists, and are accessible to every farmer who will take the trouble to apply them. They are from time to time recommended in the agricultural journals. In speaking of the beneﬁts conferred on agricul- ture by chemistry, we should refer also to nitrate of soda, which was ﬁrst recommended about the year 1831, and of which many tons are an- nually imported into England and applied to the soil; to the application of mineral phos- phates instead of bones, which Liebig’s expla- nation of the reasons why bones were valuable as a manure, ﬁrst suggested; to the habit now so prevalent, of preserving and applying liquid manures, which has grown up chieﬂy in conse- quence of the facts disclosed by the analyses of various substances known under this name; to the recently introduced and extensive manufac- ture of blood manures, and to the innumerable other substances manufactured and sold to be used on the land, of which.some have proved to be really valuable, while others are of doubt- ful utility. Not the least important of the more recent investigations of chemistry are those of Prof. Way, which show that all fert1le_so1ls possess the power of absorbing and retammg alkaline substances, as potash and ammonia, from solution in water by means of a class of AGRICULTURE double silicates of alumina and lime or soda. These investigations are among the most inter- esting and valuable contributions recently made to the science of agriculture. Chemistry has also improved our farm economy, by offering suggestions in regard to the relations of differ- ent kinds of food to the animal wants, and in regard to the eﬁ“ect of more complete shelter from the cold, and of temperature in general, as to the quantity of food necessary. Oom- paratively recent investigations lead to the con- clusion that certain substances in plants are ab- solutely identical with the ﬂesh and blood of animals, that is, that some vegetable substances actually contain the materials of the animal body ready formed, differing indeed, in out- ward appearance, but literally the same in com- position, and the analysis of plants pretty ac- curately indicates their relative nutritive qualities, as compared with plants of the same general family, as vegetables with vegetables, grains with other kinds of grain, &c. Chemists can now determine the nitrogeneous substances in plants, which are tolerably uniform in their combinations, with great certainty, and these are known to form the tissues of the body; while the non-nitrogeneous compounds, such as starch, sugar, gum, &c., which can be deter- mined with almost equal ease, go to promote the respiration and heat of the animal system. Other and still more recent investigations indi- cate the importance of a variety of food, so as to secure aproper proportion of the albuminous and the farinaceous elements, and that plants richest in nitrogen are not, necessarily, on that account alone, the most valuable or best adapt- ed to produce that part of the body which is identical with them in composition. The value of many substances as food has been determin- ed with a considerable degree of certainty; among them are the linseed and other oil cakes, and especially within a very short time, cotton- seed cake, a substance which, though it is now but little known in consequence of its very re- cent introduction into the market, yet seems to be destined, at no very distant period, to be- come of great practical value. Yetin the light of all these and many other facts of equal im- portance, there are, and probably always will be, some who assert that chemical science and the rules which it lays down, can confer no beneﬁt on agriculture. Mere abstract prin- ciples are of no special value except in a strict- ly scientiﬁc point of view. The acquisition by farmers of the habit of applying scientiﬁc truths is slow and gradual, undoubtedly, and must be the work of time. But the fact that a true principle is not immediately applied to practice, does not prove that it will produce no practical good effect. It may be ages before a new doc- trine exerts its proper inﬂuence, yet, if really true, it will sooner or later become known to those whose interests it most nearly concerns. First they will hear it, then understand it, and in the end they will reduce it to practice, and they and the whole world will proﬁt by it. A0- 237 cordingly, an impartial survey will show that the actual production of the means of support- ing life has largely increased, as the true prin- ciples of cultivation have become better known and understood. The average yield per acre of some of the cultivated grains, as wheat, for in- stance, has nearly quadrupled in countries where these principles have gained the strong- est hold, even within the memory of men still living, and this increase is not merely pro- portionate to the greater number of producers, or the additional acres brought under tillage, but an absolute increase per acre. Should not this be ascribed to increased facilities, and a better knowledge of the modes of production? The same fact is manifest amongst us every day, the most skilful and intelligent cultivators, other things being equal, reaping the largest and most proﬁtable crops. It is difﬁcult to ascer- tain the amount of crops, or the average yield, of very distant times past, but the average yield per acre of wheat in the 11th century, was es- timated by the highest authority of that day, the author of “ Fleta,” at only 6 bushels. So 200 or 300 years later, in 1890, 57 acres on a farm at Hawsted, yielded only 866 bushels, and on an average of 3 years little more than that. No other cause than the wretched system of tillage can be assigned for this small yield, and it is safe to say that the average crop, on a given number of acres, has trebled since that time, in consequence of the impulse which mod- ern agriculture has received from the mechanic and the chemist, while the manual labor re- quired has been very materially lessened. The actual productive power of Great Britain in the article of wheat alone, increased during the half century from 1801 to 1851, to the extent of supporting an additional population of 7,000,000, an increase which can be ascribed with conﬁdence, mainly to improved cultivation. So in every country where agriculture receives the attention it deserves, the productive power of the soil has largely increased. Even the At- lantic states of the Union, where the system of cultivating the soil without maintaining its fer- tility by a proper treatment, prevailed for many years, are not an exception, since the condition of agriculture is rapidly improving in the oldest of them, where this system was earliest begun, and the general average of crops, with the ex- ception of the potato, is increasing from year to year as a more proper culture is introduced, and persevered in, the farmer being led to improve his practice by the pressure of an increasing population, and constantly rising prices. In New England, for instance, one of the oldest sections, the general average yield of Indian corn per acre has risen to about 35 bushels per acre, while crops of 50 and 60 bushels per acre are by no means uncommon, and 80 and 100 are sometimes obtained by careful tillage. The sit- uation and soil of New England are not such as to make it what is called a wheat growing re- gion, and this fact, which farmers were long in understanding, has caused a great decrease in 238 the extent of land devoted to this crop. Indian corn, root crops, and all the varieties of fruit suited to temperate latitudes, are found to be more certain and remunerative, and attention is given mainly to them. In the mean time the system of farm management is gradually im- proving, new implements to facilitate labor are introduced, and much greater care and econ- omy than formerly in regard to manures every- where prevails, most farmers having good barn cellars arranged for its preservation, into which peat and loam are carried in large quantities, and composted from time to time during the winter as absorbents and divisors. The spirit of inquiry and enterprise in agriculture was never more general or encouraging than at the present moment. Societies have been established in all the states, and in most of the counties; and in Massachusetts a department of agriculture is or- ganized as a branch of the government, to collect, arrange, and systematize all the latest reliable in- formation on the subject for distribution among the people, and to superintend the development of the established policy of the state. In the middle states societies are equally active in efforts to raise the standard of their agricul- ture, and have adopted a similar liberal policy, and in some, especially the great state of New York, a high degree of improvement has been reached. The western states are more strictly and exclusively agricultural than any other sec- tion of the country. Most of them publish an- nually, at the expense of their governments, valuable reports on practical agriculture, for extensive circulation among the people. To give some idea of the effects of this policy, and of the fertility of the western states, we may refer to the exports of grain and breadstuffs from the port of Chicago alone, a city which 20 years ago had scarcely a recognized existence even as a town, and which owes its entire pros- perity to the agricultural enterprise of Illinois, Indiana, and the adjoining states. It is now the greatest primary grain depot in the world, the exports being nearly twice as great as those of St. Petersburg, and exceeding those of Galatz and Ibrail combined, by upwards of 5,000,000 of bushels annually. This city is but one of the many centres for the receipt of agricultural produce direct from the pro- ducer; and St. Louis, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Buffalo, Rochester, and New York, with many other cities of nearly equal size, must be taken into account, if we would make a proper esti- mate of the vast importance of the agriculture of the United States, which not only contrib- utes very largely to the prosperity of the cit- izens of the country, but also furnishes an al- most inexhaustible granary for other nations. Notwithstanding the immense amount already produced, however, the resources of the west have but just begun to be developed as they are destined to be hereafter; for thousands of miles of virgin prairie still stretch away beyond the line of civilization, waiting only the hand of the farmer to contribute their abundant stores AGRICULTURE to the support of man. The southern states are also large producers of grain, but are mainly devoted to the raising of cotton and sugar, both of which are exported in large quantities. The present condition of practical agriculture in Great Britain has already been alluded to, as wor- thy of imitation in other countries of similar cli- mate and soil. But the points in which pro- gress is most distinctly seen, are the extensive culture and use of root crops, the general sys- tem of thorough drainage, the introduction and use of new and improved implements_of hus- bandry, and the breeding of stock. The land, unlike that of the United States, where, as a general rule, the farmer is the owner as well as the cultivator, is held chieﬂy in large estates, concentrated in the hands of a few individuals, and leased to the tenant farmer, who either tills it himself or sublets it to others. But few, therefore, of the actual tillers of the soil are owners of land. Associated effort has done much to Waken a lively interest in the subject, both among the nobility and the people. The royal agricultural society, established in 1839, with its ably conducted journal, the Highland agricultural society of Scotland, and the royal society of Ireland, are doing all in their pow- er to develop the agricultural resources of the country. Many valuable agricultural jour- nals are well supported and widely circulated. In France the tendency for many years has been to the division of landed estates, and but com- paratively few large holdings exist at the pres- ent time. Subdivision of property in the h ands of small proprietors without capital, prevents the development of practical agriculture; and in many departments of France, its condition is still rude, though in others it is more ad- vanced, and, in some points, worthy of imita- tion. The government has its minister of ag- riculture, and supports agricultural schools and veterinary establishments, while the “ Journal of Practical Agriculture,” and other agricultural periodicals, are doing much to improve both the science and the practice of the country. With regard to the division of landed property, the same state of things prevails also in Belgium and Holland as in France, the agriculture of those countries being characterized rather as gardening than farming. The extreme care and economy of manures, and the careful applica- tion of liquid manures in these countries, are often referred to as worthy of imitation. In Germany, as already seen, the science of agricul- ture has been extensively developed, many of the ablest chemists having devoted their lives to this pursuit. Thaer, Schwertz, Koller, Stock- hardt, Liebig, and many others, have a world- wide reputation as the reward of their services in this direction. Here also, as in most other countries, associated effort is made to advance the condition of agriculture, and with good suc- cess. Thus there is gratifying evidence of pro- gress iu most civilized countries at the present time, and the productive powers of nature were never more completely developed. AGRIGENTUM AGRIGENTUM, an ancient Sicilian city, the rival of Syracuse in wealth and magniﬁcence, built on a lofty eminence on the S. W. coast. It was settled by a colony from Gela, about 582 B. C. During the 5th century it attained its highest prosperity, when its population was probably above 200,000. The city contained many ﬁne public ediﬁces, the most celebrated of which was the temple of Jupiter, of which few traces remain. It was repeatedly involved in hostilities with Carthage, and in 407 B. C., was taken and razed to the ground by an army of that nation. It was afterward rebuilt, and in 210 B. C., became permanently subject to Rome, and while attached to that empire was one of the most prosperous of the cities of Sicily, carrying on a great trade in corn, wine, and oil, for the production of which its fertile soil was admirably adapted. The Saracens captured Ag- rigentum in A. D. 827, and kept possession of it till 1086. Girgenti, the modern town, has a population of 18,569, and exports sulphur more largely than any other part of the island. Its other chief exports are corn, oil, almonds, and soda. Its churches, convents, and other public ediﬁces, have little architectural merit, with the exception of the library, museum, and pub- lic seminary. AGRIONIA, yearly festivals held in honor of Bacchus, among the Boeotians. It was cus- tomary for the women to make a pretended search for the god, and ﬁnally to desist, saying that he had escaped to the Muses. AGRIPPA von Nnrrnsnnm, HENRY Con- rmrrus, philosopher and alchemist, born at C0- logne, Sept. 14, 1486, died at Grenoble, 1535. This remarkable man was born of a noble family and received an excellent education. His whole life was spent in restless vagabondism, and his great talents dissipated in vain strivings after universal knowledge. He was linguist, states- man, soldier, physician, theologian, and che- mist. Having engaged in some peasant in- surrections in the south of France, he retreated to Paris, where he held public discourses, and the reputation he thus acquired gained him a professorship of Hebrew, at Dole, in Burgundy. Accused of heresy, or more probably magic, he ﬂed to England in 1510, whence, however, he returned to Cologne. At W1"1rzburg, he made the acquaintance of the greatest adeptnof the age, the Abbot Tritheim. His next appearance is at the court of the emperor Maximilian, where his knowledge of languages and personal ad- dress had gained him a secretaryship. He fought in a campaign against the Venetians, and was knighted on the ﬁeld. Tired of this honorable employment, he applied himself to the study of physio, lectured publicly at Pavia, and then returned to Germany. He was in- vited by Henry VIII. and Francis I.,' and visited both France and England. He was an ardent student of alchemy and the occult sciences, in reference to which he insisted that the writings of adepts were not to be read for a literal, but for a mystical meaning. His work De inser- AGUADILLA 239 titmlvlnc ct oamltatc S02'»6‘nt?:Cl/7“Ztm (Paris, 1531), ' is a highly successful satire on the state of knowledge at the period in which he lived. AGRIPPA, Masons VIPSANIUS, a famous Roman statesman, general, and naval com- mander, in the reign of Augustus Caesar, born B. C. 63, died B. C. 12. To him Augustus was chieﬂy indebted for the victory of Actium. He married Marcella, the niece of the emperor, from whom he was afterward divorced. It was at one time expected that Augustus would appoint Agrippa his successor. He was only inferior to Julius Caesar as a general, and one of the most upright of Roman governors. AGRIPPINA. I. The wife of the emperor Tiberius, who unwillingly separated from her, when compelled to espouse Julia, the widow of Marcus Agrippa. She afterward married Asinius Gallus, whom Tiberius, still cherishing his former love for Agrippina, imprisoned dur- ing the remainder of his life. II. The daugh- ter of Marcus Agrippa and Julia, the only child of Augustus, died of starvation in the island of Pandataria, to which she had been banished by Tiberius, A. D. 33. She was a woman of heroic mould, and was of great ser- vice to Germanicus, her husband, during his campaigns in Germany, where she was his con- stant companion. After his death in Syria, which he ascribed to the jealousy of Tiberius, she incurred the hatred of the emperor, who exiled her to the island where she died. III. Daughter of the preceding, born A. D. 14, died in the year 60. She was notorious for her wickedness and proﬂigacy. By her arts she induced her husband, the emperor Claudius, to adopt her son Nero, and soon after poisoned him. She was assassinated by the order of Nero, who had become estranged from her. AGTELEK, Cnvnmv or, in Hungary, near the village of the same name, on the high road from Ofen to Kaschau. The magniﬁcent sta- lactites take the shape of large churches, al- tars, images, the. The most beautiful part of the cavern is the “garden” covered with an innumerable collection of ﬂowers of every hue and size. The whole was explored in 1785 by some gentlemen deputed from the royal so- ciety of London. AGUA, VOLCAN DE, is a lofty mountain in the state of Guatemala, Central America, to the S. of old Guatemala. In form it is a graceful cone, its base extending over nearly all the western part of the valley of Guatemala. The traveller, Stephens, estimates its altitude at 14,450 feet above the level of the sea. Culti- vated ﬁelds surround the base, and a belt of forest and verdure extends to the summit. The crater-like hollow on the top measures 140 by 120 yards. Its title is derived from the fact that occasionally torrents of cold water ﬂow out of its northern side. The volcanic moun- tain of Pacaya lies to the S. E., and that of Guatemala to the W. AGUADILLA, a seaport on the N. W. coast of the island of Porto Rico, 65 miles W. of San 24O AGUADO Juan. It has a population of over 2,000. The harbor affords good anchorage. AGUADO, Arnxxunnn MARIE, a Parisian banker, born at Seville, 17 84, died April, 1842. He was of the Hebrew religion. He was one of the great ﬁnanciers of Europe, and was deeply engaged in Spanish loans, the scrip of which was nicknamed Aguados. His early connection with Spain, and his relations with the Spanish minister, Ballasteros, gave him great facilities, and in 1828 he took a loan of 50,000,000 francs, at 50 per cent. discount, and 5 per cent. commission. In 1830 and 1831 he again negotiated similar transactions. In early life he had been a liberal, and held a commis- sion in the French army in Spain; he after- wards fought for Napoleon, up to the battle of Leipsic, when he quitted the army and ad- dressed himself to trading pursuits, to which opportunities occurring, he soon added the pro- fession of a banker. He was created a Spanish marquis by Ferdinand VII., and received from Otho of Greece the order of the Redeemer. He died worth $12,000,000. He had a gallery of very ﬁne pictures, which were engraved and published as the Galérie Aguado (Paris, 1837). AGUAS OALIENTES, a Mexican town, capital of the recently organized state of the same name, is situated 270 miles N. W. of the city of Mexico, in lat. 22° N. long. 1010 45’ W. It is built upon a plain, at an elevation of 6,000 feet above the sea, and lying at the junction of the great road from Zacatecas to Sonora and Durango, with that from San Luis Potosi to Guadalajara, is prosperous and much frequented. It is surrounded by rich gardens, abounding i11 olives, ﬁgs, vines, and pears, and contains be- side numerous churches, three convents and a hospital. Two warm mineral springs in the neighborhood give the town its name. Popu- lation of the town 20,000, of the state, 81,727. AGUE, belongs to the class of febrile diseases, of which there are 3 kinds, termed intermit- tent, remittent, and continued fevers. Such fevers as are attended with a cessation of the febrile symptoms, for an observable space of time, belong to the ﬁrst kind, and are termed intermittent fevers or ague. In the second kind, the febrile symptoms do not altogether disap- pear, but diminish for a time in violence ; they do not altogether cease or intermit, but they abate in fury, or remit at times, for a longer or a shorter period, and are hence called remittent fevers ; when the febrile symptoms are inces- sant and without any marked diminution of violence, they belong to the third kind, and are termed continued fevers. An ague is a fever consisting of a succession of paroxysms, be- tween each of which there is an intermission more or less complete. A paroxysm consists of 3 stages: 1, a cold chill with or without shivering; 2, the sensation of cold gives place to that of heat, and the whole surface of the body becomes hot and dry; 3, this lasts until perspiration breaks out on the forehead and gradually extends to the whole skin. These AGUE constitute the 3 successive states of a parox- ysm : the cold, the hot, and the sweating stage. The following symptoms usually usher in the disease : the patient is affected ﬁrst with a loss of bodily and mental vigor, indicated by dul- ness or confusion of mind, languor, and inap- titude or disinclination for business or pleasure; the skin feels as if it were drawn tight over the body, and a sensation of chilliness comes on gradually, ﬁrst down the back, and then in- creases until the limbs are affected with a tre- mor, amounting sometimes to a tremble or a shivering fit, the pulse becomes weaker and more frequent; the appetite fails, and there is sometimes a feeling of nausea and sickness; the secretions are diminished, and a sense of thirst becomes more urgent as the cold stage ad- vances. The sensation of cold now gives place to that of heat, the pallid face becomes ﬂushed and red; the eyes which had been dull and heavy, are now more glistening and bright than in the natural state ; the shrunken features become full and turgid; the pulse more regu- lar, full, and strong ; the respiration fuller and more free; nausea and vomiting less urgent; headache becomes more severe, if it exists al- ready, and if not, it is sure to come on, with an increase of sensibility and confusion of mind. These symptoms gradually pass away, and a moisture breaks out on the forehead, ex- tending by degrees over the whole body; and, as the perspiration ﬂows, the heat abates ; the pulse becomes more soft and slow; therespiration more free; thirst diminishes; nausea and vomiting cease; the secretions and excrétions are restored, and the patient left comparatively free from pain, feels only languid and exhausted. After the paroxysm has ceased for a certain length of time, the same succession of phenomena oc- curs, following the same course as before ; and this alternation of paroxysms and intermissions is repeated many times. Different names are given to the different varieties of this fever, ac- cording to the length of the interval between each paroxysm. When one paroxysm succeeds another within a period of 24 hours, the ague is termed a “quotidian ;” within 48 hours, a “tertian;” after 72 hours, a “quartan;” after 96 hours, a “ quintan.” Those of longer periods of intermission are termed “ erratic.” - The most common form is the “ tertian ;” the next most common, the “quartan;” the next the “ quotidian ;” the least frequent is the “ quintan.” Agnes are also distinguished by the seasons of the year at which they are most prevalent—the vernal and autumnal—the vernal beginning in February and the autumnal in August. The vernal are generally mild and easily cured, while the autumnal are often most severe and obstinate. There is also a form of ague termed complicated, in which 2 intermittents attack the patient at the same time. The most fre- quent complication is that where 2 tertians or 2 quartans attack simultaneously. In a double tertian, the paroxysm occurs each day. These are distinguished from the quotidian by a mani- AGUE fest difference in the symptoms each day, and a perfect similitude on each alternate day. There is also a double tertian with 2 paroxysms on one day, and only one the following day; and a. triple tertian with 2 paroxysms on each al- ternate day and one in the interval. The double quartan also varies. It may occur with 2 paroxysms on the ﬁrst day, none on the second or third, 2 again on the fourth day; or with a par- oxysm on the ﬁrst day, another on the second, and none on the third. The nature of the dis- ease is always the same, whatever be the form; but this is of importance in denoting the ten- dency and the severity of the disease; as quartans are usually more obstinate than tertians, and quotidians are apt to become continued fevers.—- Quartans are more common in autumn ; tertians in spring. Whatever the duration of the intermis- sion, the paroxysm differs in almost every differ- ent case; and the shorter the intermission the longer the duration of the paroxysm. An exten- sion of the intermission therefore is usually a sign of the decline of the disease; while aprolongation of the paroxysm and a shortening of the inter- vals between, denotes exacerbation and a ten- dency to change from the intermittent form to that of a continued fever. The character of spring intermittent fevers is generally manifest at once; but autumnal intermittents, especial- ly if they come on early in the season, in July for instance, are not so easily distinguished from continued fevers, of which they assume the character for a short time; about the end of autumn, however, they appear as intermittents, either tertians or quartans, which they really were, at ﬁrst, in a remittent form._ It is pru- dent, therefore, in a country where ague pre- vails, not to mistake this form for a true con- tinued fever. There is nothing more inexplica- ble, or less understood in the nature of the dis- ease, than this fact of periodicity. Some have ascribed it to the daily habits of activity and rest in the organism, but this does not account for intermittents of the tertian type, the parox- ysms of which occur not every day, but every other day. It is now admitted that the efflu- via arising from the decomposition of vegetable matter in the midst of stagnant water or marshy ground, is the cause of ague. What the chemical nature of the eﬂluvia may be, is not well known. Some say carbonic acid, main- ly; others, nitrogen ; others again, hydro-ear- buretted gas, or hydro-sulphuretted gas, or a peculiar compound of nitrogen and oxygen call- ed septon. Wherever the ground is moist and contains decaying vegetable matter, this poison may be generated. Woods produce it almost as much as marshes, because in some localities the ground remains always damp, and contains decaying vegetable matter. This is the case in the woody districts of Hampshire, Kent, and Sussex in England. The jungle of India con- sists of a low dense growth of brushwood, and thickets of reeds and grass, in which there is a vast amount of wet and decaying vegetation, acted upon by the intense heat of the atmos- voL. I.—16 241 phere, and producing fever poison in the high- est degree of concentration. Rice grounds are also productive of fever; and Dr. Rush states, that in Pennsylvania, epidemics always follow the clearing and cultivation of forest lands. It has been observed that the district of Bresse, near Lyons, in France, was healthy when full of woods, but has become nearly depopulated since they were cut down. Here it is supposed that the shade of the trees kept the rays of the sun from the wet ground, and thus retarded the decay of vegetable matter. Meadow land im- perfectly drained contains an abundance of de- caying vegetable matter, and when this is ex- posed to the heat of the sun, ague becomes rife in the immediate vicinity. The poison ﬂoating in the air may be carried to a distance by the wind. In warm climates, the marsh poison sometimes proves fatal to a ship’s crew several miles from land. It is brought with the land wind, and may be carried as far as the smell of the land is perceptible. This is well known to sailors, for cases are recorded of careless sea- men who remained on deck, in latitudes where fevers are known to be fatal, being invariably seized with the disease, while those who were more prudent and went below decks, as soon as the smell of the land was brought by the wind from shore miles away, were not at all affected. Moist air also conveys it better than dry. Per- sons who live in the basement story of a damp and undrained house, and especially those who sleep there, are often attacked with fever, while those who occupy the upper stories of the same house are not affected by disease. The treat- ment of ague is now deemed simple. The ﬁrst thing to be done is to remove the patient from the neighborhood in which the poison is gene- rated, to a locality where the air is pure and free from the efﬂuvia of decaying vegetable matter. Without this change of residence, the cure is doubtful, because the poison is inhaled anew with every breath of air. Where this is inconvenient or impraticable, let the patient occupy the upper portion of the dwelling. Ipe- cacuanha, peruvian bark, and arsenic, are the most eﬁicient remedies. The approach of the paroxysm should be carefully watched. As soon as the ﬁrst symptoms of the chill appear, an emetic should be given, consisting of 10 or 15 grains of ipecacuanha, and one grain of tar- tar emetic; and when vomiting begins, warm water, or a warm infusion of camomile, may be given abundantly to promote the sickness. When the vomiting is over, 30 drops of lauda- num in one or two ounces of camphor julep may be taken ; this will generally prevent the cold chill, render the hot ﬁt easy, induce the sweating stage almost at once, and thus abridge the paroxysm. During the intermission, bark should be freely given in wine ; or sulphate of quinine in 2 grain doses, every hour, or every 2 hours, according to the severity of the at- tack. Where the bowels are much constipated an infusion of senna with camomile may be ad- visable as an aperient. It is said that where i 242 AGUEDA decaying vegetable matter produces ague in par- ticular localities, certain kinds of plants may be rendered useful in absorbing the eﬂiuvia as fast as it is produced, and thus prevent the poison from attacking the inhabitants. The sun-ﬂower is said to be one of the most active absorbers of ague poison; the hop plant is another. In 1855 the experiment was tried at Washington, by Lieut. Maury, on the grounds near the Poto- mac, where the observatory stands, and which were known to be exceedingly unhealthy at some seasons of the year, from the effects of decaying vegetable matter. The fever was observed to make its appearance during the 5 months of the year in which the decay of vegetable matter was most active, in the marshy grounds around the observatory, or within a short distance of the place. In the fall of the year 1855, Lieut. Maury caused a strip of land 45 feet wide, to be dug about 2 feet deep, around the observa- tory, at a distance of about 200 yards from the river, this land was properly prepared for seed, and in the spring of 1856, was sown with the seeds of the sun-ﬂower plant, which ﬂourished well; and in the month of August following, when ague fever might have been expected to appear as usual no sickness occurred; and to the surprise of every body the locality remained quite healthy during the whole season. This is a remarkable experiment, and worthy of universal attention. Other experiments will probably be made in this direction, and a method found of absorbing, on alarger scale, the poisonous eﬂluvia of decaying vegetable matter in marshy places, so as to prevent, to some extent at least, the ravages of ague, cholera, and yellow fever, in countries where these dire diseases are most prevalent. AGUEDA, is a river in Spain, tributary to the Douro, which forms on the N. E. of Beisee, a part of the frontier of Portugal. AGUESSEAU, HENRI Fnamgors D’, a French jurist, born at Limoges 1668, died Feb. 9, 1751. He was an earnest law reformer, and ﬁrst endeavored to reduce the incongruous and contradictory laws of France to uniformity. He was the son of the intendant of the Limousin, and received from his father an excellent edu- cation. He was a man of inﬂexible integrity, and when procureur-général, he opposed the registration of the papal bull, Unigenitus, on the ground that it encroached on the free action of the Gallican church. In 1717 he was made chancellor by the regent Orleans, and -is re- markable in aperiod of universal infatuation for his perception of the ruinous consequences of Law’s schemes for making the nation suddenly rich. In 1722, the infamous Cardinal Dubois be- ing appointed president of the council, d’Agues- seau retired, to be reappointed in 1727. He 7 died at the age of 82, a pension of 100,000 francs having been granted to him. He is considered by Voltaire one of the most learned judges that France ever possessed. Beside his thorough knowledge of law he had an extensive acquaint- ance with literature, and was versed in most of the Egropean languages. AGUIRRE AGUILAR, GASPAR DE, a Spanish author, who lived at Valencia toward the end of the 16th and the commencement of the 17th cen- tury. He wrote 12 comedies and a poem. AGUILAR, GRACE, an English authoress of Hebrew race and creed, born in Hackney near London, June 2, 1816, died at Frankfort in Germany, Sept. 16, 1847. She was descended from a family of Hebrew merchants in Spain, who ﬂed from that country on account of religious persecution, and found a refuge in England. She was instructed wholly by her father and mother. At 14 she commenced the study of history, beginning with Josephus. At a very early age she wrote a pleasing religious ﬁction, “The Martyr; or, the Vale of Cedars.” Her other works are “The Spirit of Judaism ;” “Is- rael Defended,” translated from the French; “ Magic Wreath,” a small volume of poems; the “Days of Bruce,” a story from Scottish history; “Jewish Faith ;” “Women of Israel;” “Home Scenes and Heart Studies ;” “Home Inﬂuence ;” “Josephine; or, the Edictand Escape;” the “Mother’s Recompense ;” and “Woman’s Friend- ship.” In 1885, her constitution received a severe shock from an attack of measles, which left her in a state of debility, from which she never fully recovered. She visited the con- tinent of Europe in June, 1847, where she died. Her remains rest in the cemetery of the Jews at Frankfort. AGUILAR nu LA. FRONTERA, a Spanish town on the Oabra, 22 miles S.S.E. of Gordova, capital of the judicial district. It has a trade in corn and wine, and is remarkable for its white houses and cleanly streets. There are within it 3 handsome public squares, a new town hall, several chapels, a hospital, a Moorish castle, now dismantled, and several schools. Population 11,836. AGUILAS, a Spanish town on the Mediter- ranean, in the province of Murcia, 37 miles from Cartagena. It has a small but safe port, and its principal commerce is in exporting grain. It is well and regularly built, and con- tains a population of 4,882, including 100 men stationed in the fort. AGUILLON, FRANOISOUS, a Jesuit priest, and- an eminent mathematician, born at Brussels, and died in 1617. He was the rector of the Jesuit college at Antwerp, and wrote a book on op- tics. He introduced the study of mathematics among the Jesuits of Holland. AGUIRRE. I. J osa SAENZ DE, a learned Spanish Benedictine, born at Logrona, March 24, 1630, and died at Rome, Aug. 19,- 1699. He was secretary of the supreme council of the Spanish inquisition, and interpreter of the Scriptures in the university of Salamanca, and ﬁnally a cardinal. He published a work on philosophy, and a commentary on Aristotle’s ethics. II. LOPE DE, a Spaniard of the 16th century, eminent for his crimes. He left Spain for Peru, and crowned a long list of atrocities by the un- mitigated wickedness which he manifested during the expedition of Orsua in quest of the imaginary El Dorado, a history of which has AGUJARI been written by Southey. He prompted Crsua to assert supreme power, and then killed him to usurp his place, and from this time cus- tomarily murdered men out of caprice and pleasure, as if murder were one of the ﬁne arts. He died by violence in Venezuela. AGUJ ARI, Luonnzm, a singer of Parma who received $500 a night for two songs. She died in 1788. AGULHAS, a cape and bank on the southern- most point of Africa, 100 miles S. S. E. of the Cape of Good Hope, in lat. 34° 51’ S. long. 19° 56' 30" W. Its extreme height is 455 feet above the sea. A light-house was erected in 1849 upon the cape, at an elevation of 55 feet above high water. AGUSTINA, the maid of Saragossa, died at Cueta, Spain, in June, 1857, at a very advanced age. She was an itinerant seller of cool drinks in Saragossa in her youth, and during the siege of that place by the French in 1809, distin- guished herself greatly by her heroic partici- pation in the severest encounters with the ene- my. She was called la artillem, from having snatched the match from the hands of a dying artillery man, and discharged the piece at the invaders. For her services during this protract- ed siege of 62 days, she was made a sub-lieu- tenant in the Spanish army, and received several decorations. Byron has celebrated her in sev- eral verses of “ Childe Harold.” AGYNIANI, or AGYNII (Gr. (1 privative, yum], woman), so called from their rejection of marriage. They ﬂourished about the close of the 7th century, and are only one of the many phases of the Gnostic idea that the cre- ator of the material world was an evil being, and that, therefore, the true Christian life con- sists in a renunciation and mortiﬁcation of all the physical appetites and passions. They there- fore abstained from meats and marriage. In doctrine they were Gnostics, and, perhaps, would agree mainly with that distinctive form of Gnosticism developed by Marcion. Ab- stinence from matrimony is not distinctive of the Agyniani, but has been constantly reappear- , ing through at least 17 centuries of Christian history, and of course dates as far back as Dualism, of which it has ever been a logical consequent. AHAB, son of Cmri, and seventh king of Is- rael, succeeded his father. He married Jezebel, the daughter of Ethbaal, king of the Sidonians. Through her inﬂuence, the intercourse between Phoenicia and Israel, which had long been only commercial, now became social and religious. She introduced the worship of Baal and As- tarte into the Jewish cultus. The golden calves at Dan and Bethel had been guardedly worship- ped for several years. But idolatry, under Ahab, becamea predominant element of the Jewish religious life. For his idolatrous practices Ahab was reproved by Elijah, who denounced a three years’ famine. As a result of Ahab’s ob- stinacy, Elijah proposed the famous trial of Carmel. When Benhadad, king of Syria, be- AHAZ 243 sieged his capital, Ahab warned him that he should not be so insolent, and mustering his forces went out and utterly defeated him. Ben- hadad renewed the attempt a year after with the same results, yet more disastrous. Ahab ﬁnally came to his end by an arrow wound re- ceived while ﬁghting in disguise in the battle of gaguoth-Gilead, contrary to the command of '0 ‘. AHALA, C. Snnvrnrus, master of the horse to the dictator Cincinnatus, B. C. 489. He slew Sp. Mzelius in the forum for refusing to be tried before the dictator on a charge of treason, and was obliged to ﬂee the country to escape punishment. AHANTA, a portion of the kingdom of Ashantee, on the Gold Coast, in Africa. It lies between 3° and 2° 10’ W. long. Its breadth from north to south is triﬂing. On the west it is bounded by a river called Ancoba by the Portuguese, and Seenna by the natives. It is subdivided into three districts. Its most im- portant town is Boosoa. There are several Dutch forts scattered along the coast. AHASUERUS, the name of the Persian king whose actions are described in the book of Es- ' ther. He is probably identical with the Ar- taxerxes Longimanus of the Greek historians, who began to reign B.C. 456.-—Anasunnus, men- tioned in Ezra iv. 6, is understood by Josephus and the principal modern commentators to be another name for Cambyses, the successor of Cyrus upon the Persian throne, B. C. 529. AHAUS, a circle of the government of Munster, and province of Westphalia, belong- ing to the western portion of Prussia. The circle contains 4 cities, 3 market towns, and 11 villages. The soil is tolerably productive, but the most important business is the raising of cattle and sheep, especially the latter. The spin- ning and weaving of linen is also somewhat at- tended to. In the times of the hay and corn harvest in the adjoining country of Holland, a great many of the laborers go to that country, where they obtain higher wages than at home. The principal city of the circle bears the same name, and contains the castle of the prince of Salm-Kyrburg, who resides there. Area of the circle, 264 square miles. Population 40,069. AHAZ, the son of J otham, and the 12th king of Judah. He ascended the throne in the 20th year of his age, and in a troublous time for the sceptre of Judah. For the kings of Syria and Israel, Rezin and Pekah, had con- spired against Judah, and in the ﬁrst year of his reign made one attempt to take Jerusalem. Unsuccessful, however, in this, they divided their forces, and overran the kingdom, plun- dering and killing as they went. The next year they renewed the attempt, and were favored by the unsettled state of affairs in the kingdom of Ahaz, produced by the ir- ruptions of the Edomites and the Philis- tines. In this conjuncture, when Ahaz was troubled on every side, Isaiah announces to him that the plans of Pekah and Rezin shall 244 AHAZIAH not prosper, and offers him a sign from the Lord, as an assurance of the truth of the as- sertion. Then was made that remarkable prophecy so frequently interpreted as having reference to Jesus Christ. By the timely aid of the king of Assyria, whom Ahaz hired by strip- ping the gold and silver from the royal palace and the temple, he succeeded in crushing his foes, and so maintaining his authority. But he introduced idolatrous worship into the temple, and sacriﬁced to the gods of Syria, that they might help him, instead of his foes. He was contemporary with Isaiah, Hosea, and Micah. He was refused burial in the sepulchres of his fathers, because of his iniquities. He caused his son to pass through the ﬁre to Moloch, and set up an altar of a heathen model in the temple. AHAZIAH. I. Son and successor of Ahab, king of Israel. He reigned B. C. 897-895. The most signal event of his reign was the revolt of the Moabites. Ahaziah, like his father Ahab, was controlled by the ambitious Jezebel, and walked in the ways of his father. He fell from a roof of his palace, and sent to the oracle of Baalzebub at Ekron, to inquire if he should re- cover. The prophet Elijah met the messengers on the way, and sent them back to say to the king that he should never rise from his bed. H. Grandson of Ahab and Jezebel, known as J ehoahaz, and a king of Judah. He reigned but one year, and during that time he was under the entire control of his mother, Athaliah. He was slain by J ehu, who regarded Ahaziah as coming by blood into the scope of his commission to de- stroy the house of Ahab. AHE To be ahead is to be in advance; to be ahead of another is to be in advance of another. To go ahead, is to go straight-forward in your course. The phrase, “ Go ahead,” used as a signal to coachmen, stage-drivers, and engine- drivers, that they may proceed, is an American- ism e uivalent to the Englishman’s “ All right.” A IMELEGH, the son of Ahitab. He was high-priest and dwelt at Nob. David, ﬂeeing from San], came to Ahimelech, and, by misrep- resentation of his business, induced Ahimelech to supply his wants with the shew-bread which was kept in the tabernacle. For this, Saul com- manded Ahimelech to be slain, with all the priests of Nob, on a charge of conspiracy. When his guards would not commit so great an enor- mity, he found a willing instrument of his un- reasonable vengeance in the person of Doeg, who had originally informed against Ahimelech. Saul then ordered an indiscriminate slaughter of the inhabitants of Nob. AHITOPHEL, one of the confederates of Absalom in his rebellion against his father Da- vid. He was famed throughout the Jewish na- tion for his sagacity. His advice being rejected by Absalom, he committed suicide by hanging himself. AHLEFELD, CHARLOTTE Sorma Loursa W1LHELMIh*E, German novelist, born 1781, mar- ried 1798. Her maiden name was Seebach. AHMED She read much when a child, and at the age of 10 was already a writer. Some of her infantile productions were shown to Gothe, by Whose praise she was encouraged to proceed. AHLWARDT, CHRISTIAN WILHELM, German philologist, born 1760, died 1880. He was rector of the gymnasium in Oldenburg, and rec- tor and professor of ancient literature at Greifswalde. He translated Oallimachus, Oatul- lus, Ossian, and volumes of Shakspeare, Aries- to, and Oamoeus. AHMED SHAH, founder of the Afghan monarchy, born 1724, died 1772. Ahmed was son of Sammaun Khan, the ameer of the great tribe of the Abdallis and of the family of the Suddosees. At his father’s death, he and his brother, Zulfucar, fell into the power of Hoossein Shah, the head of the tribe of Ghiljies, who was then master of Candahar. At this period Afghanistan was subject to Persia. On the invasion of India by Nadir Shah, the two young princes were rescued from the hands of Hoossein and sent into Persia. Ahmed’s brother died in captivity, but he himself was taken into the service of the usurper, and pro- moted to the command of a body of horse. When Nadir was assassinated in 1747, Ahmed and his tribe boldly attacked the conspirators with the design of avenging Nadir Shah’s death. But ﬁnding the Persian army too powerful, he determined on a retreat into the fastnesses of his native country, which he successfully accom- plished. He changed the title of his tribe from Abdalli to Dooranee, which they still retain, and supported by them he raised the standard of independence, proclaimed himself shah, and was soon joined by the ameers and their several tribes. His ﬁrst act was to seize a con- _voy of treasure, the spoils of war coming from India to Persia, and to possess himself of the famed Koh-i-noor diamond (now in possession of the British crown), which had fallen into the hands of Nadir Shah, and whose value was un- known. Aware, like other usurpers, that his power depended on ﬁnding occupation for his turbulent subjects, he led them at once to con- quest, and rapidly subdued the provinces sur- rounding him and part of the kingdom of Per- sia. He then directed his conquering arms to India, and subjected that unhappy country to another invasion, before it had recovered from the atrocities inﬂicted by the rapacious follow- ers of Nadir Shah. In 1752 he overran the Punjaub and Cashmere, and penetrated as far as Delhi, the capital of the Mongol emperor Alam- ghir, whither the emperor, jealous of his vizier’s excessive power, earnestly summoned him. The crafty vizier, Ghazy-ed-deen, propitiated Ah- med, and professing entire subservience to his views, induced the Afghan monarch to leave him in possession of his ill-gotten power as a check upon his sovereign. Ahmed entered Delhi in triumph, and his followers, throwing off restraint, subjected the city to the horrors of a sack. Before retiring to his own territories, he added a Mongol princess to the number of AHMEDABAD his wives, and his son, Timour Shah, married another, and was invested with the government of the Punjaub and of Sirhind. In retiring from Delhi, he left a lieutenant, Najibuddow- lab, to hold both the vizier and the Mongol in check. No sooner was the restraint of his pres- ence removed than the minister rose on the Afghan commander, drove him out of Delhi, and assassinated the emperor, placing a prince of the blood royal on the throne. The Mah- ratta chieftains, now perceiving the disorgani- zation of the Mongol empire, saw their oppor- tunity for expelling the Mohammedan rulers altogether and establishing Hindoo supremacy. It was a struggle of races. Ahmed Shah brought a powerful army into the ﬁeld. The Mahrattas took up an intrenched position at Paniput, and Ahmed, by his superior skill, cut off their supplies and forced them to an engage- ment Jan. 6, 1761, in which the Mahratta forces sustained a terrible defeat, from which they could not rally. The Shah, however, saw the impossibility of maintaining the Mongol empire, and left it to its fate. The Sikh chieftains in the Punjaub revolted against him, and he crossed the Indus for the 6th time in 1762, and coerced them to a temporary obedience. The remaining years of his life were harassed by the insurgent Sikhs and by troubles in his government, to which was added the pains of cancer on the face, of which he died at the age of 49. AHMEDABAD, a city and district of British india, province of Guzerat, presidency of Bom- ay. 72° 42’ E. It is situated on the banks of the Subbermutte river; population about 100,000. The district was originally under Mohammedan rule, but fell under the power of the Mahrattas, by whose exactions and oppressions the com- merce of the place was destroyed. It fell under the sway of the British in 1818, and immedi- atelya new scale of taxation was established, under the inﬂuence of which the resources of the country have been developed anew, and its languishing trade revived. AHMEDNUGGUR, a city and fortress of British India, the capital of the province of Aurungabad, in the presidency of Bombay; population about 20,000. In the general dis- ruption of the Mongol empire, after the death of Aurungzebe, the Mahrattas made themselves masters of the district, and when the Marquis of Wellesley vanquished the chieftain, Scindia, the fortress was taken. After the war it was restored to the Peshawer, but has since been resumed by the British. The fortress, which is remarkably strong, is about a mile from the city, which is itself surrounded with stone walls. Ahmednuggur contains some good streets and a handsome market-place. The palace of the ancient sultans is a spacious fortiﬁed struc- ture. AHMEDPOOR, the name of several towns in Hindostan, the chief of which, Ahmedpoor Barra is situated in Bhawlpoor. It is meanly built, has a mosque, a fort, and manufactures The city is in latitude 23° 1’ N. long.' AHWAZ 245 matchlocks, gunpowder, cotton, silks, and scarfs. Population about 20,000. AHMOOD, a city of Hindostan, in the presi- dency of Bombay, province of Guzerat, and dis- trict of Baroach. Population (1832) 13,144. AHR, a river in Prussia, which flows for a distance of 30 miles, from the Eiffelberg moun- tains into the Rhine, near Sinzig. AHRENS, MARTIN Fnrnnmcn, an antiquary and native of Holstein. He died in 1824. Forty years of his life were devoted to travelling on foot through Norway, Sweden, Denmark, France, Spain, Italy, and other parts of Europe, in search of Scandinavian antiquities and Bunic monuments. AHRIMAN, the name of the evil principle in the ancient Persian religion. See ORMUZD. AHUITZOL, an emperor of the Aztecs, who lived towards the close of the 15th century. He is said to have made large additions to his empire, and to have spent large sums in build- ing those canals and ediﬁces which so aston-' ished the Spaniards on their arrival in Mexico. In 1486, so runs the tradition, he inaugurated a temple by the slaughter of 72,344 prisoners-a ceremony which prolonged the inauguration to a term of 43 days. AHULL, a nautical term. A ship lies ahull, when, with all her sails furled, she lies near- ly with her side to the wind and sea, and her head inclined somewhat to the direction of the wind. AHUMADA, Don Pnnno Grnorr, DUQUE DE, marques de las Amarillas, a Spanish statesman. A scion of the noble stock from which the duke de Ossuna derives his origin. He was an officer in the royal guards, and served in the war of independence. On the return of Ferdi- nand VlI., he advocated a liberal policy and thereby gave offence at court. After the revo- lution of 1820, he became minister of war, but was soon dismissed. His uncle, the bishop of Tarragona, made vain efforts to reinstate him, but the king refused, alleging, that “if he had a Giron he would be the king, and the king only minister.” He made his peace afterward, and the king appointed him, by will, one of the council of rege_ncy during the minority of his daughter Isabella. He opposed the meas- ures of Martinez de la Rosa against the insur- gent provinces and the admission of the gran- dees into the chamber, though he was after- ward favorable to an hereditary upper house. He was president of the chamber, and was created duke de Ahumada by the regent Chris- tina. He again became minister of war in 1835, and in this position he introduced various amendments in the military department, in or- der to conciliate the Basques; but he became unpopular on account of his son’s appointment to high ofﬁces over the heads of older and deserving men. He sent in his resignation and‘ went into opposition. The animosity of his po- litical opponents obliged him to leave Spain in 1837, and take refuge in France. AHWAZ, a small town on the river Karoon 246 A1 in Persia, about 100 miles from Bassorah. It is a very insigniﬁcant place, containing about 1,600 inhabitants, but it is in the immediate neighborhood of a vast collection of ruins, the remains of a city of the same name, ascribed to the period of the earliest Mohammedan caliphs. It must have been a city of considerable magni- tude, and the ruins extend for 12 miles along the bank of the river; near it is a band or strong dam built across the bed of the river to irrigate the surrounding country. AI, an ancient city of Canaan, in the territory of Benjamin, about 12 miles north of Jerusa- lem, as near as can at present be determined. If this was its situation, it must have been an important military station, for it commanded the heights of Benjamin by “the pass of Mich- mash,” the eastern of the two great routes through and along which so many of the milita- ry operations recorded in Scripture were trans- acted. It seems to have been the head-quarters of the inhabitants of the land when Joshua went up against them. It is ﬁrst mentioned in Scripture as the place where Abraham and Lot pitched their tents when journeying from Haran, and it was from this commanding position that, in the proposed division, Lot chose the plains of Jordan for his portion of the land, and Abra- ham descended to the maritime valley on the west. Ai was captured and destroyed by Joshua, and became a heap of stones, but was rebuilt so as to be a place of some note in the time of Jeremiah. A’IBEK A’ZAD-ED-DEEN, ﬁrst Mameluke sul- tan of Egypt, born about 1200 on the shore of the Caspian sea, assassinated April 10, 1257 , in Egypt. He was a Turkish slave, and entered the Mameluke corps, in which he became bey. In 1250, the Baharite Mamelukes defeat- ed Louis, ldng of France, and took him prisoner. At this period the Mamelukes revolted and massacred Sultan Tooran Shah, whose queen, Shar-ed-door, they placed on the throne. She raised A’Ibek to the rank of ata bey, or com- mander-in-chief, and in 3 months she married him. But the soldiery, disgusted at seeing a former slave in possession of the royal power, deposed him and proclaimed Eshref, a descend- ant of Saladin, leaving, however, A’Ibek in possession of his military rank. The sultan of Damascus, Nazir Yussuf, now invaded Egypt, but A’Ibek defeated him, and peace was con- cluded, one of the stipulations of which was that A’Ibek should not league with the crusa- ders against Syria. A’Ibek, freed from foreign enemies, soon found a pretext for putting to death Tares-ed-deen, the chief who had opposed his elevation, and deposed Eshref, the royal infant, ascending the throne again A. D. 1254. A’Ibek having conceived the plan of marrying the daughter of the king of Mosul, excited the jealousy of his wife and benefactress, who had him assassinated. AIBLINGER, J osnrn Kasran, a living Ger- man musician, born in 1775. He acquired a competent knowledge of his profession without AIDIN the aid of any master. He resided in Italy, and studied the Italian masters, but returned to Germany conﬁrmed in his prepossession for the productions of German musicians, and took a prominent part in bringing out Gliick’s [phi- genia /in Tauris. His own compositions are remarkable for tender simplicity and for care- ful treatment of the male voices. AICHSPALT, PETER, written, also, Assrnnr, and RAICHSPALT, a German ecclesiastic, born in the 13th century. He was born in such in- digence that he was obliged to pick up a sub- sistence by singing in the streets, but his thirst for knowledge conquered all difficulties. He studied physio and became physician to Count Henry of Luxemburg, and the emperor Ru- dolph I. He subsequently attracted the notice of the pope, and was appointed dean of the ca- thedral of Prague, and afterwards, under the title of Peter II., became bishop of Basel and archbishop of Mentz, in which ofﬁce his talents shone so conspicuously that he was mainly in- strumental to the election of Henry of Luxem- burg as emperor, and had the satisfaction of crowning his old patron at Praguein 1311. Af- ter the death of Henry, he procured the election of Louis of Bavaria. His life was distinguished for morality and abstemiousness. He died June, 1380. AIDE-DE-CAMP, a military oﬁicer, attend- ant on a general, whose duty it is to convey his orders to all parts of the ﬁeld. The appoint- ment of aide-dc-camp carries with it other nominal rank. See Anrurnnr. AIDE-TOI, LE CIEL T’AIDERA. A society of this name was formed by a number of French constitutionalists, called particularly doctrinaires, in 1824, for the purpose of consti- tutional opposition to the French chamber of deputies, which was strongly royalist. In 1828, Guizot was elevated to the presidency of the association. At this time it embraced among its members De Remusat, Duchatel, Duvergier de Hauranne, Thiers, and Mignet, and the republicans Armand Carrel, Godfrey Cavaignac, and Bastide. First the “Globe,” and then the “National” were their organs. By disseminating addresses and political in- formation in all shapes among the people, it created that power of public opinion which en- abled the opposition deputies to defeat the crown and its ministers. After the revolution of July, its leading members took a part in the administration of the government, and its efforts were directed toward promoting a rev- olution in Belgium and Spain, on the French pattern. Garnier Pages and Arago, two repub- licans, became prominent in the latter days of the club. It was ﬁnally dissolved of its own accord in 1832. It never assumed a secret character. AIDIN, or GUZEL-HISSAR, a district of Ana- tolia, whose chiefs rebelled against the Ports on account of the oppressions of the Turkish age in 1829. The outbreak was repressed with great diﬂiculty by the forces of the sultan, and AIDS not until Ibrahim Pasha took the ﬁeld. Even then the principal supporters of the movement retired to the mountains, where they maintain- ed their independence. AIDS, a pecuniary tribute paid by feudal vassals to their lords on certain emergencies as making an eldest son a knight, or marrying a daughter, or on being oneself taken prisoner. The term was also occasionally used in reference to contributions levied on behalf of the king. These taxes were abolished by 12 Car. II. AIGNAN, ETIENNE, a member of the French academy, born at Beaugency-sur-Loire in 1773, died Nov. 25, 1824. He early embraced the cause of the revolution of 1789, but oppos- ed with equal ardor the excesses of 1793. He wrote several tragedies, translated the Iliad into verse, and aportion of the Odyssey. He suc- ceeded Bernardin de St. Pierre in the academy, and pronounced his eulogy in 1815. He wrote a work on the state of the Protestants in France, and treatises on legal subjects. Late in life he published the Bibliothégue étmngére cZ’histoire at de Zittémture ancienne at moclerne. Aignan took part in the preparation of the Encg/clopédz'e Modcrne. He was an active con- tributor to political and literary periodicals, a translator of several English standard works, and an editor of the complete writings of Jean Jacques Rousseau. AIGUEBELLE, a prosperous little town of Savoy, on the left side of the river Arc, 15 miles E. of Chambery; known as the place where the Spanish and French forces gained a victory over the troops of the king of Savoy in 1742. It is near the beginning of the road which Napoleon built over Mount Cenis. AIGUILLE (Fr., needle), a name given to certain narrow and sharp-pointed peaks of the Alps, some of which rise to a great height. There is a mountain of this description in the S. W. part of France, on the road from Greno- ble to Gap, called L’Aiguille, which rises to the height of 6,562 feet above the sea. AIGUILLCN. I. ARMAND VIeNERoT-DU- PLESSIS RIOHELIEU, duc d’, minister of foreign affairs under Louis XV., born in 1720, died in 1798. During his ministry, the ﬁrst partition of Poland took place. When Louis XV. heard of this act, so disastrous to the interests of France, he exclaimed, “If Choiseul had been here this partition would not have taken place.” When the English made a descent upon the coast of Brittany, the duke threw himself into a mill, whereupon La Chalotais perpetrated that celebrated witticism, that d’Aiguillon had covered himself not with glory but with meal. On the accession of Louis XVI., he was repla- ced by De Vergennes, and lived thenceforth in obscurity. II. The son of the preceding, of the same name, born about the middle of the 18th century, and died in 1800. He was one of the minority of the nobility who espoused the constitutional cause in the constituent assembly, and assisted joyfully on the memorable night when feudal privileges were abandoned. When AIKEN 247 war was declared against Austria, in 1792, he hurried to the frontiers, and served under Luckner. After the insurrection, Aug. 10, he was obliged to leave France, and barely escaped to England. He always belonged to the consti- tutional party, and was invited back by the ﬁrst consul in 1800. He never saw France again, as he died suddenly on the eve of embarcation. AIGUES MORTES, a small town of France, situated in a marshy district in the department of Gard, 3 miles distant from the Mediter- ranean, and 21 miles S. W. of Nismes. It has a population of 4,046, and a considerable trade in fresh and salted ﬁsh, which is shipped off by the Beaucaire and Grand Roubine canals. St. Louis founded it in 1248, and the ancient forti- ﬁcations, which still remain, are ﬁne specimens of feudal architecture. AIGULF, a French Benedictine monk and church reformer, born 630, died 675. He was abbot of the convent of Fleury, on the Loire. His endeavors to induce a more regular habit of life among the monks, gave such offence that a conspiracy was formed against him. In 67 3, he was seized, deprived of his eyes and his tongue, and sent prisoner to the island of Capra- ria, and afterwards in Corsica, where two years later he died. AIKEN, WILLIAM, sometime governor of South Carolina, born in Charleston, in that state, in 1806, graduated at the South Carolina college in Dec. 1825 ; embarked soon after for Europe, and travelled for several years on that continent. in 1829, and in 1830 became the proprietor of J ehossee island, on the Pon-Pon river, some 30 miles south of Charleston. This island, con- taining nearly 4,000 acres, was admirably adapted for the rice culture. Its new proprietor at once addressed himself, with great skill and energy, to its development, devoting himself to this one labor for many years. Commencing with a cultivation of less than 300 acres, he has now in constant use nearly 2,000. He has succeeded in putting these acres into the high- est possible state of fertility. He has executed large works in canalling and embankments, so as to command ample supplies of fresh water, a ﬁrst necessity in the culture of rice, has erected his own rice-mills, threshing and other ma- chines, always employing the latest improve- ments and the most scientiﬁc agencies in the prosecution of his labors. His negroes, 1,000 in number, are settled in neat and comfortable houses, disposed in villages beautifully grouped, and are said to exhibit a remarkable degree of comfort and contentment. In 1838, Gov. Aiken was drawn from his retirement and private pursuits, by the people of the parishes of St. Philip and St. Michael (Charleston), and sent to the state legislature, and was returned again in 1840. In 1842, he was elected senator from the same parishes without opposition. In 1844, he was made governor of the state. In 1850, he was elected representative to congress from the 2d district, which includes Charleston, He returned to his native city_ 248 AIKIN reélected without opposition in 1852 and 1854, and declined reélection in 1856. In the state assembly, and in congress, his conduct was marked always by good sense and a rare ameni- ty of manners. He was not a debater, and was never ambitious of oratorical display. He was content with simply working at his post and on committee. He cultivated the social charities in public life, was uniformly mild of temper, gentle in bearing, unobtrusive in society, un- pretending in discourse, and conciliatory to op- ponents. During seasons of great excitement, he contrived to preserve his temper, and to maintain pleasant relations with persons of all parties. His affmities were with the democrats. His political creed was that of the states rights republicans, of the school of Mr. Calhoun. He was supported by the democratic members in congress for the speaker’s chair, and lacked but a single vote of success, and is regarded as one of those persons who, at a time of great po- litical bitterness, might be looked to as capable of reconciling the most hostile extremes. Gov. Aiken is one of the wealthiest men of the south. He has employed his wealth judicious- ly, has contributed greatly to the local enter- prises of that region, and is distinguished by muniﬁcent charities, bestowing large dona- tions upon the orphan asylum of Charleston, contributing to the endowment of the Charles- ton college, and to other public institutions of his native city. In 1852, while at his post in Washington, the cholera appeared at J ehossee, and he at once returned to his plantation, and, carrying with him the best medical skill he could command, devoted himself personally to care and attendance upon his sick and dying, ministering at all hours to their wants and ne- cessities, alleviating their sufferings while they lived, and attending them with the last sad oﬂices, when they no longer needed his care. He is ~now in the prime of life, of vigorous health, is married, and has one daughter. AIKIN, ARTHUR, grandson of Dr. John Aikin, tutor in divinity at the dissenters’ academy of Warrington, known as a writer and scientiﬁc man, born May 19, 1773, died April 15, 1854. In 1797, he published the “ Jour- nal of a Tour through North Wales and Shropshire.” He was afterward, from 1803 to 1808, editor of the “ Annual Review.” In con- nection with his brother Charles, he published, in 1807, “A Dictionary of Chemistry and Min- eralogy.” In 1814 appeared the ﬁrst edition of his “Manual of Mineralogy.” He was for many years resident secretary of the Society of Arts, and contributed to its “Transactions.” He was also one of the founders of the Geologi- cal Society, and for 36 years a fellow of the Linnaean Society. AIKIN, J ornv, M. D., an English writer, born Jan. 15, 1747, died Dec. 7, 1822. He was the son of Dr. Aikin, and-father of the preceding. He was educated for the medical profession,in which he had a good share of practice. The scientiﬁc and literary circle with Which he was surrounded AILANTUS at Warrington, developed tastes for literature, and induced him to turn his attention not only to medicine and medical works, but to subjects of more general interest. The best known of his works, in which he was assisted by his sis- ter, Mrs. Barbauld, is “the Evenings at Home," a selection of instructive essays and anecdotes for children. This is as popular with the children of a larger growth as with those for whom it was intended, and has been translated into every European language. He practised medicine at Warrington, afterward at Yar- mouth, and in London. He was literary editor of the “Monthly Magazine” for the ﬁrst 10 years after its establishment in 1796, and in 1811 was editor of Dodsley’s “Annual Register.” The list of his works is very numerous. The principal are “Biographical Memoirs of Medi- cine in Great Britain from the time of Henry VIII.;” “The Calendar of the Year,” afterward republished as “ The Natural History of the Year ;” “England Delineated ;” “A Memoir of Howard the Philanthropist,” with whom he had intimate friendship; “ General Biography,” 10 vols. 4to. In medicine, he re-wrote “Lewis’s Materia Medica,” together with some smaller works. He was a man of unstained character, of exemplary diligence, and an ardent friend of the principles of freedom and human progress. AIKIN, LUCY, an English authoress, who lived in the latter part of the 18th and the be- ginning of the present century. She was the only daughter of Dr. John Aikin, and niece of Mrs. Barbauld. From her father she received a care- ful training, and like him she devoted herself to literary pursuits. She wrote “Epistles on the Character of Women,” “The Life of Zuin- glius the Reformer,” a “ History of the Court of Queen Elizabeth,” a “ Memoir” of her father, “The Life of Addison,” and other works. AIKMAN, WILLIAM, a Scottish painter, born 1684, died 1731. The duke of Argyle was his patron. He migrated to London and was the friend of Allen Ramsay, Thomson, Swift, Pope, Arbuthnot, and Gay. His forte lay in portrait ainting. AILANTUS (Malay, ailanto, tree of heaven, the name of one species in the Moluccas), or tarrtetia, of the sub-family ailanteae, which is one of the 4 divisions of simarubacew of Lind- ley. The species A. glandulosa, native of China, was introduced into England in 1751, ‘ and into North America about the beginning of this century. The tree resembles a gigantic stag’s horn sumach, with very large leaves, unequally pinnate, and foot-stalks from 1 to 2 feet in length. It has many ﬂowers on a ter- minal pedicle, whose anthers smell disagreeably (like animal efﬂuvia, containing phosphorus). It grows very fast, especially in poor calcareous soil, and has spreading roots. There is a resin- ous juice in the bark, which hardens in a short time. The wood is hard, heavy, glossy, and susceptible of a ﬁne polish. It is propa- gated by root-cuttings. It generally has only male ﬂowers, but in warm countries produces AILLY both male and female, and consequently fruit.—- A. eawelsa is found about Delhi and farther south. ‘There are other species in southern Asia, and on the islands of the Indian ocean. The other plants of the same order are natives of tropical America, India, and Africa. The ailantus is planted in many streets of New York, Wash- ington, and other cities of the United States. AILLY, PIERRE 1)’, a French theologian and prelate, born at Compiegne in 1350, died Aug. 8, 1419. He was surnamed the scourge of heretics, and the eagle of the doctors of France. He was of humble parentage, yet rose to high honors in the service of the French monarch, Charles VI.; he was made bishop of Puy and Cambray, and chancellor of the university of Paris. He presided over the council of Con- stance, and took a leading part in the condem- nation of John Huss. In the questions that agitated the church, D’Ailly took the Gallican side. He was elevated to the dignity of car- dinal by John XXIII. His works are numerous. He was a staunch believer in the inﬂuence of the planets on human affairs. AILMER, or ETHELMARE, earl of Cornwall and Devonshire, in the reign of the Saxon king, Edgar, at the close of the 10th century. In 1016, when Canute the Dane invaded England, he joined the invader and contributed greatly to the temporary downfall of the Saxon dynas- ty. He died shortly afterward. AILRED, or EALRED, an English historian who wrote in Latin, born 1109, died 1166. He was educated in Scotland with Henry the son of King David. Being of noble family he readily obtained the abbacy of Revesby, and afterward of Rievaux. He was held in great esteem during his life, celebrated for the miracles wrought after his death, and admitted into the catalogue of saints. He wrote many works of a devotional and moral cast. AILSA, an isolated rock on the western coast of Scotland, in lat. 55° 15’ N. and long. 5° 7 ’ W., of conical shape, rising above the surface of the ocean to the height of 1,139 feet. Its summit can only be gained on the east side; the others are nearly perpendicular, 2 of them re- sembling in structure the columns of Fingal’s cave at Staifa. The rock is composed of sienite, with a basis of grayish feldspar. AIMARAEZ, a Peruvian province, depart- ment of Cuzco. It is situated at the base of the Cordillera do Huambo, and extends 130 miles from north to south, and 26 from east to west. The province embraces50 villages, and in 1850 contained 18,258 inhabitants. AIME-MARTIN, Loms, a French writer, born at Lyons, died 1846. He was destined to the bar, but contrary to his parents’ wishes devoted himself to literary pursuits. His ﬁrst successful production was a semi-scientiﬁc book, called Lettres d Sophie sur la phys- ique, lo ohimie, et Phistoire naturelle, an agreeable mixture of prose and verse, suggested by the extraordinary success of the Lett/res d Emilie sur la mg/thologie, by Demoustier. AIMON 249 He wrote, a little later, La vie de Ber/nardin de St. Pierre, in which the biographer seems to have happily imitated the easy, ﬂowing, and po- etical style of his subject. His commentaries on Racine and Moliere are especially interesting and tasteful; and his Ewamen critique des re- ﬁewions ou sentences et mawimes morales de La Rochef'oucauZcZ, affords evidence of talent as well as uprightness of heart and elevation of mind. But his most important work is a treatise entitled Education des oné/res defamille, in which he asserts that the best, or rather the only means of improving mankind, and re- forming our present social organization, is to ed- ucate women in such a manner that they may be enabled to form men of character and virtue. The ﬁrst part of the book is interest- ing, containing many practical suggestions, use- ful ideas, and wise opinions; but the second part is much less valuable. In it, the author launches out into purely philosophical disqui- sitions which do not directly concern his sub- ject. A good translation of the Education des méres de famille has been published in this country. AIMOIN, a Benedictine monk and historian, born in the province of Perigord in France, died in 1008. He wrote a history of France from the reign of Clovis II., in 654:, which con- tains numerous errors. AIMCN, or AYMON, the four sons of, Adelare, Richard, Guiscard, and Renaud, are among the most illustrious of the warriors and heroes celebrated in the medizeval romances of chival- ry. They were the sons of Ain1on, variously reported to have been duke of Dordogna, prince of Ardennes, and provincial governor under Charlemagne. Froissart seriously relates their eventful career, but by the moderns their exist- ence has been transferred from the realm of history to that of poetry. They belong to the Carlovingian circle of legends, to the era of the knights of the round table, of terriﬁc blows with lance and sword, of enchantments, fabu- lous kingdoms and undiscoverable monarchs, and that whole fund of marvels, from which the Italian romancers of the 15th and 16th centuries drew their materials. The eldest of these brothers, Renaud or Roland, is the hero of the Orlando Furioso of Ariosto, where their sister Bradamante also plays a part. Their adven- tures with those of their single horse, famed under the name of Bayard, were probably at ﬁrst oral traditions in Provence, but have been repeated in various forms in the literature of every European nation. A popular German story by Tieck, is entitled “A pleasant History of the four Sons of Aimon, and of their Horse Bayard, with an Account of the heroic deeds which they accomplished against the Pagans in the time of Charlemagne.” AIMON, PAMPHILE LEOPOLD Fnnmgors, a French musician and composer, born in Lisle in 1779, son of Esprit Aimon, who gave him an excellent musical education. He was, when only in his 17th year, appointed one of the com- 250 AIN jposers and directors at the theatre of Mar- seilles. He is a proliﬁc composer, not re- markable for originality, so much as for inde- pendent imitation of other styles. . AIN, a department of France bordermg on Switzerland and Savoy. The Rhone bounds it on the south, and the Saone on the west. It contains 2,224 square miles of territory. Popu- lation in 1852, 372,939. The eastern section of the department is traversed by lofty mountain ranges, intersected by deep valleys. The western division is low, level, and swampy, and dotted with numerous ponds, many of which are used for the breeding of ﬁsh. The river Ain ﬂows through the centre of the province, and is used to drive the machinery of the many saw and grist mills along its banks. Immense rafts of timber are ﬂoated down its rapid cur- rent to Lyons. The products of the depart- ment are chieﬂy agricultural, embracing corn, wine, fruits, hay, hemp, ﬂax, hogs, and cattle. Sheep are reared in great numbers in the eastern part of the department. It is sub- divided into 5 arrondissements, 35 cantons, and 446 communes. Its capital town is Bourg. Ain forms the bishopric of Belley. AINAD, on AINAUD, a town and district of Arabia, in the province of Kadramant. This town is situated about 207 miles north-east of Aden, on the Wady-Hag-ger. It is said to be a a large place containing 10,000 inhabitants, though little is known deﬁnitely about it. AIN-MADI, a town and oasis of the Algerian desert, situated about 160 miles south of Algiers. It derives its name from the little stream, Ain-Madi, which rises in the neighbor- ing mountains, and is absorbed by the sands of the desert, not far from the town. The latter is built on a rocky eminence surrounded by gardens, which are enclosed by an arid plain. It is surrounded by a wall, has two princi- pal streets, is a station for caravans, and possesses a considerable trade. In 1838, and again in 1839, Abd-el-Kader attempted to make himself master of this town, but was un- successful. The city is ruled by a chief of the Tedjini race, a family which originally came from Morocco. AINMULLER, MAXIMILIAN EMANUEL, born at Munich 1807, a painter on glass in Bavaria. The windows of the cathedral of Ratisbon were completed from his designs and under his direc- tion. His “Eruption of Vesuvius by Night,” is much admired. He also restored the stained glass of Westminster abbey, of St. George’s, Windsor, and furnished the new windows of Cologne cathedral. He has also attained some distinction as an architectural painter in oil. AINSWCRTH, DR. HENRY, an English Non- conformist divine, the date and place of whose birth are unknown. In 1590, he attached him- self to the Brownist sect, and was afterwards compelled by persecution to ﬁy to Holland, where, in connection with a Mr. Johnson, he established a church at Amsterdam. But dis- sensions arose between him and Johnson which AINSWORTH distracted the church so much, that ﬁnally the latter retired with some of his friends to Embden. This did not, however, put an end to the disturbances, and, after some time, Ains- worth went to Ireland, whence he afterward returned, and took charge of his old congrega- tion. He is supposed to have died at Amster- dam about the year 1639. A singular and im- probable story is told with regard to the man- ner of his death. A Jew had lost a valuable diamond, which Ainsworth found, and restored to its owner. The latter wished to reward the ﬁnder of his jewel, but all that Ainsworth asked was, the opportunity of conferring with some of the principal Jewish rabbis on the sub- ject of the Messianic prophecies. This the Jew promised to obtain for him, but being unable to effect it, is said to have poisoned Ainsworth, from vexation, and in order to rid himself of his importunities. Ainsworth was very fond of discussion, and it is related of him that he once had a violent dispute with another theologian, as to whether Aaron’s ephod was blue or green. He was a very good Hebrew scholar, and pub- lished annotations on the Psalms and Penta- teuch, together with a literal translation of the latter, a translation of Solomon’s Song, and oth- er works of a somewhat similar character. His annotations won for him a reputation in his own day, and have some value even now. AINSWORTH, ROBERT, teacher, and au- thor of the well-known Latin dictionary, born in Lancashire, in 1660, died in London, April 4, 1743. The dictionary was commenced in 1714, but did not appear until 1736. It was extensively used, and several editions have been issued. The work, which must have been very laborious, is a mere word book, and in no sense answers the purpose of an etymological lexicon. Mr. Ainsworth is a pleasant exception to the ordinary case of schoolmasters, for he attained a respectable competency, and was able to re- tire while in the vigor of life. AINSWORTH, WILLIAM Fnaxors, an English traveller, geologist, and physician, born at Ex- eter, Nov. 9, 1807. After having studied med- icine at Edinburgh, and received the degree of M. D. at the university of that city, in 1827, he went to France, where he made geological expeditions in Auvergne and the Pyrenees. He returned to Edinburgh in 1828, took charge of the “Journal of Natural and Geographical Science,” and delivered lectures on geology. In 1832, when the cholera was in London, he was attached to a hospital in that city. He af- terward lived some time in Ireland, and, in 1835, went out with C01. Chesney’s expedi- tion to explore the Euphrates, and the route from that river to the Mediterranean. In 1837, he returned from this expedition, having pre- viously visited Koordistan, and in the following year was appointed, in connection with Rassam and Theodore Russell, by the geological and Bible societies of London, to trace the course of the river Kizil-Irmak, (the ancient Halys), and to visit the Wesleyan Christians of Koordis- AINSWORTH tan. Before his return, he also visited the coun- try of the Nestorians, and in 1842 published an account of his “Researches in Assyria” and “ Travels and Researches in Asia Minor, Mes- opotamia, Chaldea, and Armenia.” He is the author of “ The Claims of the Christian Abo- rigines in the East,” and “ Travels in the Track of the 10,000 Greeks,” published in 1844, and has also written several reports and papers. AINSWORTH, WILLIAM HARRISON, English novelist, born Feb. 4, 1805, at Manchester. His father'was an attorney, and he was intended for the law, but from an early age he exhibiteda strong taste for literature. He contributed early to the “European Magazine,” and Constable’s “Edinburgh Magazine.” On a visit to London to complete his law studies, he made the acquaint- ance of Ebers, the lessee of the Italian Opera, whose daughter he married in 1826. A novel, “Sir John Cheverton,” which he produced in 1825, was shown to Sir Walter Scott, and the praises of that distinguished writer encouraged Ainsworth to pursue the course he had thus com- menced. In 1834 his “ Rookwood” appeared, in which the adventures of the noted highway- man, Dick Turpin, were the staple of the tale, interwoven with a mystery in which the nom- inal hero of the story was implicated. The popularity of this novel encouraged Ainsworth to bring out “Jack Sheppard.” The robber school of romance, as it was styled, was de- cidedly popular, and, notwithstanding the de- nunciations of those who saw in its exciting incidents a stimulus to crime, it ﬁxed Mr. Ainsworth’s celebrity. This object having been attained, he turned to a more wholesome style of literature, and produced various romances of local interest, in which historical characters are introduced, and very freely dealt with for the working up of the narrative. Such are his “Tower of London,” “Guy Fawkes,” “Old St. Paul’s,” “Windsor Castle.” He edited “Bent- ley’s Miscellany ” for some time, and afterward launched “Ainsworth’s” on’ his own account. He became, in 1845, proprietor of Colburn’s New Monthly. His works are written in a lively style, his invention is fertile, and he is inexhaustible of incident. They have been translated into several continental languages. AINTAB, a town of Syria, at the source of the river Kowek, and about 70 miles dis- tant from Aleppo. It has about 20,000 inhab- itants, ~a mixed population of Turks, Greeks, and Armenian Christians. The chief trade is in hides and leather. Aintab is supposed by some classical writers to be identical with the ancient Antiochia ad Taurum. AINUNAH, a harbor on the western coast of Arabia, said to be the only secure one in the northern portion of the Red sea. A small stream ﬂows into it, which has great reputation among the neighboring Bedouins, on account of its water, which is pure and abundant. AIN US, or HAIRY Koonnns, a race of sav- ages inhabiting the Koorile islands, and subject chieﬂy to the Japanese sway. With regard to AINUS 251 this people the most extravagant statements have been made by some travellers, La Perouse declaring that they are the most hairy race on the face of the globe. “Their beards,” he says, “hang upon their breasts, and their arms, neck, and back, are covered with hair. I observed this as a general characteristic.” Broughton also asserts that their bodies are almost universally covered with long black hair, and that he noticed the peculiarity even in children. These writers also give very con- ﬂicting statements as to their stature, complex- ion, and personal appearance generally. Go- lownin, who records the observations which he made during his captivity, and Lieut. Haber- sham, an oﬂicer of the U. S. Navy, attached to the North Paciﬁc exploring expedition, have exposed the untruthfulness of these accounts. The latter says that their beards are usually but ﬁve or six inches in length. He saw but one case in which it reached more than half way to the waist; and as this individual more nearly answered the description of “hairy Koorile” than any of them, he was persuaded to strip, and his body was found (with the exception of a small tuft of hair on each shoulder-blade). to be no more thickly covered with hair than those of several of the sailors. They shave the front of the head, and though the hair remain- ing is extremely bushy, this is not its natural appearance, but due to frequent scratching. They permit it to grow until it nearly touches the shoulder. Its hue is usually black. Their shaggy beards and wild expression of counte- nance give them a ferocious aspect, contrasting strangely with the gentleness of their manners. Their features are more regular than those of the Chinese and Japanese, and do not show that false and treacherous expression, so noticeable in the countenances of their masters. I.n com- plexion they are of a dark brownish black. Though usually below the middle height, some of them are of lofty stature. They are of sym- metrical proportions, and possess great powers of endurance. They rarely wear more than a single garment, which for summer use is made of the inner bark of a tree; it reaches to the knee, and is conﬁned about the waist by a sash. In winter they clothe themselves with the skins of animals. The most disagreeable peculiarity of the Ainus is their personal un- cleanliness. Their bodies swarm with ver- min, and the ﬁlth adhering to them generates a variety of cutaneous affections, which they seem to-make no attempt to heal. On the other hand, in their dealings with each other and with strangers, they exhibit ‘traits of character worthy of imitation by nations calling them- selves civilized; their generosity, mildness, and‘ modesty, attract the attention of the most unob- serving. The Ainus mode of salutation is sin- gular. “They bring the tips of the ﬁngers up to the eyes, cast the latter upon the ground, and in a low voice, indulge in a lengthy ha- rangue, stroking the beard meanwhile from the eyes downward.” At the close of their re- 252 A100 marks they look up at the person addressed, and continue gazing until they catch his eye. In the same way they return thanks for any gift. Golownin describes the natives of Yesso as superior in strength, beauty, and activity, to those of the other Koorile isles, and attributes it partly to the fact that they trade with the Ja- panese, thereby obtaining better food. The in- habitants of the remaining islands live upon wild fowl, roots, and ﬁsh, and being very indo- lent, often go for days without eating, when their supplies of food are exhausted, from re- luctance to exert themselves to procure more. In winter, the Ainus live in huts of earth, and in summer in straw huts. They sit either upon the ground or on Japanese mats. Some have gardens in the Japanese fashion: others engage in the chase: they kill with their spears and arrows, bears, deer, and hare, catch birds, and also eat dogs. Polygamy is practised among them. They have no writing; every thing is handed down from generation to generation by oral tradition. They worship the sun and moon, but have no places set apart for religious services, and no priests. It is mentioned as a striking proof of their amiability of disposition, that they have no words of abuse in their lan- guage. (See “My Last Cruise,” by A. W. Ha- bersham, U. S. N. 1857.) AIOU, a cluster of 16 islands in the Malay Archipelago, about 100 miles N. by W. from New Guinea. Fish, turtle, and fruits abound, and the natives have some intercourse in trade with the Chinese. AIR (Greek aqp and Lat. aer), a term now limited to the atmospheric air. As formerly employed it might signify various gases. By the ancient philosophers it was regarded as an element. Its properties are treated under the head ATMOSPHERE. It is a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen almost exclusively. By sudden and violent compression the oxygen may be made to unite so suddenly with carbonaceous sub- stances as to inﬂame them. Tinder placed in a tight tube may be lighted by driving a close piston down upon it. Gunpowder is sometimes thus ﬁred in charging holes, made for blasting rocks; and disastrous effects have been pro- duced through ignorance of this property of air. AIR, in music, a succession of sounds ar- ranged in a pleasing, agreeable manner, and com- monly known as a tune or melody. At the pres- ent day it is customary to restrict the term to a melody, written for a single voice. Authorities differ as to its etymology, and while some de- rive it directly from the Italian aria, or the Latin aer, air, in the natural sense of the term, because it represents a succession of sounds, ﬂowing easily, naturally, lightly, like the move- ments of the breeze, others consider its use in music as purely metaphorical, and suggested by the relative positions which elemental air and melody occupy in our sphere, and in music. The air is an exceedingly important part of a vocal composition, constituting, according to Haydn, “' its life, spirit, and essence,” and whether ap- AIR plied to a simple song, or ballad, formingin itself an entire piece, or to a portion of a more elabo- rate work, as an opera or oratorio, should always conform in sentiment to the meaning of the words and the situation of the singer. With- out this essential quality, however pleasing to the ear, it can never fully satisfy the heart or the intellect. Nothing is more remarkable in the history of music than the reformation ef- fected by Mozart and Gluck, in the latter part of the last century, in the construction of the air. They found it overloaded by so-called em- bellishments, which composers had been obliged to add, in order that the singer might exhibit the ﬂexibility or culture of his voice, and so artiﬁcial in character that every thing approach- ing nature seemed banished from the opera, or even from less pretentious compositions. By introducing simple, natural, and appropriate melodies, they made the opera what it was in- tended to be, a musical drama, expressing emo- tions which language alone would fail to excite. N 0 one who has studied one of Mozart’s operas, Don Giovanni for example, can fail to perceive the individuality and appropriateness of the airs, even when distributed to a multiplicity of characters. The standard which these composers established has not always been adhered to, and Italian music of the present day, although re- markable for melodic sweetness, is too frequently disﬁgured by airs destitute of meaning or char- acter. Many of our popular modern airs are open to the same objection—a fact attesting. either a lack of inspiration in the composer, or an indifference or distaste in the public for true and expressive vocal music. From this conclu- sion we may except the German song writers, who strive to construct their airs in direct con- formity to the meaning of the words. AIR, in painting, the atmospheric medi- um through which every object in nature is viewed, and the effect of which is the object of the artist to reproduce in his picture, so that a proper idea of distance and outline may be ob- tained. AIR, or Asnnu, called Air in the Berber and Asben in the Houssa tongue, a country of cen- tral Africa, ﬁrst visited and made known to the European world by the British central African expedition of Richardson, Barth, and Overweg, 1850. It is situated between the 16th and 20th parallels of N. latitude, and between 5° and 10° E. longitude. It is bordered by the Ke- lowi Tuariks on the north, and by Soodan, or Negroland, on the south. Dr. Barth terms it the Switzerland of the desert, and the frontier- land of negrodom. Its northern borders are infested by a savage and inhospitable race of plunderers, who rob and often murder stran- gers who pass through the country. In the north is the mountain group of Gunge, rising 5,000 feet above the level of the sea. In the valleys, tropical vegetation thrives; here is the northern limit of the doom palm, here are val- leys rich in trees, brushwood, and good water; here are trees swarming with beautiful ring- AIR doves, hoopoes, and other smaller birds; and highlands abounding in asses and goats. To the south are the groups of Mt. Bunday, Eghellal, Anderas, and Baghzen. Near the 18th par- allel is the northern limit of the indigo plant. Near the 17th is the northern limit of the giraffe. Many of the table-lands are covered with thick grass. In the south-east, it is uninhabited and waterless, the giraffe is less frequent, and the antelope more numerous. A desert plateau, with an average elevation of 2,000 feet, the home of the giraffe, wild ox and ostrich, divides Air from Negroland. The European travel- lers made every effort to furnish themselves with all sorts of provisions at one of the chief towns, but were only able to buy small quanti- ties of Guinea corn, butter, and fresh cheese, 2 or 3 goats, and by great trouble a camel-load of durra or sorghum. The inhabitants of Air are blacker, and not so tall as those of Azkar; and instead of the austere and regular northern features, have a rounder and more cheerful ex- pression of countenance. Many chew tobacco mixed with natron, but do not smoke. Their dress was gay, several of them wearing light blue tobes. The principal places are Agadez and Tintellust. Mr. Richardson’s journal gives a list of the towns and villages of Air, with their population. In the valleys the land is ploughed by slaves yoked three abreast, and driven by their Tuarik masters. This is proba- bly the most southern place in central Africa where the plough is used; for all over Soodan the hoe is the sole implement for preparing the ground. The government of the country is pre- sided over by the Sultan of Agadez, and his chief vassal is Anneer of Tintellust, an aged and liberal sheik. The inhabitants are strict and even fanatical Mohammedans. The name Air ﬁrst appears in the description of Leo Africa- nus, written in 1526. It was introduced by the Berber conquerors, as Asben is the aborigi- nal name still used by the black and mixed population. The women are highly favored by the customs of the country. If a man marries a woman of another village, he must go and live in her village, not she in his. The hereditary power does not descend to the son, but to the sister’s son. The arms, in gen- eral, are the spear, the sword, and the dagger, and the immense shield of antelope-hide with which they very expertly protect themselves and their horses; but some use bows and arrows. A few only have muskets, and those few keep them for show rather than actual use. As the valleys of Air are but poorly cultivated, and as every piece of clothing material has to > be imported, the population could not be so nu- merous as it is, were they not sustained by the salt trade of Bilma. The tolls levied on this article in return for protection afforded, consti- tﬁtelakalmfoslt thelwholi source of revenue to the s e‘ s o inte lust, oosoo and others. See Richardson’s “ Journal of a’ Mission to Cerltral Africa,” London, and Dr. Barth’s “Trav- els in Central Africa,” London, 1857.) AIR-BLADDER 253 AIR-BLADDER, a peculiar organ in some kinds of ﬁshes, commonly called by ﬁshermen, the “ swim.” Fishes endowed with great pow- ers of locomotion, and accustomed to pass rap- idly from the surface to the bottom of the ocean, and vice versa, are provided with an air-blad- der or a swim, by which they can modify at will, the speciﬁc gravity of their bodies in the water, as birds do in the atmosphere, by admitting air into their quills and other hollow portions of their bodies when they wish to ascend, and by expelling it as they descend. Not that ﬁsh draw air into their swims and expel it, as birds do in their quills &c., but they have the power of generating gas to ﬁll the swim, like a balloon within the body, when they wish to ascend in the water, and expelling it again, when they descend, that the body may sink more easily by its own weight. Fishermen are well acquaint- ed with the functions of the air-bladder in the cod, and other species, which require to be brought fresh to market at a great distance from the place where they are caught ; they perforate the air-bladder with a ﬁne needle, al- lowing the air to escape, and by this means the ﬁsh are unable to rise from the bottom of the well-boats where they live for a considerable time, while brought to market. Cod-sounds are nothing but the salted air-bladders of these ﬁshes. The Iceland ﬁshermen, and those of Newfoundland, prepare isinglass from cod- sounds ; and the Russians prepare a superior kind of isinglass from the sounds or swims of the sturgeon. The swim is composed of a length- ened sac, sometimes simple, as in the common perch; or divided into several compartments, by transverse ligature, as in the trout and sal- mon ; sometimes furnished with appendices, more or less numerous, in different species. It is composed of a thick internal coat of ﬁbrous texture, and a thin external coat, the whole being enveloped in the covering of the intes- tines. The forms of this organ are inﬁnitely varied in diﬁ‘erent genera and species of ﬁshes. It has in many species no external opening, and the air or gas with which it is distended, is sup- posed to be secreted, in such cases, by a glan- dulous organ, with which it is always provided. In fresh-water ﬁshes, the air-bladder communi- cates sometimes with the oesophagus and some- times with the stomach, by means of a small duct or tube ; and in these instances, no secret- ing gland is found. A very limited number of species, among which is the common eel, have air-bladders opening by an external duct, and also provided with secreting glands; thus form- ing, as it were, a link between the two con- trasted types of structure in swims. Fishes deprived of their air-bladders, for the sake of experiment, sink helpless to the bottom of the water, and there remain, incapable of moving, or even of maintaining their equilibrium. All the different species of ﬂat-ﬁsh, such as skates, soles, turbots, brills, &c., which live only on the coasts, and sand banks at the bottom of the ocean, where they ﬁnd their food, have no air- 254 AIR-CELLS bladders ; their bodies are heavier than water, and their mode of life does not require them to ascend. Mackerel and other species, which ﬁnd their food entirely on the surface, and remain there, have no air-bladders ; their bodies are comparatively light, and they need not sink low down in search of food. Fishes, therefore, whose habits, and peculiar organization, conﬁne them either to the surface of the water, or the bottom of the sea, do not require to pass through a wide range of different depths, or encounter different degrees of pressure, from the medium in which they live and move, and therefore do not require an air-bladder to adjust the speciﬁc gravity of the body to different depths of water. Some zoologists have supposed that the air- bladder of ﬁshes may be connected with the respiration, but nothing certain is known on this subject. Much remains to be yet observed with regard to the relation of this organ to the general conformation of ﬁshes ; for it is some- times found in one species, and entirely absent in another, which belongs to the same genus. AIR-CELLS are hollow spaces within the cellular-tissue of the stems, leaves, and other parts of plants, containing air only; the sap, and other matters, being contained in diiferent re- ceptacles. They most frequently occur in water- plants, and very conspicuously in the splendid Vc'ct0ria regina of the silent lakes of Guiana, enabling its rosy leaves to ﬂoat; in the oaZZis- neria spe'mZz's, of which the male specimens immersed in the water rise from the bottom to meet the long stalked females which stand over the surface. Tubular canes which contain air, and allow the naked eye to see through them (if the stem of the plant be cut), occur in the bamboo and other plants of the grass family ; but they must be distinguished from the air- cells. Other receptacles of air are to be found in the cambimn (or the layer of gelatinous cel- lular-tissue between the wood and the bark) of trees. Here the longitudinal rows of cells be- come broader, and exhibit, in the progress of growth, small ﬂat air-bubbles between the walls of the contiguous cells ; gradually the bubbles become globular or oval, and after the cell walls have increased in thickness, a small canal is formed within the new mass, giving rise to po- rous vessels. This is readily observable in limes and willows. The air-bubbles obstruct the pas- sage of the sap, and thus cause the consolida- tion of the wood. The difference between the wood of needle-leafed trees (such as the pine, ﬁr, spruce, larch, &c.), and of broad-leafed trees, chieﬂy depends upon the number of the cells that are converted into porous vessels. AIR-GUN, a pneumatic engine resembling a musket, for the purpose of discharging bul- lets by means of compressed air. It consists of a lock, stock, barrel, and ramrod. The stock is made hollow, and provided with proper cooks for ﬁlling it with compressed air by means of a force pump. The lock is nothing but a valve which lets into the barrel a portion of the air compressed in the stock, when the trigger AIR-PLAN TS is pulled. The gun is loaded with wadding and ball in the ordinary way, and the air sud- denly introduced from the stock. propels it with a velocity proportional to the square root of the degree of compression of the air. There are many ways of arranging air-guns, and there is no doubt that if the discovery of powder had not been made at an earlier date, these instru- ments would have reached a point of excel- lence little suspected. The last improvement is due to a scientiﬁc gentleman, J. Cornelius Borda. It consists in loading the reservoirs in the gun with a mixture of oxygen and hydro- gen in the due proportion for producing water, or more practically, with a mixture of air and ordinary gas-light. The gun is besides provided with a small electric battery, so connected with the trigger, that at the moment a portion of the gas is let out, an electric spark is produced, which determines the instantaneous combus- tion of the mixture into steam at a very high pressure, in consequence of the excessive heat resulting from the chemical transformation. This air-gun may propel a ball as far as a mus- ket, while an ordinary air-gun propels it only 60 or 80 yards. AIR-PIPE, a pipe used to ventilate the holds of ships. It is generally made of a cotton or hemp fabric. The pipe passes vertically through one of the hatchways, from the hold or from between decks, to the upper deck, where the opening is enlarged, turned side- ways, and fastened to the rigging toward the point from whence the wind blows. The wind forces itself down, and the foul air below comes out through the other hatchways. Air-pipes on steamers are made of iron plates like stove- pipes, or of tin plates. Their diameter is from 12 to 36 inches. The top is made movable, and is provided with a vane which keeps the opening toward the wind by the effect of the wind itself. This superior arrangement has been introduced on board of steamers, be- cause the heat of the furnaces in the boil- er room, and the smell of the burning paint and grease in the neighborhood of the en- gine are almost insuﬁ'erable. The results of bad ventilation in sailing vessels are cholera, small-pox, and typhus and other fevers, which, though not immediately and certainly fatal, have destroyed more lives than heat and bad smells. It would be very desirable to have im- proved air-pipes introduced by law on board all kinds of vessels.—The name of air-pipe is also given to pipes under, over, or inside of which a ﬁre is lighted to create a draft for the purpose of ventilation. AIR-PLAN TS, a term applied to some spe- cies of the families of Bromeliaceoe (Tillavzdsia usncotdes, hanging in festoons from the forest trees of tropical America, moss-like, and T. wiphioides, perfuming the balconies of houses in Buenos-Ayres, &c.), and of orchideacew (namely, the parasitic groups of them, such as the aérides, amachnicles, or ﬁos aé'raapf the East Indies, and many others), because of their being able to AIR-PUMP v live for a considerable time, suspended in the air, without apparently receiving any nutriment. The hot, damp, and shady forests of the torrid zone in Asia, Africa, and America, abound in gracefully and grotesquely shaped and de- liciously scented species of orchidece, so that in Java alone there are nearly 300 varieties. During the dry season, which is that of repose, corresponding to our winter in this respect, these parasites wither, lose their leaves, and seem to be dead; but as soon as the gentle, pre- paratory rain begins to fall, they revive, and become fully developed into their glorious ex- istence by the ceaseless showers that transform the whole surface of the country into a mag- niﬁcent hot-house. They are attached, amidst gigantic grasses, ferns, and numberless climbers, to trees, rocks, &c., and are nourished by the continual warm vapors that ﬁll the forests. Stagnant water is injurious to them, even by mere proximity. The roots of most fully de- veloped air-plants, by which they cling to their supports high in the air, have an outer parch- ment-like layer, in which the spiral cells ex- hibit detached ﬁbres and simple walls; thus in oncz'dz'um altissimuan, epidenclron elongatum, dzc. In order to enjoy these beautiful plants in our houses, we must surround them by the natural circumstances in which they prosper, viz.: rotten wood, a very little chopped moss, and fragments of ﬂower-pots for soil, with heat, damp air, diffused light, absence of stagnant water and of impurities. AIR-PUMP. I. In natural philosophy, a machine for exhausting the air from a vessel. The ﬁrst machine of this kind was made in 1650 by Otto de Guericke, burgomaster of Mag- deburg, shortly after Galileo had discovered that air was ponderable. Since then this in- strument has been much improved, principally by Hook, Papin, Hawksbee, Boyle, and Babinet. In its most approved form it consists of a circu- lar brass plate, on which is placed a bell-shaped glass vessel. The inside communicates through a hole drilled in the centre of the plate, with two vertical pump cylinders. The piston rods of the two pistons are provided with racks, acted upon by a pinion placed between them, on the shaft of which is a double crank. This crank is worked up and down with both hands. The rim of the glass vessel, called the reservoir, is ground per- fectly ﬁat, and a little lard is rubbed upon the edge before it is applied on the brass plate, which is likewise ground ﬁat by a circular slid- ing motion. Thus an air-proof joint is formed. Valves, placed either on the piston or on the cylinders, a stop cock on the pipe, and a mer- cury vacuum gauge, communicating with the reservoir, complete the machine. At each stroke of a piston, a cylinder full of air is ex- pelled on one side the piston, and the air of the reservoir expands to ﬁll the space on the other side; at the return stroke, this air is ex- pelled in its turn, and so on. The air of the reservoir becomes more and more dilated till the AIR-VESSELS 255 moment when a full cylinder of it, compressed into the small space necessarily left between th-" piston and the cylinder bottom, has not a suf~‘=. ﬁcient pressure to open the valve; that is to say, when this pressure is less than 14 pounds to the square inch, which is the pressure of the atmosphere, acting on the other side of the valve. As a consequence of its principle of action, a perfect vacuum cannotbe produced by this machine, but it will be approximated in a direct ratio with the perfection of the work- manship of the pump ; it is usually of 315 of an inch of mercury. The improvement introduced by Babinet consists in a cock of a peculiar form placed under the pumps, which by means of four passages makes one pump act on the other, and enables the operator to obtain a more perfect vacuum, that is, 5‘; of an inch of mercury. This cock is worked by hand, and _is used only after the vacuum has been brought to two mil- limetres of mercury, possible by working the pumps alone. This cock might be worked automatically, if it were desirable. It is obvious that a greater perfection might still be obtained by making 3, 4, or more pumps act in succession, that is, the ﬁrst exhausting the second,the second exhausting the third, and the last exhausting the reservoir. The last innovation in air-pumps is due to Mr. Kennedy. This gentleman, struck by the want of stability and portability of the ordinary instruments, has devised one, in which the pump cylinders are h'orizontal, and which he claims to be more convenient and cheaper. Ex- perience has not yet proved this to be an im- provement. Air-pumps are used by professors of natural philosophy, to show that in a vacuum combustion is arrested, smoke falls like lead, cold water boils, some insects live several days, fermentation is stopped, &c. The celebrated process of Appert for the preservation of ali- mentary substances, is founded on the 1ast-men- tioned property, but the necessary vacuum is pro- duced, not by using an air-pump, but by boiling the boxes of preserves, thus producing steam that expels the air and condenses into water when cooling. The only manufacture in which air- pumps are used is that of aneroid barometers. II. Inthe steam engine, the air-pump is a simply acting pump, used in condensing steam engines to pump out of the condenser the condensed steam, the water introduced for condensing, and the air that has come out of this water when warmed by the condensation of steam. This air-pump is one of the inventions of Watt. Thirty gallons of water contain in solution 1 gallon of air, and in weight 23,100 lbs. of water contain in solution 1 lb. of air. This shows that an air-pump has much more work to do in pumping out water than in pumping out air, but it has been named after the last ﬂuid, be- cause this was for a time a hidden impediment to the working of condensing engines, which was overcome by placing the pump in such a position that the air can be taken out with the water. AIR-VESSELS, or properly SPIRAL Vnssms, 256 AIRANI are supposed by some botanists to be the only formation by which air is conveyed into the vegetable system; but air has access to many parts of the plant by means independent of the spiral vessels. Spiral vessels differ from spiral cells (or vermiform bodies) only by dimension, so that there is a constant transition from the latter into the former. Both are quite as fre- quently ﬁlled with sap (in the youngest portions of the plant) as with air (in the full-sized organs). They are ﬁrst perceptible in the bud. The spiral vessels of the wood are to be distinguished from those of herbaceous plants, both as regards their origin and their function. The latter has not yet been fully explained, owing to the di- versity of views entertained by different in- quirers. Spiral formation begins when the sim- ple cell-membrane ceases to exist. This, as well as all other transitions from one form to another, accompanied by modiﬁcations and changes of the chemical constituents of the vegetable body. In some cases the air in the cavities of the plant contains more oxygen than the atmospheric. AIRANI, in ecclesiastical history, a sect of Arians in the 4th century, who refused a place in the Trinity to the Holy Ghost. They are sometimes called Airanists, and are said to have taken their name from one Airos, a distinguish- ed leader and preacher in their body. AIRD, Tnomas, a Scottish poet, who pub- lished a volume of poems in 1849. His power of sketching natural scenery is consid- erable. In purely imaginative poetry, his “ Devil’s Dream on Mount Aksbeck,” his “De- moniac,” and his “N ebuchadnezzar,” are his best efforts. AIRDRIE, a borough town in Scotland, coun- ty of Lanark, parish of New Monkland,11 miles E. by N. from Glasgow, and communicating with that city by canal and railway. The town is well-built, paved, and lighted with gas. It is divided into two parishes, has a municipal organization, and, in conjunction with Lanark and Hamilton, sends one member to parliament. In 1851, the population numbered 14,435. It is growing rapidly into importance, from the extensive coal and iron mines in the neighbor- hood, and also from its proximity to Glas- gow, whence many of its weavers obtain em- ployment. AIRE. I. A river of Yorkshire, in England, which, subsequently enlarged by aﬁiuents, changes its name and becomes the Humber. After a course of several miles, it joins the Calder, and the two, having been widened and deepened, form one of the links in the canal system of Yorkshire and Lancashire, under the name of the Aire and Calder navigation. H. A fortiﬁed city of France, department of Pas-de- Calais, and arrondissement of St. Omer, on the river Lys. The town is well built, and has manufactures of cotton and woollen goods, hard- ware, delf, soap, and oil, which latter is ex- tracted from seeds. Pop. 9,200. III. A town in the south of France, department of Landes, AIRY and arrondissement of St. Sever, on the left bank of the river Adour. It was the residence of Alaric II., king of the Visigoths, and has been since the 5tl1 century the seat of a bishop. Pop. 4,500. AIREY, SIB RICHARD, K. C. B., major-gener- al, and, at present, quartermaster-general of the British army, entered the service in 1821 as en- sign, was made a captain 1825, a lieutenant- colonel 1851, and as such took the command of a brigade in the army of the east in 1854. When the Crimean expedition was about to sail from Varna, he was made, Sept. 1854, quartermaster- general of the expeditionary force, and, as such, became one of the 6 or 8 officers who, under the command of Lord Raglan, have been chafged with destroying the English army by dint of routine, ostensible fulﬁlment of duty, and want of common sense and energy. To Airey’s share, fell the ﬁxing of the propor- tions in which the different articles of camp- equipage, tents, great-coats, blankets, boots, should be dealt out to the various regiments. According to his own admission (before the Chelsea commission of inquiry), “there never was a period after the ﬁrst week in Dec. 1854, when there was not at Balaklava a considerable supply of warm clothing, and at that very time there were regiments engaged at the front in the trenches, which were suffering acutely from the want of these very articles, which lay in readiness for them at a distance of 7 or 8 miles.” This, he says, was not his fault; there never having been the slightest diﬂiculty in getting his signature of approval to a requisition for such articles. On the contrary, he gives him- self credit for having, as much as possible, abridged and simpliﬁed the routine process of approving, reducing, or disapproving the requi- sition sent to him by divisional and regimental oﬁicers. AIROLA, ANGELA VEE omoa, Italian painter, died 1670. She was a noble Genoese lady, and nnn of the convent of Bartolomeo dell’ Olivella. She studied drawing and painting under Do- menico Fiasella, and painted several pictures for her own convent and for different churches in Genoa, one of which is the altar-piece in the church J esus-Maria. AIRY, GEORGE BIDDELL, astronomer royal of England, born in 1801. He was a fellow of St. J ohn’s college, Cambridge, a university which, since the days of Newton, has always been pre- eminent for its mathematicians; afterward he became a fellow of Trinity, and was appointed Plumian professor of astronomy in 1828. In 1836 he became president of the London astro- nomical society, and on the death of Mr. John Pond he became astronomer royal. Of his various memoirs and communications, entered in the proceedings of the astronomical society, one on the mode of simplifying the theory of planetary perturbations is best known. Since he has taken the superintendence of the Green- wich observatory, he has completed a reduction of the observations of the moon which had AISLE been taken there. He contrived a new instru- ment for observing the moon off the meridian, and replaced the old mural circle and transit instrument by another of simple construction and effective utility. Professor Airy’s name has special interest in this country from his having prepared the formula and methods for conduct- ing the survey of the Maine boundary, between Canada and the United States. It has been charged against Professor Airy, that his tardi- ness in recognizing Adams’s calculations and observations of the new planet Neptune, has lost to England the honor of its discovery. AISLE, in architecture, is the term applied to the wing of a building. In Gothic cathe- drals and churches, it is used to designate the lateral divisions of the building separated from the middle of the nave by two rows of piers. The space between the two aisles is sometimes incorrectly spoken of as the middle aisle. AISNE, a department in the north of France, which takes its name from the river Aisne, a tributary of the Seine. The inhabitants are chieﬂy taken up in agricultural and grazing pursuits, and the quantity of farm produce and live stock in this department is very considera- ble, exceeding that of most parts of France. A proﬁtable trade is carried on in pressing the oil from the beech mast of the extensive forests. It has several towns noted for their manu- facturing pursuits. The mirrors of Saint Gobain are known throughout France. Population about 600,000. Area2,196 square miles. Chief town Laon. AISSE, M’LLE, a romantic young lady, daugh- ter of a Circassian chief, whom the French am- bassador at Constantinople bought in the slave market for 1,500 francs. She was born in 1693, and died at Paris in 1733. She was but 4: years old when the Comte de Ferriol pur- chased her. He took her to Paris with him and had her educated by the ﬁrst masters, un- der the superintendence of his sister-in-law, M’me de Ferriol. Her magniﬁcent person, and her ﬁne talents, were temptations which the French nobleman could not resist, and she had scarcely reached the age of womanhood when Ferriol gave his desires full scope. That she was deserving of a better fate is proved by her repulse of the brilliant offers of the duke of Orleans. The Chevalier Aydie, who had as- sumed the vows of the knights of Malta, at length won her love. He was willing to become liberated from his vows, and marry her; but she herself opposed that step. She went to England and gave birth to a daughter, who was brought up in a convent under the name of Miss Black. Her unhappy passion, and the moral conﬂict which it caused, gradually un- dermined her strong constitution, and she sank into the grave at the age of 40, still beautiful and beloved by all who knew her. Her letters describing all the important personages of the court and the manners of the time, are written in a charming, open-hearted, and naive vein, and were thought worthy by Voltaire of being voL. 1.-17 AITON 257 published, accompanied by annotations of his own. AISVARIKAS, a name given to several Buddhist sects. Buddhism has two cosmogo- nies; the one recognizing the existence of a purely spiritual supreme power, who out of his own will created all things from nothing. This was the doctrine of the Aisvarikas, and they an- swer to the spiritualistic cosmogonists of Chris- tianity. The problem of a superintending Prov- idence by such an absolutely unconditioned and inﬁnite power, the Aisvarikas dismissed with a simple negation. The other Buddhist cosmogony attributed the existence of the ma- terial universe to the productive force of nature, evolving all things under the necessity of ﬁxed and incessantly operative laws. This was the doctrine of the Suabhavikas, and they corre- spond to the atheistic cosmogonists under Chris- tianity. The Aisvarikas were subdivided also into two sects; one of which taught that the Supreme Being was the only and immediate principle of all that exists, while the other, by a sort of compromise with the Suabhavikas, taught that the Supreme Being was eternally united to a material principle, the mediate cause of creation. The Aisvarikas taught the entire efﬁcacy of asceticism, believing that the highest virtue and felicity were attainable, even to fellowship in the attributes of Buddha, by self-denial and abstraction. AIT-EL-ARBA, a large village in northern Africa, in the country of the Benni-Yeni, a tribe of the Kabyles. The principal occupa- tion of its inhabitants for the last 2 centuries has been counterfeiting the gold and silver coins of all nations, especially of France and Spain. These counterfeits are made with such skill that the oiﬁcers of the French treasury in Algeria, have often been deceived by them. The people of Ait-el-Arba have been regarded with contempt by the Kabyles in general on account of their dishonest trade, and once their neighbors seized their dies and other tools and destroyed them. The implements were, how- ever, soon replaced, and the business throve more than ever till June, 1857, when the French army under Marshal Randon took possession of the village. AITON, WILLIAM, a Scotch gardener and botanist, born near Hamilton, in Scotland, in 1731, died in 1793, at Kew palace. He emigrat- ed to England in 1754, and in 1759 obtained the management of the royal botanical garden at Kew. Under his care Kew gardens became the principal scene of botanical culture in the kingdom. In 1789 he published his Hortus Kewensis, in which more than 5,000 species are described. The system of arrangement adopt- ed is the Linnaean, and the author indicates the origin, mode of culture, and the epoch of intro- duction into England, against each entry. He was assisted in this task by 2 learned Swedes, . Dr. Solander and Mr. Jonas Dryander. George III. was very fond of him, and often expressed to Aiton the gratitude he felt toward the 258‘ AITZEMA man who had made Kew gardens what they were. AITZEMA, Lmuwn van, a Dutch historian, born 1600, at Dokkum, died at the Hague in 1669. His great work is Zaaken can staat en oorlog in ende omtrent de oereenigde Nader- Zanden. It is very valuable because it contains important original documents that had appeared between the years 1621 and 1668. He was also resident agent of the Hanseatic towns at the Hague. AIX. I. A town of southern France, depart- ment of Les Bouches-du-Rhone; population 25,000; 530 miles from Paris, 18 from Mar- seilles. It is the seat of an archbishopric, and pos- sesses a museum and one of the best provincial libraries of France, containing 80,000 volumes. It was the Aquae Sextiae of the Romans, so called on account of its thermal springs, by Sextius Calvinus, who fought here a battle with the Gauls, B. C. 128. Between Aix and Arles is the battle ﬁeld in which Marius gained his great victory over the Teutones. The counts of Provence made Aix their capital and resi- dence. The town is handsome and the public buildings repay inspection. The cathedral, the clock; tower in the market-place containing a curious clock, and the hotel de ville, are ﬁne specimens of middle age architecture. The mineral baths are but little frequented ; they are impregnated with sulphur, and are said to soften and improve the skin. II. A bathing place of some repute in Savoy. The waters are warm, impregnated with sulphur, and have a temperature of from 112° to 117° Fahrenheit. The ancient name was Aquae Allobrogum, Gratianae or Domitianae. Near it is the lake Bourget. It has only about 1,000 inhabit- ants, and the place is dependent on the visitors who come in search of health, tempted by the mineral springs and the extreme salu- brity of the atmosphere. It is about 7 miles from Chambéry. _ AIX LA CHAPELLE (German, Aachen), one of the smallest provinces of the Prussian monarchy. The capital of the same name is about 40 miles W. S. W. ofCologne. Population about 40,000. Religion, Catholic, except about 1,200 Protestants and 200 Jews. The town is pleas- antly situated on rising ground, and is a centre for Rhenish industry; it has an especial repu- tation for pins and needles. It has direct rail- way communication with Belgium and other parts of Germany. The city is handsomely built, contains a ﬁne gothic town house, and its cathedral is remarkable not only for its beauty, but for containing the tomb of Charle- magne, which is in the centre of the building, and has the inscription Carolo Magno. On the western end of the building is a tower where the relics are kept, which are so sacred that they are only exposed to public gaze once in 7 years, and then from the gallery of the tower. Aix la Chapelle was the birth-place and favorite residence of Charlemagne, and un- til 1558 all the German emperors were crowned AIX LA CHAPELLE there, and their portraits, together with Char- lemagne’s chair and many other interesting his- torical memorials, are preserved, either in the cathedral or in the town hall. The imperial insignia were removed to Vienna in 1794. The burghers enjoyed rare exemptions and privileges until the reformation; at which epoch the re- formed cause was warmly espoused by the cit- izens. After desperate contests, however, the Catholics, with the aid of Spanish soldiery from the Netherlands, suppressed Protestantism, and the privileges were taken away from the city. The baths are a great attraction to stran- gers. They were known to the Romans, by whom the place was called Aquigranum, either from an epithet of Apollo, to whom thermal springs were sacred, or from Severus Granius, a Roman commander, about A. D. 125. The waters contain sulphur, and have aheat of 143° Fahrenheit. They are very beneﬁcial in skin and paralytic affections. \ Near the city, in a suburb, there are other springs, both hot and cold, and not impregnated with sulphur.-—- TREATY or, 1668. At the death of Philip IV. of Spain, 1665, Louis XIV. asserting a claim to parts of the Spanish dominions in rigl1t of his wife, Maria Theresa, under the Brabant laws of devolution, commenced the war of succes- sion and seized the province of Franche Comté, together with several fortresses and strong- holds in the Netherlands. The Spaniards were unable to make head against such leaders as Condé and Turenne, and Holland, alarmed at the progress of the French, concluded the triple alliance with England and Sweden. Louis ac- cepted mediation in preference to the al- ternative of arms, and a congress opened at Aix la Chapelle, ended in a treaty, May 2, 1668, by which Franche Comté was given back, but several of the strong towns in the Nether- lands retained, including Lisle and Valencien- nes.—lI. TREATY or, 1748. The Austrian war of succession had arisen from the claims made by several German princes to the throne of Aus- tria, in opposition to Maria Theresa, who suc- ceeded to the throne in virtue of the Pragmatic Sanction. The war lasted from 1740 to 1747, and all the powers in Europe were en- gaged, on one side or other-England and France being, as usual, opponents. The pre- liminaries were signed in April, 1748, and rati- ﬁed in October. The Pragmatic Sanction was renewed, and the status guo ante bellum of all parties restored. From the indisposition of Frederic the Great to comply with the last article and to restore Silesia, the '7 years’ war arose subsequently.——Couennss or, 1818, was held for the purpose of settling outstanding questions incident to the war which had been concluded by the battle of Waterloo. This congress was attended by the emperors of Aus- tria and Russia, and by the king of Prussia in person, and by the representatives of the allied powers, Prince Metternich, Lord Castlereagh, Duke of Wellington, Counts Hardenberg, Bern- stoff, Nesselrode, and Capo d’Istrias. France AIZAN I was invited to cooperate, which she did, and sent Talleyrand. The conferences resulted in the declaration by the 5 great powers to adhere to the arrangement for the partition of Europe, known as the holy alliance, and in a circular to that effect to all the minor courts of Europe. Upon this, the allied army of occupation, which had remained in France for nearly 3 years, broke up their cantonments and evacuated the French territories. AIZANI, or AZANI, a city of Asia Minor, whose modern name is Schafter Hissar, in the ancient province of Phrygia. It is mentioned by Strabo. Its numerous remains have been made known to the moderns by the French architect, Charles Texier, who visited Aizani in 1834. Mr. Hamilton and Sir C. Fellows have since de- scribed them. The remains comprise an ancient temple of Jupiter, a theatre, stadium, and gym- nasium. The theatre is in ﬁne preservation. Its greatest diameter was 185 feet, and the au- ditorium had 15 rows of marble seats. The river Rhyndacus passed through the town and was spanned by two bridges of white marble, each consisting of ﬁve semi-circular arches. There are besides many tombs. (See I-Iami-lton’s “Researches in Asia Minor,” and Sir C. Fel- lows’s “ Asia Minor.”) AJACCIO, the chief town of Corsica, a sea- port on the western side of the island, in 41° 55’ N. lat. 8° 44’ E. long. Population, in 1852, 11,944. It is the see of a bishop, and has at ca- thedral, a college, and a naval school. The larg- est ships can lie along its wharves, but the har- bor is dangerous during the prevalence of south-west winds. Wine, olive oil, and fruits, are the chief articles of trade. It is the birth- place of Napoleon Bonaparte, and the house in which he was born is still in good preserva- tion. A monument to Napoleon, consisting of a marble statue on a high granite pedestal, was erected in the market-place by the people of Ajaccio, May 5, 1850. AJALON, a city of the tribe of Dan, in the Valley of which Joshua commanded the moon to stand still. The modern town is called Yalo. AJ AN, an extensive tract on the eastern coast of Africa, usually coupled with Adel. It extends from Zanguebar to Cape Guar- dafui, about 10 degrees of latitude. The southern coast is sandy and barren ; the northern is high, especially at Cape d’Orfui, which is a bluff toward the sea, backed by lofty mountains of singular shape. The S0- malis, or Berbers, are the inhabitants. There is no river of importance. Ajan was known to the ancients, and called Azania. It is men- tioned in the Periplus of the Erythraean sea. The inhabitants traded with the Arabs in ivory, tortoise-shell, &c., and were under Arab 'control, and Rhaptum, the, ancient capital, was the farthest point to the south known to the Greeks. AJASALUK, or AYASOOLOOK, a wretched Turkish town in Asia Minor, built chieﬂy of ma- terials furnished by the ruins of ancient Ephe- AJURUOCA 259 sus. The remains of the great temple of Diana, - spoken of in Acts xix., have been discovered here. Lat. 37° 55’, long. 27° 20’. AJAX. There were two chiefs of this name engaged in the Trojan war, Ajax the Greater, and Ajax the Less. The greater was the son of Telamon, king of Salamis, and third in direct male descent from Jupiter. He was deemed to be second only to Achilles in martial prowess, equal to him in strength, but inferior in agility. He led the forces of the Salaminians. Hector retired before the Telamonian Ajax on more than one occasion in the course of the war. At the death of Achilles, the arms of that hero were allotted to him who had deserved best of the Greeks. But two advanc- ed claims to this honor, the greater Ajax and Ulysses. The former alleged his preeminence as a warrior, the latter as a counsellor. The arms were adjudged to Ulysses. Ajax went mad, committed many excesses, and slew himself upon that sword which he received in exchange from Hector for abelt, after a combat. This catastrophe forms the subject of the ﬁne tragedy of Sophocles, called the “Ajax.” In the Odys- sey, Ulysses is represented as descending to the_,,,_m infernal regions and making fraternal overtures to Ajax there. Ajax, unforgiving, stalks away sullenly, and without reply.—AJAx, son of Oileus, was remarkable for his swiftness of foot. At the sack of Troy he violated Cassan- dra, in the temple of Minerva. The goddess, , in revenge, raised a storm against his ﬂeet as her‘ was returning home. The Oilean escaped to a rock, and then ridiculed and deﬁed the ven- geance of the gods. Neptune, to humble the insolence of a mortal, cleft the rock with his“ trident, and tumbled the lesser Ajax into the‘ boiling surge. AJEHO, a newly settled town in the Chi- nese empire, territory of Mantchooria, situated 75 miles to the W. of Soongaree, and about 120 N. of Kirin. It has a population of Chinese immigrants amounting to 60,000, which is rap- idly increasing. AJISTAN, a large and straggling Persian town in the province of Irak-Ajemee, 80 miles E. S. E. of Kashan, celebrated for its pomegran- ates. The town is surrounded by gardens, and contains a royal palace. AJMEER, AJMERE, or Rnaroorarm, was formerly the capital of Agra, and is now the capital of the province of Ajmeer. It is built on a hill side, the summit of which is crowned by a fortress, 220 miles S. W. of Delhi. The town is ﬁnely situated, well built, and has a large bazaar. It has a population estimated at 25,000, and is one of the most prosperous places in British India. AJURUOCA, a Brazilian town in the province of Minas Geraes, 117 miles N. of Rio Janeiro. It is situated on the Ajuruoca river, which is here spanned by a bridge. Tobacco, millet, mandiocae, sugar-cane, and coffee, are produced in the district in rich abundance. The town and district contain a population of 12,000. ‘ numbered 15. 260 AKABAH, a fortiﬁed village of Arabia, situ- ated in an extensive date grove, or oasis, near the northern extremity of the gulf of Akabah in lat. 29° 24’ 30" N. long. 35° 6’ E. It is . AKABAH ' garrisoned by a few soldiers from Egypt, who keep the Arabs in awe, and protect the annual Egyptian pilgrims.—-The GULF on AKABAH, an inlet of the Red sea, about 12 miles wide, form- ing its N. E. arm, after its bifurcation, in lat. 28° N. It extends in a N. E. direction to lat. 29° 36' N., bounding the mountainous penin- sula of Sinai on the S. E. AKBAH, a famous Saracen general, in the ﬁrst century of the Hegira. Having conquered the nations of northern Africa, he was slain while engaged in quelling a rebellion among the Greeks and Africans, in the eastern part of his dominions. AKBAR J ELAL-UD-DEEN Monammnn, the greatest of all the emperors of Hindostan, born Oct. 14, 1542, died in Sept. 1605, after reigning half a century. At the time of his accession to the throne, his dominions embraced but 3 provinces; in the 40th year of his reign they Akbar was tolerant of all forms of religious belief; he diminished the cruel and oppressive taxes laid on his Hindoo subjects, reformed the administration of the revenue, promoted commerce, and improved the roads of the empire. He encouraged learn- ing and literature, and instituted schools in all parts of his empire. AKENSIDE, Manx, an English physician, celebrated as the author of one of the best didactic poems in the language, born at New- castle-upon-Tyne, Nov. 9, 1721, died at Lon- don, June 23, 1770. His father was a butcher at Newcastle-upon-Tyne, an honest and wor- thy citizen; and the future poet bore a per- manent token of the paternal vocation in the shape of a lameness caused by the fall of a cleaver on his foot when a child. Having re- solved upon the profession of medicine, Aken- side pursued his studies with assiduity both at Edinburgh and Leyden, and after receiving his degree in 1744, established himself as a practi- tioner in Northampton, where a year and a half ’s experience convinced him there was lit- tle success to be anticipated; and he, therefore, removed to London, and there passed the great- er part of his life. Although his reputation as a poet has eclipsed his name in medical annals, it would appear, from contemporary evidence, that Akenside was thoroughly read in the sci- ence of medicine, that he cherished a high esti- mate of its dignity as a profession, and wrote with great insight and correctness of its princi- ples. He was too reserved in temper and self- sustained in manner to practise the conciliatory address, whereby a London physician becomes a general favorite; but his opinions were much respected; he held several responsible medical oﬂices, contributed valuable papers to the jour- nals, frequented the most cultivated society, and maintained a thoroughly respectable and scholarlike deportment, quite diverse from the AKEN SIDE wayward improvidence so often found associa- ted with the poetic instinct. . This element, however, in Akenside was subordinate to method, taste, and learning; his mind was ele- gant rather than impulsive, and expatiated in the sublime abstractions of thought more than amid the charms of passion; his sentiment was chastened by intellectual discipline, and his muse was calm and lofty, ingenious and grace- ful, rather than capricious and impassioned. He was a great admirer of Plato and Cicero, of Shaftesbury and the character of Timoleon; he was precise in dress, systematic in affairs, more retrospective than observant, fond of the images and the forms of classical literature, and with a remarkable sense of the grand and appropriate in language. Hence his defects are the want of spontaneity and simplicity, and his merits those. of reﬂection and rhetoric. He had no facility of adaptation, but much genuine self-respect; he was exacting, but strictly just; exclusive in his social taste, but with a high standard of in- tegrity; more proud than vain, and more fas- tidious than companionahle. Intimately known to but few, he was respected by all as a gentle- man and a scholar. His careful dress, his stiff wig, and his formal address, might impress a stranger with the idea of accomplished pedant- ry; but, once fairly engaged in conversation with a genial and appreciative auditor, the phil- osopher and the man of cultivated taste and elevated sentiments appeared conspicuous. He spoke well at the medical club; he experienced an early disappointment of his affections; he passed much of his time over books, and in professional duties; and he lived -precisely at that era when the artiﬁcial school of verse had reached its culminating point, and before the more genuine inspiration of Burns and Words- worth had ushered in simple and heartfelt strains of personal emotion, caught from actual nature. These considerations enable us bet- ter to estimate the claims of Akenside as a poet. His “Pleasures of Imagination,” pub- lished in 1744, was and is still regarded as a remarkably successful attempt to blend phil- osophical discussion and classical learning with free and eloquent versiﬁcation. Inferior in heroic impulse to Campbell’s “Pleasures of Hope,” and in tasteful rhymes to Rogers’s “Pleasures of Memory,” it excels _both in metaphysical insight and scholastic elegance; more artiﬁcial in style, it was better adapt- ed to please the learned and speculative; and, although the subject of critical objections, soon took a permanent hold upon public esti- mation. Dr. Johnson, according to Boswell, could not read it through; the poet Gray thought its philosophy “spurious,” and traced many of Akenside’s metaphysical notions to Plato, Lucretius, Hutcheson, and Addison’s es- say on the imagination. The philosophy of the poem is highly intellectual. There are pas- sages of memorable force'and beauty; as, for instance, the fond allusion to his native land- scape on the river Tyne, and to the death of AKERBLAD Caesar; and the eloquent parallel between art and nature. Akenside’s blank verse has a. modulation of its own—-energetic and ﬂowing; his apostrophes are often ﬁne, and his meta- phors ingenious and striking; the spirit of romance is singularly blended throughout with a tinge of pedantry; natural science rather than beauty, and philosophic rather than exclusively poetic ideas, form the basis of his argument; but the scope of the whole is comprehensive and elevated, and the tone musical and sus- tained. Cf Akenside’s minor pieces, the “ Hymn to the Naiades” has been cited as thoroughly imbued with the genuine classical spirit, and conveying the pause and harmony of the Greek poets; and Burke declared the “Ode to Lord Huntington” “one of the ﬁnest in the language.” More sublime than vivacious, and more splendid than natural in imagery, it was the confessed de- sire and aim of his muse to “tune to Attic themes the British lyre.” Dr. Akenside read the Gul- stonian lectures in anatomy, and in the thesis he published on receiving his degree (De Ortu ct Incremento Fwtus Humani), he proposed an original theory since conﬁrmed and adopted. Of the English physicians who have left a name in literature, such as Garth, Arbuthnot, Dar- win, and Armstrong, Akenside enjoys the high- est rank. Reﬁned but somewhat irascible, strict in morals but formal in bearing, he consist- ently represented the scholarly poet of his day. All evidence combines to attest his rectitude and loyalty as a man. In the invocation of his chief poem, we recognize the zeal and discrimi- nation of his friendship; the generosity of Dy- son, and his delicate respect for Akenside’s character; their long and perfect association, and the sincere glow of the poet’s tribute—- prove a rare and beautiful affection. For so proud aman as Akenside to receive a pecuniary allowance of £300 annually from Mr. Dyson (who was subsequently clerk of the house of commons, a lord of the treasury, etc.), argues in this benefactor of genius the noblest quali- ties; and his reserve in regard to his friend’s private opinions and life—when appealed to for information, indicates a respect for his memory uncommon in those days of literary gossip. Less considerate associates found occasion for ridi- cule in Akenside’s grave air, his aphoristic phrases, his extravagant speculations in regard to human freedom, and his intense eulogy of classic authorities and characters; and it was conjectured that Smollett intended to parody these traits in the character of the doctor who, in the story of. Peregrine Pickle, gives an en- tertainment in the fashion of antiquity. But these foibles do not essentially mar the noble image of a man of exalted character and great abilities. His career was abruptly terminated in the forty- ninth year of his age. He died in London from an attack of putrid sore throat, and was buried in St. J ames’s church. AKERBLAD, J onxn DAVID, a distinguished Swedish scholar, who died at Rome in Feb. 1819. He made extensive researches in Runic, AKIBA 261 Phoenician, Coptic, and hieroglyphic litera- ture. While holding the ofﬁce of secretary to the Swedish embassy at Constantinople, he visited Jerusalem and the Tread. He was af- terward chargé d’aﬂ'aires at the French court, and spent the closing years of his life at Rome. He was a member of the French national in- stitute, and of other learned bodies. AKERMAN, a town in Bessarabia, near the mouth of the Dniester, where the treaty was con- cluded, 1826, by which a Russian protectorate was established over the Danubian provinces. AKHALIES, a class of turbulent fanatics among the Sikhs of Hindostan. Their body is recruited from all the outcasts of the communi- ty. They recognize no Supreme Being, but re- gard fate as the cause of all things. AKHALZIKH, a district in GeorgianArmenia, N. of Erzeroom, a valley of the Keldir moun- tains. Anciently it was called Keldir or Chaldir; but its present name is derived from the city or town of Akhalzikh, the residence of the Turkish pasha, now included within the Russian bound- ary. The district is mountainous, some of the highest peaks attaining an altitude of 8,000 feet above the sea. Winter here is long and rigorous, while the summer temperature is the other extreme. The products are maize, wheat, barley, ﬂax, tobacco, and cotton; fruits, more especially the grape, abound; cattle, skins, honey, tallow and wax are exported. The dis- tricts recently ceded to Russia by the treaty of Adrianople, are on the S. W. frontier of Russian Georgia, comprising an area of 7,000 square versts; and including the fortresses of Azghur and Akhalkalaki. The latter town has a population of 13,500, and is remarkable for a mosque, built by the Sultan Ahmed, in imita- tion of that of St. Sophia at Constantinople. AKHISSAR, or EK-HISSAR, the ancient Thy- atira, a town in the pashalic of Anatolia, in Asia Minor, 58 miles N. E. of Smyrna. It is built on somewhat elevated ground, and con- tains, it is said, 6,000 inhabitants, with 1,000 Turkish, 300 Greek, and 30 Armenian dwell- ings. There are also several khans and bazaars, a Greek school, and many antique remains. AKHLAT, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the pashalic of Van, at the base of the Seiban Dagh, on the N. W. shore of Lake Van. It is a very ancient place, and in its palmy days was the residence of the Armenian kings. Now it consists of 1,000 dwellings, surrounded by a. double wall and moat, and contains a popula- tion of 5,000. The climate is cold, but vine- yards and orchards ﬂourish in its vicinity. It is under the government of a bey. It is the scene of past conﬂicts between the Greeks, Ar- menians, and Persians. Its ruin began in 1228 by J elal-ud-deen, who took and devastated it; was completed in 1246 by an earthquake. Aladdin took it in 1548, and for a hundred years it was retained by his family. Subse- quently it became subject to the Turks. AKIBA BEN Josnrn, a celebrated Jewish rabbi, who lived about 100 years after Christ, 262 AKIMOFF and is deemed one of the principal fathers of the oral law, or Mishna. A native of Syria, he travelled for information in Arabia, Gaul, Af- rica, Egypt, and other countries. He taught an academy at J affa with the best results. He declared for the impostor Bar Cokeba, and an- nounced that he was the star of Jacob predict- ed by Balaam, and the true Messiah. Cokeba, with Akiba, his high priest, attacked the Roman province of Judea, and committed great cruel- ties there upon the Christians. The Roman army, commanded by Rufus, put the insurgents down, killed the pretended Messiah, and took Akiba prisoner. He was ﬂayed alive with iron hooks. The Jews venerated him as a martyr, and made pilgrimages to his tomb. AKIMOFF, a Russian painter, born about 1750, died 15th May, 1814. After having studied in several of the best schools of Italy, he was named rector of the academy of ﬁne arts at St. Petersburg. His forte lay in the por- traits of saints, many of which adorn the church of Alexander Nevskoi. AKINDYN US, Gnnconrus, a Greek theolo- gian of the 14th century. The Hesychiasts or Quietists who lived in the monasteries on Mt. Athos, claimed that they could see God face to face, as Jesus did on Mt. Tabor. Akindynus and Barlaam opposed this pretension, were com- plained of, and condemned by the council held at Constantinople. ' AKOOSHA, a Russian town and territory in the province of Daghestan. The territory is on the eastern slope of the Caucasus, and the town, which is the capital of the district, is about 55 miles W. N. W. of Derbend. AKOOTAN, an active volcano, and island of the same name in the north Paciﬁc, one of the Aleutian groups, belonging to Russia. It is 3,332 feet in height. AKOUI, a Chinese general, of Tartar race, and prime minister of the Emperor Kien Lung, lived in the second half of the 18th century. He conquered certain mountain provinces which had maintained their independence of the Chi- nese arms for 2,000 years. He was also success- ful in reducing to their bed the waters of the Hoang-ho, which had overﬂowed large tracts of country, and deprived hundreds of thousands of their means of subsistence. AKRON, a town in the township of Portage, and capital of Summit co., Ohio. It is situated 36 miles S. of Cleveland, on the Ohio and Eric canal, at its junction with the Pennsylvania and Ohio canal, and on the Cleveland and Zanesville railroad. Akron was ﬁrst settled in 1825, in 1827 the Ohio and Eric canal was ﬁnished to this point, and from that time Akron rose in importance, and in 1841 it was chosen the county seat. The canal was ﬁnished in 1832, at an expense of $5,000,000, and the same year it was connected by another canal with Beaver, -Pennsylvania, thus giving it a new impu1se.—- The canal and Little Cuyahoga river supply ample water power to the town, and keep nu- merous large manufactories in operation. Its ALABAMA mercantile importance is also considerable. The manufacturing establishments, the machinery of which is all driven by water power, are 2 wool- len factories, 5 large ﬂour mills, a steam engine factory, a blast furnace, a mineral paint mill, a card manufactory, and an extensive stove man- ufactory. The town is 400 feet above the lake, being the most elevated ground on the line of the canal between Lake Erie and the Ohio river. In the vicinity of the town immense beds of Ohio mineral paint are found, and exported to every part of the country. In 1850 its popula- tion numbered 3,266, at present it exceeds 5,000. AKSAI, a river of Circassia, which takes its rise in the N. E. slopes of the Caucasus, and after a course of 120 miles empties into the Terek.—Also, a village on the right bank of this river, 35 miles S. W. of Kizliar. AKSHEHR, or “ the white city,” is a city of Asiatic Turkey, in the pashalic of Karamania, 10 miles S. of the Salt lake of Aksher, and 65 miles N. W. of Konieh. It is the ancient Phi- Zomelion of Strabo, and contains about 1,500 dwellings. AKSOO, Axsou, or Axsu. I. A town of 6,000 inhabitants, in Chinese Toorkistan, situated in lat. 41° 7' N. long. 79° E., on a river S. of the Thian Shan mountains, and 250 miles N. E. of Yarkund. Being the military head-quarters of this part of the kingdom, a garrison of 3,000 Chinese soldiers is maintained. The people manufacture woollen stuffs, for which, and its jasper, it is resorted to by caravans from all parts of Central Asia. II. A small town of Asiatic Turkey, 18 miles E. by S. from Brusa. III. The name of several Asiatic rivers, the principal of which ﬂows through Chinese Toor- kistan, and is either an aﬁduent of the Irtish or Hoang-ho. ALABAMA, a word of Indian origin, signi- fying “here we rest,” is the name of one of the southern states of the American union. It has an area of 50,722 square miles, and is situated between 30° 10’ and 35° N. lati- tude, and between 85° and 880 30’ W. lon- gitude. Alabama is bounded on the north by the state of Tennessee, on the east by the states of Georgia and Florida, on the south by Florida and the gulf of Mexico, and on the west by the state of Mississippi. The state is divided into two districts and 52 counties, of which the following 18 form northern Alabama, viz.: Benton, Blount, Cherokee, DeKalb, Fay- ette, Franklin, Hancock, Jackson, J efferson, Lau- derdale, Lawrence, Limestone, Madison, Marion, Marshall, Morgan, St. Clair, and Walker; and the 34 following form southern Alabama, viz.: Au- tauga, Baldwin, Barbour, Bibb, Butler, Cham- bers, Choctaw, Clark, Coffee, Conecuh, Coosa, Covington,Dale,Dallas, Greene, Henry, Lowndes, Macon, Marengo, Mobile, Monroe, Montgom- ery, Perry, Pickens, Pike, Randolph, -Russell, Shelby, Sumpter, Talladega, Tallapoosa, Tusca- loosa, Washington, and Wilcox.—-Mobile, on the Mobile river, near where it empties into the bay of the same name, is the chief commercial mart ALABAMA and largest city in the state. Mobile is one of the most important ports on the Gulf of Mexico, being the natural outlet for southern Alabama and south-eastern Mississippi, its commerce is considerable. New Orleans alone exports more cotton from the United States than Mobile. Montgomery, on the Alabama river, the cap- ital of the state, is the second city in Ala- bama. The other towns of importance are Tuscaloosa, formerly the capital, Wetumpka, Huntsville, Marion, Talladega, Florence, Athens, and Jacksonville, with populations ranging from 1,000 to 3,500. Among the towns of less note, with populations under 1,000, are, Bates- ville, Carrollton, Uniontown, Pickensville, Som- erville, Blakeley, Decatur, Eufala, Tuscumbia, Claiborne, &c.——The population of the State in 1855 was 841,704, of whom 464,456 were whites, 374,782 slaves, and 2,466 free colored. Of the white males, 140,077 were under 21 years of age, and 97,385 over 21. Of the females, 135,422 were under 21, and 91,572 over 21. There were 464 insane persons in the State. The following table will show the number of popu- lation at each census since the admission of the State into the union. Census. Whites. Fr, colored. Slaves. Total. 1820 85,451 571 41,87 127,901 183 190,406 1,572 117,549 309,527 1840 335,185 2,039 253,536 590,753 1850 426,514 2,265 " ‘ , ' 771,623 1855 404,456 2,406 374,782 841,704 Of the 428,779 free population in 1850, only 236,332 were natives of Alabama, 183,913 of other states of the union, of whom 58,997 were born in Georgia ; 48,663 in South Carolina ; 28,521 in North Carolina ; 10,387 in Virginia ; 2,852 in Mississippi; 22,541 in Tennessee ; 2,694 in Kentucky, and 9,258 in other states of the union. Of the 7,638 inhabitants of foreign birth, 3,639, nearly half, were born in Ireland; 941 in England ; 584 in Scotland ; 1,068 in Germany ; 503 in France; and the remainder in other countries. The leading pursuits of the free male population were as follows: farmers, 66,610; laborers, 7,281 ; merchants, 2,468 ; students, 2,269 ; clerks, 2,156 ; carpenters, 1,976 ; plant- ers, 1,905; overseers, 1,849; black and white smiths, 1,292 ; physicians, 1,264; teachers, 1,109; engineers, 154 ; clergymen, 702 ; lawyers, 570; boatmen, 316 ; mariners, 395 ; wheelwrights, 396; masons, 338; cabinet and chair makers, 237; coachmakers, 156; shoemakers, 537 ; gro- cers, 220; innkeepers, 117; millers, 372 ; mill- wrights, 146 ; painters and glaziers, 196; print- ers, 174; tailors, 396. The small exhibit of mechanics and laborers in this state is account- ed for, from the fact that nearly all the labor is performed by slaves, who are not taken into this account. There were 296 blind; 210 deaf and dumb ; 363 public paupers; 233 insane, and 476 idiotic.-—The principal rivers of Alabama are the Mobile,Alabama, Tombigbee,Chattahoochee, ' and Tennessee. The latter comes in at the north- east corner of the state, and taking a circular sweep southward goes out at the north-west cor- ner, and empties into the Ohio at Paducah, Ky. .263 With the exception of the Tennessee and its trib- utaries, the rivers of this state flow southward into the gulf of Mexico. The great river of the state is the Mobile, which is formed by the con- ﬂuence of the Alabama and Tombigbee about 50 miles above Mobile bay, into which it empties at the city of Mobile. The Tombigbee rises in north-eastern Mississippi, and is navigable for light draught steamers to Columbus, a distance of about 300 miles, and for ﬂat-boats some 125 miles farther to near its source. The Black Warrior, a branch of the Tombigbee, has its source in northern Alabama, empties near Dema- polis, and is navigable for steamers to Tusca- loosa, a distance of 285 miles from Mobile. The Alabama, which is the eastern branch of the Mobile, is navigable to Montgomery, a distance of about 300 miles, though navigation is frequently interrupted during the dry season. The Chat- tahoochee,- a large river rising in Georgia and emptying into Appalaohicola bay, forms the east- ern boundary of Alabama for more than 100 miles. It is about 500 miles in length and navi- gable to the falls, at Columbus, Georgia, 300 miles above its mouth. ‘Among the smaller rivers are the Conecuh, emptying into the Es- cambia; the Perdido, emptying into Perdido bay; and the Choctawhatchee, emptying into the bay of the same name. Alabama has only about 60 miles of sea coast, extending from Perdido to the western line of the state, a large portion of the southern front of the state being cut oif from the gulf by an intervening strip of the state of Florida. Mobile bay, which is the great outlet to the navigable waters of the state, is the largest and ﬁnest on the gulf, being 30 miles in length and varying from 3 to 18 miles in breadth, with 15 feet of water at the main entrance at low tide ; but the channel for 10 miles below the city of Mobile is not more than 8 or 9 feet deep at low tide. Perdido bay is of slight importance. The Alleghany mountains exhaust themselves in north-eastern Alabama, rendering that portion of the state quite uneven and broken, though the elevation is nowhere very great. The range extends west with a slight bend to the south, and forms the dividing line between the waters of the Tennessee and other rivers of Alabama, all of which ultimately ﬂow southward into the gulf of Mexico.——From this elevated range the face of the country slopes to the south, and is somewhat uneven as far as the centre of the state, where we ﬁnd rolling prairies, pine barrens, and very fertile alluvial river bottoms. The extreme southern portion of the state is very ﬁat, and but slightly elevated above the level of the gulf of Mexico. In the central portions of the state, there are extensive beds of iron ore and bituminous coal. Among the other minerals in this state is galena, which is found in the limestone formations of Benton and other counties ; also manganese, which also occurs in the limestone formations. Bed and other ochres are also found in considerable quantities. Black and variegated marbles abound in Talladega 264 county and on the Cahawba river; also in Coosa county, where granite of a superior quality for statuary is also found in great abundance. Gold has been found in the north-eastern part of the state, but not in suﬁicient quantities to render the mining of it proﬁtable. The prevailing rock formation is limestone. The soil of the state is various, but mainly productive. In the southern part of the state there are considerable tracts of sandy barrens, but the river bottoms are remarkably fertile, and some of them pro- duce good crops of sugar-cane. Some portions of the highlands in the north are not worth cul- tivating, while by far the greater portion is very excellent land, having a productive soil of varia- ble depth, resting on a limestone bed. The forest trees found in the middle and northern portions of the state are oak, hickory, cedar, poplar, chestnut, pine, mulberry, post-oak, and elm, the latter growing on the low lands skirt- ing the streams. Groves of cedar of great height abound in the cane-brakes of Marengo and Greene counties. Below 33° N. lat. commences the long-moss region. This moss, which hangs in festoons from the forest trees so extensively as to darken the wood, is very much used for mattresses.——The climate is healthy, except on the low river bottoms, where the prevail- ing diseases are intermittent, congestive, and bilious fevers; 'congestive fevers being the most fatal. Mobile, in its earlier history, was several times severely ravaged by yellow fever. In the elevated portions of the country the climate is quite delightful, the heat of summer being ma- terially mitigated by the gulf breezes. During summer the mercury ranges from 104° to 60° F. ; in November and the winter months from 82° to 18°, and in spring 93° to 22°. The mean tem- perature of the state is about 63°, or perhaps something less, and the mercury seldom rises above 95. June is the hottest month in the year. Very little snow falls, and the rivers are never frozen over, though stagnant water is sometimes temporarily covered with a thin coating of ice. In the lower portions of the country, there is almost a total lack of good water, while that found in the higher regions is very good. In many parts of the state the in- habitants procure their water from Artesian wells, which not unfrequently reach a depth of 1,000 feet, and some of them throw up water in suﬂicient quantity to turn mills and other machinery. Fruit trees blossom from the 1st of February to the 1st of March, according to the elevation.--The chief productions of the state are cotton and Indian corn, though oth- er grains are produced to some extent, as are also on the bottom lands in the extreme south sugar-cane and rice. Tobacco is also grown to a limited extent. According to the last U. S. census, 1850, there were 4,435,614 acres of land under cultivation, divided into 41,964 farms, producing 225,771,600 lbs. of cotton; 28,754,048 bushels of Indian corn; 294,064 of wheat; 2,965,697 of cats; 892,701 of beans and peas; 5,475,204 of sweet potatoes, ALABAMA 261,482 of Irish do.; 8,242,000 lbs. of sugar; 83,428 gallons of molasses; 4,008,811 lbs. butter ; 2,311,252 of rice; 164,990 of tobacco; 657,118 of wool; 897,021 of honey and beeswax ; 32,685 tons of hay; $21,690,122 worth of live stock; $4,823,485 worth of slaughtered animals; $84,821 worth of market goods, and $1,934,120 worth of home made manufactures. The farming implements of the state were valued at $5,125,663. Alabama is eminently an agricultu- ral state, manufacturing being carried on to a very limited extent. According to the census already referred to, there were in 1850, 1,022 manufacturing establishments in the state, each producing annually $500 or upward. Of these 12 were cotton factories, employing only 736 hands, and producing 3,081,000 yards of stuff and 790,000 lbs. of yarn, all valued at $382,200 ; 14 furnaces, forges, &c., producing castings, pig and wrought iron, valued at $280,876; 149 tanneries, employing an aggregate capital of $200,570, and producing leather valued at $335,911.--Among the natural curiosities which invite the attention of the tourist, are, a natural bridge in Walker county, said to compare favorably with the famous nat- ural bridge in Virginia; Bladen and Blount springs, which are the resorts of health and pleasure seekers, and the sulphur springs of Talladega county. The remains of various mounds and roads have been found in different parts of the state, of which the Indians formerly occuping the country, but since emigrated to the west of the Mississippi, furnish no traditions. A stream of water issues from a large ﬁssure in the limestone rocks at Tuscumbia, which is said to discharge 125 hhds. of water per minute, forming a considerable river which empties into the Tennessee. The north-east corner of the state abounds in wild, grand, and picturesque scenery. The “suck,” a sort of maelstrom in the Tennessee river, and Paint Rock, a very high bluﬁ‘ with ﬁgures representing a man’s face, are objects of much curiosity. -—Alabama has large facilities for commerce, both foreign and internal. Her numerous rivers furnish more than 1,500 miles of steam- boat navigation, ﬁnding an outlet for her pro- ductions, as well as those of portions of the ad- joining states of Georgia and Mississippi,through the magniﬁcent bay of Mobile; beside the Chat- tahoochee (called the Appalachicola below its junction with the Flint, at the S.W. corner of Georgia), which washes the eastern border of Alabama for half the length of the state, and running through Florida empties into Appala- chicola bay ; the Conecuh, called the Escambia after crossing the Florida line, emptying into Pensacola harbor; and the Perdido, which emp- ties into the bay of the same name. The foreign commerce of Alabama all centres at Mobile, where cotton is, of course, the chief article of export; though considerable quantities of sawed lumber and staves are shipped thence to Cuba, and cedar railroad ties to the northern states. The exports of domestic products from ALABAMA ‘ Alabama for 1856, were $23,726,215, of which $14,269,396 was taken in American, and $9,456,819 in foreign bottoms. The imports for the same period were $7 93,514, of which $607,962 came in American, and $181,552 in foreign vessels. The tonnage en- tering Mobile for 1856, was as follows: No. Tons. Men. Boys. Total. Am. vessels, 130 79,879 2,019 133 2,152 Foreign do., 98 89,370 2,393 204 2,597 Total, 228 169,249 4,412 22? 4,149 The following was the amount of tonnage cleared in the same time : “Am. vessels, 1s2 122,409 2,953 212 8,165 Foreign do., 101 90,809 2,432 207 2,639 Total, 2ss 213,218 5,385 413 5,804 Of the clearances, 63 were for England; 40 for France; 47 for Cuba, and 133 for other foreign ports. Twelve vessels, whose aggregate ton- nage was 26,343, were built in the state during the year.——There are at this time (1857) nearly 500 miles of railroad in operation in Alabama, comprising the following lines: 1. The Alabama and Tennessee Rivers road, ﬁnished from Selma to Columbiana, 73 miles. 2. The Alabama and Mississippi, open from Selma to Uniontown, 20 miles. 3. The Memphis and Charleston, from Memphis, Tenn., to Stevenson, Ala., 185 miles in the latter state. 4. The Montgomery and West Point (Ga.), 87% miles, with a branch to Columbus, Ga., 28% miles. 5. The Mobile and Girard, ﬁnished 40 miles from Girard, opposite Columbus, Ga. 6. The Mobile and Ohio, 62 miles to the state line of Mississippi. Of these roads, the ﬁrst is in progress to Gadsden, 167% miles, and will probably be extended to Cleve- land, Tenn., to connect with the East Tennessee and the Virginia roads. The second is being extended to the state line of Mississippi, to connect with roads completed and in progress across that state to Vicksburg, and thence to Shreveport, near the western boundary of Louisiana; from which point a railroad across Texas to the Paciﬁc is projected. The third connects with lines to the seaboard of Virginia, South Carolina, and Georgia. The fourth con- nects Montgomery, the capital of the state, with lines from West Point to Charleston, S. C., and from Columbus to Savannah, Ga. The ﬁfth will connect Mobile with the same system of roads as the preceding. The last is open to Columbus Junction, Miss., 219 miles from Mo- bile, and is in course of construction thence to Cairo, Ill., to connect with the Illinois Central road; and these two roads will form, when united, the longest continuous line of railroad in the world. In addition to the above, grants of land have been made by Congress for the con- struction of a railroad from Montgomery to Pen- sacola, Fla., and of a central line to connect Sel- ma with Nashville, Tenn. There are several other roads in progress or projected, intended to form a very complete system, and to connect every part of Alabama with all the important lines of the country.—Among the public insti- 265 tutions in the state are a penitentiary at Wetumpka, a lunatic asylum at Tuscaloosa, an asylum for the blind and a U. S. naval hospital at Mobile. An appropriation has been made for an asylum for the deaf mutes. The state contains 5 banks of discount and deposit, 2 of which are at Mobile, 2 at Montgomery, and 1 at Selma, with branches. There are 56 college, school, and other public libraries in the state, containing altogether something like 20,000 volumes. Among the ﬁnest buildings in the state are those of the Alabama university at Tuscaloosa, which cost $150,000, and has an annual income of $15,000.-—-The state, in 1855, contained 17 colleges, 191 academies, and 1,098 common schools. The number of children attending the public schools was 40,283, and the number of white children in the state be- tween the ages of 8 and 16 years was 93,443 ; of the white adult population over 20 years of age, one in every ﬁfteen is unable to read and write. The state appropriates about $50,000 annually (the income from the proceeds of school lands granted by congress) to the sup- port of the common schools, and about $5,000 to the academies. The public or free school system went into operation in 1854.——The lead- ing religious denominations are Methodists and Baptists. The former have 531 churches with accommodations for 150,675 worshippers, and possess church property worth $27 6,439. The latter 505 churches, worth $227,297, with accommodations for 158,880. The Presbyte- rians have 150 churches, valued at $222,775, and accommodations for 58,705. The Episco- palians have 16 churches valued at $76,300, with seats for 6,220. The Roman Catholics have 5 churches, with seats for 5,200, and church property worth $300,000. There are other denominations in the state of less im- portance as to numbers.—In 1850,60 newspa- pers and periodicals were published in the state, of which 6 were daily, 5 tri-weekly, 48 weekly, and 1 semi-monthly, with an aggregate circula- tion of 34,597, and an average circulation of 692. The whole number of papers printed during the year was 2,662,741.—By the consti- tution of Alabama, the government is divided into 3 distinct branches, legislative, executive, and judicial. The legislative power is vested in a senate and house of representatives, and styled “the General Assembly of the State of Ala- bama.” The members of the house are appointed among the diﬂ'erent counties in proportion to the white population, and the number cannot exceed 100 nor fall short of 60. The present number is 100. They are elected on the 1st Monday of August every other year. The senators are elected for 4 years, one-half being chosen every 2 years, and their number cannot be more than one-third nor less than one-fourth that of the representatives. The present num- her is 33. The legislature meets biennially at Montgomery on the 2d Monday of November. The executive power is vested in a governor who is elected for a term of 2 years, and is 266 ALABAMA ineligible for more than 4 years out of 6. He is elected on the same day with the members of the legislature. Every white male citizen 21 years of age, who shall have resided in the state one year, and for the last 3 months in the county, city, or town where he offers his vote, is entitled to suffrage. The judicial power is vested in a supreme court of ﬁve justices, with appellate jurisdiction only; a court of chancery con- sisting of three chancellors, the state being di- vided into 3 chancery districts; in circuit courts, each held by one judge, of which there are 8; a city court for Mobile, and courts of probate. The chancellors and judges of the supreme courts are chosen by a joint vote of the legislature for 6 years, and the others are elected by the people. The judges may be re- moved by impeachment, or by the governor on the address of two-thirds of the legislature. The laws of the state are somewhat remarkable for the severity of their penalties. Beside the usual punishment of ﬁne, imprisonment, and death by hanging, are those of “standing in the public pillory, branding, and whipping.” Murder, treason, rape, man-stealing, slave-steal- ing, arson, robbery, burglary, counterfeiting, forgery, and killing in a duel, are punishable with death. The consequence of this severity is that many go unpunished from the unwill- ingness of juries to convict, or are pardoned by the governor. Members of the assembly and other public oﬁicers and attorneys at law, are obliged to take the anti-duelling oath. Ala- bama has 7 representatives in the popular branch of congress, and, like each of the other states, 2 senators.—The territory, now com- prising the state of Alabama, was originally a part of Georgia; but in 1798 the country, now in- cluded in the states of Alabama and Missis- sippi, was organized as a territory, called Mis- sissippi. At this time Florida, which then be- longed to Spain, extended to the French pos- sessions in Louisiana from a parallel of 31° N. lat. to the gulf of Mexico, cutting off Missis- sippi territory from the gulf-coast entirely. During the war with Great Britain in 1812, as a precautionary measure, that part of Florida be- tween the Perdido and Pearl rivers was occupied by U. S. troops and ﬁnally annexed to Missis- sippi territory. During 1813 and 1814 the Creek Indians, a powerful tribe inhabiting what is now Alabama, became very troublesome, and ﬁnal- ly assaulted and captured Fort Mimms, on the Alabama river, near the mouth of the Tom- bigbee, slaughtering indiscriminately 380 whites who had taken refuge there. Upon this Gen- eral Jackson marched to the relief of the set- tlers with a strong force from Tennessee, and with the assistance of the troops from Georgia and Mississippi territory, and a considerable force of friendly Cherokees and Choctaws, re- duced the Creeks to complete subjection after a series of bloody encounters, in which the Creek loss in killed was 1,617, and J ackson’s was 100 killed, 400 wounded. The war was terminated by the famous battle of Horse Shoe Bend on ALABASTER the Tallapoosa, in which about 600 Creeks were slaughtered, and in which Jackson’s loss was only 26 killed and 106 wounded. The warlike spirit of the tribe was completely broken, and they signed a treaty of peace dictated by Gen- eral Jackson, in which they surrendered three- fourths of their vast and fertile territory. The country was subsequently rapidly settled by the whites, and in 1817 the western portion was admitted into the union as the state of Missis- sippi, while the eastern part remained as the territory of Alabama till 1819, when it was also admitted as a state, having at that time 127,- 901 inhabitants, of whom 41,879, about one- third, were slaves. The slave population has since increased much more rapidly than the free, the proportion of slaves to the free population being, according to the census of 1855, as 239 to 289. ALABAMA RIVER is formed by the union of the Coosa and Tallapoosa rivers, which unite not far from the city of -Montgomery. It has a western course as far as Selma, after which it ﬂows southwardly as far as the conﬂuence with the Tombigbee, after which it is known as the Mobile. The river is navigable at all seasons almost to the mouth of the Coosa for boats of the largest size; the length of the river is nearly, if not quite, 300 miles. On its banks are some of the largest cotton plantations in the United,States, and the lands are of great fertility and value. ALABASTER. This name is frequently given to two different mineral substances—the one a sulphate of lime, a pure variety of gyp- sum, and the other a carbonate of lime, of the same chemical composition as most of the mar- bles. It was used with the same ambiguity by the ancient Greeks and Romans. The resem- blance of the two substances is in their delicate white color and ﬁne grain. Each is easily carved and wrought into ornamental forms, and is susceptible of a ﬁne polish. They might well in ancient times have passed as varieties of the same substance—the gypseous alabaster being more delicate and softer to cut, and requiring much more care to polish--the calcareous ala- baster more ﬁrm, and better adapted for the sculpture of larger ﬁgures. The latter was fre- quently obtained‘ from the drippings of the water in limestone caves, which holds carbon- ate of lime in solution, and deposits it in evap- orating in the form of stalactites and stalag- mites. to take the forms of the mould the waters dripped upon ; or the natural stalagmites of the purest colors were selected, and then wrought into the desired ﬁgures.—-The name alabaster is now properly limited to the gypseous variety. It is derived from the town Alabastron, the site of which is believed to have been between the Red sea and the Nile in Middle Egypt. Here the stone was extensively wrought into those boxes and pets for precious ointments and perfumes, of which mention is frequently made in the works of the old writers, sacred and pro- These by a little ingenuity were made ' i ALABASTER fane. A white granular gypsum, pure and in sound blocks, is at this time quarried in Sienna, and in other places in Tuscany, and manufac- tured at Florence, Leghorn, Milan, and Volterra, into utensils similar to those used of old, as well as into vases, lamps, clock-stands, &c. They are exported from these places in considerable quantity to the United States.—The composi- tion of this alabaster is 46.3 per cent. sulphuric acid, 32.9 per cent. lime, and 20.8 per cent. water. Its hardness is 1.5‘-2 of the mineralogi- cal scale. It soon tarnishes on exposure to the air, and is also easily injured by dust and smoke. For this reason articles made of it should be kept under a glass cover. ALABASTER, WILLIAM, an English divine, born in the county of Suffolk about 1567, died 1640. He was educated at Trinity college, Cambridge, and was chaplain to the earl of Essex in the expedition against Spain in 1596. While in that country, he joined the Roman Catholic church, but afterward returned to the communion of the church of England. He was appointed prebendary of St. Paul’s at London, and was subsequently made rector of Therﬁeld in Hertfordshire. Alabaster was a good Hebrew scholar, but wasted much of his time in cabalistic researches. He wrote some poetry, and his “Roxana,” a Latin tragedy, is highly praised by Dr. Johnson. ALABAT, one of the lesser Philippines, sit- uated on the E. coast of Luzon, in lat. 14° N. long. 122° 13’ E., the inhabitants of which are said to be savages. ALACHUA, a county in Florida, in the N. W. part of the peninsula, having an area of 1,000 square miles. It is bounded on the N. by the Santa Fe river, and on the W. by the Suwanee. Within its limits Orange lake is partly included. It also contains several ponds. The surface is rolling prairie, and the soil fer- tile. In 1850, the products were 64,724 bush- els of corn, 28,063 of sweet potatoes, 561 bales of cotton, 17,935 lbs. of rice, 5,558 gallons of molasses. Newmansville is the capital. It is named after a savanna in the county north of Orange, and contains a population of 2,524, in- cluding one free person of color, and 906 slaves. ALACOQUE, MARGUERITE MARIE, a French nun of distinguished devotion, to whom the festival of the Sacred Heart of Jesus owes its origin. She was born at Lauthecour, diocese of Autun, July 12, 1647, and died Oct. 17, 1690. She took the name Marie out of grati- tude to the Virgin Mary, who cured her of a disease when a child. Her biographers also say that she had the gift of miracles, of prophecy, of revelations, and direct intercourse with God and his angels. She predicted the day of her own death, and experienced ineffable pleasure while engraving the name of Jesus Christ on her bosom with a blunt penknife. ‘ ALACRANE, a group of islands in the gulf of Mexico, situated about 70 miles N. of Yuca- tan. These islands are on a reef running N. and S. 15 miles, and 12 miles wide. ALAIN 267 ALA DAGH, alofty mountain-chain in Asiatic Turkey, on the northerly side of which the east- ern Euphrates takes its rise. It is situated on the N. edge of the basin of lake Van, between lat. 30° and 40° N. and long. 30° and 44° E., and forms part of the watershed between the Cas- pian sea and the Persian gulf. Also, a range in Anatolia, to the N. W. of Angora, extending between the Ischik Dagh on the N. E., and the Sangarius valley on the S. and W. ALADAN, a little cluster of islets, known as the Aldine Islands, in the Bay of Bengal, and forming part of the Mergui Archipelago. ALAGHEZ, a volcano and mountain range on the north side of the basin of Armenia, lying on the great plain of the Araxes. The loftiest summit reaches to an altitude of 13,628 feet above the sea level. ALAGOAS, a province ‘of Brazil, on the At- lantic coast, which up to 1840 belonged to the province of Pernambuco. It is situated be- tween 9° and 10° S. latitude, and 36° and 38° 30’ W. longitude. In extent it is 150 miles long by about 60 in width, and contains an area of about 9,000 square miles. Two-thirds of its surface is covered with mountains, at the base of which the land is very fertile. The tall tim- ber trees on the mountains afford large quanti- ties of lumber for export, and in the valleys cotton and sugar are extensively cultivated. Tobacco, which was formerly a staple, since the abolition of the African slave trade, has ceased to be cultivated to any extent. The cli- mate is warm and humid, and in the rainy sea- son oppressive. The principal river is the San Francisco, which enters Alagoas at the western extremity, at the cataract of Paulo Atfonto, where it descends perpendicularly 50 feet. Thence for 50 miles it runs over a rocky bed through steep cliffs to Caninde, where it be- comes navigable, and continues so to its mouth. Tropical fruits of all kinds are grown in abun- dance, and dragon’s blood, mastic, ipecacuanha, copaiba, caoutchouc, and other drugs, are ob- tained in the woods. The population is said to number 200,000, but they are very unequally distributed, -,‘% of them occupying the lowlands, or about one-third of the province. Negro slaves compose about one-half of the popula- tion. ' Some of the native tribes still live in the mountains, and subsist by the chase. The prin- cipal occupation of the people is agriculture; common cotton cloth is made in the families; but most of the manufactured goods are im- ported. Two senators and 5 representatives are returned by this province to the Brazilian General Assembly.—-Alagoas, the capital, has a population of 12,000, and several convents and grammar schools. ALAGON, a river in Spain, about 120 miles long, which is noted for its large, ﬁne-ﬂavored trout. It falls into the Tagus about 2 miles N. E. of Alcantara. ALAIN DE LILLE, in Latin ALANUS DE IN- sums, born 1114, died about 1203. He was called the Universal Doctor, and was one of 268 ALAIS the most profound savants of the 12th cen- tury. He was a philosopher, physician, theolo- gian, poet, and historian. His place of retreat was the monastery of Citeaux. As is the case with so many other celebrities from Homer to St. Patrick, ﬁve nations or provinces dispute the honor of his birth, Germany, Scotland, Spain, Sicily, and Flanders. He himself says he came from Lille in Flanders. ALAIS, an arrondissement in the department of the Gard in France, extending over 529 square miles, and containing 100,000 inhab- itants, and ninety-ﬁve communes. The chief city of the arrondissement is of the same name. It contains 18,983 inhabitants, who are employ- ed in various manufactures. ALAIX, a Spanish general of French origin. After the death of Ferdinand VII., he joined the party of Queen Christine, and was commander of a division. In September, 1838, he was wound- ed, and 2 months afterwards was appointed minister of war. He retained his post until 1839, and died in Madrid, Oct. 1853. ALAJAHISSAR, atown of European Tur- key, on the right bank of the Morava, about 95 miles S. of Semendria. It is the capital of the sanjak of Kruschovatz, in the province of Servia. ALAJUELA, a city in the state of Costa Rica, Central America, situated midway be- tween Cartago and the west coast. It is a place of considerable commercial importance, and is connected with the commodious port of Puntas Arenas on the Gulf of Nicoya, by an excellent mule road. Population, including suburbs, 10,000. ALAKANANDA, a little stream which, ris- ing in the Himalaya mountains, joins the Baghi- rathi at Devaprayaga, and forms the principal source of the Ganges. ALAMAN, Lucas, a Mexican statesman and prominent leader of the monarchical party, born in the latter part of the 18th century, died June 2, 1853. He was a member of the cabinet under Bustamente in 1829, but his re- actionary tendencies found no congenial ele- ments to act upon, until March 17, 1853, when Santa Anna, on again coming into power, lent a willing ear to the suggestions of Alaman, upon whom he conferred the oﬁice of minister for foreign affairs. The new administration found the country in the most distracted con- dition. The people of Zacatecas, Durango, and Nuevo Leon, were in constant fear of being butchered by the neighboring Indians. The ﬁnances were in awretched state of embarrass- ment; adventurers of the worst description and highway robbers made their appearance in every direction, and the government was una- ble to afford protection to the inhabitants. The relations with the United States daily assumed more formidable features. All political ties were torn asunder. The commercial unity was equally destroyed, and every individual state promulgated a separate tariff. The reme- dies suggested by Alaman to Santa Anna, with Q ALAMANCE a view of infusing a spirit of law and order into this universal condition of chaos and anar- chy, were of a singular character. He pro- posed the abolition of the liberty of the press, and severe punishments for the infraction of the new law on this subject, which were actu- ally proclaimed by the president, April 25, 1853. Alaman’s next remedy was the restora- tion of the power and of the conﬁscated property of the Jesuits. This advice was also subsequent- ly followed by Santa Anna, and a decree to that effect issued by him Sept. 19 of the same year. A regular recruiting system was introduced, and the army re-organized. Oner- ous taxes were imposed upon the impov- erished population. A law was passed for the purpose of cashiering all Mexican oﬂicers who had voluntarily surrendered to the American government. The principal public journals of the capital were suppressed, and despotism was the order of the day. Alaman was a partici- pator in most of these proceedings, which, far from allaying, tended only still more to increase the general excitement, and in fact paved the way for the revolution which in 1855 compelled Santa Anna to relinquish the reins of govern- ment. But his foreign minister was relieved by his death, which took place 2 months previ- ous to this event, from witnessing the fatal consequences of his policy. Alaman had no faith in free institutions. In his opinion, an absolute monarchy was the only safeguard for Mexico against troubles from within and at- tacks from abroad. He was the author of a history of Mexico. ALAMAN, SIOARD D’, the favorite of Ray- mond VII., count of Toulouse, and prime min- ister of that province for a long period, died June 3, 1275. He was of an ancient family, and in 1242, when Raymond was about departing for the court of the king of France, was appointed by the latter vice-governor of all his domin- ions on the western side of the Rhone. He continued in favor with Raymond until the death of that prince, in 1249, and was then ap- pointed one of his executors, and governor of all his dominions, until his daughter should be able to take possession of them. This lady had married Alphonse of France, and Alaman was allowed to hold his oﬁice and govern the coun- try as lieutenant of the Count Alphonse. But he was suspected of diverting the revenues of the state to his own private advantage, and was summoned before a court on this charge, when Philip the Bold took possession of the prov- ince. His death, occurring just after he had re- ceived this summons, alone prevented his con- demnation. Alaman left great wealth to an only son, who died without issue, 1279. ALAMANCE, a county in the northern part of North Carolina, having an area of about 500 square miles. The river Haw, a branch of Cape Fear, runs through the centre of the county, and through the western part, Ala- mance creek, from which it is named, ﬂows into the Haw. The soil is fruitful, and the sur- ALAMANN I face undulating. The staples are wheat, corn, oats, hay, cotton, and tobacco. In 1850, the products of the county amounted to 419,130 bushels of corn, 82,887 of wheat, 108,265 of oats, 3,783 tons of hay, 14,650 lbs. of tobacco, 121 bales of cotton, and 80,051 lbs. of butter. It had in the same year 5 cotton factories, an iron foundry, 30 grist and ﬂour-mills, and 15 churches. The North Carolina railroad from Goldsboro’ through Raleigh and Salisbury to Charlotte, passes through this county. There is also a good plank-road from Graham, the county seat, to the Deep river coal mines. Until 1848, this county was part of the county of Orange. It has a population of 11,444, of which 7,921 are free whites, 327 free colored, and; 3,196 slaves. ALAMANN I, or ALEMANNI, LUIGI, an Italian poet, born at Florence in 1495, died in 1556. His father was devoted to the party of the Medi- ci. Suspected of conspiring against thelife of Cardinal Julius, who was governing Florence in the name of the pope, he ﬂed ﬁrst to Venice, and, after the accession of Cardinal Julius to the papal throne under the name of Clement VII., to France. Francis I. had a high opinion of him, and took him into his service. After the peace of Crespi, in 1544, the French king appointed the Italian refugee his ambassador at the court of Charles V. He retained the good will of the successor of Francis, and died at Amboise. He left many poems, satires, fables, and other light literature. ALAMEDA, a new county in the west cen- tral part of California, organized since 1852. It was formed out of portions of the counties of Contra Costa and Santa Clara. Its area is about 820 square miles. ALAMC, a fort in Bexar county, Texas, near the north-east part of the town of San Antonio, and on the left bank of the river of that name. It was called by the Mexi- cans “the Alamo,” a Spanish word meaning poplar. It probably derived its name from the fact of a grove of these trees having at one pe- riod stood near it. The fort was an oblong structure, about an acre in extent, surrounded by a wall 8 or 10 feet high and 3 feet thick. Its name will long be remembered by Texans, as- sociated as it is with occurrences rivalling in barbarity the savage deeds of the middle ages, or the ﬁerce cruelties of the American Indians. The records of the “massacre of the Alamo” are scanty, and are derived from letters written during the progress of the siege, by the ofﬁcers of both sides, from a journal kept by Gen. Al- monte, which was afterward found on the scene of battle, and the evidence of the one or two persons who survived. From these sources we learn that on Feb. 23, 1836, the Mexican forces, from 1,500 to 2,000 strong, commanded by Santa Anna in person, aided by Generals Almonte, Cos, Sesma, and Castrillon, appeared before Bexar. The Texans, consisting of about 140 men, were commanded by Col. Wm. Bar- rett Travis, with C01. David Crockett and Col. ALAMO 269- Bowie under him. Seeing the utter hopeless- ness of attempting to resist so overwhelming a force in the open ﬁeld, they retired into the Alamo, where they raised the national ﬂag, formed of 13 stripes, red and white alternately, on a blue ground, with a large white star of 5 points in the centre, and between the points the word Texas. The Mexicans, having taken possession of the town, proceeded to fortify themselves, erecting batteries on both sides of the river, directed against the fort. A messen- ger was now sent in, demanding the Texans to surrender at discretion, or all would be put to the sword. To this, a cannon-shot was the only reply. The Mexicans now commenced bombarding the fort from 5 different batteries, and continued without cessation for 24 hours. During this time, over 200 shells were discharg- ed into the fort, yet not a man was injured, while the Texan sharp-shooters, standing upon the ramparts, were able to pick off man after man of the enemy. The walls of the fort were found to be quite ball-proof, and as the Texans were constantly engaged in strengthening them with earth, they were able to withstand all the force of the Mexican artillery. Several as- saults were now made upon the fort, but in every instance the Mexicans were repulsed with loss. Col. Travis repeatedly sent couriers to San Felipe, asking for assistance, but without success. By March 3, scarcity of provisions, combined with constant watching, had under- mined the health of the men, without, how- ever, affecting their spirits. Col. Travis har- angued the little garrison, exhorting them to ﬁght to the last, and die rather than surrender. Before daybreak on the 6th, a combined at- tack was made upon the fort by the whole Mexican force. Twice assaulting, they were twice driven back, with severe loss. The Tex- ans, unable to load, in the hand-to-hand ﬁght which now ensued, clubbed their riﬂes and fought with desperation until but 6 of their band were to be found alive. These, including Col. Crockett, surrendered to Castrillon, under promise of his protection, but being taken be- fore Santa Anna, they were by his orders in- stantly cut to pieces. Col. Crockett fell with a dozen swords sheathed in his breast. Col. Bowie, ill in bed, was then shot, after having killed several of his assailants. Major Evans, another gallant oﬁicer, was shot while in the act of ﬁring the powder magazine. The bodies of the slain were now collected together in the centre of the Alamo, and after being horribly mutilated (in which act, it is said, Santa Anna and his generals joined), they were burned. So ended the massacre of the Alamo, an act which, more than any thing else,led to the ﬁnal independence of Texas. It roused a ﬁre in the breasts of the hardy Texans, which result- ed in the battle of San J acinto, the defeat of the whole Mexican army, and the capture of Santa Anna himself, with his best generals. At this battle the Texans, with the war-cry of “ Re- member the Alamo,” carried all before them. 270 ALAMOS ALAMOS, a town in the Mexican province of Sonora, situated 140 miles N. W. of Cinaloa. The district is famous for its silver mines, in which between 3,000 and 4,000 of the towns- people are employed. The town is built of stone or brick, overlaid with stucco, and the streets are tolerably well paved. Population, about 10,000. ALAMOS DE BABRIENTOS, Banrasan, a philologist, born in the middle of the 16th centu- ry at Medina-del-Campo, in Spain. He became distinguished by a translation of Tacitus, which he wrote while in prison, where, owing to his friendship for the luckless Antonio Perez, secre- tary of Philip II., he remained for nearly 12 years. After having recovered his liberty, he obtained, through the inﬂuence of the duke de Lerma and the count de Olivarez, various im- portant charges at the court. He died at the age of 85. ALAMUNDAR, a king of the Saracens, who invaded Palestine A. D. 509, and put to death the hermits who lived in the desert. It is said that the miracles performed by the Christians worked upon his imagination, and created the wish to become a Christian. The Eutychians got hold of him, and endeavored to indoctrinate him with their views of the Saviour’s nature. According to them, the divine as well as the human nature of Christ perished on the cross. Alamundar is said to have seen through their sophisms at once, and confounded their bishops by the following logical stratagem. He feigned to have received letters announcing the death of the archangel Michael, and asked the Euty- phians what they thought of the news. They said it was impossible and absurd. “If an angel cannot die, how then can a God? ” was the retort of the Saracen. ALAN, WILLIAM, an English theologian and prelate, born in 1532 at Rossall in Lancashire,died at Rome, Oct. 6, 1594. His attachment to the Catholic church made him resolve to quit Eng- land forever, and take refuge in Flanders. There he conceived the idea of founding a college for English Catholics. Pope Gregory XIII. approved of the project, and helped to realize it. In 1587, Philip II. of Spain, then preparing his armada against England, demanded a cardinal’s hat for Alan, which was granted by the pope. In 1588 he published his “ Admonition to the Nobility and People of England.” This book the Span- iards took on board their armada. Philip II. appointed Alan archbishop of Malines in 1591. The pope nevertheless retained him near his person until his death. He was buried in the chapel of the English college, which Gregory XIII. had founded at Rome. _ ALAND ISLANDS, a group of about 200 rocky islets, of which 80 are inhabited, situ- ated at the entrance of the Botlmian gulf, be- tween lat. 59° and 60° 32" N. and long. 19° and 21° E. They belong to Russia, having been ceded by Sweden in 1809, and form a part of the government of Abo, in Finland. The pop- ulation, about 15,000 in number, are of Swed- ALANI ish descent, and are excellent sailors and ﬁsher- men. The rocks, covered with a thin soil, pro- duce pines and birches, rye, barley, potatoes, hops, ﬂax, and the inhabitants keep great num- bers of cattle, and export cheese, butter, and hides; they also manufacture cloth for home use and for sails. The chief island is named Aland; its area is 28 square miles, its popula- tion 10,000; it has agood harbor on the W. side. All the harbors are more or less forti- ﬁed; foremost among these was the island and harbor of Bomarsund, taken and blown up in 1854 by the allied ﬂeets of England and France during their war against Russia. In 1714, the Russian admiral Apraxin won a decisive naval victory against the Swedes near the cliffs of Signilskar. . ALAND, J omv Fonrnsoun, Lonn, an English lawyer, born March 7, 1670, died Dec. 19, 1746. He was a scion of the old family of Fortescue in Devonshire, but assumed the name of his wife, the daughter of Henry Aland of Waterford, in Ireland. In 1717 he became baron of the court of exchequer, and in 1718 was transferred to the bench of the common pleas. In the same year he was created an Irish peer. In 1714 he republished the treatise of his ancestor, Sir John Fortescue, upon the difference between an absolute and a constitutional monarchy. After his death, some abstracts of decided cases which he made in the course of his long career were published. ALANI, a tribe often mixed with the various German invaders of the Roman world during the great migration of the nations of the north. Their origin is, however, uncertain, though they seem to have been of Scythian or Finnish stock. They originally dwelt in or about the Caucasian mountains, whence they extended toward the Don, at the same time that they made inroads into Armenia and Asia Minor. Vologosus, king of the Parthians, claimed the aid of the Emperor Vespasian against them. Arrian, the historian and the lieutenant of the Emperor Hadrian in Cappadocia, warred against them. They are mentioned as excellent horse- men and marksmen with the bow. At the time of Aurelian, they united with the Goths and invaded Asia Minor, but were expelled about the year 280 by the Emperor Probus. In or about 375, uniting with the Huns, they destroyed the great northern Gothic empire of Ermanrich, drove out the Goths from the re- gion between the Don and the Danube, and joined the great movement of the northern tribes toward the south-west of Europe.‘ Con- jointly with the Suevi and the Vandals, m 406, they invaded and devastated Gallia. of the Alani who remained south of the river Loire, appeared in 451 as allies of Aétms against Attila; and were subsequently destroyed by the Franks and the Visigoths. Another bod;r of them marched in 409 into Spain, and were there overpowered in 418 by Wallia, king of the Visigoths, and driven into Lusitama, where their name disappeared. In 464, anoth- A body, AL ARAF er body of Alani invaded northern Italy, but Bicimer expelled and destroyed them. The annals of the Byzantine empire also mention the Alani as devastating both the Slavic region on the Danube, and the Caucasus. But they have long since disappeared from historical or ethnographic records, except perhaps among the tribes of the Caucasus. AL ARAF, in the Mohammedan theology, signiﬁes the wall of separation between heaven and hell, and corresponds somewhat to the purgatory of the Latin church. Sitting astride of this wall are those whose good and evil deeds so exactly balance each other, that they deserve neither heaven nor hell, and those oth- ers who go to war without their parents’ con- sent and fall in battle. These last are martyrs, and are therefore preserved from hell; but in- asmuch as they have disobeyed their parents’ commands, are not deemed worthy of heaven. ALARCON, HERNANDO DE, a Spanish navi- gator of the 16th century, the particulars of whose life and death have not been preserved by his cotemporaries. We owe to him the ﬁrst certain knowledge concerning the conﬁguration of the peninsula of California. ' California had previously been held to be an island. Alarcon set sail in the service of the Spanish court May 9, 1540. On the western coast of Amer- ica he expected to make a junction with the ex- pedition commanded by Coronado; but the two commanders missed each other. Alarcon left an inscription on a tree at the place where they should have met, which was discovered by a third Spanish navigator. The inscription was, “Alarcon came to this point; at the foot of the tree are buried letters.” The Spaniards dug for them, and found them. They conveyed the intelligence that Alarcon, after having tar- ried there for some time, had returned to New Spain; that the supposed sea was a gulf-—that he had sailed round the Marquis island, and that California was not an island, but a point of land jutting into the Paciﬁc. The court of Spain seems to have consigned him to that lamentable neglect which was the fate of a greater navigator in their service than Alarcon. Alarcon returned to New Spain in 1541, and there drew up his maps and observations. His discoveries and those of Fernando de Ulloa were applied to such good use, that an eminent geographer has said, the map of California got up in the year 1541, differs hardly at all from that made in our own day. ALARCON Y MENDOZA, JUAN RUIZ DE, a Spanish-American poet and dramatist, born about the end of the 16th century at Tashco, an ancient province in Mexico, of a noble family, originally from the little Spanish town of Alarcon. In the dearth of biographi- cal detail respecting him, modern times have been unable to form any clear idea of the poet’s mdividuality. It is probable that he was sent at an early age to one of the universities of Old Spain; at any rate, we ﬁnd him with a ﬁxed employment in Spain, in 1622; and in ALARD 27 1 1628 he is named, Rela-tor del real consejo da Zas Indias-—an office which must have lifted him above that abject want which killed Cer- vantes and Camoens. In 1623, Alarcon pub- lished the ﬁrst part of his dramas, and dedica- ted them to his Mecaenas, Don Felipe de Guz- man. While he is affectionate and loyal to his young patron, the language which he addresses to the general public is, to say the least, pecu- liar. This is from his preface: “Yes! it is you I address, wild beast as you are. I have no need to appeal to the nobility ; they speak of me more highly than I would dare to do. Here are my comedies; treat them according to your usual manner of treating such things, and not according to justice. These dramas of mine look upon you with contempt-, and are not a whit afraid of you; they have passed through the perils of your forests, and now they can traverse the obscure haunts which you inhabit; if they displease you, I shall be rejoiced; it will be aproof to me that they are good. If you treat them with consideration, it will be because they are bad, and the money which they will cost you will console me for their having had the misfortune to meet with your approbation.” In 1634, some splendid fétes were to be celebrated at Madrid in honor of Philip IV., and a libretto for aprivate dra- matic performance was needed. The competi- tion of all the poets and dramatists was invited. Alarcon carried off the prize, but this success drew upon him the unbounded hatred of all his competitors, except Calderon. After this year we lose sight of him. His works were pub- lished in two successive parts at Madrid, 1628, and at Barcelona, 1634. Alarcon, in the preface to the second part, declaims against those publishers who have inserted his dramas in collections of another man’s pieces. Cor- neille took the plot of his llfenteur from La eerdacl sospechosa (suspicious truth) of our au- thor. “The argument,” says Corneille, “is in my opinion so ingenious and so well treated, that I have said many times that I would will- ingly give two of my best plays to have the merit of the invention of this. I have seen nothing equal to it either in the ancients or moderns.” The same play seems to have been as suggestive to Moliere as Miss Edgeworth’s novels were to Walter Scott. “When it was performed,” he says, “I had already a wish to write, though I was not decided on what sub- ject: my ideas were confused, but this work ﬁxed them.” His plays still hold a respectable place in Spanish literature. His Castilian is very pure, his power over metre great, and his characters romantic and not extravagant. ALARD, M aura J OSEPH Lonrs, a French phy- sician, born at Toulouse, April 1, 1779, died at Paris in 1850. In 1794 he was engaged in the French army of the Rhine, as a sub-assistant sur- geon; left the army some years later, and re- ceived his degree of doctor of medicine in 1803. He was the friend of Bichat, Cuvier, Dumeril, Fouquier, Dupuytren, and Lacépede. The latter 272 ALARIC ' being professor of natural history at the garden of plants in Paris, and one of the dignitaries of state, caused Alard to be named chief physi- cian to the educational establishment of the Legion of Honor, at St. Denis, in 1811, which place he kept until he died. In 1803 he published a volume in 8vo, on diseases of the ear; in 1806, a vol. on the history of elephantiasis amongst the Arabs. In 1827 he published 2 vols. in 8vo, on the nature and seat of diseases. ALARIC, king of the Visigoths, of the line- age of the Balti, was the ﬁrst who opened the road for the deluge of the northern barbarians, and led them into the heart of the Roman world. Previously to his reign, the Goths north of the Danube (mostly of the Arian creed) being pressed by the Huns, claimed the protec- tion of the Roman Emperors, who allowed them to cross the Danube and establish them- selves on its southern side in Moesia (modern Bulgaria) as paid allies of the empire. When Theodosius divided the empire between his two sons, Alaric, proﬁting by the weakness resulting from the division, in 395 invaded Thrace, Macedonia, Thessaly, Illyria, and then marched towards Constantinople. Ruﬁnus, the lieutenant of the Emperor Arcadius, to save the capital from the barbarians, abandoned Greece to their inroads, and Athens was obliged to pay a ransom. Alaric entered the Pelopon- nesus, where he was encountered in Elis by Stilicon, the lieutenant of Honorius, the em- peror of the west, and a powerful army. Stil- icon tried to surround the Goths on the banks of the Peneus, but Alaric broke through his army, escaped with his plunder and prison- ers to Illyria, concluded peace with Arcadius, and was made by him the commander of the last-named province in 396. From lllyria in 402, Alaric invaded Italy. Honorius shut him- self up in Ravenna, while Alaric, marching through northern Italy toward Gaul, was met by Stilicon near Pollentia on the Tanarus, and obliged to retreat. He sustained a second more signal defeat near Verona, after which he returned to Illyria, and concluded a treaty with Honorius, undertaking to invade the east- ern empire and join his army with that of Stil- icon in Epirus. This project being afterward abandoned by Honorius, Alaric claimed a com- pensation for the cost of his armaments and march, and was promised 4,000 pounds of gold. Stilicon, who made the promise in the name of the emperor, being beheaded in 408, and the promise made by him broken, Alaric in- vaded Italy, invested Rome, and received as ransom from the city 5,000 pounds of gold and 30,000 pounds of silver. Further negotiations for peace having proved unsuccessful, Alaric for the second time laid siege to Rome. Hun- ger obliged the city to conclude an arrange- ment, and in compliance with the will of the conqueror the Roman senate elected as em- peror the Roman general Attalus. Shortly afterward, being dissatisﬁed with the inca- pacity of his nominee, Alaric ordered him to ALA RM resign. Renewed negotiations with Honorius were again unsuccessful, pending which Alaric’s army was treacherously attacked near Ravenna, and he undertook the siege of Rome for the third time. On 24th August, 410, he entered the city by storm, and it was plundered by the Goths for 3 days. After remaining there 6 days, Alaric marched out, intending to make the conquest of Sicily, but died soon after (410) in Cosenza. The Goths turned from its bed the stream of the Busento, to bury their chief there, with all his treasures. All the prisoners who performed the work of digging were killed, that the Romans might never be able to ﬁnd the place where the remains of the king were deposited. The death of Alaric was a momentary relief to Italy and to the Roman world, but new hordes from the north soon came in to complete his work. ALARM. To sound the alarm in the military art, means giving notice of a sudden attack by ﬁring a musket or cannon. False alarms are frequently given in order to annoy and harass the enemy by keeping him under arms. ALARM, an instrument to give notice by sound. In its most ordinary form it consists of a bell and a hammer, combined with an escapement that lets it free at the proper time, when a descending weight or a spring makes it strike the bell.—Anxmus against Bunemans are of various forms. Some consist in an arrangement for ﬁring a pistol, and are con- nected either with the lock or with the door. Some of them are so arranged as to shoot the thief at the same time that they wake up the inmates. An alarm for this purpose may al- ways be put up at a moment’s notice, by stretching a string across the hall, one end attached to the knob of a door and the other to the trigger of a pistol, or to some glass or brass vessel placed on the edge of a table or at the top of a ﬂight of stairs, which will tumble down with a noise the moment the string is pulled by any one opening the door or crossing the hall.-—ALARM-CLOCK, is a clock for sleeping-rooms, provided with an alarm that may be wound up, to strike at any appoint- ed time, and so awake the Sleeper.-—-FIRE-DAMP ALARM, is an important invention of recent date, due to Mr. Chuart from France, and liberally given by him to the public. It consists of a small ball of glass or of brass suspended at the end of a lever, and containing a chemical solution highly sensitive to the gas constituting ﬁre-damp. Long before the atmosphere has become suﬂiciently vitiated to be dangerous to life, or to be capable of exploding, the chemical action in the ball has altered its weight, and thus caused the lever to move and let go an escapement which sounds an alarm.—Ananm-WH1srLE, is a steam- whistle set on a boiler to give notice when the water falls below its proper level. For this purpose the whistle-cock is connected by a lever with a ﬂoat, and opens when this ﬂoat goes below a certain level. The steam rush- ing through the whistle sounds the alarm. ALARY ALARY, BARTHELEMY, a French apothe- cary, born at Grasse in the south of France. He lived in the second half of the 17th century, and acquired a very large fortune by the sale of secret remedies for the cure of ague. These remedies were chieﬂy composed of an- gelica, black hellebore, contrayerva _root, gen- tian, and various mineral substances, the chief of which was arsenic. In 1680, Alary went to Paris and cured several distinguished per- sonages belonging to the court of Louis XIV. He sold his patent medicines to the king for the use of the army and all the hospi- tals of France, and explained the mode of treat- ment in a work entitled “A Certain Cure for tertian and double tertian intermittent Fevers, in two days, by Alary’s Patent Medicine, pre- pared and sold with the privileged permission of the King.” ALASCANI, in ecclesiastical history, a sect of anti-Lutherans, who maintained the doctrines of Carlstadt and Zwingli in reference to the Lord’s Supper. The Alascani believed with the two latter, and in opposition to the former, that the text—“ This is my body,” did not mean the bread alone, but the whole sacra- ment of the Lord’s Supper. ALASEA, ALASEY, or ALASEJ, a river of con- siderable importance in the N. E. of Siberia. It takes its rise in lat. 67° N. and empties into the Arctic ocean. AL ASHARI, ABUL Hassan ALI—EBN-IS- MAEL, founder of the sect of Asharites, born at Bassorah about A. D. 860, died about 935. Ed- ucated in the doctrines of the Motazelites, he separated from them and formed a sect whose distinguishing doctrines were: 1, that the at- tributes of God did not admit of a comparison between the Creator and his creatures ; 2, that a believer, who has committed a sin, and dies without repentance, does not necessarily go to hell, but may still be the object of the divine clemency. ALA-SHEHR, a city of Asia Minor, of 15,000 inhabitants, situated at the N. E. base of Mount Tmolus, and about 38 miles E. of Smyr- na. It was founded by Attalus Philadelphus 200 years B. C., and is a Greek archbishopric. The city is surrounded by a wall, contains many ancient ruins, ﬁve Christian churches, and is engaged in a thriving trade. ALATYR, a town in Russia, situated at the junction of the Alatyr and Soora rivers, 80 miles N. W. of Simbeersk. It has apopulation of 4,407 .—The river Alatyr rises in the govern- ment of Penza, Russia, and has a course of Isnore than 125 miles before uniting with the oora. ALAVA, MIGUEL Rmanno DE, a Spanish general and statesman, born at Vittoria, 1771, died at Barréges, France, 1843. At an early age he entered the Spanish navy, in which he soon rose to the rank of captain. From the navy he passed to the army, and in 1807, join- ed the French party in Spain, to which he ad- hered until 1811, when he left it, and attached voL. I.--18 ALBA LON GA 273 himself to the Spaniards who were ﬁghting in alliance with the English. He became a favor- ite of Wellington, who appointed him one of his aides-de-camp, and caused him to be pro- moted to the rank of brigadier-general. After the battle of Toulouse he returned to Spain, and was imprisoned by King Ferdinand VII. By the inﬂuence of Wellington, however, he was soon set at liberty, and appointed minister to the Hague. In 1820 he was deputy to the Cortes from the province of Alava, sided with the constitutional party in the revolution of 1822, and, when that party was overthrown, was compelled to retire to England. On the death of Ferdinand VII. in 1833, he returned to Spain, was appointed ambassador to London in 1834, and to Paris in 1835. After the revolu- tion of La Granja he refused to take the pre- scribed oath, saying that he was “weary of continually taking new oaths,” and went into exile in France, where he died. ALAY, in Turkey, a ceremony which takes place upon the gathering together of the troops of the empire at the commencement of a war. It is described as a species of masquerade, in which the mechanics carry the tools used in their various callings, and show how they are employed. The sacred banner of Mohammed is borne in the procession, upon which no inﬁdel is permitted to gaze. A dreadful massacre of Christians, who had imprudently assembled to see the proceedings, was perpetrated on one of these occasions. ALB, a vestment of white linen reaching to the feet, and bound around the waist by a cinc- ture, worn by sub-deacons and all the superior orders of the clergy in the Roman Catholic church, while ofﬁciating in the more solemn functions of divine service. The alb is some- times plain, and sometimes richly ornamented. ALBA, a province of Piedmont, in the king- dom of Sardinia. It contains 403 square miles, and its population (in 1852) was 119,263. Its capital, Alba, is a bishop’s see, and has a popu- lation of about 8,000. The district is very fer- tile, producing corn, wine, oil, fruits, truﬁies, and silk in abundance. There are quarries of marble, slate, and rock-salt. The Tanaro, a branch of the Po, ﬂows through the province from south to north. ALBACETE, a town in Spain, about 138 miles S. E. of Madrid, with a population of 13,143. It has ﬂourishing manufactures of steel goods ; and is noted for its extensive cattle fairs, which are held in September. ALBA LONGA, one of the most ancient cit- ies of Latium, is commonly supposed to have been built by Ascanius, B. C. 1152. It is said to have been called Alba from a white sow found in its vicinity by ZEneas ; and Longa from its form. It was destroyed by Tullus Hostilius, and its inhabitants removed to Rome. Strabo tells us that this city stood on the declivity of Mount Albanus, and Niebuhr says that the place where Alba stretched away on the mountalll side can still be traced by the observant traveller. 274 SAINT ALBAN ALBAN, Sanvr, said to have been the ﬁrst martyr for Christianity in Britain. He was born in the Roman town of Verulamium, went to Rome in company with Amphibalus, amonk of Caerleon, renounced his native Paganism and became a Christian. It is generally believed that he suffered martyrdom at the time of the persecutions of Diocletian, but authorities differ as to the precise date. Bede ﬁxes it at 286; Usher reckons it amongst the events of 303. About 400 or 500 years after his martyrdom, Offa, king of the Mercians, built a large mon- astery in honor of him. Around this monas- tery grew up the present town of St. Albans in Hertfordshire. ALBANENSES, a Manichaean sect which sprang up in the 8th century, the origin of whose name is uncertain. They had congre- gations in southern France, particularly in Don- zenac. They maintained that 2 principles with- out beginning or end stood in eternal opposition to each other—the God of light and the God of darkness. The latter created this world and was the author of a great part of the Old Tes- tament. The archangel Michael ejected him from heaven, but not before he had obtained possession of a third of the souls which he found there, and which he succeeded in imprisoning in the shape of mortal beings. Chi-ist’s mission on earth was to rouse these to repentance, and to liberate them. The millennium they believed to be close at hand, when man should resume his heavenly shape. ALBANI, or ALBANO, Fnaucnsoo, an Ital- ian painter, born at Bologna in 1578, died in 1660. He commenced the study of his art with Denys Calvert, but quitted him for Ludo- vico Carracci, under whose instruction he made rapid progress. He afterward went to Rome, where his frescoes in the national church of the Spaniards brought him into notice. He painted several large pictures at Rome, Mantua, and Bo- logna, but his fame is chieﬂy founded upon his smaller paintings. Albani was of a joyous and loving disposition, which showed itself in his choice of subjects. He loved to paint Venus and Cupid,.young girls and children. ALBANIA, in ancient geography a country of Asia, bordering on the Caspian sea, and bounded on the west by Iberia, on the north by the Caucasus, and on the south by a branch of the Araxes. It comprised the modern Da- ghestan, Schirvan, and Leghistan. Its inhab- itants were a handsome and warlike race; so far acquainted with agriculture as to be able to raise sufﬁcient food to supply their own wants. They brought a formidable army into the ﬁeld against Pompey. Though often defeated, they were never subdued by the Romans. ALBANIA (called by the natives Shlciperi, and by the Turks Arnoutloulc), an extensive province of European Turkey, between lat. 39° and 43° N. and long. 19° 5’ and 21° 28’ E., ex- tending for about 290 miles along the Adriatic and Ionian seas, and having a breadth in the north and centre of nearly 100 miles, and in ALBANIA the south, near the gulf of Arta, of not more than 40 miles. It is bounded on the N. by Montenegro and Bosnia, on the E. by Servia and the ancient provinces of Moesia, Macedonia, and Thessaly, and on the S. by the modern king- dom of Greece. Albania nearly coincides with the ancient Epirus, but extends farther to the north. The ridge of mountains, formerly called the Pindus, forms its ill-deﬁned northern and eastern boundary. The general character of the country is rugged and mountainous. Nine ranges of hills intersect it from N to S. W., which have numerous elevations of from 4,000 to 8,000 feet above the sea, and covered with snow during 9 months of the year. The rivers of Albania have so short a course from the mountains to the sea, that many of them dur- ing the summer are quite or nearly dry. The Drino is the largest of them, and is formed by the junction of two branches, which, unlike any other currents in the country, ﬂow north and south between the mountain ranges till they meet near Prirsen. Their combined waters then take a westerly course, and fall into the Adriatic about 14 miles S. of Scutari. The entire length of the Drino from its farther source is 150 miles, and it is navigable for large vessels as far up as Scela. The Bojana river connects lake Scutari with the Adriatic, and no others of the Albanian rivers are navigable, ex- cepting the Arta and the Lorou for a very short distance. The mountain system of Albania be- ing but a continuation of that of Greece, its lakes and watercourses have alsothe same re- markable features which characterize those of that country. Thus there are found circular basins and cavities without water, ponds that disappear at certain seasons, and rivers that have long subterranean courses. The lake of Janina has no visible outlet, but a considerable stream is suddenly formed at a distance, by its waters issuing from the ground. The lake of Ochrida, 20 miles long and 8 miles broad, is the highest in Albania, and the wildest and most beautiful lake in Turkey. The lake of Scutari is the largest in the country, contains a few small islands, and abounds in ﬁsh. In the mountains and forests of Albania, there are found bears, wolves, wild hogs, and deer; sheep, goats, and cows, are tended in the val- leys; and the whole internal trade is carried on by means of an excellent breed of horses. Eagles and various kinds of birds are plentiful, and hawking is the favorite amusement of the wealthy classes. The lofty mountains and southern position of Albania give to it an extremely varied vegetation, exhibiting many forms similar to those of the Swiss Alps and the mountains of Scotland. It has many species of oak, the poplar, chestnut, cypress, and laurel; in its lower valleys maize is grown, and peaches, quinces, ﬁgs, and almonds abound. The trade of Albania consists in the exchange of natural products for the manufactures of more reﬁned nations. Oil, wool, maize, and tobacco, are sent to Malta and to the ports of ALBANIA the kingdom of Naples, and horses, sheep, and goats, to the Ionian isles. Timber also is ex- ported from the gulf of Arta, procured chieﬂy from the ancient Acarnania on the south side of the gulf. Some embroidered velvets and clothe are also exported. In return, coffee, sugar, and French and German cloths, are im- ported from Trieste, cutlery and glass from Venice, and various other articles from Vi- enna, Genoa, Malta, _ and the Ionian isles. The merchandise is carried inland by means of pack-horses, 4 or 5 of which are attached to- gether by cords, and guided by one man. The vigorous administration of Ali Pasha, by build- ing roads and suppressing gangs of robbers, added much to the facility of internal trafﬁc.-— Albania ranks as one of the provinces of the Turkish empire, and is under the government of different Turkish pashas. Yet the turbulent and warlike character of the inhabitants re- fuses to brook a despotic control, and many of the tribes are virtually independent. The Al- banians are about 5,} feet high, muscular, active, and erect. The women are tall and strong, with an air indicating ill-treatment, and labo- rious work. The distinguishing characteristic of the Albanians is a strong feeling of na- tionality, and their bold features and stately walk show a mind unsubdued by slavery. Their dress is fantastic and complicated, their habitations neat, and generally with a garden attached, and their food simple and nourishing. They are a nation of warriors, early trained to discipline, and constituting the best soldiers in the Turkish army. They usually carry two pistols, a cutlass, a sabre, and a long musket. Their language appears to be founded on the ancient Illyrian, but no grammar or dictionary of it has ever been published. Though Albania has several times changed its name, its masters, and its boundaries, a people cherishing unchang- ed their nationality, language, and manners, have from the earliest records of history occu- pied its mountains. First, the ﬁerce tribes of Epirus, and the still more savage Illyrians, had POSSGSSIOII of the country, and withstood alike the efforts of the Greeks and of the Romans to civilize them. During the decline of the eastern empire, they were distinguished by their prowess, and alone of all the districts to the north of Greece maintained their ground against the Bulgarians. On the conquest of Constanti- nople by the Latins in 1204, one of the impe- rial family of Comnenus succeeded in establish- ing a dynasty in this district, and the despots of Albania continued for two centuries only second in power to the emperors of Constanti- nople. Mohammed II. having conquered Con- stantinople, marched against the Albanians only to experience a succession of defeats. The he- roism and talents of George Castriot, the last of the Albanian dynasty, resisted for more than 20 years the whole forces of the Ottoman em- pire, and it was not till his death in 1466, that Albania. was annexed to the Turkish dominions. Until the middle of the last century, Albania ALBANY 275 was divided into several distinct pashalics, when Ali Pasha, having married the daughter of the principal chief, succeeded in establishing himself as an independent sovereign over all its territory, and a wide extent beyond. After his overthrow, and during the insurrection of the Greeks, the Albanians were inclined to make common cause with the latter, but their overtures were unhappily rejected by the Greeks, who remembered only the cruelties which Ali had inﬂicted upon them. The at- tempts of the Albanians to cooperate in the war produced only their massacre and harsh treat- ment by the Greeks, and they were, therefore, forcibly thrown into the arms of the Porte, to which they have since continued nominally subject. The population of Albania is estimated at 1,600,000, of whom a considerable portion are Greeks and Turks, but the main body are of the original Arnaut race. They differ from every other people professing Mohammedan- ism, to which they were converted chieﬂy from political motives. The men usually go to the mosque, the women to the church, and some members of the family eat from the sanie table, and even from the same plate, meats forbidden to the others. The Turks not approving of such toleration and amicableness, usually regard the terms inﬁdel and Albanian as synonymous. ALBANO, a city of Italy, occupying the site of Pompey’s Villa, about 14 miles S. E. of Rome. It is a favorite summer resort of the R0- man nobility on account of its beautiful scenery and pure air. It possesses a museum of anti- quities, and many very ﬁne ruins. Population, 5,000. ALBANY, an eastern county of New York, with an area of 483 square miles. The Hud- son river, navigable as far as Troy, forms its eastern boundary, and the Mohawk ﬂows for some distance along its northern frontier. Normans Kill and Catskill creeks furnish it with good water power. The land near the Hudson and some of the other streams is level and quite fertile, but in the northern and western parts, where the surface is mountainous, it is less productive and in some places sterile. Iron, hydraulic limestone, marl, and gypsum, are found in certain localities, though they are not abundant. The agricultural products in 1850 were 244,411 bushels of corn; 648,389 of oats; 406,040 of potatoes; 970,142 pounds of but- ter, and 71,804 tons of hay. There were 107 churches,and 17,054 pupils attending public schools. The county contains 14 newspaper ofﬁces, 3 cotton, 8 woollen, and 10 tobacco fac- tories, 3 paper mills, 20 ﬂour and grist mills, 23 saw mills, and a large number of other manufac- tories, foundries, tanneries, and breweries. It was organized in 1683, and named in honor of the duke of York and Albany, afterwards James II. Capital, Albany. Population in 1855, 103,681. ALBANY, the political capital, and third city of the state of New York, is the oldest set- tlelnent ill the United States except Jamestown 270 in Virginia, the latter having been settled in 1607, and the former a few years later. It is situated on the west bank of the Hudson river, at the head of sloop navigation, and near the head of tide-water, in lat. 42° 39’ 8" N. long. 73° 32 W., 145 miles N. from New York city, 164 W. of Boston, and 370 N. E. from Wash- ington. Before the arrival of white,men, says Munsell (Annals of Albany), it was known by the name of Scho-negh-ta-da, signifying “over the plains,” a name which the Dutch subse- quently applied to an Indian settlement on the present site of Schenectady, as over the plains from Albany. The ﬁrst European vessel which ever ascended the Hudson as high as Albany, was the yacht Half-Moon, Capt. Hendrik Hud- son, in Sept. 1609, occupying nearly 2 weeks in the passage from New York. A boat from the Half-Moon is said to have moored on what is now a part of Broadway. Several Dutch nav- igators followed Hudson during the next 3 or 4 years, and as early as 1614, a trading post and fort were established on Boyd’s island, on the southern border of the present city, which has since been connected to the mainland by an embankment, and as the narrow stream which originally divided it from the shore is rapidly ﬁlling up, it will soon be diﬁicult to identify it. In 1617, the fort was carried away by a ﬂood, and a few years later, a new one was built on a more favorable spot near the present site of Fort Orange hotel, on Broadway, and named Fort Orange in honor of the prince of Orange, who then ruled the Netherlands. In 1630, Kiliaen Van Rensselaer, a wealthy pearl merchant of Amsterdam, purchased a considerable tract of land from the Indians on the west bank of the Hudson, including Fort Orange, and sent out a number of agricultural and mechanical emigrants to settle and occupy his domain. Seven years later, he bought from the savages, for a triﬂe, a large tract of land on the opposite bank of the river, thus becoming the proprietor of a domain extending 24 miles along the Hudson, and 48 miles from east to west, over which he exer- cised the authority of a sovereign, giving it the name of Rensselaerswyck, of which he was patroon. The administration of justice and of the ﬁnancial affairs of the domain were com- mitted to a commissary-general. A considera- ble portion of this princely estate is still in the hands of the Van Rensselaer family. In 1664, the province passed into the possession of the English, when the right of soil was conﬁrmed to Van Rensselaer by a new patent, but the sovereignty passed to the British government. The fort, and chief settlement, which had been known as Fort Orange, Beaverwyck, William- stadt, and the Fuyck, which latter signiﬁes the bend in the river, was changed to its present name in honor of the duke of York and Albany, afterward James II. Albany received a city charter, and was organized, with Peter Schuy- ler, the friend of the Indians, as mayor, in 1686. The Schuyler family possessed the con- ﬁdence and friendship of the Indians to such a ALBANY degree, that while other settlements were des- olated by their forays, Albany never was at- tacked by them. The citizens of Albany took an active part in the revolutionary struggle, and though Gen. Burgoyne boasted that his army should revel on the spoil of that city, he only visited it as a prisoner. Sir Henry Clinton also made two unsuccessful attempts to invade it.-Albany became the capital of the state in 1807, but its growth was not very rapid till since the introduction of steamboats on the Hudson, the completion of the Erie canal, and the establishment of railroads centering at that point. As late as 1790, it contain- ed but 3,506 inhabitants ; in 1800, 5,349 ; 1s10, 10,762 ; 11320, 12,541 ; 1830, 24,238; 1840, 33,762; 1850, 50,762; 1855, 57,333. Viewed from the river, Albany presents an imposing and picturesque appearance. Along the margin of the river is an alluvial valley about a quarter of a mile in width, whence the ground rises rapidly to an elevation of from 140 to 200 feet above the Hudson, and is separated into three distinct hills by deep ravines, through which considerable streams of water run, viz.: the F oxen Kill, Rutten Kill, and the Beaver Kill. These ravines have been partially ﬁlled up, and the streams which once danced and sparkled in the sun-light now ﬁnd their way to the Hudson through capacious sewers, far below the surface. The view from the most elevated points in Albany is very ﬁne. To the north may be seen the city of Troy and adjacent villages, and in the distance loom up the Green Mountains of Vermont. To the east we behold a beautiful extent of country, stretching beyond the Hudson as far as the eye can reach, and to the south the I-Ielderbergs and the Catskill mountains, with the river ﬂow- ing at their base.—Albany is peculiarly favor- ed as a commercial town. In addition to the navigation of the Hudson river and the Erie and Champlain canals, which terminate here, it is connected by railroads with New York, New England, Canada, and the west, having no less than six railroads branching out in different di- rections, on which from 50 to 60 t.rains arrive and depart daily. The amount of property reaching tide-water at Albany by canal for the year 1856 was 2,123,469 tons, of which 858,771 tons were products of the forest; 1,023,417 of agriculture; 50,454 of manufactures; 14,073 of merchandise; and 176,754 various other articles. The Erie canal enters the city at the north end, where a capacious basin has been formed by erecting apier more than a mile in length, which cuts oif and encloses apart of a bend in the river, thus form- ing a basin having an area of 32 acres, which affords a safe winter harbor for boats and vessels navigating the river and canals, and also com- modious wharfage. The lumber trade of the city is immense; the annual trade in boards, shingles, timber, and staves, being between 6 and 7 millions of dollars. About 1-}; million of bar- rels of ﬂour, 3 million bushels of corn, 1'5 million bushels of barley, and between 4 and 5 million ALIL N Y lbs. of wool reach Albany annually; also about 1% million dollars worth of unmanufactured to- bacco. Several branches of inanufactures are carried on very extensively in Albany, the heaviest being iron, hollow ware, and malt. From 150,000 to 200,000 stoves, and a quarter of a million barrels of beer, are produced annu- ally from the foundries and breweries of that city. The very extensive nail manufactory near Troy, is owned chieﬂy by residents in Albany. There are in that city also extensive manufac- tories of piano-fortes, leather, coaches, sleighs, hats, caps, bonnets, &c.—For the city govern- ment, Albany is divided into 10 wards, each of which elects 2 aldermen, who, together with the mayor and recorder, form the common council or city government.—T he streets of Albany are more irregular than those of 1nost American cities, resembling Boston somewhat in this re- spect. State street, which runs from the river in a westerly direction to the capitol, is the most prominent and important avenue in the city. The architecture of Albany is not generally re- markable for its beauty, though it has improved somewhat during the past 20 or 30 years, and the city now contains many structures of a costly and elegant character; also a number of public squares, of which Capitol and academy parks, on each side of Washington street, are the most prominent. The Capitol, which was erected in 1807, at a cost of $173,000, faces Capitol park on the west, and is a substantial and un- pretending ediﬁce of brown stone, from the Hudson river quarries, with a white marble portico in the Doric style. It is 115 by 90 feet and 50 feet high, and surmounted by a dome, on which stands a statue of the goddess of justice, and furnishes apartments for the legislature, the governor, adjutant-general, court of appeals, and supreme court. Immediately in the rear of the state house is the new state library building, which is ﬁre-proof, and ﬁnished in the. perfec- tion of modern style. It contains about 30,000 volumes, among which are many of the most rare and valuable works to be found in the world. This is, of course, a free library. The state hall, furnishing apartments for the secre- tary of state, controller, treasurer, canal board, superintendent of public instruction, &c., is a massive white marble ﬁre-proof build- ing, not remarkable for architectural beauty. It was erected in 1843 at an expense of $350,000, and stands 011 the opposite side of the square from the capitol, facing the south. Near the state hall, on the same side of the square, stands the city hall, also a substantial white marble building, costing $120,000, and accommodating the city government, city and county courts and officers, also the U. S. courts. The Albany academy, a brown freestone building, in the Italian style, stands on Capitol square, and was erected in 1804 at an expense of $100,000. This and the Albany female academy on Pearl street, are schools of a high character. The state normal school, established by the legislature in 1844 for the education of teachers in common 277 schools, is a very useful institution. Each county in the state may send Pupils, male or female, equal to twice the number of their assem- blymen. The school occupies a large ﬁve-story brick building on the corner of Lodge and Howard streets. The university of Albanyis an institution of a high character, embracing departments of law, medicine, and science, in its various branches. Connected with this institution is the Dudley observatory, taking its name from the Hon. Charles E. Dudley, deceased, whose widow, Mrs. Blandina Dudley, is the founder and principal donor, having recently appropriated $50,000 to that object. The building, which is in the form of a cross, 86 feet in length and 70 feet in depth, is located on a commanding eminence on the western limits of the city. The Albany med- ical college is a reputable institution of its kind, containing one of the most valuable mu- seums in the country. Connected with this college is one of the best hospitals in the state. The exchange is a substantial granite building on the corner of Broadway and State street, occupied by the post-oﬁice, exchange bank, and other numerous oﬁices. It was erected in 1838 at a cost of $350,000, including ground. The young men’s association for mutual improve- ment, which was the pioneer institution of the kind in the state, occupies Association hall in State street, furnishing to its members a read- ing room with the best newspapers and period- icals of the time, the use of an extensive library valued at from $8,000 to $10,000, and weekly lectures from December to March of each year. The Albany institute for the collection and diffusion of scientiﬁc information has a valuable mineralogical cabinet and library. The geological and agricultural rooms in the old state hall contain an attractive geological cabinet, formed under the direction of the state geological surveyors, and many remarkable implements and products of agriculture. Among the benevolent institutions is the orphan asy- lum, depending on benevolent contributions for support, and the St. Joseph’s orphan asylum, connected with St. Mary’s (Catholic) church, under the direction of the Sisters of Charity; the Emigrant’s Friend Society, which furnishes aid to needy emigrants, and a society for fur- nishing work with remunerative pay to seam- stresses, which was organized by the benevo- lent ladies of Albany. Albany contains 48 churches and 6 missions. The 1nost imposing and prominent church ediﬁce in the city is the cathedral of the Immaculate Conception, sit- uated on a commanding eminence, fronting on Eagle, and extending from Lydius to Jefferson streets. It is 180 by 115 feet, with two towers, each 280 feet high. It is built of brown free- stone in the Gothic style, cost about $600,000, and is probably the largest structure of the kind in the United States. The religious de- nominations of Albany are represented by churches as follows: Baptist, 5; Bethel, 1; GOn8“1‘egational, 1; Episcopalian, 5; Friends, 1; Evangelical German, 1; Jewish synagogues, 278 ALBANY 3: Lutheran, 4; Methodist, 10; Presbyterian, 5; Reformed Dutch, 4; Roman Catholic, 5; Second Advent, 1; Unitarian, 1; Universalist, 1; missions of various denominations, 6; mak- ing a total of 54. The assessed value of property in Albany is $23,000,000, of which something more than $18,000,000 is real estate. The city is furnished with pure water, which is dis- tributed in pipes from a large reservoir on an eminence near the western limits of the cor- poration. ALBANY, a small maritime division of the Cape of Good Hope, about 65 miles by 35 wide, 550 miles E. of Cape Town. The great Fish river intersects its northern part, and the Kareega and Kowie run through it. The surface is un- dulating, and the scenery varies from rugged heights to pleasant plains. The climate is healthy, and the soil produces wheat, maize, barley, and oats. The cotton plant, though not extensively cultivated, produces a ﬁbre of ex- cellent quality. The improvement of live stock is carefully attended to by the settlers. The stock of sheep amounts to 311,000 ; goats, 84,963; horned cattle, 46,429; horses, 3,014. Grahamstown is the capital. Population, 14,- 723, of which 6,132 are colored. ALBANY, Lomsn MARIE OAROLI-NE, on HE- LOISE, countess of, daughter of Prince Gusta- vus Adolphus, of Stolberg-Gedern, born in 1753, died Jan. 29, 1824. In 1772, she married Charles Stuart, called the young pretender to the British crown, and after this marriage, as- sumed the title of countess of Albany. Her husband was almost always drunk, and used her with brutality, and she took refuge in a convent. After his death in 1788, the French court gave her a pension of 60,000 francs. She went to Florence to live, and there became attached to the poet, Alﬁeri, who was in turn completely fascinated by her beauty and her talents. In his auto-biography, Alﬁeri confesses that with- out the inspiring inﬂuence of the countess he would have achieved nothing. They are buried in one tomb in the church of Santa Croce at Florence, between the sepulchres of Macchia- velli and Michel Angelo. ALBARRAC IN, a town and bishopric in Ar- ragon, Spain, on the banks of the Gaudalquivir, about 19 miles north-west of Teruel. It is the seat of several manufactures, and the wool grown in the vicinity is esteemed the ﬁnest in Spain. ALBASIN, a town on the river Amoor, in Greater Tartary, held by the Russians. It has a strong fort. Lat. 54° N. long. 103° 3’ E. ALBATENIUS, or ALBATEGNI, an Arabian prince and astronomer, who died about the year 929 A. D. He is also called Mohammed hen Geber Albatani, and Muhamedes Aractensis. His principal astronomical work was trans- lated into Latin by Plato of Tibur, Nuremberg, 1537. His tables make Aracta the chief me- ridian. His theories are those of Ptolemy and Theon. In the opinion of Lalande, he was one of the 20 most eminent astronomers that have ever lived. ALBEDYH LL ALBATROSS, diam-edea, a genus of web- footed sea-birds, which has 3 species. The common albatross, D. ewulam, the albatross of China, D. fuliginosa, and the yellow and black- beaked albatross, D. cklorom/nchos. The genus is distinguished principally by these characters, a very strong, hard, straight beak, which sud- denly curves downward, with a sharp hook at the point. The feet are short; the 3 toes long and completely webbed; the wings very long and narrow. The common albatross is the largest sea-bird known; weighing from 12 to 28 lbs. The usual extent of its wings is about 11 feet; but a specimen in the Leverian museum measured 13 feet, and one was shot off the Cape of Good Hope, of 17% feet in extent. The top of its head is ruddy gray; all the rest of its plumage white, with the exception of a few transverse, black bands on its back, and a few of the wing feathers. It is abundant, from the Southern ocean to Behring’s straits and the coast of Kamtchatka, frequenting the inner sea about the Koorile islands, and the bay of Pentschinensi, in vast ﬂocks, but scarcely visit- ing at all the eastern or American coasts. Their voracity is extreme, and it is said that they will often swallow whole a salmon of 4 or 5 pounds’ weight. Their ordinary food is ﬁsh, ﬁsh-spawn, and small shell-ﬁsh; but they do not hesitate to take any animal substance found ﬂoating on the surface of the waves, and are often taken by sailors, with a line and hook baited with a piece of fat pork. Their powers on the wing are extraordinary, as might be presupposed from the extreme lightness of their immense, hollow wing-bones, which are said, by Edwards, to be as long as the whole of their bodies, and which the Kamtchatdales use as tobacco pipes; and from the great height, power, and continuance of their ﬂight, the sailors, who know them generally as the “man of war bird,” among other strange notions, be- lieve that they sleep on the wing. A wild fan- cy, of which Moore has availed himself in his ﬁnest poem, the Fire Worshippers, where he describes the temple of the Ghebers— So high That oft the sleeping albatross Struck the wild ruins with her wing, And from her cloud-rocked slumbering Started, to ﬁnd man‘s dwelling there, In her own silent ﬁelds of air. ALBAY, a town of Luzon, in the Philippine islands. Population, 13,115. It is a place of some importance, being the capital of the prov- ince, and residence of a governor. The province is subject to frequent volcanic erup- tions, but has a fertile soil. Population, 123,695. ALBAYDA, the name of a district, town, and river, in the Spanish province of Valencia. The district is fertile and well tilled, producing wine in large quantities. Population, 23,000. Population of the town, 3,130. ALBEDYHLL, GUSTAF, a Swedish diplo- matist, long ﬁxed at the court of Copenha- gen. He wrote various memoirs in relation to European affairs, and especially to the condition ALBELADORY of things in northern Europe during the latter part of the 18th century. He died in 1819. His wife acquired some literary fame by her poem “ Geﬁon,” which was published at Upsal in 1814. ALBELADORY, ABUL-ABBAS-AHMED, Ara- bian historian, died 895 A.D. He was minister of religion at Bagdad, resided at the court of caliph Almotavakkel, and was intrusted with the education of one of the princes of the caliph’s family. He was the author of a work on the rights of territorial acquisition, in which he gives the history of the conquest of Syria, Cyprus, Mesopotamia, Armenia, Egypt, Africa, Spain, Nubia, and the Mediterranean islands. He also gives an account of the spread of the Mohammedan religion over Persia, Trans- oxiana, and the countries on'the shores of the Indus. His work derives additional interest from its minute particulars concerning the so- cial condition of the respective countries. He gives also an account of several Moslem cities, as Koofa, Bassorah, and Bagdad. M. Reinaud, in his “Arabian and Persian Fragments on the Indus,” has introduced a chapter of Albeladory. ALBEMARLE, a central county of Vir- ginia, bounded by the Blue Ridge on the north-west, and the James river on the south, and watered by branches of the James. Its area is 700 square miles, its surface undu- lating, its soil very rich in the valley sand river bottoms, and its scenery picturesque. About 3 miles from its capital, Charlottesville, is Monticello, formerly the residence of Thomas J eiferson, who was born in this county. The products of the soil in 1850 were 798,344 bushels of corn; 278,575 of wheat; 191,549 of oats; 4,328 tons of hay ; 1,456,300 lbs. of tobacco, and 164,882 of butter. Indian corn, wheat, and sweet potatoes, are its staples. In 1850, its real estate was assessed at $5,383,494; in 1856, at 7,250,613, showing an increase of 34 per cent. Population in 1850, free white, 11,875; free colored, 587; slaves, 13,338. Total, 25,800. ALBEMARLE SOUND, a large inlet of the sea on the northern part of the coast of North Carolina, extending 60 miles into the country, and having a width of from 4 to 15 miles. It is separated from the sea by a narrow island, and as it receives the waters of the Roanoke and Chowan rivers, is nearly fresh. It has con- nection with Currituck and Pamlico sounds by inlets, and with Chesapeake bay by a canal cut through the Great Dismal swamp. This sound has not a great depth of water, and is of com- paratively little value for commercial purposes. ALBEN AS, JEAN J osnrn, vicomte d’, French politician, born at Sommieres, near Nismes, in 1760, died at Paris in 1824. He took part, as avolunteer, in the American war of independence, and on his return to France held various public offices under the consulate and the empire. His writings include’ a historical and pdetical essay on the glory and labors of Napoleon, and a work against gambling-houses. Col. Albenas, his son, published the Ephémé— rides Militaires, from 1792 to 1815. ALBERON 27 9 ALBENGA, aprovince of Sardinia, contain- ing 264 square miles, and 60,415 inhabitants. Its capital, of the same name, is the see of a bishop. Population, 5,400. It has the re- mains of Roman antiquities and feudal ediﬁces. In 1796, this city was the head-quarters of Na- poleon. The plain of Albenga is famous for the richness of its soil. ALBER, Enasmus, a German preacher and theologian, born near the end of the 15th cen- tury, died May 5, 1553. He studied in 1521 at Wittemberg, with Luther, to whom he became much attached, and whose doctrines he after- ward preached. He did not generally remain long with one congregation, on account of his plain speech, and the violent character of his discourses. I-Ie ﬁnally received the appoint- ment of general superintendent of the churches at New Brandenburg, where he died a short time afterward. Alber translated into German a part of the famous work of Albizzi, of Pisa, called “Conformity of St. Francis with Jesus Christ.” He also wrote some religious poems, and a number of fables in German verse. His disposition was combative and satirical. ALBEBCHE, a branch of the Tagus, in Spain; length, 148 miles. Its source is in Old Castile. ALBERGATI CAPACELLI, Fnrmcnsoo, marchese di, an eminent Italian dramatic writer and actor, born at Bologna. He died in 1802. He has been called the Garrick of Italy. His youth was wasted in debauchery, but after he reached the age of 34, he devoted himself to literature. At the age of 40 he had acquired a high reputation for the excellence of his dramat- ic compositions, and as an accomplished actor. His wit and humor are justly celebrated. ALBERIC, a name common in the history of the middle ages.——The Lombard ALBERIO I., marquis of Spoleto and Camerino, sought by a marriage with Marozia, daughter of the Theodo- ra of such ill repute in Roman history, to attain to the temporal authority over Rome. He, nev- ertheless, joined Pope John X. in the expulsion of the Saracens. He was murdered in 925. His widow wedded Hugo of Provence, king of Italy, who was afterward expelled by her son, ALBERIC II., who reigned over Rome until his death, in 954.—-A third Amnmo, a descendant . of the counts of Tusculum, was ruler of Rome about 980.-—ALBERro of Romano, in 1236, podesta of Vicenza, and a zealous Ghibelline, was put to death, together with his whole family, Aug. 26, 1260.—-The Cistercian ALBE- mo, des trots fontaines, was author of a history reaching down to 1241.—ALBERIO de Bosate, a Bergamese, who died in Rome in 1354, wrote a commentary on the 6th book of the Decretals, besides one on the Pandects. ALBERIQUE, a district and town in south- ern Valencia. Population of the district, about 16,000; of the town, 3,100. It produces silks, rice, and fruit. ALBERON I., prince bishop of Liege, died J an. 1129. Having previously held a high sta- . and increased the foreign commerce. 280 ALBERONI tion in the church at Metz, he was appointed to the episcopal chair of Liege in 1123. His ad- ministration was beneﬁcent, and was marked by the abolition of mortmain, a custom ac- cording to which, when a vassal died, his lord could appropriate to his own use any of the goods of the deceased which he might desire. -—ALBERON II., prince bishop of Liege, died March 27, 1145. He, also, was called from the church at Metz, where he held a high rank, to the episcopal chair of Liege. He succeeded Alexander in that oﬁice in 1136. His adminis- tration was a bad one. Life and property be- came insecure, and great abuses arose in the church, under his charge. Complaint was at last made of him at Rome, and he was sum- moned before the pope. Alberon went to Rome, accordingly, had an interview with the pope, and was on his return to Liege when he was seized with a fever of which he died in Italy. ALBERON I, GIULIO, cardinal and Spanish statesman, born in Piacenza, May, 1664, died 1752. He was the son of a vinedresser, was brought up to the church, and became curate. In the war of the Spanish succession the duke de Vendome commanding the French troops sent for Alberoni and desired him to exercise his inﬂuence over his ﬂock in procuring sup- plies. Alberoni, seizing the opportunity thus presented, made himself useful to the duke and returned to Paris with him. He afterward accompanied him into Spain and succeeded ul- timately in getting himself appointed envoy of the grand duke of Parma at the Spanish court. He was indebted to the celebrated Princess of Ursins, an ()rsini, for her patronage; and when he went to Parma to negotiate the mar- riage of Philip V. with Elizabeth Farnese, he behaved with the proverbial ingratitude of courts, his ﬁrst act after the queen’s ar- rival being to induce her to apply for the dismissal of the princess. His rise was now rapid, and he soon became prime minister of Spain. His internal administration was dis- tinguished for economy, the encouragement of industry, and the development of the resources of Spain. He remodelled the army, rebuilt the ﬂeet, strengthened the defences, But the ambition of restoring Spain to its former great- ness, seconded by the queen’s ambition to see the aggrandizement of her family, prompted him to a violent foreign policy. He seized on Sardinia in a time of peace, entered into a con- spiracy to depose the regent of Orleans, and embroiled Spain with all the other powers of Europe which entered into an alliance. Al- beroni’s courage rose with the danger, but it was the courage of recklessness. He bade de- ﬁance to all his enemies at once. The foreign alliance and the hatred of the grandees at home, however, hurled him from his pride of place. Peace was concluded, one of the stipu- lations of which was Alberoni’s dismissal. He was ordered to quit the kingdom in ﬁve days. ALBERT He ﬂed to Italy, whither his foes pursued him, and induced Clement XI. to issue a warrant for his arrest. This he managed to escape, wan- dering about in circumstances of danger and privation; but on the pope’s death, he appeared at Rome in conclave, and assisted at the election of Innocent XIII. who refused to molest him. He was afterward sent as legate into Bomagna, and ﬁnally retired to his native state, where he died at the age of 88. He left a number of MSS., from which his “Political Testament” was completed at Lausanne, 1753. ALBERS, JOHANN Fnrnnmon HERMANN, a German physician, born at Dosten, Nov. 14, 1805. He received his medical doctorate in the university of Bonn, in 1827. He af- terward practised several years as assistant physician in the hospital of Walther, study- ing pathological anatomy at the same time. The‘ year 1828 he spent in Berlin, and re- turned the following year to Bonn, where he delivered lectures on pathology, and in 1831 was appointed professor. In the midst of an extensive practice, he has found time to publish a large number of medical works. ALBERT I., archduke of Austria and emperor of Germany, born 1248, died 1308. He was the son of Rodolph of Hapsburg, and succeeded to his hereditary estates, but Rodolph had been unable to secure the succession of the crown to him. He married Elizabeth, heiress of the former dukes of Austria. He offered himself as a candidate to the electors, who, however, preferred Adolphus of Nassau. For a time Albert dissembled his plans, and even remitted to the new emperor the crown and other royal insignia which were in his possession. But on the occasion of the coronation of Wenceslaus of Bohemia, he met 4 of the electors, and, in pursuance of a preconcerted plan, a diet was held at Mentz, before which Adolphus was summoned to answer pretended high crimes and misdemeanors. Adolphus as emperor of course refused the requisition of any such tri- bunal, and the diet thereupon adjudged him guilty of contumacy, and deprived him of the crown. War was declared; the two armies met near Gellheim, between Spires and Worms, and Albert engaged in personal combat with Adolphus, who was unhorsed and killed. After the death of his rival, Albert feigned a respect for the rights of the body of electors, declined to exercise the supreme power until a diet had been formally convened and he was duly elected, and crowned at Aix la Ghapelle. Pope Boniface VIlI., however, disapproved of the choice, stigmatized Albert as a murderer of his sovereign, and instituted a new combination against Albert. The activity of Rodolph, the emperor’s son, disconcerted the plans of the rebels. He overran their territories and wasted them with ﬁre and sword, and the confederacy was dissolved and a reconciliation took place between Albert and the pope. Albert was now involved in hostilities with Bohemia, of which he made himself master for a short time, ALBERT but the people rose against their foreign mas- ters, massacred them, and he was obliged to retire. He made an attempt to subj ugate part of Switzerland; but the inhabitants, in reply to his requisition to submit to his authority, told him that “they were so well pleased with their ancient constitution that they desired no other.” Irritated at this refusal, Albert ap- pointed bailitfs over the country, which rose against them and organized the Swiss Confed- eration. Albert now invaded Switzerland, but in passing the river Reuss, May 1, 1308, in a boat, was murdered by his nephew John of Hapsburg, of whose possessions Albert had possessed himself during his nephew’s mi- nority, and which he refused to restore, though often petitioned to do so after his coming of age. John was assisted in his revenge by three noblemen. Albert’s daughter, Agnes, terribly avenged her father’s murder. John ﬂed to Rome, and, having received absolution, entered an .Augustine monastery at Pisa, where he died. Albert was succeeded by Frederick the Handsome. ALBERT, a French mechanic, born in 1815, in Bury, in the department of Oise, whose real name was Alexandre Martin, but who, under the name -of Albert, rose, after the revolution of February, 1848, to the rank of a member of the provisional government. He was a model- ler by trade, and in 1830, when he came to Paris, he took part in the July revolution, and thenceforward devoted himself to political and social reforms. He became implicated in the famous trial of April, 1834. A short time af- terward we ﬁnd him at Lyons, at the head of La Glaneuse, a republican journal, of which he was the founder, and which repeatedly brought him into diﬁiculties with the government, sub- jecting him eventually to a ﬁne of $1,000. This was inﬂicted upon him at the time when the in- surrection broke out at Lyons, and Albert, ex- asperated by the persecution of which he had been the victim, became one of its leaders, and electriﬁed his fellow mechanics and revo- lutionists by the motto, “ Viore en tm-vaillant, ou 2no'uri-r en combattcmt,” which they adopted as their battle-cry. In 1840, he founded a new journal in Paris, entitled L’AteZier, of which all the editors and contributors belonged, with- out one single exception, to the laboring classes. When the revolution of 1848 broke out, he was a member of the council of the Prud’hommes of-the Seine; but while he discharged most faithfully his duties as chief editor of the Atelier, he continued at the same time to at- tend steadily to his business, and on the even- ing of Feb. 23 he was actively employed as a workman in a manufactory of buttons. As Cincinnatus, in former days, was called away from the ﬁeld, Albert was now taken away from the factory in order to attend the forum, in obedience to a summons from Louis Blane, who was anxious that one of the mechanics of France should form part of the new government, inorder to impart to it a genuine democratic 281 character. Albert bore his new honors with modesty. He became vice-president of the com- mittee of delegates, and afterward was promot- ed to the rank of president of the committee which sat for the purpose of distributing re- wards to deserving citizens. He soon, however, relinquished these oﬁices, and became a mem- ber of the constituent assembly for the de- partment of the Seine, having polled 12,000 more votes than his political godfather, Louis Blane. After the affair of May 15, he was ac- cused of having instigated it. The decree in which Louis Blane, Albert, Ledru-Rollin, Bar- bés, Raspail, Pierre Leroux, and Thoré, were proclaimed as members of the revolutionary gov- ernment, was said to have been promulgated by him. He was accused before the high court of Bourges, but refused to recognize the juris- diction of that tribunal, and declined to answer any questions. He was sentenced to be trans- ported, detained for some time in the citadel of Doullens, and subsequently removed to the prison of Belle-Isle, where he now is. ALBERT, margrave of Brandenburg, and ﬁrst duke of Prussia, grandson of Albert Achil- les, elector of Brandenburg, was born 1490, died 1568. He was elected grand-master of the Teutonic order, and was immediately in- volved in the hostilities which had been sub- sisting for years between the order and the Poles. Sigismund of Poland having deter- mined to root out the order, was nevertheless induced to grant a four years’ truce, during which Albert solicited aid from the other Ger- man princes. Ile betook himself to Nurem- berg, where he had an interview with Luther, and by him was persuaded to embrace the in- terests of the Reformation. At the expiration of the time, the grand-master consented to hold the territory of the order as a ﬁef from Poland; and the majority of the knights, laying aside their insignia, agreed to hold under Albert. The secularization of the order was vainly pro- tested against. Albert now threw himself heartily into the reformation movement, estab- lished new schools, and founded the gymnasium university of Ktinigsberg. The dissensions which sprang up on doctrinal points between the professors of his new university, involved him in a sea of trouble, which lasted till his death. ALBERT, Pnnvcn, husband of the queen of England, duke of Saxe Coburg Gotha, born at Rosenau, Aug. 26, 1819, 2d son of Ernest, duke of Saxe Coburg Gotha, under whose immediate personal superintendence he received an ad- mirable education, which he completed by at- tending the university of Bonn during 3 academ- ical sessions. In July, 1838, he visited England, in company with Leopold, king of Belgium, and spent some time at the court of the youth- ful queen, and in N ov., 1839, it was formally announced to the privy council by the queen that she intended to form a matrimonial alli- ance with Prince Albert. The secret had long been public property, but was kept in suspense 282 ALBERT by the decorous contradictions of the ministerial journals. The marriage was solemnized Feb. 10, 1840. For the purpose of rendering him per- fectly independent, the muniﬁcent personal al- lowance of $150,000 a year was made to him by parliament. Besides which he is a ﬁeld marshal, knight of the garter, and other orders, colonel of the fusilier guards, and holds a number of other lucrative or honorary appointments. He is a man of reﬁned taste, and an accomplished musician and draughtsman. Forbidden by his position to interfere in politics, he occupies himself with superintending the education of his children. The progress of the arts and sciences and general phil-anthropic subjects, such as the “dwellings of the working classes,” sani- tary arrangements, &e., also engage his attention. He is patron and president of numerous charita- ble institutions, in which he takes a personal in- terest. As president of the society of arts, he was the chief promoter of the great exhibition of 1851. Similar exhibitions conﬁned to native pro- ductions had been long held in Paris, Brussels, and even in Manchester and other towns of England. But when the idea of holding one in London was suggested to Prince Albert, he readily adopted it, and zealously cooperated in the scheme of extending it to the whole world. The popularity which for a long time he en- joyed with all classes, was for a brief space overclouded in 1855, when rumors were current among the opponents of government that the prince took an undue interest in political affairs, and even held communications with some Ger- man courts, which were prejudicial to English interests, so that the ministers thought it necessa- ry to clear up all doubts by an explicit denial of the report from their places in parliament. He is noted in a country of scientiﬁc agriculturists for the spirit with which he carries out agricul- tural experiments, and his farming stock has been frequently exhibited and gained prizes. As a patron of art, Prince Albert has shown him- self particularly active. ALBERT, prince of Wales and duke of Cornwall, born Nov. 9, 1841, second child of the queen of England and Prince Albert, heir apparent to the throne of England. The prin- cipality of Wales gives the hereditary title to the eldest son of British sovereigns. It was created by Edward I., who having promised the Welsh on their submission to give them a native sovereign, made his infant son Edward, born at Oaernarvon, their prince. The revenues of the duchy of Cornwall are an appanage of the prince of Wales, and amount to about $300,000 per annum. ALBERT von APELDERN, German ecclesias- tic, 12th and 13th century, bishop of Livonia. He proclaimed a crusade against the pagans with whom he was surrounded, and set out with an army furnished by the Emperor Philip and by the northern princes. In 1200 he founded the town of Riga, and instituted a mili- tary order, which was subsequently merged in the Teutonic order of Prussia. ALBERTSEN ALBERTI, LE0 BATTISTA, an eminent archi- tect, poet, painter, and sculptor, was born at Florence in 1404, and died in 147 2. At the age of 20 he composed an excellent comedy in Latin. He wrote on various subjects, and his essays on painting and sculpture are greatly admired. His most famous work, however, is a treatise De Re /Eﬁﬁcatoria. As an architect, he was often employed by Pope Nicholas V., and he designed and superintended the erection of many ediﬁces in Rome, Florence, and Mantua. ALBERTINELLI, Manrorro, a painter of the 16th century, died in 1512 or 1520. He was a friend and pupil of F ra Bartolomeo, and an imitator of his style. There is a beautiful painting by him in the gallery of the Uﬁizi at Florence, representing the visitation of Mary and Elizabeth. The academy at Florence also contains some ﬁne pictures by him. In the Berlin museum there is a painting of the As- sumption, the upper portion of which was painted by Fra Bartolomeo and the lower by Albertinelli. He never attained, however, the excellence of his celebrated master. ALBERTINI, Fnarvensoo, a Calabrian Jesuit, author of some theological works published at Naples in 1606 and 1610. His most noted pro- duction is a treatise entitled De Angelo custode, in which he asserts, that brute animals have their guardian angels. This Francesco Albertini, who died in 1 619, 1nust not be confounded with FRAN- onsco ALBER'l'INI, an Italian savant and antiqua- rian, who tlourished at the beginning of the 10th century, and who was the author of a work enti- tled Opuseulum de anirabilibus noraa et eeteris ur- bis Romce, Rome, 1505 ; and another called, Trac- tatus breois ale Laudibus Flo-re'nt2'ce et Saome, 1500; an essay (in Italian) on the statuary and paintings at Florence, Florence, 1510, 4to. ALBERTRANDY, JAN Barnsr, one of the persons who in the latter half of the 18th cen- tury contributed to the revival of science and knowledge in Poland, was born in 1731 at Warsaw, died August 10, 1808. He received his education at the hands of the Jesuits, and made such extraordinary progress, that in his nineteenth year he was appointed professor in the college at Pulschontusk, afterward in that at Plock and at Wilna. Zaluski appointed him superintendent of his large library in Warsaw, and in 1764‘ he took charge of the education of Lubienski, afterward minister of justice, and grandson of the primate. He afterward re- ceived permission to withdraw from the Jesuits entirely. Stanislaus Augustus made him his reader, and gave him the charge of his private library. He spent 3 years in Rome. making a collection of works on Polish liistory, for which purpose he afterward visited Stockholm and Upsala. - ALBERTSEN, Hammron HENDRIX, a Danish poet, born at Copenhagen, 1592, died about 1680. He studied at the university of his native town, and afterward at that of Giessen in Ger- many. On his return he obtained employment in the Danish chancery. After 3 years spent ALBERTUS in this service, he abandoned it and travelled over Europe, whence he passed into Egypt, where he died. He was, as far as we have record, the ﬁrst Danish traveller who ever vis- ited Egypt. His Latin poems, printed in Rost- gaard, were entitled, Delz'cz'aapoetar-um Danorum, and Muse adolescentiw Venus. He wrote in Latin prose, Disputatio cle l’q~ 302 ALCOTT and thought is ever seen by him in its relations to life and morals. Those persons who are best prepared by their own habit of thought, set the highest value on his subtle perception and facile generalization. ALCOTT, WILLIAM A., M.D., the author of a number of works on education, physiology, hy- giene, domestic economy, etc., was born at Wolcott, Conn., August 6, 1798. He enjoyed no advantages for obtaining an education in youth, beyond those which the district school afforded, and supported himself until he reached the age of 25, by working on the farm in summer, and teaching in winter. His health being pre- carious, he then gave up manual labor, and studied medicine at the medical school of Yale college. After practising physic for 3 or 4 years, he engaged, in company with Mr. Wood- bridge, the geographer, in the preparation of school geographies and atlases, and in editing the “Juvenile Rambler” (the ﬁrst weekly periodical for children published in America), and the “ Annals of Education.” At this time he cooperated actively with Gallaudet, Wood- bridge, Hooker, and others, in striving to effect a reform in the public schools of the state. He wrote many articles on this subject for the Hartford and New Haven papers, one of which “On the Construction of School Houses,” gained a premium from the American institute of instruction. In January, 1832, Dr. Alcott removed to Boston, where he continued his literary labors, and his efforts in behalf of various philanthropic reforms. About this time he published his “Young Man’s Guide,” which had an extensive sale, and has exerted a great inﬂuence in spreading important phys- iological principles among the people of‘ this country. For the past 20 years he has passed his summers in laboring at home with his pen, and his winters in lecturing in different parts of the country, upon the topics which have especially occupied his attention. He has visited upwards of 20,000 schools, before many of which he has lectured. The publication of his “Young Man’s Guide” brought him a somewhat numerous class of patients of a peculiar description, and he has also treated a vast number of cases of consumption. Dr. Alcott is 60 years of age, and although he inherited a feeble constitution, and was at one time threatened with consumption, is now in the enjoyment of good health, which he as- cribes to the simplicity of his habits, and to his abstemious diet. He still leads a very active life. It is his boast, that at the age of 22 he had fully reimbursed his father for all the labor and expense which he had caused him during his childhood. He has published since 1832 above 100 books and pamphlets, among which may be speciﬁed in addition to those already mentioned, the “House I Live In,” the “Young Woman’s Guide,” “Young Housekeeper,” the “Library of Health,” in six volumes, “Moral Reform,” and “My Progress in Error.” Dr. Alcott, though the advocate of many opinions ALDAN which are open to the charge of singularity, is a philanthropist of the genuine stamp, and his name is identiﬁed permanently with some of the most valuable reforms in education, morals, and physical training, which the present cen- tury has witnessed. The amount of labor which he has performed without the expecta- tion of any compensation for his services, is be- lieved to be almost unparalleled. So uninter- mitting and engrossing have been his various avocations, that he states that he has hardly ever found time to read a book through; and, that the books which he has written, probably exceed in number those which he has read en- tirely. him to the adoption of any violent and de- structive measures. The great object of his labors is to prevent poverty, vice, and crime, by means of correct, physical, and moral train- ing, and the judicious application of intel- ligence to the improvement of society. His present residence is at Auburndale, Massa- chusetts. ALCOY, a city of Spain, in the province of Alicant, 24 miles north from the town of that name. Its manufactures are extensive, pro- ducing annually 200,000 reams of paper, and 23,000 pieces of cloth. Population 27,000. ALCUIN US, or ALCUIN, a celebrated scholar of the 8th century, born at York, England, in 735, died May 19, 804. He was the conﬁdant, teacher, and adviser of Charlemagne. When his instructor, Elbert, was created archbishop in 766, Alcuinus succeeded him as principal of the school at York. In 782, he was invited to Parma by Charlemagne, who consulted him in the management and improvement of his em- pire. While in the court of this emperor, he bore the name, Flaccus Albinus. In his en- deavors for the dissemination of knowledge, he founded a high school and several cloisters, and many of the schools in France owed their origin to him. In 796, he established the school in St. Martin’s abbey, at Tours, which was modelled after the one in York, and in which he was himself a professor after leaving the court in 801. He was conversant with the Latin, Greek, and Hebrew languages. ALCYONIUS, Pmrno, an Italian author, born in Venice, 1487, died 1527. He has been severely criticized for the errors in his transla- tion of Aristotle. He was made a professor at Florence, but afterward removed to Rome, and lost all his property during a sedition in the city. When the troops of Charles V. captured the place, he adhered to the pope, and inveighed against the injustice of the emperor, and the cruelty of his soldiers, in 2 orations. ALDAMA, J., a Mexican chieftain, born in 1782, and one of Hidalgo’s generals at the Alhondega of Guanajuata, at Los Cruces, Aculco, Valladolid, and Calderon. He was shot with Hidalgo, Abasola, and Allende, at Chihuahua in July, 1811. ALDAN. I. A name applied by some geo- graphers to the whole range of mountains in Dr. Alcott’s views of reform do not lead ALDBOROUGH north-eastern Asia, extending from the great Altai chain to Behring’s strait. Others limit its application to a branch of this extensive mountain system, extending from the Stanovoi mountains, in a north-westerly direction, about 900 miles. Mt. Kapitan, the highest summit, has an elevation of 4,263 feet above the sea level. II. A river, which rises in the Aldan moun- tains, and after a course of more than 500 miles falls into the Lena, 60 miles below Ya- kootsk. - ALDBOROUGH. I. A parish in Yorkshire, England, a place of great antiquity, supposed to have been the capital of the Brigantes, and known to the Romans as Isurium. Several re- mains of antiquity have been discovered, Ro- man coins, tiles, mosaics, and the ruins of an aqueduct. Three remarkable obelisks of rough stone are also in the neighborhood, the highest of which is 30 feet high. II. A small ﬁshing town in Suffolk, once a place of importance. It has acquired celebrity from the poems of George Crabbe, who was born there. ALDEBARAN, the Arabic name of a star of the ﬁrst magnitude, now called a tcturi, form- ing the eye of taurus, or the bull. It is one of the group of 5, known as the I-Iyades. The Arabs also called this star Ain el Thaur, or the eye of the bull. ALDEBERT, a French sectarian of the 8th century. He asserted that he was in possession of a letter that had dropped from heaven which had been written by Christ Jesus, and had been delivered to him ‘by the angel Gabriel. He op- posed the forms of the church, and was excom- municated in 743. ALDEGONDE, PHILIPP van MARNIX, Dutch diplomatist, and personal friend of William the Taciturn, prince of Orange, born 1538, died 1598. He drew up the agreement by which Louis of Nassau and Henry of Brederode bound them- selves to resist the establishment of the inqui- sition in the Netherlands. The resistance to the will of the Spanish monarch brought the relent- less Alva into the Netherlands. Aldegonde was taken prisoner at Maassluis, but was released. He defended Antwerp. On the establishment of the republic, he became professor in the uni- versity of Leyden. ALDEGREVER, HEINRICH, a famous Ger- man painter and engraver, born at Soest, in Westphalia, in 1502. He was the pupil and imitator of Albert Diirer. His prints, which are very numerous, are sharp and angular in outline, and generally small. ALDEHYDE (alcohol dehg/d'r0genatus), so named from its being obtained by depriving alcohol of its hydrogen. It is a colorless, lim- pid ﬂuid, volatile and inﬂammable, with a pc- culiar ethereal odor. Its vapor is suffocating, a small quantity inhaled causing spasmodic con- striction of. the thorax. In the air and sun-light it changes into acetic acid, from which it differs only by containing an atom less of oxygen. It is supposed to be an intermediate stage in the production of acetic acid from alcohol; Its ALDENHOVEN 303 composition is, carbon, 4 atoms:5-4.55 per cent. ; hydrogen, 4 atoms=9.09 ; and oxygen, 2 atoms =36.36 per cent. Its speciﬁc gravity is .79. It boils at 71I-° F. Aldehyde is known to exist in the human system necessarily in the state of vapor. Dr. A. A. Hayes, of Boston, is of opin- ion that alcohol taken into the stomach and exhaling with the vapor of water, is converted into aldehyde, abstracting oxygen from the ﬂuids or other sources. Respiration is increas- ed to -restore the oxygen thus removed, and the animal heat is added to. The alcohol excites and stimulates; the aldehyde acts as an anaes- thetic. ALDEN, J OHN, one of the earliest settlers of Plymouth, New England, was a magistrate in that colony for more than half a century, until he died in 1687, aged 89. On behalf of Miles Standish, John once proposed marriage to a Pilgrim lady, who replied, “ Prithee, John, why do you not speak for yourself?” The query. led to John’s becoming a suitor for the lady’s hand, and soon afterward her husband. He was distinguished in the colony for his piety, and important oiﬁcial services. ALDEN, TIMOTHY, the founder and earliest president of Alleghany college, Meadville, Penn- sylvania, born 1771, in Massachusetts, died July 5, 1839, at Pittsburg, Pa. He was a Congre- gational minister for several years at Ports- mouth, New Hampshire. During the later years of his life, subsequent to his founding the college, he again engaged in clerical labors. He was the editor of a collection of epitaphs and inscriptions in 5 volumes. ALDENIIOVEN, a small. town in Rhenish Prussia, on the road from Itilich to Aix-la- Chapelle, has given its name to a victory of the Austrians under Coburg, over a part of the French army of Dumouriez, March 1, 1793. After the conquest of Belgium, in 1792, Du- mouriez, meditating an invasion of Holland, left 70,000 men between the Macs and the Roer, to besiege Maestricht and Venloo and to cover these sieges, while, with the remainder of the army, he advanced from Antwerp into Holland. The troops on the Macs were neces- sarily much dispersed; the divisions covering the sieges were cantoned near Aix-la-Chapelle, Aldcnhoven, and Eschweiler. Coburg collected 40,000 men, and marched in 2 columns on the 2 latter places, turned the position of Eschwei- ler, took that of Aldcnhoven by a front attack, and threw the French in disorder on Aix-la- Chapelle, which place was taken on the next day. Maestricht was delivered, and the Austrian advanced guard followed the French even across the Macs, and beat them at Tongaes. The dispersed French divisions did not rally before arriving at Tirlemont, where they waited for Dumouriez. Thus the road into Belgium was open to the allies, and the conquest of the country completed, a few days afterward, by the further victory of Neerwinden. The loss of the French during the battle of Aldcnhoven, and the pursuit, cannot have been less than 304 ALDER 10,000 in killed, wounded, and prisoners, besides 10,000 who deserted immediately afterward; a great amount of 'Inater'ieZ, too, fell into the hands of the Austrians. ALDER (alnus), a genus of plants belonging to the natural order betulacece. It has four stamens, and its fruit is without wings, by which characteristics it is distinguished from the birch, with which it was classed by the earlier botanists. The principal species are found in North America, though someof its varieties are met with on the eastern continent. The common alder (A. glutinosa) grows in moist localities, especially on the higher por- tions of swampy grounds, which are free from standing water. This tree is applied to many valuable purposes of practical utility. Its wood is prized by machinists as adapted to mill-wheels and other work, which is mostly under water. It is also in request for certain branches of cabinet-making and turnery. The charcoal made from its wood is of an excellent quality, and is highly esteemed for the manufacture of gunpowder. The bark, which contains an astringent juice, is used for tanning, and, with the addition of copperas and other ingredients, forms a dye for several colors. The alder is also an ornamental tree, with its abundant foliage of deep green. The Turkey alder (A. incana) is abundant in the north of Europe, and is found to the east, even beyond the Can- casus. It is a taller and more erect tree than the common alder, and possesses many of the same properties, although it grows well in situations that are comparatively free from moisture. A beautiful species, A. co-rdifolia, or heart-leaved alder, is a native of Italy. The alder is easily cultivated, and although not rapid in growth, can be obtained from seed with a great degree of certainty. ALDEROTI, Tmmo, a Florentine doctor of medicine, born 1215, died in 1295. For curing the Pope Honorius IV. he demanded a fee of 10,000 crowns. Dante, whose friend he was, calls him the son of Hippocrates. ALDERMAN, a municipal title derived from the Saxon ealdor, old, and man. The term ealdor was in itself a title of honor used like the world “elder” in scripture. Among the Saxons the title was much more honorable and exten- sive than at present. It was not conﬁned to civic ofﬁces, but was an hereditary rank held by the principal nobility, entitling them to pre- cedence. The duties connected with the title were of a judicial character.-—In modern times the alderman is a civil oﬂicer of municipal cor- porations, elected or appointed according to the constitution or charter of the city in which he holds his oﬂice. He is usually elected in ancient corporations by the burgesses or freemen. In New York the alderman iselected by the citi- zens of the district which he represents in the city council. ALDERNEY, one of the channel islands be- longing to England. Lat. 49° 45' N. long. 2° 13’ W. It contains about 7 square miles, and ALDIN E EDITIONS is situated in the bay of Noranches, about 7 miles west of Cape La Hogue, and 15 north- west of Cherbourg. It is separated from the mainland by the race of Alderney. Together with the other channel islands it formed a de- pendency of the Normans, and passed to the crown of England. Alderney is itself a depend- ency of Guernsey. About six miles from Al- derney to the west are the caskets, a cluster of dangerous rocks, on which there are three light- houses forming a triangle. Upon these rocks Prince William, son of Henry I., perished, and in 1744 the Victory, of 110 guns, with a crew of 1,100 men, was totally lost. There is on the S. W. side, however, a ﬁne natural harbor, in which a frigate may ride in safety. The most noteworthy fact connected with this little island is the administration of justice. The channel islands are not subject to the laws of England, but retain their own constitution. The civil power of Alderney is vested in 6 jurats chosen by the people for life. These, with 12 dou- zainiers, also chosen by the people and the governor, form a legislature in which the douzainiers deliberate; but neither they nor the governor may vote. The jurats, with the king’s advocate and the greﬂier or registrar, constitute the court of justice, from which an appeal lies to the royal court at Guernsey, and in the last resort to the king in council. In criminal cases the court at Alderney is only a preliminary tribunal, the court at Guern- sey having the ﬁnal determination of the cause. The inhabitants principally live by ﬁshing and agriculture. The Alderney cow is an animal much prized by judges of stock. This breed is remarkable for its excellent milk- ing qualities, and for being unusually small and straight in the back. ALDIIELM, an eminent English divine and writer, during the Saxon heptarchy, who died in 709. He was a relative of the king of the West Saxons. He travelled in France and Italy, and was untiring in his devotion to study. He is said to have been the ﬁrst Englishman who wrote in Latin, in which language he com- posed several works. After presiding over the monastery of Malmesbury for 30 years, he was made bishop of Shireburn, and held that ofﬁce until his death. ALDINE EDITIONS. By this title are known the various works which proceeded from the press of the Manutii, a celebrated family of printers in Italy during the 15th and 16th cen- turies. Aldus, his son Paulus, and grandson Aldus, composed the family; and they were (especially the elder Aldus) as renowned for their learning as for the typographical beauty and textual correctness of the works of which they undertook the issue. The capture of Con- stantinople drove out the learned men from the Greek capital, and dispersed them over south- ern Europe, and the Aldi had the advantage of assistance from many accomplished scholars, in the revision of their works. The Aldine edi- tions comprise the ancient classics, and the ALDINI works of the Italian authors, Petrarch, Becca- cio, and Dante. The editions of the senior Al- dus are the most esteemed, and the work Bern- bus de Aitna, 1495, is accounted one of the most perfect specimens of the printer’s skill. Spurious Works with the imprint of the Aldi are by no means uncommon. The great per- fection which has been attained in the art of printing, and the attention which has been given, especially during the present century, to the reprint of the classics, has considerably di- minished the real value of the Aldine editions; although rare specimens are still much sought for by the collectors. The library of the arch- duke of Tuscany contains, it is believed, the most perfect collection of Aldine works. But they are met with in most of the great libra- ries, the Bodleian at Oxford, the Imperial library at Paris, and the British museum. ALDINI. I. Arrromo, conte, Italian states- man, born 1756, died Oct. 1826. When Bologna declared its independence of the Papal govern- ment, he was sent to Paris by his fellow-citizens. He was a member of the council of ancients in the Cisalpine republic, and was held in much esteem by Napoleon, who created him a count and made him secretary of state to the kingdom of Italy. He built an elegant chateau in the park of Montmorency, near Paris, which was destroyedduring the occupation of Paris in 1815. After the fall of Napoleon and the re- establishment of the former rulers in Italy, he resided in Milan until his death. II. G10- VANNI, brother of the preceding, born at B0- logna 1762, died also at Milan 1834. He was rofessor of natural philosophy at Bologna, talian counsellor of state, and knight of the order of the Iron Crown. He is well known by”his writings on galvanism; he prepared a scheme for turning to proﬁt the rise and fall of the tide in the lagunes of Venice in working mills; and is also said to have been the invent- or of articles of ﬁre-proof clothing. ALDJAYHANY BEN-AHMED ABU ABD-Ab LAH MOHAMMED, an Arabian geographer, born in Khorassan about A. D. 980, died in the middle of the 10th century. When grand vizier of an Arabian dynasty, he used to question all pass- ing travellers about the condition of the coun- tries they had passed over. He wrote a book upon the condition of Afghanistan and upper India, which contains precious information. All.this vast extent of country was then inhab- ited by populations professing the Buddhist or Braminical faith. He desired to do what the Gaznevids did later, namely, to subdue them all and introduce the Koran. The book, left un- ﬁnished at his death, was recast and abridged by his son. Aldjayhany was a ﬁrm believer in astrology. ALDOBRANDINI, a noble family of Flor- ence, which owed its elevation to Pope Clem- ent VIII., himself a member of it. Smvnsrno, a celebrated jurist, born at Florence 1499, died in Rome 1558. Being strongly opposed to the Duke Alexander de’ Medici, he was banish- vor.. 1.-20 ALDRIDGE 305 ed from Florence in 1530. His wife was (less Deti, aunt of the cardinal of that name. Their eldest son, GIOVANNI, was auditor rotae and cardinal, and is also known as an author. His brother, Pmrno, was advocate to the Apos- tolic cabinet. The son of this latter, Pmrno, born in Rome 1571, died in the same place 1621, was, in his 22d year, already a cardinal. As legate to France in 1601, he made up the peace of Lyons, between France and Savoy, and was created under Paul V. archbishop of Ravenna.-—The most celebrated of the family was Irromro, the youngest son of Silvestro, born at Fano 1536, died 1605. In 1592 he mounted the papal seat under the title of Clem- ent VIII. The family disappeared in 1681, with Octavia, daughter of Giovanni Giorgio, prince of Rossano. ALDRED, an English divine, abbot of Tav- istock, and bishop of Worcester in 1046, is sup- posed to have died in Sept. 1068. He was the ﬁrst English bishop that made a journey to Je- rusalem. On his return, in 1054.-, he was sent on a mission to the emperor Henry II. He held the archbishopric of York for a while, but was deprived of it by the pope. He crowned William the Conqueror, and had great inﬂuence over that prince until his death. ALDRICH, HENRY, dean of Christ church, Oxford, and eminent as a scholar, a divine, and a composer of church music, was born in 1647, and died Dec. 14th, 1710. He was educated at Christ church, and soon after taking his de- gree, entered the ministry, and accepted a tu- torship in that institution. During the reign of James II., he was one of the leaders of the Protestant party, and when, on the accession of William to the throne, the Catholic dean of Christ church ﬂed to the continent, Dr. Ald- rich was appointed in his place. He did a great deal to promote the usefulness and pros- perity of his college, and bequeathed it his val- uable library of the classics. ALDRIDGE, IRA, or Rosorus, the real name of whom is said to be Hewlet, is a mu- latto who has recently created no little sensa- tion in a career rarely attempted by one of his color. He was born at a village called Bellair, near Baltimore, Md., about 1810, and was apprenticed to a ship carpenter, learning his trade in the same yard with Molyneux, the no- torious negro pugilist and prize ﬁghter. From association with the German population which is very large on the western shore of Maryland, he learned to speak the German language fa- miliarly, and also picked up a degree of educa- tion rarely obtained by those of African de- " scent, where negro slavery exists. When Ed- mund Kean was in the United States, after the troubles which occurred during 1826, in con- sequence of the Cox diﬂiculties, Aldridge be- came his personal attendant, and is said to have accompanied him to England, where a natural talent for the stage was cultivated. He return- ed to the United States after a short absence, and some time subsequent to 1830, appeared at 306 Baltimore, at a theatre then known as the Mud theatre, which subsequently belonged to Junius Brutus Booth, the tragedian. He appears not to have been successful. There is no account of his having appeared in any other city in America, whence after ashort time he returned to England. He began his career in some of the minor thea- tres of London, and then went to the provinces, drawing large houses. At Belfast, in Ireland, he played Othello to Kean’s Iago, and also Orozembo to the same artist’s Alban. He thence proceeded to the continent, and appeared in Amsterdam, Brussels, Berlin, Breslau, Vien- na, Pesth, Ktinigsberg, Dantzic, the Hague, Berne, Frankfort-on-the-Main, Dresden, Ora- cow, Gotha, and other cities, personating charac- ters of every style and nationality. In most of these cities he received substantial tokens of approbation. The king of Prussia, at Berlin, wrote him an autograph letter, accompanying the ﬁrst-class medal of art and science. The emperor of Austria conferred on him the grand cross of Leopold, and at Berne he received the medal of merit in the shape of a magniﬁcent Maltese cross. In Germany, Aldridge was looked on as performing the Shakspearian char- acters with marked ability, but in England has not often appeared in any of Shakspeare’s plays, except Othello, and the Merchant of Venice. In Zanga, Orozembo, Zorambo, Bella, Hugo (in the Padlock), and other characters, the physiog- nomy of which suits his color, he is thought to display rare excellence. He is also agood com- edian. After returning from his continental tour, Aldridge appeared at Oovent Garden, in 1857, and after an engagement at the Britannia, was about to visit Sweden, whither he had been invited by King Oscar. A year or two ALDRINGER ' since, a law procedure affecting his domestic relations attracted much attention in London. His wife is a white woman. ALDRINGER, J OHANN, an Austrian ﬁeld marshal, born 1590, died July 12, 1634. He came of a poor family of Luxemburg, and for some time was a domestic at Paris; sub- sequently he joined an imperial regiment at Innspruck, as a volunteer. By his bravery and talents he made his way up to the highest rank. In 1627 he received the title of Freiherr von Koschitz, and was appointed commissary-gen- eral of Wallenstein’s army. In 1629 he took part in the negotiation at Lubec, and in the same year joined the army in Italy and seized the city of Mantua. In 1631, on his return to Germany, he invaded Bavaria, stormed Lands- berg and Gunzburg, but was bafﬁed in his de- signs upon the town of Landshut, and was killed at the passage of the Isar. ALDROVANDUS, Umrssss, an Italian nat- uralist, born at Bologna, Sept. 11, 1522, died Nov. 10, 1607. He took his degree in medi- cine in 1553, was made lecturer of natural his- tory, and in 1568 succeeded in persuading the senate of Bologna to establish a botanic gar- den. He investigated, meanwhile, the phenom- ena of the external world with indefatigable ALE zeal and industry. He made journeys for the purpose, and employed collectors. He pub- lished works on birds, on insects, and on the lower animals, and after his death the pro- fusion of materials which he had brought to- gether was arranged in additional volumes. His descriptions are ridiculed by Buffon for their unnecessary minuteness of detail; but notwithstanding his want of system, his accu- mulations of facts are invaluable. ALDRUDI, Ooxrnssa DI Bnnrunono, an Ital- ian lady, distinguished herself by her courage at the siege of Ancona, in 1172, when she ral- lied her vassals and friends, and defeating the forces of the Venetians, and of the Emperor Frederic I._, freed the city from danger. ALE, a. fermented liquor prepared from an infusion of roasted barley. It is called ale or beer; in some places, as in Wilts and Dorset, in England, the terms are used indifferently. In others a distinction is made; ale being a lighter colored liquor prepared from slightly roasted malt, and which gives off more froth or head. Beer is probably the generic name, hence brewing. Though a German word, its connection with the Latin biberais obvious. Ale is Anglo-Saxon. It is a common beverage in almost all countries in which the climate prohibits the cultivation of the vine; and here it may be observed that the use of some fer- mented beverage is universal throughout the ancient and modern, civilized and savage world, from Noah to the South-sea islanders. Beer or ale, cereoisia from Ceres the goddess of corn, is said by Tacitus to have been drunk in his time by the Germans, the root from which the great beer drinkers of modern times derive their origin. According to Herodotus, the Egyptians prepared it from the barley for which the valley ofsthe Nile is still famous. Diodorus Siculus speaks of two different liquors, one the pure infusion, zythos, the other kourmi, prepared with hon- ey. Some, even of the nations which could take their wine, did not despise John Barleycorn ; the Spaniards, Gauls, and Greeks liked beer; the Gauls in particular had their corma and cerevisia, a barley beer and a wheat beer, while the Brit- ons imbibed a thin potation, which would hardly pass the lips of their descendants, which they pre- pared from wheat and sweetened with honey. The Chinese, among whom every new-fangled idea has been in use for centuries, have a drink made of barley or wheat, and the Japanese take a rice beer at every hour of the day. Benighted Nubia and Abyssinia claim kindred with Europe in this one touch of nature-—they prepare a drink from various grains. As for the Danes and North- men, they placed their hopes of eternal happiness among other pleasures in an unlimited supply of beer. The bitter infusion of hops is of less respectable antiquity. Their use does not seem to date earlier than the 11th century; before that time the Scandinavians are reputed to have used oak bark. What effect the preservative virtues of tannin had on their bodies and health is not recorded. Root-beer, pleasant to Ten- ALE-HOUSES tons but an abomination to Britons, was invented after the 12th century; probably ﬁrst devised as a substitute by some unfortunates during a time of famine, just as sailors who are out of tobacco take to chewing oakum. Hans Kriine of Nu- remberg (1541), was the father of white beer, dear to the patriotic Prussian. Ale or beer was once accounted beyond dispute one of the ne- cessities of life, and equally with bread, was subject to an , assize of price and quality. Municipal oﬁicers, whose duty it was to taste the ale served out to the public and to report- defaulters, were appointed by various English statutes. The duty was probably not unpleasant, seeing that the brewers were not likely to sub- mit a bad brew for inspection. The venders of an adulterated tap had to stand in the public dung cart. Beer, though accounted less respecta- ble than wine, perhaps, because the Romans who served out a ration of parched corn and vinegar to their hungry legions, thought but little of it, has furnished matter to literature and art. Beer riots in Bavaria, malt tax riots in England on account of the rise in the price of these bever- ages, help to teach statesmen that the great food question is at the bottom of all real popular dis- content. Hogarth in his Beer alley and Gin lane shows us the inﬁnite superiority of wholesome, sound-bodied beer, over the detestable alcohol, just beginning to be popular in his day. Every one remembers “ John Barleycorn” as a picture of burly strength and substantial solidity. Burns’s “happy ale” is the symbol of good fel- lowship; and to what a depth of contempt does Iago assign “ small beer.” The government of Bavaria paternally interested in the welfare of its people, gives considerable attention to the supply of its people with a good and wholesome drink; and although the book beer, so called from the saltatory movements similar to those of a book (goat), which it induces in its too partial admirers, may bring the beverage into some dis- repute with serious people, the excellence of Bavarian beer cannot be denied. The use made of beer by the British legislator, is rather to extract a revenue than to protect the consumer, while in the United States there is no legisla- tion at all. Capital to an incredible amount is invested in breweries. The breweries of Phil- adelphia and New York represent immense interests; but they probably yield to Lon- don. Beside a vast number of smaller brew- ers in Great Britain, there are several large ones—-Barclay, Perkins, Truman & Co., Whit- bread, Reid, Meux, Goding, Allsopps, and other important houses. One of these houses alone employs 600 men, keeps 120 horses, has several fermenting vats of a capacity of 1,500 barrels, uses upward of one million and a half bushels of malt annually, and its capital would certainly not be overstated at $5,000,000.—-For further details on this subject, see BEER and Bnnwnve. ALE-HOUSES, beer shops, and wine shops, have been subjected in many countries to ex- press legislation. This has a threefold object, either the protection of the public ; the protec- ALEGAMBE 307 tion of consumers against adulteration; or for purposes of revenue. In England it was early thought expedient to place ale-houses under leg- islation for the purpose of checking the gathering of disorderly persons, and for the discourage- ment of excessive drinking. In the reign of Edward VI. the practice of taxing ale-houses was introduced. Various laws were made from time to time to meet the altering circumstances of society, and in the early part of the 18th century, the practice of drinking spirits having been introduced into ale-houses, the disorders to be amended by legislation were considerately increased. The general features of the license act are, that the local justices must be satisﬁed that the house in respect of which a license is sought, would be an accommodation to the neighborhood ; that the applicant for a license is a person of good repute. The license re- quires him to keep good order in his house, to sell unadulterated liquor in honest measure ; to open and close his house at stipulated hours; to keep his house closed on Sundays, and public holydays during the usual hours of divine ser- vice. Another class of ale-houses for the ex- clusive use of malt liquors, and not spirits, are licensed by the board of excise. In this case the applicant is not subjected to the same super- visory inspection of the local magistrates, and the license is held as a matter of right, and held during good behavior. This latter class of houses have given great offence to vested in- terests, and many of them having been opened in country districts, have afforded great temp- tation to the laborers, who spend their scanty earnings in rustic dissipations. In France an unlicensed dealer in wines or strong drinks, is liable to a ﬁne of 25 to 500 francs, and 6 months’ imprisonment. ALEANDRO, GIROLAMO. I. An Italian car- dinal, born in 1480, died in 1542. He was sent as the pope’s legate to Germany, and at the diet at Worms, attacked Luther with great bitter- ness. I-lis conduct on this occasion cost him the friendship of Erasmus. II. A grand-nephew of the preceding, born in 1574, died in 1629. He was a jurist, antiquarian, and poet, succes- sively the secretary of the cardinals Bandini and Barberini, and one of the founders of the academy of humorists. ALECTO, the daughter of Acheron and Night, or, as some say, of Pluto and Persephone, and one of the Furies. A-LEE, a maritime term, applied to a ship which is struck by the wind across, so as to make her incline to the lee-side, or the side op- posite to that whence the breeze proceeds. . When the helm is moved over to leeward, it is said to be a-lee, or hard a-lee. ALEGAMBE, PHILIPPE, a learned Jesuit, born at Brussels Jan. 22, 1592, died at Rome, Sept. 6, 1651- In 1613, he entered into the or- der of the Jesuits at Palermo. He professed philosophy at the college of Graetz, but settled ﬁnally at Rome, where he became superior of the convent of the Jesuits, and secretary of the 308 ALEGRE general of the order. Alegambe continued and improved the Bibliotheca Scriptorum Societatis Jesu, begun by Ribadeneira, and ultimately completed by Nathaniel Southwell. It is the best work on the biography and writings of the ﬁrst Jesuit writers. It is unfortunately ar- ranged not in the alphabetical order of the sur- names, but of the Christian names. ALEGRE, Yvns, MARQUIS D’, a marshal of France, born in 1653, died at Paris, Feb. 2, 1733. He was present at the battle of Fleurus (1690), where he was wounded. In 1702, as lieutenant-general, he distinguished himself at Nimegue. In Flanders, he was taken prisoner by the English under Marlborough, but was shortly afterward exchanged. He took Bou- chain in 1712, and the very year of the conclu- sion of the peace of Utrecht, he helped Marshal Villars to beat the imperial troops, and to take Friburg. In 1724, he was raised to the dignity of marshal of France, and, some years later, as royal commissioner, he presided over the pro- vincial states of the duchy of Brittany. ALEMAN, Loms, archbishop of Arles, and cardinal of St. Cecilia, was born in 1390, and died in 1452. In company with Cardinal Ju- lian, he presided over the deliberations of the council of Basel, which deprived Eugenius IV. of the tiara, and placed it on the head of the anti-pope Felix V. ﬁlneas Sylvius speaks of him as admirably qualiﬁed for the position. He was beatiﬁed by the pope in 1527. ALEMAN, Marne, a Spanish writer of re- mance, born in Seville, about the middle of the 16th century, died in Mexico some time in the reign of Philip III. In 1568, he was commis- sioner of ﬁnance in his native land, but being accused of maladministration, he retired from public service, not, however, before he had suf- fered a long imprisonment. He then betook himself to literature. The ﬁrst volume of a historical romance, written by him, 1599, en- titled Guzmam dc Alfarache, passed through 26 editions within 6 years, and was translated into the French and Italian. The second part was published in Valencia in 1605, but the work was never completed. ALEMANNI. Certain German tribes having formed a.confederacy against the Romans in the 2d century of the Christian era, styled themselves “ Alemanni,” or all /men, to mark the diversity of their origin, or their preemi- nent valor. They waged incessant wars with the Romans, in some of which they were van- quished, in some victorious. After their defeat by Clovis, king of the Franks, the confederaey - was broken up, and the tribes which had com- posed it, were dispersed over different coun- tries. ALEMBERT, J nsav LE Roan 1)’, one of the most distinguished mathematicians of France, born Nov. 16, 1717, died Oct. 29, 1783. He was the illegitimate child of the poet Destouches, com- missary of artillery, and of Madame de Tencin, court lady, like many of the beauties of her time, more celebrated for wit and beauty than ALEMBERT for virtue. The infant was exposed by the un- natural mother, and was picked up in a dying state by the police, who handed it over to a poor glazier’s wife, by whom he was brought up with maternal care and tenderness, and to whose aifection the great philosopher responded throughout his whole life. He lived with her for 40 years, and when in the days of his fame, Madame de Tencin came forward and avowed her relationship, he repudiated her, alleging that she was but a stepmother, the glazier’s wife his real parent. The name of Le Rond was given him from the market-place of that name in which he was exposed. Soon after his discovery, his father acknowledged him; and settled upon him a pension of 1,200 francs, which was suﬁicient to provide for his education. In 1721, he was sent to a -boarding school. Here he outstripped his teacher’s capacity, and in his 12th year was transferred to the Mazarin college of Paris. His theological studies here were eminently successful. He produced commentaries on Paul which the pro- fessors thought worthy of the warmest eulogies. He was for some time restrained from mathe- matical studies, and having abandoned divinity, studied law by the advice of both friends and preceptors. The irrepressible bent of his mind overcame all obstacles, and he at last gave up law, and betook himself with renewed ardor and delight to his favorite employments. A memoir and some remarks on the analyse de- montrée of Reg/naud procured him the member- ship of the academy of sciences. His celebrated treatise on dynamics appeared in 1743, and created a new branch of science. In 1744 he published his work on the equilibrium of ﬂuids. In 1746, the Berlin academy of sciences pro- posed the general causes of the winds as the subject for the prize essays. D’Alembert’s treatise gained him the prize and the member- ship of the academy; in this he attributed the currents to the combined inﬂuence of the sun and moon in creating an action, resembling the ﬂux and eﬂiux of the tides. D’Alembert has achieved a celebrity in the ﬁeld of general literature, little inferior to his reputation in the exact sciences. He was early connected with the freethinkers of his age in the preparation of the Encyclopédie, and his Discours Préliminaz're has been designated by the Marquis de Condor- eet, himself an accomplished writer and thinker, as a production, of which only one or two men in a century could be found capable. The tendencies of the work were so subversive of established opinions, and so essentially de- structive of existing institutions, that its progress was suspended temporarily by the government at the end of the 2d volume, at which time D’Alembert ﬁnally withdrew from the editor- ship. He was member of most of the learned societies of Europe, and was in intimate per- sonal communication with Frederic the Great, who invited him to reside at the court of Ber- lin. This, however, he declined. The empress Catharine also offered him the post of tutor or ALEABIC governor to the czarowitch, with an income of 100,000 livres, and on his refusal wrote: “I know that your refusal arises from your desire to cultivate your studies and your friendships in quiet. But this is of no consequence; bring all your friends with you, and I promise you, that both you and they shall have every accom- modation in my power.” He was, however, proof against these seductions, the powers and potentialities of the courts and royalty had but little inﬂuence with him; and it has been remarked of him, that the only great men to whom he dedicated works were Frederic the Great and two disgraced ministers. He was a man indeed of singularly independent mind and manners, without degenerating into discourtesy or indifference to the feelings or necessities of others. His connection with the Encyclopédie, has involved him in the general censure which attaches itself to the impiety and intolerance of many of its contributors. The bishop of Limoges, however, drew a distinction between D’Alembert and his colleagues; he says, “I do not know him personally, but I have always heard that his manners are simple and his con- duct without a stain. As to his works, I read them over and over again, and I ﬁnd nothing there but talent, information, and a sound sys- tem of morals.” limited, and insuﬂicient to keep pace with his benevolence; for when only in the enjoyment of 2 pensions, of about $500 a year, one from Frederic, and the other from his own country, whose court and courtiers long neglected him, he gave away more than half of it in charity. His grief on the death of M’lle. de l’Espinasse, a lady for whom he entertained a great attach- ment, which she requited with less ardent sen- timents, is believed to have hastened his death. Bastien collected all his works in 18 vols., Paris, 1805, with a full life of D’Alembert preﬁxed. A more complete edition than the preceding was published by Bossange in 5 vols. 8vo, 1821. It contains several pieces not before published, and the correspondence of D’Alem- bert with Voltaire and the king of Prussia. ALEMBIC, a term which has gone out of use with the article to which it was applied. This was a peculiar form of still, which is now superseded by other apparatus of improved form. ALEMTEJO, a province of Portugal; area, 10,024 sq. m. ; population in 1852, 284,831. It is bounded E. by Spain, N. by Beira and Es- tremadura, W. by the Atlantic ocean, and S. by Algarve. The surface on the E. is traversed by irregular chains and groups of hills, which in the western section almost entirely disappear. On the southern border the Algarvian chain rises to the height of 4,000 feet. The principal streams are, the Guadiana, the Tagus, and the Saldao. The climate in the S. and W. is hot and dry, and the surface is covered with barren plains. In the E. the climate is more salubri- ous and the soil more fertile, yielding good crops of wheat, barley, rice, and maize. The D’Alembert’s means were ‘ ALES 309 vine is universally cultivated. The citron, lemon, ﬁgs, and pomegranates, abound. Atten- tion is paid to the breeding of sheep, hogs, and goats. In a few places, there are manufactures of woollen cloths, and of earthenware. ALENCON, a town in France, department of Orne, 116 miles from Paris. Population, with suburbs, 15,000. The general inland trade of the place is considerable, but it is chieﬂy known for the famous lace, point d’Aleng:on. The fabrication of this costly article now gives employment to only a few families, in which it is an hereditary occupation. The trade was one of the forced productions of the great Col- bert, who gave a monopoly of it for 10 years and a bounty from the crown. The inhabitants are generally engaged in muslin manufacture and embroidery, in leather, glass, and iron manufacture. The agricultural activity in the neighborhood is considerable. There is a libra- ry of 6,000 volumes, a museum, and a col- lege. There is also a theatre, and annual horse races. ALENIO, Grumo, a Jesuit priest, was born at Brescia in 1582, and died in 1649. He spent 36 years in the Chinese empire, disseminating the truths of Christianity among the natives, and wrote several works in ’that language. ALEPPO, a city and province of Asia Minor. The province is a pashalic of the Turkish em- pire, in northern Syria. It is known in Turkish and lingua Franca as Haleb. It is bounded W. by the Mediterranean sea, E. by the Euphrates; on the N. the ranges of the Taurus and various other pashalics; on the S. the ranges of the Lebanon hem it in. The climate is healthy in the valleys, which are in the highest degree productive, literally ﬂowing with milk and honey, abounding in the choicest fruits of both temperate and tropical climes. The city was once a magniﬁcent place, the emporium of ori- ental trade. The fame of its greatness pene- trated throughout Europe. It was in the streets of Aleppo that Othello “smote the tur- baned dog,” whilst the unlucky sailor “had on a voyage to Aleppo gone,” against whom the witch-wife had conceived a grudge. Little more than half a century ago, Aleppo boasted of 300,000 inhabitants, but the terrible earth- quake of Aug. 13, 1822, shook down half the city, and so alarmed the surviving inhabitants that they deserted in thousands. It is still, however, an important town, and contains 80,000 people. ALES, ALEXANDER, a Protestant divine, was born at Edinburgh, April 23, 1500, and died at Leipsic, March 1565. He violently opposed the doctrines of the reformers at the outset, but was much shaken in his views by the argu- ments of Patrick Hamilton, and by the forti- tude with which he met death at the stake. Being persecuted in consequence of this, he ﬂed to Germany, where his conversion was completed. While Cranmer and Latimer were in power, he resided some time in England, highly esteemed by them, and after their down- 310 ALESIA fall returned to Germany, where he held the professorship of divinity at Frankfort-on-the Oder, and afterward at Leipsic. , ALESIA, a fortiﬁed city of Celtic Gaul. It stood on an eminence near the sources of the Sequana or Seine, and was a place of great an- tiquity. It was taken and destroyed by Caesar, but was subsequently rebuilt, and became a very considerable city under the Romans. It was ruined by the Normans in the 9th century. ALESSANDRI, Amzssxxnno, a profound lawyer, who ﬂourished in Naples at the close of the 15th century, and died about 1523, aged 62. He ﬁnally gave up the practice of his profes- sion, and devoted himself to literary pursuits. He gives a sketch of his life in his work called Dies Geniales. The latter part of it was spent at Rome, where he was interred in the monas- tery of the Olivets. ALESSANDRIA. I. A division of Pied- mont, containing about 550,000 inhabitants, rowing maize, wine, silk, madder, and ﬂax. II. A fortiﬁed city in Piedmont, situated on the conﬂuence of the Bormida and Tanaro, a few miles from the Po. It was founded in 1178 by the Milanese, as a bulwark against the invasions of the German emperors, and has in modern times again received signiﬁcance as a national Italian fortress against Austria, since the cam- paigns of 1848 and ’49. Though up to the be- ginning of this century its fortiﬁcations were but old-fashioned and indifferent, the French in vain besieged it in 1657, and Prince Eugene of Savoy, in 1707, only took it after a protracted defence. The principal strength of the fortiﬁ- cations as they at present exist, consists in the additions made by Napoleon after the annexa- tion of Piedmont to France. It is the only fortress Napoleon built, and in its works Monta- lembert’s new system of casemated batteries for the defence of the ditch, was applied for the ﬁrst time, though only partly. Napoleon especially strengthened the citadel, a six-fronted bastioned work, with many outworks, and con- structed a bridge-head on the opposite side of the Bormida. The Piedmontese government has recently resolved to add more works to the fortress, which, if the passage of the Po at Va- lenza were properly fortiﬁed, might become the nucleus of a vast entrenched camp in a com- manding position. The city has a college, the- ological seminary, 13 churches, including a ca- thedral, and manufactories of linen, silks, cloths, and wax candles. Population, with the sub- urbs, 36,000. ALESSIO, a town of European Turkey, situ- ated near the mouth of the river Drin, in the mountainous country of Albania. Population about 3,000. It was in the fortress of Alessio that Scanderbeg was buried. ALESTAKHRI, Anon Isaac, Arabian ge- ographer, also called ALFABESSY, from the name of the province of Fares, of which he was a native, lived in the 10th century A. D. In 951 and following years, he travelled over the whole Mohammedan world, and gives a descrip- ALEUTPAN ISLANDS tion of each country, commencing with Ara- bia. As this treatise was executed on a larger plan than any predecessor, it has been made the basis of many later works. ALEUROMETER, literally measurer of ﬂour. An instrument invented in England by Mr. Borland for ascertaining the amount and qual- ity of the gluten in ﬂour. It consists of a hol- low cylinder of copper, about 6 inches long and about §,"- of an inch in diameter. It has two principal parts; one about 2 inches long is closed at one end, forming a cup, capable of containing about 210 grains of fresh gluten, and screws into the other part of the cylinder. This, being charged with gluten, is heated to about 420° in an oil bath. The gluten by this treatment swells, and according to its rise in the tube (which may be measured by a graduated stem) its quality is judged of.— Good ﬂour furnishes a gluten which increases 4 or 5 times its original bulk, and gives the odor of hot bread ; but bad ﬂour gives a gluten which does not swell, but becomes viscid and nearly ﬂuid, adhering to the sides of the tube, and giving off occasionally a disagreeable odor. ALEUTIAN ISLANDS, or the AROHIPELAGO or GATHARINE, a series of islands between lat. 52° and 53° N. and long. 172° and 178° E., between America and Kamtchatka, separating the Paciﬁc from Behring’s sea, and forming an arched insular bridge between the northern points of the two continents. Five distinct groups compose the Archipelago: 1, Behring islands; 2, Sasignan islands, or the Aleuts proper, with the islets, Attu, Agattu, and Se- mitshi; 3, islands of Khao, or Rat islands; 4, Negho or Andreanov islands; 5, the Fox islands. The island Unimak is the largest of all. All are rocky, and bear the signs of violent geological convulsions. Smoking cra- ters and boiling springs on many of them at- test a still uninterrupted volcanic activity. Indeed, these islands form the link between the volcanoes of western America and those of Kamtchatka. The shores are generally of diﬁicult access. The climate is harsh, and marked by extremes, and the vegetation scan- ty. Attempts have been made to plant the northern pine, but they have proved unsuccess- ful. Potatoes succeed, however, on a few spots. The great wealth of these islands con- sists of ﬁsh, foxes, dogs, reindeer, seals, and sea-otters. The inhabitants, about 6,000 souls, are a branch of the Kamtchatkan race. They have been converted to Christianity by Rus- sian missionaries of the diocese of Kamtchat- ka. Their occupation is ﬁshing and hunting; their character gentle but independent. Since 1799, the Aleutian islands have been governed by the Russian-American fur company, whose principal establishment is at Alexandria on the island of Kodiak. When the natives become of age, they enter the service of the company for 4 or 5 years, and take their pay in kmd; after that period they can hunt and ﬁsh on their own account, but must sell their game to ALEWIFE the comprairyf The selling of spirituous liquors to the natives is prohibited. These islands were ﬁrst discovered by Behring in 1728, and were visited by Cook in 1778. Russia took possession of them in the last century. Some ethnologists suppose that they once formed a bridge through which the primitive race of man in northern Asia, either of the Mongolian or Finnie-Tungusian, or Kamtchatkan family, crossed to America and peopled a part of this continent. ALEWIFE (alosa tyrannus, Latrobe). This ﬁsh is also called spring herring, and in the British provinces, gasperau, or American ale- wife. It appears in great numbers in Chesa- peake bay, from the south in March, on the New York and New England coasts with the shad in April, and in the British provinces about May 1. Like the shad, it ascends the northern rivers to deposit its spawn. In the bay of Fundy the alewife is abundant; in the gulf of St. Lawrence it is less common, and of smaller size; the bay of Miramichi appears to be its extreme northern limit. rivers, generally to the head of the tide, and returns to the sea in July. The ﬁshery is pros- ecuted with small meshed seines, drawn across the streams, and so successfully, that hardly a ﬁsh escapes; the ﬁshing lasts about 6 weeks, commencing as soon as the rivers are clear of ice. It prefers a soft, muddy bottom, and tur- bid water, and its favorite food is shrimps, and the shad worm. The length of the alewife is 4 to 12 inches; the body is compressed; the head small, with golden gill-covers; the eyes large, with silvery irides and black pupil; the mouth very large, the lower jaw slightly the longer, and the upper jaw deeply notched in its centre. The color on the back is bluish pur- ple; the sides are light copper color, beneath silvery; on the sides are 4, 5, or even more in- distinct greenish lines passing from the head to the tail; just behind the upper angle of the gill cover is a deep black spot. The scales on the body are very large, and deciduous; the entire abdominal edge is serrated by strong bony spines, largest between the ventrals and the vent; the dorsal ﬁn is single, and the tail is deeply notched. Though thin, dry, and inferior to the herring and the shad, the alewife is a valuable ﬁsh. Immense numbers were former- ly caught in the New England rivers, especially the Charles, Taunton, and Merrimac rivers of Massachusetts; of late years the ﬁshery has greatly diminished, from the effects of dams, saw-mills, ﬂoating timber, and other obstruc- tions to their easy ascent to their favorite breeding places. In Taunton river, once quite celebrated for this ﬁshery, and in the Merrimac, the alewifes are now comparatively uncom- mon; they prefer the smaller and unobstructed streams. From the ﬁrst two streams over 5,000 barrels were annually taken; at Water- town, Mass, about 7 00 barrels was the average quantity. They were ﬁrst pickled and after- wards salted, and exported principally to the It ascends ‘ ALEXANDER 311 West Indies. Their value was from $1 50 to $2 00 a barrel. For home consumption, they are salted and smoked, like herring. The ﬁsh- ery in the British provinces is more valuable. The quantity taken in the harbor of St. John, N. B., averages from 12,000 to 20,000 barrels annually, most of which are sent to Boston. ALEXANDER. I. A county in the N.W. part of North Carolina, which was formed in 1846 from the counties of Wilkes, Caldwell, and Ire- dell. In 1850 it contained a population of 5,220, of whom 4,677 were free and 543 slaves, and produced 165,805 bushels of corn, 10,501 of wheat, and 28,996 lbs. of butter. The coun- ty contains 4 tanneries and 16 churches. Cap- ital, Taylorsville. II. A county in the S. ex- tremity of Illinois, at the conﬂuence of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, the latter forming its S. and S. W. boundary, and separating it from Missouri. The face of the county is low and level, and therefore in some parts liable to inundation, but the soil is fertile. In 1855, the population was 2,927, and the products in 1850 were 92,920 bushels of corn, 1,698 of wheat, and 19,810 lbs of butter. The southern termi- nus of the Illinois Central Railroad is at Cairo in this county. Capital, Thebes. ALEXANDER, called THE GREAT, son of Philip of Macedon, and of Olympias of Epirus his Wife, was born in the autumn of 356 B. C. Neither he nor his father was a Greek in charac- ter, both having the self-will of barbarian princes. Both were, however, partially imbued with Grecian sentiment and intelligence. Alexan- der’s ﬁrst tutor was a Greek, Lysimachus, and the ﬁrst thing which the child learned was Ho- mer’s Iliad. ‘-At the age of 13, he received fur- ther instruction from Aristotle, and enjoyed this teaching for 3 years, being then warmly attached to that philosopher. His interest in Greek heroic and tragic poetry lasted through his whole life, and survived his personal affection for Aristotle. During his father’s lifetime he shared in his wars, and in the government of the kingdom, early showing a strong will, and an imperious temper. He mounted the throne at the age of 20, his father having been murdered, and it is supposed by some that the son was partially acquainted with the conspiracy. 1 Alexander at the start put to death several of the conspirators, as well as many relations o_f his father’s second wife, and soon after Philip’s infant son was killed by his order. \ At the head of an army he at once en- tered Greece, strengthened the submission of the Greek republics, and at a general Grecian assembly at Corinth, was made commander- in-chief, with full powers on land and sea to prosecute the war against Persia. In the fol- lowing spring in an armed excursion against various tribes of Thracians, and others north of Macedonia, he crossed the Danube with his army without a bridge in the face of an enemy. During this campaign rumors of his death arose in Greece. Demosthenes and the patriots of other Greek cities, and above all the 312 ' Thebans, considered this to be a propitious mo- ment to emancipate Hellas from Macedonian domination. The Thebans rose in arms. Alex- ander with matchless celerity returned with his armyin 13 -days from beyond the north of Macedonia to Boeotia. After amurderous storm, he took Thebes, razed that ancient and legendary Grecian city to the ground, leaving only the house of Pindar standing, and sparing the descendants of the poet from being sold into slavery, which was the fate of all the other Thebans. This blow crushed the aspirations of the Greeks for freedom-—Alexander now completed his prepa- rations for the invasion of Asia. In March or April 334 B. C., he crossed the Hellespont from Sestos to Abydos, with a force of between 30,000 and 40,000 foot, and 4,500 horse. This army was composed principally of Macedonians, with Macedonian commanders, and had not a spark of genuine Greek feeling in it. In full armor, like Protesilaus, the hero of the Homeric legend, Alexander was the ﬁrst to tread the Asiatic shore. At Ilium (Troy) he performed various rites and sacriﬁces in honor of the ancient heroes, a manifestation of that legend- ary sympathy which formed the only real rela- tion between him and the Greeks. Apowerful Persian force defended the passage of , the Granicus. Alexander was the ﬁrst to enter the river at the head of his army, and fought fore- most with great personal courage. He won a decisive and terror-striking victory. Nearly the whole of Asia Minor submitted to him, and the few cities that attempted to resist were taken by storm. . At Tarsus in Cilicia he was seized with a. violent fever, after bathing in the chilly waters of Cydnus, and owed his recovery to the skill of his physician, Philip. Darius, commanding in person an army of 600,000 foot- men, met him on the banks of the Issus, and one of the most important and decisive bat- tles recorded in history was fought there. Da- rius was defeated with immense slaughter, and the loss of his camp and treasures; while his mother, his wife Statira, the handsomest woman in Asia, his infant son and tyvo daughters, fell into the hands of the victor. Syria, Palestine, and Phoenicia submitted, with the exception of Tyre, which was taken after a siege which the desperate defence of the Tyrians prolonged for 7 months. Alexander was twice obliged to construct a solid mole more than 200 feet wide, across the half mile channel between the main- land and the islet on which Tyre was situated. At the ﬁnal storm the carnage was terrible; and then 2,000 prisoners were hung on the walls, 30,000 inhabitants sold into slavery, and the ancient and free-spirited population wholly extirpated.—-Alexander now marched towards Egypt. Only the city of Gaza, commanded by Batis, a eunuch, resisted him. The town had hitherto been thought impregnable, but Alex- ander surrounded it with artiﬁcial mounds equal in elevation to the hill on which the stronghold was situated, and after having been beaten off in several attacks, in one of which ALEXANDEPL THE GREAT he was severely wounded, took the city, and slaughtered nearly the whole population. Batis, covered with wounds, was taken prisoner. The infuriated victor ordered his feet to be bored, and his living body to be attached to a chariot, which he drove himself in full speed through the streets. Thus he copied the igno- minious treatment which, according to the le- gend, was inﬂicted. by Achilles on the dead body of Hector. Egypt submitted without oﬂ‘er- ing the slightest resistance. Alexander founded the celebrated city of Alexandria, and marched through the sandy desert into Libya to the temple of Jupiter Ammon. The priest ad- dressed him as the son of the god. In his self-adoration, Alexander henceforth believed such to be his parentage, to the great dissatis- faction of his Macedonian army and compan- ions, who were highly incensed at this inso- lence and disregard for the memory of his father, Philip. Alexander was now mas- ter of the whole eastern Mediterranean coast, and of all the islands, and returned to Asia in search of Darius, who was lost in the im- mense dominions which still remained to him. Alexander crossed the Euphrates and Tigris, and in the plains of Arbela, in Syria, reached the Persian army, made up of the contingents from the Caspian sea, the rivers Oxus and In- dus, the Persian gulf, and the Red sea. It is said that this army numbered 1,000,000 of in- fantry, 40,000 cavalry, 200 chariots armed with scythes, and 15 elephants; their ﬁrst appear- ance on a ﬁeld of battle west of their native country. Alexander commanded 40,000 foot and 7,000 horse. The battle was severe- ly contested, but at last the Persians were utterly routed. The Persian empire was de- stroyed. Its two capitals, Babylon and Susa, surrendered, with their treasures, about $60,- 000,000 in gold and silver, accumulated there by the Persian kings. From Susa, Alexander marched into Persis proper, the cradle of the earlier Persian conquerors, overpowering va- rious barbarian mountain tribes on the march. Persepolis and Pasargada, the two capitals of the Persian race, fell into his hands. The treas- ure found there amounted to $100,000,000. He set ﬁre to Persepolis, the male inhabitants were slain, the females dragged into servitude. Next he continued the conquest of the eastern part of the Persian empire, following the ﬂying Darius into Media and Hyrcania. While ap- proaching the S. E. side of the Caspian sea, he learned that Darius had been murdered by his revolted satraps. Alexander ordered the body to be buried with regal pomp in the royal se- pulchres of Persis. Pursuing the satraps across Parthia he entered Aria, in the region ad- joining the modern Herat. Thence he march- ed into Drangiana, the modern Seiestan. While at the chief town of this province, on the plea of a conspiracy against his life discovered among those nearest his person, he condemned to death Philotas, one of his ﬁrst generals, and son of Parmenio, his best captain, and the ALEXANDER THE GREAT companion in arms of his father Philip; and after this he ordered the murder of Parmenio himself. He had now fallen into habits of the utmost intemperance, and full of suspicion like all tyrants, he opened the letters written by his oﬂioers and soldiers to their relations in Europe. He reduced Gedrosia, Arachosia, and the Par- opamisadee, modern Afghanistan, and the western part of Cabool—-founding various cities of Greeks and Macedonians. Then he over- ran Bactria, crossed the Oxus, marched to Sogdiana, passing through the principal city Maracanda, now Samarcand, and reached the river J axartes, which he thought was the Tanais, Don, then considered to be the bound- ary between Europe and Asia. On its banks he founded a city named Alexandria, as a fortress against the nomadic Scythians, in whose pursuit he reached the present khanat of Kokand. This was the utmost limit of Alexander’s north- ern progress. During his stay at Samarcand, on his return, in a drunken orgy, he killed with his own hand. his general, Clitus, who had saved his life at the battle of the Granicus. The impulse for this crime was given by Cli- tus, who rebuked Alexander for his overbear- ing pride and infatuated belief in his divine origin. After this bloody deed, the murderer, seized with remorse, passed three days without food and drink. In Bactra (Balkh), the cap- ital of Bactria, he celebrated an oriental mar- riage between himself and his captive Roxana, and in the festivities of this ceremony demand- ed prostration and worship from the Greeks as well as the Asiatics. Some Greek philosophers, and Anaxarchus among them, led the way in this degradation, but Callisthenes, the friend and correspondent of Aristotle, opposed it. This per- son was falsely accused of a conspiracy, tortured, and put to death by order of Alexander, who was now burning with hate against every man- ifestation of an independent spirit, even involv- ing in this animosity Aristotle, who fortunate- ly was at Athens.—-From Bactra, Alexander marched southward to the mountain range of Paropamisus or Caucasus, now known as the Hindoo Koosh, and went into Cabool, descend- ing along the right bank of the Indus, and re- ducing various mountain tribes on the way. In the early spring, 326 B. C., he crossed the Indus at or near Attock, a passage now much used. He entered Taxila, whose prince, Tax- ilus, at once submitted, becoming a tributary ally, and furnishing a contingent to the Mace- donian army. Alexander marched to the river Hydaspes (J elum), and on its farther side met the Indian prince Porus, with a formidable force, which he defeated in a sanguinary battle, taking Porus prisoner. The latter, however, had his possessions restored and became an ally and friend of Alexander. After conquering various Indian princes and nations, Alexander passed the river Acesines, and advancing across the Punjaub to the river Hydraotes, or Ravee, took the city of Sangala by storm and demolished it, putting to death 17,000 persons, and making 313 70,000 captives from various free Indian trike. Thence he marched to the river Hyph is (Sutlej). Here for the ﬁrst time, the Macedo- nians of the army, wearied by the uninterrupt- ed hardships, and averse to plunging further in unknown deserts and regions, refused to cross the river. The troops resisted his entreaties, and Alexander gave the order to return. To mark the limit of his eastward progress, Alexander erected 12 altars of extraordinary height on the western bank of the Hyphasis. He em- barked with a part of his army on the Hy- daspes, and sailed down to the conﬂuence of this river with the Indus, which he descended to its junction with the Indian ocean, disem- barking perpetually to attack, subdue, and slaughter the tribes near the shore. Near- chus his admiral, took the ﬂeet from the mouth of the Indus round the Persian Gulf to that of the Tigris, while Alexander him- self marched westward along the shores of the gulf, then through the desert of Gedrosia to the city of Pura (Bahnpoora). In this march the army underwent much suffering from want of food and water in the trackless sands. To compensate for this, and in imitation of the fes- tivals of Dionysus, Alexander and his army marched seven days in drunken, bacchanalian procession through Carmania (Kerman), enter- ing Persis, and ﬁnally reaching Susa. Here he plunged more and more into eastern habits, showing an all-absorbing love of servility, adopting‘ the Persian costume and ceremonial, making a eunuch Bagoas his favorite,. and con- tracting an Asiatic marriage with two addition- al wives. He sailed down the river Pasitigris (Karoon) to the Persian gulf, and entered the mouth of the Tigris. He wished for naval glory, projected the circumnavigation and con- quest of Arabia, and devoted his indomitable energy to the construction of an immense ﬂeet in the Phoenician ports. After the vessels were built, they were taken to pieces, and con- veyed on the Euphrates to Babylon, which was transformed into a harbor for the purpose, where other ships were built. At this time he received embassies from all the nations around the Mediterranean, from the Iberians, Scythi- ans, Gauls, and even from the Romans, who then were of no great importance. After ar- riving at Babylon, he spent several days in sur- veying the surrounding marshes, where he con- tracted the germs of a violent fever. This malady was developed and heightened by his daily revelries, and after a few days he died in the afternoon of a day of June, 323 B. C., af- ter alife of thirty-two years and eight months, and a reign of twelve years and eight months.--His reign and epoch form one of the pivots of the world’s history. By it Asia and the East were interwoven with Europe and Greece, while the free Greek communities were crushed and democratic progress and liberty entombed. Al- exander’s career was not that of a great ruler and statesman, but rather of a general and sol- dier. His generalship, his knowledge of com- 314 mand, his strategic combinations, his far-reach- ing plans for prosecuting campaigns, his con- stant foresight and fertility in diﬁiculties, his rapidity. of movement, are almost without a parallel in history, when we consider the time, the regions where he acted, and the re- sources at his disposal. With all his exuberant courage and his sanguine temperament, nothing was ever omitted in the way of systematic military precaut-ion. But all his great qualities ALEXANDER (Porns) in ascribing it to the autumn of 205 A.D. His original name was Alexianus Bassianus. On the elevation of his cousin Eliagabalus to the purple, he accompanied his mother to Rome. In 221 A. D. he was adopted by the emperor, and created Caesar, pontiff, consul-elect, and _p1'ince_ps juz>cntutz's. He now laid aside the name of Alexianus Bassianus, and assumed that of M. Aurelius Alexander. No sooner was he raised to the dignity of Caesar, than he became were useful only against enemies, and in this i an object of jealousy and hatred to the empe- category we must reckon all mankind, known or unknown, except those who submitted to him. His voracious appetite for conquest was unabated to his death. But he had no grand and beneﬁcent views on the subject of govern- ment, and no intentions for the improvement of mankind. The acquisition of universal do- minion was the master-passion of his soul. As a conqueror he was neither Macedonian nor Greek. He had no attachment for any spe- cial nationality, but looked on all mankind as on his subjects. He was neither imbued with the political maxims of Aristotle, nor intent on the diffusion of Hellenic culture. He treated Greeks and Asiatics alike, not by elevating the latter, but by degrading the former. He was offended by the free speech of Greeks and Ma- cedonians, and instead of Hellenizing Asia, he tended to Asiaticize Macedonia and Hellas. ALEXANDER of APHRODISIAS, surnamed the Expositor, from the superior excellence of his commentaries on Aristotle, was a native of Caria, and ﬂourished in the 3d century. His most important work, on Fate, in which he controverts the doctrine of necessity, was pub- lished at Zurich, in 1824. His other writings, mostly made up of notes upon Aristotle, were highly valued by the Arabians. ALEXANDER, surnamed Bams, king of Sy- ria from B. C. 150 to 145. He pretended to be a natural son of Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria, and his claim to succeed him was supported by the Romans, and by several of the princes of Asia. He defeated the troops of Demetrius I., and established himself upon his throne, after which he abandoned himself to pleasure. Demetrius Nicator, the son of De- metrius I., took advantage of this to make war upon him, and compelled him to ﬂy to Arabia, where he was murdered by the chieftain with whom he had taken refuge. ALEXANDER J ANN EUS, ascended the Jewish throne 104 years B. C., and died in 81 B. C. From his barbarity he was known as “ the Thracian.” During a rebellion of the Phari- sees, he cruciﬁed 800 of the most illustrious of his captives in one day. ALEXANDER SEVERUS, Roman emperor from 222 to 235 A. D., the son of Gessius Mar- cianus and Julia Mammaea, was born at Arce in Phoenicia, in the temple of Alexander the Great, during the attendance of his parents there at a religious festival. The period of his birth is somewhat uncertain; but the greater number of his biographers and historians agree ror. Eliagabalus no longer regarded him as a relative and friend, but as a dangerous rival, whose destruction was essential to his own safety. All his plots against the life of Alex- ander were, however, rendered abortive by the watchfulness of his mother, and the affection of the soldiers who ultimately avenged his in- juries by sacriﬁcing his enemy. On the death of Eliagabalus, he was proclaimed emperor by the Preetorians, whose choice was immediately conﬁrmed by the senate. He ascended the im- perial throne A. D. 222, at the age of 17. He now tookthe appellation of Severus, as he was ambitious of being thought a descendant of his predecessor Septimius. Nine years of his reign were years of peace, undistinguished by great wars or brilliant victories. In these years, reforming abuses which had long ex- hausted the resources and paralyzed the ener- gies of the state, promoting to oﬁices of dignity and trust men of merit and capacity-—restoring health to the empire, were his chief occupa- tions. In 231, however, these beneﬁcent labors were interrupted, and the emperor had to de- part from Rome in order to assume the com- mand of the eastern legions, and to defend his Asiatic provinces from a Persian invasion. Crossing the Euphrates with his army, he en- countered the hostile hosts in Mesopotamia, and defeated them with great slaughter. But he did not follow up his victory. Having re- ceived intelligence that the Germans were up in arms, and preparing for an irruption into Gaul, he hastened back to place himself at the head of the Rhenish army, and to frustrate the designs of the barbarians. He was, however, destined to gain no glory in this Teutonic war. At the very opening of the campaign he was waylaid and slain by a party of mutineers, who had probably been instigated to the deed by his successor Maximinus. This admirable man and model monarch was in the 30th year of his age and 14th of his reign, when he was thus prematurely cut off. ALEXANDER, the name of several popes of the Roman Catholic church. I. The ﬁrst pope of that name, a Roman by birth, governed the Roman church from A. D. 108 to 116, and was beheaded by the order of the Emperor Hadrian. A beautiful church is about to be erected over his tomb. II. One of the so-called Hildebran- dine popes, elevated to the holy see, chieﬂy through the inﬂuence of Hildebrand, arch- deacon of the Roman church for a long period paramount at Rome, before his own election to ALEXANDER (Porns) the papal throne. This pontiff, whose family name was Anselmo Badagio, was born in Milan, and was bishop of Lucca, at the time of his election. He was crowned Sept. 1, A. D. 1061, and reigned 112,- years. The ﬁrst few years of his reign were troubled by a contest with an anti-pope named Cadaloiis, who took the name of Honorius II. He carried out with great vigor and ability the measures of the reforming party in the church of which Hildebrand was the life and soul, against simony and concubinage among the clergy, and the in- trusion of unworthy bishops into the episcopal sees through the inﬂuence of princes and nobles. He deposed many of these unworthy bishops, and made great efforts to restore ecclesiastical discipline. By the advice of Hildebrand, he pronounced in favor of the claims of William of Normandy to the crown of England, as successor to Edward. After the success of William’s arms he sent, as legate into England, Bishop Ermenfroi, and the Cardinals Peter and John, who crowned King William, and after- ward held a council at Winchester, in which Stigand, the excommunicated archbishop of Canterbury, who had intruded himself into that see during the lifetime of the Archbishop Robert, was deposed. The celebrated Lanfranc, formerly the preceptor of Alexander, was placed in that see, and afterward received by the pope with great honor, during a visit which he made to Rome. This pope maintained also close relations with the emperor of Constanti- nople, and sent a legate to his court. He interested himself greatly in the welfare of the Greek Christians, who, as Rohrbacher remarks, seem to have been partially, if not wholly, re- conciled to the Roman church at this time. A number of the epistles of Pope Alexander are extant, among which is one addressed to the bishop of France, in which he condemns in the strongest terms the cruelties practised by some Christians on the Jews. III. This pope, whose family name was Rolando Paparo, a native of Sienna, and cardinal .and chancellor of the Roman church, was elected Sept. 7,1159, and died Aug. 1, 1181, after a reign of nearly 22 years. He had to sustain a long conﬂict with the Emperor Frederic Barbarossa, and 3 successive anti-popes supported by him. The last of them, called Calixtus, came to him at Frascati in the year 1178, threw himself at his feet and demanded absolution, which Pope Alexander granted him immediately and invited him to his own table. In the year 1167, Alexander excommunicated the emperor, and absolved his subjects from their oath of alle- giance. Ten years afterward, Frederic submit- ted to the pope, and was absolved from his excommunication, at Venice. On this occasion he paid the ordinary homage to the pope by kissing his foot, and also led the mule on which he rode by the bridle. The story that the pope put his foot on his neck appears, however, to rest on no historical foundation. Alexander entered into correspondence with the Greek 315 emperor Manuel, with the view of inducing him to consent to a project much favored at that time in Italy, of transferring the imperial throne to Rome, and thus effecting a reconcilia- tion of the Greeks to the Roman church, which would be likely to prove durable. These nego- tiations, however, had no result. He also held a council at Tours in France, where he had taken refuge in the early part of his pontiﬁcate, against the Albigenses. During his reign, and sup- ported by him, the celebrated Thomas 5. Becket resisted the pretensions of King Henry II., and was assassinated by his orders in the cathedral of Canterbury. St. Thomas a Becket and St. Bernard were afterward canonized by him, a right which he ﬁrst reserved exclusively to the holy see by a decree promulgated at the council of Tours. It was this pope who instituted the ceremony of the espousal of the Adriatic by the doge of Venice. The last remarkable act of his life was the celebration of the third general council of Lateran at Rome, A. D. 1179. Voltaire asserts that he proclaimed the doctrine that no Christian ought to be held as a slave, and says that “this law alone ought to render his memory dear to the whole world.” (Essml sur Zes Mwurs, c. 78.) De Maistre and others have followed him in this statement. Carriere, who is sustained by Archbishop Kenrick, in the last edition of his “Primacy,” observes that no such law can be found. Certainly there was none such made by the council of Lateran. That council merely decreed that no Jew or Saracen should hold a Christian slave. Bancroft, however, quotes a passage (History of the United States, vol. i., p. 163, 10th ed.) from a letter of Alexander, in which he asserts the principle that “nature having made no slaves, all men have an equal right to liberty.” IV. RINALDO DE SEGNI, a noble Roman, nephew of Gregory XL, and car- dinal-bishop of Ostia, was elected pope at Naples, Dec. 12, 1254, and died at Viterbo, May 25, 1261, after a reign of 6% years. During his reign, Italy was torn in pieces by the rival fac- tions of the Guelphs and Ghibellines, and the states of the church were devastated by the celebrated tyrant Manfred. He de- clared a crusade against Manfred, which proved unsuccessful, even with the aid of Henry III. of England, to whose second son Edmund he gave, in quality of suzerain, the investiture of the kingdom of Sicily. During his reign occurred also the crusade and captivity of St. Louis of France. By request of this prince, the inquisition was established in France, A. D. 1255. This pontiff was compelled to pass the latter part of his life at Viterbo, on account of seditions among the Roman populace. He labored strenuously to reunite the Greek to the Roman church, and to combine the Chris- tian nations against the Saracens, from whose formidable power Christianity and civilization were at that time in great danger. The hos- tility of the Venetians and Genoese prevented the success of his plans, and the chagrin which he experienced in consequence is said to have 316 caused his death. V. PETER PHILARGI, a native of Candia, elected pope by the general council of Pisa, June 26, 1409, died May 3, 1410, after a reign of 10 months. He was the child of very poor parents, left an orphan in his infancy, and obliged to beg his bread from door to door. A Franciscan friar detected his latent talents, and placed him in a convent, where he learned his rudiments. He was afterward sent to the universities of Oxford and Paris, where he distinguished himself greatly. On his return he became private tutor to the duke of Milan, who obtained his elevation to the archiepiscopal see of that city. Innocent VII. made him cardinal and papal legate in Lombardy. After his elevation to the supreme pontiﬁcate, he resided at Bologna during the short interval preceding his death. VI. Ronmco Lnnznom, or Boson, born at Valencia in Spain, A. D. 1431, elected pope Aug. 11, 1492, died Aug. 18, 1503, at the age of 72, after a reign of 11 years. He belonged on his mother’s side to the illustrious Spanish family of Borgia, which is allied by blood to most of the royal houses of Europe, and from which St. Francis Borgia afterward sprang, a family whose name is un- fortunately so closely associated in the memory with the crimes of Caesar Borgia, that we feel an instinctive prejudice against any one hearing it. Until his 18th year, he applied himself with great assiduity and success to study, and was often employed by his father, an eminent soldier and statesman, in important affairs of business, in the management of which he mani- fested those extraordinary talents which made him afterward one of the ablest diplomatists and sovereigns of his age. At the age of 18 he embraced the profession of arms, in which he continued but a few years. His character was dissolute, and nothing was further from his thoughts than the intention to embrace the ecclesiastical state. He entered into a criminal relation with a Roman widow lady, residing with her two daughters in Spain. After her death, which followed speedily, he formed a similar connection with one of her daughters, the too- celebrated Vanozza, who was either then or afterward married to Dominic d’Avignon. By her he had ﬁve children, one of whom was Caesar Borgia; and another, Lucretia Borgia, afterward Duchess of Este, from whom the present Queen of England is descended. It cannot probably be determined, with certainty, whether all these children were born during his military life or not. He remained in the army 6 years, and, at the age of 24, was sum- moned to Rome by his maternal uncle, who had just been made pope under the title of Calixtus III. He went with great reluctance, at the urgent solicitations of his uncle, who was well aware of his brilliant talents and ac- complished education, and wished to give him a high station at his court. Having received holy orders, he was within a year afterward made archbishop of Valencia, cardinal, and vice-chancellor of the Roman church, in which ALEXANDER (Porns) oﬁices he continued until he became pope. He still secretly continued his criminal intercourse with Vanozza, who had followed him to Rome. He had succeeded from the outset in concealing his relations with this woman, and continued to do so for several years. He assumed the exterior of a pious prelate, visited the churches and hospitals, gave large ahns to the poor, and gained for himself general esteem. Although Calixtus IH., otherwise an exemplary pope, cannot be excused for precipitately hurrying his nephew into the ecclesiastical state and its highest dignities, yet he was probably ignorant of his immoralities, or was deceived by his out- wardly decorous behavior into the belief that he had reformed his life and determined to live in accordance with his vocation. After the death of Calixtus, Pius II., Paul II., Sixtus IV., and Innocent VIII., successively occupied the pontiﬁcal throne; and, during this long period, Cardinal Lenzuolo continued to exhibit the character of an able, worldly-minded prelate, fond of power and splendor, constantly occu- pied with public aﬁ‘airs, and possessing many of the virtues which become a prince, with- out any of the sanctity of a Christian bishop. On the 11th of August, 1492, soon after the death of Innocent VIII., he was elected pope; being then 61 years of age. The pontiﬁcal states were at that time in a very disturbed condition. Powerful and insubordinate nobles fought with each other and oppressed the people, trade, commerce, and agriculture were in a de- pressed state, lawlessness prevailed, and the people consequently suffered greatly. The car- dinals appear to have looked rather for an able sovereign, who could remedy their political dis- orders, exert a commanding inﬂuence over other monarchs, and administer with energy the ex- terior ecclesiastical regimen, than for a holy bishop and an example to the ﬂock, in their choice. According to strictly Christian princi- ples, we cannot exculpate them from the fault of acting too exclusively on the principles of human prudence and secular policy, in elevating a man, whose reputation was stained by the immorali- ties of his past life, to the pontiﬁcal throne. Alexander VI. was, however, an old man at the time of his election, and it is not certain that during this latter portion of his life he was guilty of any grievous offence against morality in his private conduct. He cannot be excused from a criminal partiality and tolerance toward the corrupt and cruel Caesar Borgia, whom he elevated to high dignities, and retained in his conﬁdence for a long time after his iniquity was fully manifest. But neither can he be condemned as having commanded or sanctioned the crimes which that infamous person committed under the tuition of Macchiavelli, the great master of modern statesmen.-In his public administration, Alexander VI. proved himself one of the ablest sovereigns of his time. At Rome, abundance succeeded to starvation, ﬂourishing trade to stagnation, the equal administration of justice to lawlessness and violence, as soon as he as- ALEXANDER (or Itussu.) sumed the reins of government. On this ac- count he was loved and honored by his temporal subjects, during his life and after his death. He was entirely devoted to business, slept but two hours during the night, and remained but a short time at the table. He never refused to hear the petition of a poor man, he paid the debts of the unfortunate debtor, and punished those who neglected their ofﬁcial duties. The great discoveries of Columbus and other‘ naviga- tors took place in his time. He conﬁrmed the title of Ferdinand and Isabella to their acquisi- tions in the new world, and ratiﬁed the grant of the title of Catholic majesty, made by Innocent VIII. to the Spanish sovereigns. He also adopted measures for the virtual suppression of the military orders, which had become a nuisance in the state, and encouraged the found- ers of new and fervent religious orders better adapted to the spirit and wants of the age. During his reign the Moors were expelled from Spain, and the king of Georgia sent an" ambas- sador to make the submission of his realm to the Romish church. He took an active part in the revolutions of the kingdom of Naples, and indeed exerted a decided inﬂuence on the poli- tics of all Europe. Under him took place the execution of the celebrated Dominican Savona- rola, in regard to whose character, life, and tragical death,various sentiments are entertained by the learned. In 1499, one of his sons was murdered and thrown into the Tiber, an event which made a profound impression on the mind of Alexander, and awakened in him the dread of the divine vengeance on himself for the sins of his past life, and his worldly and ambitious career. At that time he entertained the idea of abdicating his dignity, from which he was dis- suaded by Ferdinand of Spain. He also appoint- ed acommission of 6 cardinals to reform ecclesias- tical discipline. Three years afterward, he had a narrow escape from a sudden death, by the fall- ing down of the ceiling in a part of his palace. This remarkable deliverance affected him deeply, and after he recovered from the bruises he re- ceived at this time, he went publicly to the church to give thanks to God. These peniten- tial sentiments produced no lasting change, however, in his character, and he soon after left this mortal stage, in which he had gained so much worldly glory and exhibited so little Christian sanctity, dying Aug. 18, 1503, of a tertian fever, after an illness of a few days. The atrocious crimes ascribed to this pope dur- ing his pontiﬁcate, rest on the suspicious au- thority of the Neapolitan poet Sannazaro, and other personal and political enemies, who wrote at a time when the epigram and pas- quinade were made the vehicle of the most unscrupulous calumnies. On this account, Voltaire, Muratori, Mathias, Roscoe, and other writers, reject their evidence, and defend Alex- ander from the principal accusations made on their authority. VII. Fame CHIGI, born of an illustrious family at Sienna, Feb. 13, 1599, elected April 7, 1655, died May 22, 1667, at the 317 age of 68, after a reign of 12 years. This pon- tiif was distinguished in his youth for his lite- rary and poetical talents. He embraced the ecclesiastical state by the advice of St. Francis de Sales, whom he afterward canonized. Be- fore his election, he ﬁlled several of the highest ofﬁces of the Roman church with credit. Dur- ing his pontiﬁcate he was very zealous in the reformation of discipline. He conﬁrmed the bull of Innocent X. against the ﬁve propositions of J ansenius, and prescribed a precise formulary condemning the principles of J ansenism which all persons concerned were required to sign. He ﬁnished the Sapienza, commenced by Leo X.after designs of Michael Angelo, and constructed the beautiful colonnade in the plaza of St. Peter’s. VIII. Mnuco Crronom, son of the grand-chan- cellor of Venice, where he was born, April 19, 1610, elected Oct. 6, 1689, at the age of 79, died Feb. 1, 1691, after reigning 15 months. He studied at Padua and Rome, was successively bishop of Brescia and_ Frascati, and cardinal. He con- demned the four articles of the Gallican As sembly, and assisted the Emperor Leopold I. and the Venetians with large sums in the wars against the Turks. He possessed a high degree of prudence, moderation, and political sagacity, and was very benevolent to the poor, but too much inclined to favor his own relations, hav- ing suffered the system of nepotism abolished by Innocent XI. to revive. ALEXANDER, the name of several kings of Scotland. I. This monarch ascended the throne Jan. 8, 1107, and died April 27, 1124. He was a prince of singular energy and capacity, which stood him in good stead dur- ing the rebellions that disturbed his reign, all of which he suppressed. He was equally successful in repelling foreign aggression; his literary attainments were remarkable. The church found in him a generous patron. II. This prince reigned from Dec. 4, 1214, until his death, July 8, 1249. He stands conspicuous among Scotch kings for administrative ability, and for equity of character. He married the sister of Henry III., in the year 1221. His reign, likewise, was disturbed by frequent in- surrections. III. Son of the preceding, suc- ceeded him on the throne, and died March 16, 1286, of injuries resulting from a fall from his horse. He married the daughter of Henry III., and skilfully resisted the eﬁbrts of that prince to obtain a controlling influence over the ad- ministration of the affairs of his kingdom, with- out coming to any open rupture with him. Scotland enjoyed unaccustomed tranquillity during his reign. ALEXANDER NEVSKOI, born 1219, died 1263, a Russian hero and saint, was the son of the grand-duke J aroslaw of Novgorod. Dur- ing the life of his father, Alexander fought against the invading Tartars, but notwithstand- ing his eiforts, Russia was obliged in 1238 to submit to Mongolian domination. He was more successful in defending the northern boundaries against the encroachments of the 318 Danes, the Swedes, and the German Templars. He won a great battle against the Swedes in 1240, on the banks of the Neva, in the local- ity of the modern St. Petersburg; hence his surname of N ev_skoi. In the year 1243 he beat the Templars on the frozen lake Peipus, near St. Petersburg. After the death of his father in 1247, he became the grand-duke of Vladi- mir, and the paramount lord of all the other sovereign Russian dukes. Pope Innocent III. attempted to unite the western and the eastern churches during the reign of Alexander, and sent an embassy to Russia for that purpose. The grand-duke positively refused the papal proposition in a written answer, in which he said: “We know the true teaching of the church; we will neither accept yours, nor know any thing about you.” The grateful nat-ion canonized him, and his name is pre- served in the national songs. Peter the Great erected to his memory a great monastery on the spot where the battle was won, which is now used for educational purposes, and created an order or decoration of Alexander N evskoi, the third in the list of Russian orders. ALEXANDER I., PAULOWITCH, emperor of Russia, eldest son of Paul I. and of Maria Fedo- rowna, princess of Wiirtemberg, was born Dec. 17, 177 7, died Dec. 1, 1825. His grandmother, Catharine II., took him almost from the cradle under her special care, and educated him as her successor, as her avowed intention was to have him ascend the throne over the head of his father. From childhood, therefore, his parents had no inﬂuence on him, and he grew up in indif- ference towards them, and with the idea of the utter incapacity of his father to rule Russia. Count Nicholas Soltikoﬂ’ was intrusted by the em- press with the duty of superintending his educa- tion, of which Catharine drew the plan with her own hand. Every possible branch was taught, except music and singing, which in the opinion of the empress absorbed too much time, and diverted the attention from other objects more necessary to a sovereign. In 1783 Count Sol- tikoff selected for a tutor to the young Alex- ander, Caesar la Harpe, a Swiss from the Canton of Vaud, celebrated afterward in the history of his own country, as one of the originators and directors of the Helvetian republic. La Harpe inculcated in the mind of his pupil these so-called liberal ideas which then prevailed among the higher classes of the 18th century. Toleration, philanthropy, admiration of truth, and the ardent wish to render his, future sub- jects civilized, good, and happy, were from his childhood familiar to the future czar. Some- times he dreaded the task before him, and in his dreams wished to escape with his then youthful friend Prince Czartoryski to America, and to live there as a private citizen. In 17 93, at the age of 15 years, Alexander was married to Louisa Maria Augusta, princess of Baden, more generally known under the name of Elizabetha Alexowna, then scarcely 14 years old. This marriage, though celebrated at the ALEXANDER (or Rnssm) time by poets in all languages, was not a happy one. Catharine died four years afterward, and was succeeded by her son Paul I., whose short reign was ended by murder. Alexander stands accused of having been accessory to this crime. He was acquainted with the conspiracy, whose chief, Count Pahlen, persuaded him that his mother and his brother Constantine were all in danger of losing their liberty, and even their life, from the jealous suspicions of his father. Alexander, fully believing his father incompetent to reign, gave his consent to the dethronement, which was represented to be the aim of the con- spirators. Once on the throne, the young czar attracted the attention of the world, and his generous qualities promised a brilliant future. Thus Klopstock celebrated his advent in an ode dedicated to humanity. Those expectations were realized by the ﬁrst actions of the czar. He began by releasing and indemnifying the victims of the violent injustice of his father, and recalled many who had been exiled to Siberia. He brought the government back to the princi- ples laid down by Catharine; he kindled civil- ization among the masses, made eﬁbrts to estab- lish the reign of law, and to create a public spirit among the people ; and he accomplished radical reforms in the administration. He abolished the secret tribunal established by Paul, suppressed the censorship, and reorganized the board con- stituted by Catharine for the creation of a. national code. He attempted to introduce a kind of publicity in the administration, by or- dering every minister to publish yearly reports. He renewed the ukase issued by Elizabeth in 1750, abolishing torture, which, however, con- tinued to be partially applied even under him. He also renewed the ukase of Catharine, in virtue of which hereditary estates could not be conﬁscated, and likewise proclaimed that hence- forth the czars should not give away estates inhabited by crown peasants, but lands alone. He prohibited the public exposure of serfs in markets for sale, and allowed them to be sold only with the land to which they were at- tached. He even prohibited the advertising of such sales in the public journals. All his ten- dencies and acts were inspired by the love of justice and humanity. He chose for assistants in the labors of his reign men of large and clear minds, devoted to his reformatory ideas. Among these were Czartoryski, N ovosiltzoff, and Speranski. He desired to be beloved by his subjects. He was impressible, enthusiastic, and easily inﬂuenced, not steady and persist- ent. His mode of life was simple and unosten- tatious, his manners amiable, reﬁned, and ele- gant. One of his principal aims was to give a powerful impulse to public education, as well as to encourage and develop trade and industry. With this view he concluded commercial trea- ties with various European and American pow- ers, and published new regulations for navigation. He protected the arts, and in order to stir up the intellectual powers of the people allowed his subjects of various classes, except those ALEXANDER (or Rnssu) serfs who were private property, to select their own trades and pursuits. The raw pro- ducts of Russia, and even some manufactures, now began to appear in the marts of Europe. In 1809 he erected 8 universities at St. Peters- burg, Oharkoff, and Kazan, and added to them afterward that of Dorpat in the German Baltic provinces. He also reorganized that of Wilna, for his Polish subjects, whom at that early epoch he treated generously, ﬂattering them with hopes of the reconstruction of their kingdom. He founded many gymnasia and high schools, ordering their number to be in- creased to 204, with 2,000 subordinate element- ary schools. This project was, however, only partially executed. He was wont to travel over the country in every direction, seeing per- sons of all classes and receiving their memorials. He scrupulously observed the ordinances of the national church, but later in life he became a pietist and mystic, at the same time that he turned against the liberal politics of his youth.-—At an early period in his career Alexander was entangled in the great events which shook Europe in the beginning of the present century. The greatness of Napoleon, then ﬁrst consul, impressed his imagination. His father had commenced a friendly inter- course with Napoleon, which the son contin- ued to entertain. On Oct. 8, 1801, he con- cluded a treaty of friendship, and when next year a general peace was established by the treaty of Amiens, the new territorial organiza- tion of Germany was regulated by the two. But when the ﬁrst consul, after making himself emperor, violated the territory of Baden, exe- cuted the Due d’Enghien, and announced his purpose to assume the crown of the newly created kingdom of Italy ; when he prepared to destroy the independence of the Batavian re- public, and occupied with his armies almost the whole coast of northern Germany, Alexander put forth a solemn protest along with a warning against a continuance in this course of usurpa- tion. Finally, although a war was brewing be- tween Russia and Turkey, and another actually waging against Persia, Alexander entered the third coalition to overthrow Napoleon formed by Sweden, England, and Austria. On Oct. 5, 1805, a Russian army debarked in Pomerania, and at the same time another traversed Prus- sia, although that power was neutral. The battle of Austerlitz, Dec. 2, 1805, de- stroyed the coalition. Alexander barely es- caped from being made prisoner by a French general cutting off the retreat of his escort. The czar pledged, in writing, his word of honor to this general that an armistice had been con- cluded, which, however, was not the case. The Russian troops retreated to Silesia, and Alex- ander returned to St. Petersburg to prepare new armaments, when his ally Francis of Aus- tria made peace with the enemy. The czar, however, refused to ratify the treaty made in Paris by his minister D’Oubril, and formed an intimate alliance with Prussia. He became 319 inﬂamed with Platonic love for the queen, Louise, to whose husband Frederic William III. he was bound by the ties of a strong friend, ship. This new coalition had no better luck than its predecessor. Marshal Benningsen was beaten at Eylau and Friedland; Kamenski de- feated at Pultusk, retreated to Lithuania, after the Prussian forces had been annihilated at Jena and Auerstadt. The Russian armies re- entered their own country, and the king of Prussia was left in possession of only the city of Memel, on the Russian frontier. At the same time, however, the Russian arms were more successful in the war with the Turks. The Serbs rose against the Porte, and Admiral Seniavine beat the Turkish ﬂeet in the Archi- pelago. Prussia being annihilated, and Na- poleon at the threshold of Russia, Alexander was forced to negotiate. In June, 1807, a ferry boat was constructed on the river Niemen, the frontier between Prussia and Russia, and the two emperors met on board. In the course of their now almost daily intercourse, Napoleon not only bewitched Alexander by his genius and his manners, but did not disdain to ﬂatter the foibles of the czar, whose former resent- ment gave way to the most enthusiastic friend- ship and admiration. By the treaty of Tilsit, now concluded, Alexander got from the Prus- sian spoils the district of Bialystock, in Lithu- ania. He entered warmly into all the Napoleonic schemes, and accepted the con- tinental system, though it was pernicious at the start to the agricultural interests and the exporting trade of Russia. Gustavus Adolphus IV. having rejected every plan of accommoda- tion with France or Napoleon, refusing the in- vitation of Russia to exclude English vessels from Swedish harbors, Alexander declared war against Sweden, invaded Finland, and con- quered that long-coveted duchy. The war was not yet ended, when the interview of Erfurt took place, Sept. 27, 1808. Here culminated the friendship of the two emperors, who, representing the west and the east, decided the destinies of Europe. The resistance of the Spaniards, and English subsidies, encouraged the court of Vienna to appeal to arms for the third time, in 1809. Alexander as the ally of Napoleon occupied Galicia, and at the peace got a slice of it. In Turkey, the fortresses of toostchook, Giurgevo, and Silistriawere taken, and the bulk of the Turkish army on the left side of the Danube laid down their arms before Kutusoﬂ‘. The war with Persia was also suc- cessful.—In the interior, Alexander continued the work of reform. The exclusion of English manufactures gave activity to domestic industry. In 1810, he reorganized the council of the em- pire, and formed 8 separate departments or ministries. He regulated the value of the cur- rency; introduced a new organization into Finland, and in 1811, inaugurated the church of the holy Virgin of Kasan, one of the great monuments of St.Petersburg. About this epoch, arevulsion took place in his feelings toward N a- 320 poison, and he inclined to the ancient party of is nobles, who were enemies of France, and of domestic reforms, and partisans of England. Under this inﬂuence he exiled some of his for- mer favorites, who for years had labored with him in the task of reform. Napoleon now occu- pied the duchy of Oldenburg, and Alexander re- fused him his sister in marriage. Ooolness and dissatisfaction grew up between the two courts. The immense majority of the Russian nobility, impoverished by the continental system, were hostile to the French alliance. Animosity in- creased, and the war of 1812 broke out. Eng- land and Sweden alone stood by Russia—at that time helpless and negative allies—but the treaty of Bucharest, concluded by the media- tion of England, on terms wholly advantageous to Russia, brought into the interior the armies from the Pruth and the Danube. Napoleon rapidly crossed the Niemen, and invaded Rus- sia, directing one part of his forces north to- ward St. Petersburg, while he himself pressed with the mass upon the centre of the empire toward Moscow. Alexander was taken almost unawares. He adopted the plan of Gen. Bar- clay de Tolly, retiring slowly step by step, to draw the enemy into the interior, destroying every thing in the retreat, and thus facilitating the union of the central army with that com- ing from Turkey. He made an appeal to the religious and national feelings of the Russians, and organized levies en masse. The people were even more excited than their ruler. After the battle of Smolensk he transferred the com- mand of his retreating, but not dispirited army, to Kutusoﬁ‘, yielding to the desire of the na- tion, to be commanded by a native Russian. It is not ascertained whether he ordered the burning of Moscow, but at any rate he ap- proved the act. He refused all accommoda- tion with Napoleon, answering, that he had only begun the campaign, and would not treat while a foot of his dominions was oc- cupied by the enemy. The retreat of the French, the terrible crossing of the Bere- sina, and the ﬁnal annihilation of the inva- ders, are well known, and need no description here. The Russian forces now overran the dukedom of Warsaw, which had been created by the treaty of Tilsit, and whose free institu- tions had caused much uneasiness in Russia; soon afterward it was deﬁnitively incorporated with the empire. The advisers of Alexander-— Kutusoff, Wolkonski, Araktsheéff, Balashoﬁ‘, insisted on arresting there the further pursuit of - the French, and leaving the rest of Europe to its fate. But England urged the continuation Of the war, Prussia asked for help, and Alex- ander, in his manifestoes from Warsaw, Feb. 22, and Kalish, March 25, 1813, appealed to the European nations as the redeemer of the continent. In Kalish, an offensive treaty against Napoleon was concluded between Russia, Prus- sia, and England, at the same time that the czar, animated with new impulses of religion, founded a Bible society, to spread the gospel ALEXANDER (or Russra) among all nations. He took part personally in various battles in Germany and France, where he arrived as the leader of the crusade against Napoleon. On Oct. 12, 1813, the treaty of Gulistan put an end to the war with Persia, and Russia acquired thereby a part of the Can- casus and of Armenia. Arrived at Paris, Alex- ander showed respect for the will of the French nation, by defending its integrity against others of the allies. He was not originally prepossessed in favor of the Bourbons, and would have preferred to see Napoleon superseded by any- body clearly pointed out by the will of France. In June, 1814, he visited London, was brilliantly received by the English, and won favor especially by standing up during the singing of Rule Britannia. In July of the same year he returned on a short visit to St. Peters- burg. The senate proﬁfered to him the title of “God-sent,” which he refused. He returned to Vienna, where the destinies of Europe were to be settled, at the great congress of" which he was the hero. There he gave to his newly conquered subjects, the Poles, a constitution, of which Oarnot said that it was too good to be ob- served.—Napo1eon’s escape from Elba now shook Europe anew. On May 13, 1815, Alexander signed the proclamation, by which the great sol- dier was outlawed. Waterloo soon followed, and, for the second time, Alexander entered Paris victoriously, July 11, 1815. His reli- gious excitement now increased, and with it, his indifference ﬁrst, and then his hostility to liberty. In Paris, in 1815, under the inspira- tions of the celebrated Mde. Kriidener, he form- ed the holy alliance, which was to base the po- litical order of the world on the principles of Christianity, or as it came to be understood, of despotism. Events having thus changed the face of Europe, Alexander took the lead in European affairs. In Russia, trade and indus- try revived, and efforts were made to expand the national resources. Alexander was inspired with the best intentions, but lacked the energy to carry them out. He began a partial aboli- tion of serfdom, by emancipating those in the 3 Baltic provinces, but without allowing the peasantry the liberty of migrating from one province to another. In 1817 he virtually pre- sided at the congress of Aix-la-Ohapelle, and from that epoch might be dated the complete abandonment of his once cherished liberal. and reformatory ideas. Exhausted bodily by va- rious excesses, and mentally by the pressure of the terrible events in which, for more than 10 years, he had played a part requir- ing almost superhuman efforts, he collapsed. Afraid to see Europe again the prey of revolu- tion, he became the leader of the reaction against all free tendencies. Metternich adroitly played upon his fears, and he ahnost wholly abandoned to his ministers the internal admin- istration of Russia, while he devoted himself to suppressing liberal movements in Italy, Spain, Portugal, and Germany. At the congresses of Troppau, Laybach, Verona, he urgently sus- ALEXANDER (or Russm) tained this policy. The constitution of Poland had been violated in its principal parts. Irri- tation increased between the nation and the sovereign; conspiracies were formed in con- nection with the Carbonarism then existing in France and the south of Europe. At the same time new ideas were brought to Russia by the armies returning from the west, especial- ly by those which had occupied France for sev- eral years. The political institutions and social state of other nations thus becoming better known, the desire arose and spread rapidly for changes more in harmony with the spirit of the age. Discontent was increased by the absence of administrative energy and integrity. The army was disorganized. In imitation of Aus- tria, and with the view of surrounding St. Pe- tersburg with an immense military force, mili- tary colonies of the peasantry were created by Araktsheé-ff, now the virtual ruler of the coun- try. Suspicion spread in all directions. The censorship of the press, and of books imported from Europe, became exceedingly severe. Al- exander became more and more the prey of hypochondria, gloomy, distrustful, inaccessible. The man who once received with a smile the memorials presented by his subjects, now or- dered that any one who approached him in public should be arrested, and kept 24 hours in prison. Once an active freemason, he now suppressed the lodges throughout the whole empire. The secret police, whose operations embraced not only Russia, but all Europe, became more active than ever, the grand-duke Con- stantine, brother of the czar, being at its head. The Jesuits, who, even after their suppression in the 18th century all over the world, had been tolerated in Lithuania and Russia, were expelled, in 1821 and ’22, for spreading Roman Catholi- cism among wealthy Russian families, and their establishment at St. Petersburg was handed over to their deadly foes, the Dominicans. Alexan- der estranged himself from many who had once been his friends, and with heartless cold blood and duplicity, crushed their worldly prospects and position. Only Wolkonski, a thorough Iabsolutist, but otherwise noble-minded, and Araktsheéif, a despot by nature, remained un- shaken in his favor. Araktsheéff, indeed, had been the favorite of his father, and hastened with a regiment to the rescue on the eventful night of his murder. Alexander retained him near his person during his whole reign, as if to atone for the bloody deed. The instinctive despotic sentiment more and more mastered Alexander’s mind, and the celebrated Joseph de Maistre, the philosopher of absolutism, then re- siding at St. Petersburg, said of the czar after an interview, that despotism was breathed out of his nostrils. Alexander accused all his people, the Poles, and all Europe indeed, of ingratitude, not aware that his own inward antagonism and his breaking off with the inspirations of his youth were the sources that embittered and poisoned his existence. Downcast, broken, restless, he hated every spot in turn, quitting St. Peters- voL. I.-21 321 burg and Russia, to visit foreign countries, and returning equally dissatisﬁed. Finally the out- break in Greece fearfully increased the dissi- dence between the Czar and the nation. Its feeling and sympathies were with the insur- gents. For more than half a century the whole inﬂuence of Russia had been employed to stir up the Greeks. Now, when the moment of action came, Alexander, under the advice of Metter- nich and N esselrode, opposed the natural policy of Russia, abandoned the Greeks to their fate, and suﬁered one of their leaders, Ypsilanti, once his favorite aide-de-camp and conﬁdant, to pine in Austrian dungeons. The marriage of the czar being childless, he had become fondly attached to anatural daughter by Mde. N aryshkine. The death of this girl, coupled with a fearful inun- dation at St. Petersburg in 1824, destroyed his mental equilibrium. These catastrophes he considered as the punishment of parricide. Ideas of death ﬁlled his mind; his health was shattered, as well as that of his wife, with whom of late he had lived on affectionate terms. In Sept. 1825, in compliance with the order of his physicians, he went with her on a jour- ney to southern Russia. He left St. Peters- burg ﬁlled with gloomy forebodings, and took an affectionate leave of his court. Arriving at Taganrog, he left the empress and continued his excursion into the Crimea. He was attack- ed by the Crimean fever, combined with ery- sipelas, returned to Taganrog, and died there Dec. 1, 1825. A few weeks before his death Count Witt, one of the chief military authorities of the military colonies in the south of Russia, disclosed to him the existence of a wide-spread conspiracy against the imperial family. He, however, was unmoved by the information, and his successor, Nicholas, had to ﬁght his way to the throne. The chief monument to the memory of Alexander is a column of one piece of Finland granite, erected on the great square of St. Petersburg. ALEXANDER II., N ronor.xnwrrcn, emperor of Russia, born April 29, 1818. From the cra- dle he was the object of the most tender love of both his parents, and was brought up in cordial and intimate family relations. His edu- cation was exceedingly careful. His father, the Emperor Nicholas, directed it, and gave almost daily attention to its progress. Gen. Frederics, and afterward Gen. Kavelin, were his immediate tutors. Contrary to the pre- vious usage with Russian imperial prmces, his uncle Alexander I. and his father were educated by foreigners; Alexander II. re- ceived instruction mainly from native Russians, among whom Zoukowski, an eminent man of letters, ﬁlled the chief place. Without tran- scendant abilities, Alexander learned well every thing taught him. His judgment and perception were equally clear, and he seldom if ever showed in his childhood, or youth those outbreaks of violent, ungovernable pas- sion which had always been one of the prominent characteristics of the Romanoifs. 322 This gentleness of character he inherited from his mother, a royal princess of Prussia. He was always kind and easy in intercourse with his playmates, not haughty, overbearing, or cold, and never making them feel the inferiority of their position. His imagination and his heart had always a romantic turn, and on the throne he has thus far exhibited ﬁrmness of purpose with- out harshness. Early in youth he showed a love of justice and forbearance, often trying to assuage the feelings which had been wounded by the asperity of his father. Before seeing foreign countries, according to the wish of Nicholas, he travelled all over Russia, learning thus to know and appreciate his own fatherland. When he approached manhood, the Prince de Lieven, formerly Russian ambassador in London, was made his tutor, principally to acquaint him with the diplomacy of Europe, its routine and etiquette, and to accompany him in his travels in England, Germany, and Italy. He never visited France, as his father cherished a vivid contempt for the king, Louis Philippe, and avoided any demonstration of intimacy. On April 28, 1841, he married Maria Alexandrow- na, grand-duchess of Hesse-Darmstadt, born in 1824. It was wholly a love match, the young prince having made his own choice among a host of German princesses. From the age of 18, he was admitted by his father to study the difficult task of governing the em- pire, being present at all the sittings of various ministers with the emperor. When in 1846 the Emperor Nicholas resided for several months in Italy, he delegated to his son all his vast powers, a fact rarely if ever paralleled in history. Indeed, to the end of the father’s life the relations of the two were most conﬁdential and affectionate. In February, 1 855, he mounted the throne at a most critical and ominous mo- ment for Russia. His predecessor left the country engaged single-handed in a war against England, France,Turkey, and Sardinia,with Aus- tria as a passive enemy, and without any active ally whatever. For nearly a year Alexander unﬁinchingly continued the strife. Sebastopol was taken in Sept. 1855, but the allies won nothing more, and the Russian resistance continued. During the ensuing winter, the neutral German powers, especially Prussia and Saxony, ﬁnding Louis Napoleon not averse to peace, mediated oﬁiciously. An armistice was concluded between the belligerents in March, 1856, a conference oonvoked at Paris, and a ﬁnal treaty there on the 13tl1 of that month, put an end to the war. Russia lost by it a small slice of land in Bessarabia, and her naval preponderance in the Black sea. The nation as well as the czar thus learned by costly expe- rience to know all the deﬁciencies of the sys- tem which his predecessor had pushed to the utmost extreme.-Since the peace, Alexander has devoted himself to putting Russia on a more healthy footing. In this career his ac- tions have hitherto exhibited a humane, broad, elastic, and truly liberal spirit. Everywhere, ALEXANDER he has relaxed the lines drawn to the utmost tension by his predecessor. Above all, he is emancipating the nation from the military routine which permeates every branch of the administration. He has reorganized the army, and freed the people for the space of 4 years from military recruitment. He has also dis- solved the greater part of the military colo- nies, freed public instruction from military discipline; and instead of placing discharged ofﬁcers as tutors and professors at the head of the educational establishments, he has ap- pointed men ﬁtted by special studies for these positions. The censorship has been con- siderably relaxed, foreign newspapers circulate freely, domestic journals enjoy a new liberty. Thus for the ﬁrst time genuine publicity is introduced into Russia. He has prohibited espionage, and unﬁinchingly wars against offi- cial corruption, allowing it to be ferreted out and exposed. He advances young men in the different branches of the public service, superseding those whose only merit is long years of routine. He has given a new impulse to internal industry and trade, at the same time that he seeks to develop the national commercial marine, and to induce native merchants to ex- tend their relations to foreign countries. He has annulled the impediments which prevented Russians from visiting foreign lands; and has granted a general amnesty for political offend- ers, Poles and Russians, recalling the exiled from Siberia, and allowing fugitives to return; he proposes to create better channels of inter- nal communication, and is employing the whole energy of the government and nation in the work of covering his immense empire with nets of railroads. He is religious, and sin- cerely attached to the national church, but without fanaticism. For the sake of his Roman Catholic subjects, he has brought to a close the misunderstandings with the see of Rome, which had lasted for more than 20 years. ALEXANDER, ALEXANDER HUMPHREYS, ti- tular earl of Stirling, born in Birmingham, England, about 1783. earldom of Stirling is so intimately part and parcel of his personal history, that a sketch of the various circumstances connected with the setting up and legal defeatof that claim is necessary. James I. of England had a favorite project of colonizing the borders of the gulf of the St. Lawrence. Sir William Alexander of Menstrie, a Scottish poet and statesman, having warmly entered into this plan, was created Earl Stirling, with succession to heirs male only, and gifted by royal charter with a large terri- tory, including N ova Scotia and a considerable part of Canada. To him and his heirs was assigned the hereditary viceroyalty of this vast district, with almost regal powers, including the right to confer the new dignity of baronets of Nova Scotia, upon acceptable persons who had paid for and received a grant of 16,000 acres of land in the colony. The eldest son of this the ﬁrst earl of Stirling became involved His claim to the extinct ALEXANDER in difﬁculties, and sold his American rights to a French colonist. By the treaty of 1632, these North American colonies were ceded to France. In 1713, by the treaty of Utrecht, they were restored to England, but on a new basis, as if they had not previously belonged to her,--at any rate, the Alexanders’ claim had been sold long before. The earldom of Stirling became extinct. The general oﬂicer who, as Lord Stirling, fought on the side of the patriots during the American war of Independence, claimed this peerage as an undoubted member of the family, but, as he came by the female line, while the title descended only on the male, the house of lords did not acknowledge him as a Scottish peer. More than half a century later, another claim was set up, in the following manner : In 1824, Mr. Alexander Humphreys obtained the royal license to assume the sur- name of Alexander, on the ground that he had amaternal grandfather of that name, and be- cause it had been the wish of his deceased mother. She, it was stated, was a great-great- grand-daughter of the Hon. John Alexander, fourth son of the last earl of Stirling. Mr. Humphreys (Alexander) proceeded to certify his descent from this ﬁrst Alexander; then, through him, from the ﬁrst earl of Stirling; and lastly, that all other nearer descendants of that family being extinct, he was sole heir to the honors and property of the original recipi- ent of the earldom and charter. In compliance with the terms of that charter, he went through the form of being formally invested, in Edin- burgh Castle, by a process (since changed) which allowed almost any unopposed claimant to be “served heir” to property or title. Mr. Humphreys (Alexander) represented a female descendant, while the earldom and estates were exclusively reserved for heirs-male. But Mr. T. C. Banks, a genealogist of some ability, who had ofﬁcially taken this case in hand, produced a document, purporting to be a copy of another charter, granted by Charles I. in 1639, usually called letters-patent of Novoda- mus, in which the ﬁrst charter was renewed with the addition that heirs-female as well as male were included in its privileges. Assum- ing the title of earl of Stirling, as heir-male of his mother (she diedin 1814, and he called her count- ess of Stirling in her own right), Mr. Humphreys voted, as earl, at an election of Scottish repre- sentative peers, in 1825, and no less a personage than Sir Walter Scott conducted the proceed- ings and received the vote, as principal clerk of session. The peers were taken by surprise, and let the vote pass, but in 1830, at another election of Scottish peers, the earl of Rosebery protested against persons claiming dormant peerages, using the titles and exercising the privileges, before the house of lords had decided the claim to be good.-—Mr. Humphreys’ early career had been a checkered one. He was in France, in 1803, when Napoleon detained all the British then in Paris, and was much straitened in circumstances during this pc- 323 riod. On his return, he had opened a school in Worcestershire, but poverty and distress seem- ed to dog his steps. As soon as he appeared as earl of Stirling, claiming from the crown a vast territory, which emigration was rapidly making more and more valuable, he was able to raise money on his pretensions, and actually had advances to the amount of £15,000 from pro- fessed money lenders. He also opened an of- ﬁce in London for the sale of lands in British North America, conferred a baronetcy and 16,000 acres of land in Canada on Mr. Banks, his agent, issued proclamations describing him- self as “hereditary lieutenant and lord proprie- tor of the province of Nova Scotia;’’ and when the late earl of Durham was made viceroy of British North America, with unusually large powers, published aprotest (which appeared in the French papers only) against the terms of the appointment, as infringing his own rights. In the English courts of law he was allowed the peers’ usual exemption from per- sonal arrest. The crown lawyers of Scotland at last challenged the authenticity of his claims. A trial ensued, in which Mr. Humplireys (Al- exander) had to set forth his pedigree, and it was necessary to show that his reputed ances- tor, the fourth son of the ﬁrst earl of Stirling, who was known to have had only one child, a daughter, by his wife, the heiress of Gartmore, had married a second time, and had a son by such marriage. Exactly-at the moment when the proof was required, a parcel for “the Rt. Hon. the earl of Stirling,” was left at a book- seller’s in London, which was found to contain an inner packet, in a parchment cover, sealed with three old-fashioned seals, and accompanied by a note stating it to have been found in a cash box, stolen many years before from the late William Humphreys, Esq., of Birmingham (father to the claimant), and restored by the descendants of the thief, who were willing to make reparation, but declined “to court dis- grace and infamy” by giving their names. Among other papers in this packet, was a gene- alogical tree, showing the second marriage of John Alexander, of Gartmore, to Elizabeth Maxwell, of Londonderry, by whom he had a son, John “ sixth earl of Stirling,” grandfather of Humphreys’ mother. While in France, the claimant had become acquainted with the cele- brated Mdlle. Le Normand, the fortune-teller, who possessed considerable literary abilities, and had an extensive correspondence with au- thors and men of letters. She had advanced a large sum to Humphreys, to enable him to litigate his claims, and was over 70 years old when the-trial came on. The Scottish court of sessions decided against him, and Mr. Hum- phreys, being on the continent, called upon Mdlle. Le Normand, who handed him a myste- rious packet, which she said had been dropped in her rooms by two ladies of rank. It con- tained a letter signed “M.,” dated from Ver- sailles, declaring the writer’s lively interest in the Stirling case (which his official position did 324 not permit him publicly to express), and inclos- ing a large old French map of Canada, covered with important and remarkable documents, sup- plying the completion of the evidence required to prove the claim, more particularly conﬁrming the copy of the charter of Novodamus of 1639 (the original of which was lost), and the au- thenticity, also, of a tombstone over the re- mains of the grandfather of Mrs. Humphreys, the claimant’s mother. Thus strengthened, the claimant returned to Scotland, and having ex- hibited the Le Normand documents, was in- dicted by the crown on a charge of having forg- ed them. The trial commenced _ April 29, 1839, and lasted 4 days. It soon became appa- rent, in an early part of the proceedings, that the documents were forged, and the only ques- tions for the jury then were whether the pris- oner had himself forged them, or used them knowing them to have been forged by others. The documents so mysteriously left with the London bookseller excited less attention, and indeed were less important than the contents of the packet dropped in Mdlle. Le Normand’s rooms, in a manner more mysterious still, and the charter of 1639, restoring the Canada es- tate to the Stirling family, and opening the suc- cession to heirs through the female line. A map of Canada, made by De Lisle, the celebrated French geographer, and dated 1703, contained some things which could not have been there until much later—-for 'example, De Lisle was there described as “ﬁrst geographer to the king,” a title he did not obtain until 1718. It was proved, by French witnesses, that the date 1703 was retained on the map to mark the com- mencement of the copyright, but that from cer- tain territorial changes included in it, the actual publication must have been after 1717, several years subsequent to the death of Louis XIV., Fenelon, and Esprit Flechier, bishop of Nismes, whose signature appeared as attest- ing the authenticity of certain inscriptions on the back of the map, all strongly asserting the territorial rights of the earls of Stirling in Canada and Nova Scotia. The illustrious Fen- elon and Bishop Flechier would appear, if those documents were true, to have compared and certiﬁed copies of the charter of 1639, with- out any particular reason for taking so much trouble. The French antiquaries, skilled in old writings, who were examined, declared these documents were imitations, but the fact that the map could not have been printed until the parties writing on it had been some years dead, left the matter on a surer basis than suspicion or the opinion of an “expert.” The charter of Novodamus, said to have been granted in 1639', was not to be found in the usual public register of Scotland, for a portion of that record, in- cluding the 'year 1639, had been lost. It was just, therefore, that the claimant should estab- lish its substance from other sources. But a Scottish charter, previous to its being recorded in the register, would have to pass through several oﬂices, and these records, existing in ALEXANDER full, contain no reference to it. Further, though the register for 1639 was lost, there re- mained an index of its contents, in which this charter was not mentioned. Besides, the blank in the lost records was too brief to contain a document of such length. Lastly, Archbishop Spotswood, one of the alleged witnesses of the charter, was dead before its date. Mr. Hum- phreys was attended all through the trial by Col. d’Aguilar, a gallant soldier and accom- plished man of letters, who had been his class- mate at school, and, with several other witnesses, bore the strongest testimony to his character. The verdict declared that the various documents were forged, and a majority of the jury found that the charge of having forged them, or used them with a knowledge that they were forged, was “not proven.71 This destroyed all legal pre- tensions on the part of Mr. Humphreys, and he _ was not heard of for several years, until he ap- peared at Washington; and it was reported in 1853, that President Pierce’s administration were disposed to treat with him for the pur- chase of his “ claim” on Canada and Nova Scotia. If such an intention ever existed, it has not been carried out. On a review of the whole case we may suppose that Mr. Humphreys had full belief in his own claims; that the Novodamus charter was got up by Banks, his agent, and the French dbcuments by Le Normand (both of whom had large pecuniary interests in the result), while the mysterious packet from the London publishers, probably emanated from a third party whose interests were yet more deeply in- volved. There is nothing to show that the claimant acted otherwise than in good faith, fully persuaded that his pretensions were of the strongest kind, and supported by the most au- thentic evidence. The reports of the trial of 1839 (by Mr. Swinton and Mr. Turnbull) con- tain fac-simile engravings of the various docu- ments, and are highly interesting. The case was also included by the late Mr. Townsend, in his “ Modern State Trials,” and was entered in- to at considerable length and with much inge- nuity and legal acumen, by Mr. Samuel War- ren, in “Blackwood’s Magazine.” The docu- ments on which Mr. Humphreys Alexander rested his claims were impounded by the court of session, in Scotland, during the trial in 1839, and have not been restored to the claimant. ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD, D. D., an emi- nent Presbyterian divine, was born in Augusta county, now Rockbridge, Va., April 17., 1772, died at Princeton, N. J ., Oct. 22, 1851. His grandfather, Archibald Alexander, was of Scotch descent, though an emigrant from Ire- land, whence he came to Pennsylvania in the year 1736, and, after a residence there of about 2 years, removed to Virginia. He was one of the ﬁrst settlers of that region, a man of men- tal vigor, personal courage, and respectable literary acquirements, as may be inferred from the fact that he raised a company of rangers for service on the Kanawha, and was accus- tomed to give lessons, in various departments ALEXANDER of science, to the young people of the neigh- borhood. His son William, the father of the subject of this sketch, was a farmer and trader. The ﬁrst teacher whose instructions were en- joyed by Archibald was John Reardon, a con- vict whom his father had purchased——a practice common in that day—at Baltimore. This man claimed to be an Irishman, but was brought up in London, whence he was transported for crime, and, being intelligent, had turned his opportunities to such good account that he had acquired a respectable acquaintance with the Latin and Greek classics. A log school-house was built for him near the residence of Mr. Alexander, which he occupied until his enlist- ment in a corps which was raised for service against the British troops. He was wounded in a skirmish with Tarleton’s men, in North Carolina, and was left for dead upon the ﬁeld. He eventually recovered, however, and resumed his station as teacher. At the age of 10 years, Archibald was sent to the academy of the Rev. William Graham, at Timber Ridge meeting- house, where he commenced the study of the classics under the supervision of the accom- plished principal and his no less eminent usher, James Priestly. Within a year after his en- trance, Mr. Graham began to neglect his school, and devoted most of his attention to his farm, leaving the instruction of his pupils almost en- tirely to his assistant, who proved to be not only competent but faithful. His distinguished pupil has left on record a deserved tribute of respect for the memory of the man from whom —to use his own words—he “ derived the ﬁrst impulse in his literary course.” Priestly’s er- ratic career and eccentricities are well known, and, though a man of extraordinary learning and enthusiastic ardor in behalf of education, he was deﬁcient in the executive ability which is necessary to insure success in establishing and maintaining such institutions of learning as were then needed. His failure in organizing the Cumberland college at Nashville, to the charge of which he was called, is an instance in point. At the age of 17 years, and while re- viewing his studies for the purpose of taking a degree at the academy, Archibald was placed by his father as tutor in the family of Gen. John Posey, of the Wilderness, twelve miles west of Fredericksburg. Gen. Posey had been colonel in Morgan’s riﬂemen, and being a man of high social position and possessing ample means, could doubtless secure to the young tutor many advantages which he had not pre- viously enjoyed. During his residence in this family, Archibald did not neglect his opportu- nities for improvement; and, while instructing the general’s daughter and sons in Latin, he‘ was diligent in prosecuting his own studies. He remained there but one year, and in 1789 he returned home and resumed his studiesjwith his former preceptor, Rev. Mr. Graham, under whose instructions he mastered the difﬁculties of Euclid and Horace. At this time his mind became inﬂuenced by the remarkable religious 325 movement then in progress throughout all that part of the country, and which is yet spoken of as “the great revival,” and he began to turn his attention to the study of divinity. At the instance of Gen. Andrew Moore, he proposed to enter the college of New Jersey, at Princeton, but the opposition of Mr. Graham decided the question, and he was induced to remain at home and study theology under the supervision of his old preceptor. He was licensed at Winchester, Oct. 1, 1791, and spent some years in itin- erant missionary service in different parts of his native state. To the peculiar training ex- perienced in the performance of that duty he ascribed his remarkable ﬂuency as an extempo- raneous preacher, as well as the tenacity of his memory. His sermons were “ closely studied, though not written.” In 17 94, while executing a mission from the synod of Virginia, he had the good fortune to hear Patrick Henry defend three men charged with murder, and, at a later period, he was present when the same great orator made his last speech in public. His tes- timony corroborates the many eulogies extant of the remarkable and effective eloquence of Mr. Henry. In 1789, Dr. John Blair Smith resigned the presidency of Hampden Sidney college, and, after endeavoring, for a long time, to induce Mr. Graham to accept the posi- tion, the trustees elected Mr. Alexander as the successor of Dr. Smith. He complied with their request, but, in 1801, resigned the oﬂice of president, and also his pastoral charge, and made a journey to New York and New Eng- land. While on his way to the north, he vis- ited the Rev. Dr. Waddell, the celebrated “blind preacher,” mentioned by Mr. Wirt in the “Brit- ish Spy,” and contracted a matrimonial engage- ment with his daughter, Janetta, whom he married on his return in 1802. During his visit to the north and east, he made the ac- quaintance of many of the most distinguished scholars of the day, ‘and was present at the commencement of Dartmouth college, when Daniel Webster made his graduation speech. In 1802 he resumed his former position at Hampden Sidney college, but owing to the in- subordination among the students, he “became weary of governing them,” and accepted a call from the Pine street church in Philadelphia, where he was installed pastor on the 30th May, 1807. The degree of D. D. was conferred upon him by the college of New Jersey in 1810, and in the same year he was elected president of Union college in Georgia, a fact which remained unknown even by his family until after his death, when it was revealed upon the examination of his private papers. The theological seminary at Princeton was estab- lished by the general assembly of the Presby- terian church in 1811, and Dr. Alexander was, by common consent, elected as its ﬁrst pro- fessor, having in his sole charge the various branches of theological education. He removed to Princeton in July, 1812, and entered upon 326 the discharge of the manifold duties of his of- ﬁce, from which he was, however, gradually relieved by the appointment of other profess- ors as the demands and resources of the insti- tution increased. The department of pastoral and polemic theology was, ﬁnally, assigned as his special charge, and to it he devoted his at- tention until his death. Few writers whose works are so voluminous have begun to publish at so late a period in life; for, with the excep- tion of a few occasional sermons and some con- tributions to the Virginia “ Religious Magazine,” he gave nothing to the public through the press, until his 52d year, when his “Outlines of the Evidences of Christianity” appeared, a work which has passed through numerous editions, in various languages, and is a standard text book in several colleges. In 1826 his “Treatise on the Canon of the Old and New Testament” was published, and in 1829 he be- came a regular contributor to the “Biblical Repertory,” a quarterly publication which was established at Princeton in 1825, by Professor Hodge, under whose auspices it still exists as the “Princeton Review.” In 1833 he pub- lished a “History of the Patriarchs,” and in 1839 contributed to a religious journal a series of “Essays on Religious Experience,” which ap- peared in a volume in 1840, and, having been adopted by the Presbyterian board of publica- tion, was issued in a German translation in 1853. His “ History of African Colonization,” an octavo of 603 pages, appeared in 1846, a “History of the Log College,” at nearly the same time, and a “History of the Israelitish Nation,” from their origin to their dispersion at the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans, in 1852. His work on “Moral Science,” though completed during his life, was not published until after his decease, and among his unﬁnished works is one on "' The Duties and Consolations of the Christian ;” one on “Patriarchal Theol- ogy ;” a memoir of his old instructor, Mr. Graham; a history of the Presbyterian church in Virginia; biographical sketches of distin- guished American clergymen and alumni of the college of New Jersey, and a work on “ Church Polity and Discipline,” his labors upon which were abruptly broken off by his last illness, and which ends with an unﬁnished sentence. Among his literary remains are a large number of manuscripts upon various sub- jects, some of which will probably be pub- lished at a future day. ALEXANDER of HALES, a famous English theologian, in the 13th century, who died in 1245. A great part of his life was passed at Paris, where he pursued his studies, and gave instruction in philosophy and theology. Bona- ventura and Duns Scotus were his pupils, and perhaps Aquinas. His chief work was his Summa, which after being examined and ap- proved by a commission of seventy doctors, was accepted as a complete manual of instruc- tion in theology for all institutions of learning in Christendom. ALEXANDER ALEXANDER, JAMES WADDELL, D. D., eld- est son of Dr. Archibald Alexander, was born in Louisa county, Va., in 1804, graduated at the college of New Jersey in 1820, and was appointed a tutor in that institution in 1824. He resigned that station in the following year, and was settled as pastor of a congregation in Charlotte county, Va., where he remained about 2 years, when, in 1828, he accepted a call to Trenton, N. J. In 1830 he resigned that charge and became editor of the Presby- terian, a religious newspaper published in Phil- adelphia, whence he was called, in 1833, to the professorship of rhetoric and belles-lettres in the college of New Jersey. He discharged the duties of this oﬁice with marked ability, until 1844, when he accepted the pastoral charge of the Duane street church in the city of New York. In 1849 he was appointed professor of ecclesiastical history and church government in the theological seminary at Princeton, where he remained until 1851, when he was elected pastor of the Fifth avenue church in the city of New York, which station he now occupies. The degree of D. D. was conferred upon him by La Fayette college, Pa., in 1843, and again, in 1854, by Harvard university.——His published works are numerous and popular. Among them is a volume of sermons, entitled “ Conso- lation, in discourses on Select Topics, addressed to the suffering people of God ;” “Thoughts on Family Worship, and plain words to a Young Communicant ;” a series of essays entitled “The American Mechanic and Workingman;” a biography of his father, Dr. Archibald Alex- ander; numerous contributions to the Biblical Repertory and Princeton Review, some of the publications of the American Tract Society, and several essays ﬁrst published in the New- ark “Daily Advertiser” and the “Literary World,” over the signature of “ Czesariensis.” His writings are characterized more by preci- sion of language, exact scholarship, and literary elegance, than by the profound erudition which is so conspicuous in the works of his father and brother. ALEXANDER, JosEP1I Anmsox, D. D., third son of Dr. Archibald Alexander, was born in Philadelphia in 1809, and received his early education at the college of New Jersey, where he graduated in 1826, at which time he had already acquired a considerable knowledge of the Hebrew language, and of oriental litera- ture in general. After leaving college, he con- tinued his studies in private, and in 1830 was appointed adjunct professor of ancient lan- guages and literature in his alma mater, which oﬁice he resigned in 1833. He remained at his paternal home in Princeton, being assisted in his studies by the eminent scholars who ﬁlled the professors’ chairs in the theological semina- ry, though he never became a matriculated stu- dent in that institution. He was soon appoint- ed by the board of directors as an assistant teacher in the department of Dr. Hodge, and, in 1838, he was elected by the general assembly ALEXANDER of the Presbyterian church as professor of Biblical criticism and ecclesiastical history. In 1852 he was transferred to the chair of Biblical and ecclesiastical history, which he still occu- pies. He received the degree of D. D. from Marshall college, Pa.——His literary labors, which give evidence of profound learning and great industry, are not so diversiﬁed in their charac- ter as those of his father or his elder brother, but are chieﬂy exegetical. He has published a “Translation and Commentary on the Psalms,” in 3 volumes; “ A Critical Commentary on the Prophecies of Isaiah,” and an abridgment of the same work; a volume on primitive church government, and numerous essaysin the “ Bibli- cal Repertory ” and “Princeton Review.” He is now engaged, in connection with Dr. Hodge, in preparing a commentary on the New Testa- ment, a large portion of which is already com- pleted, and a part of which is passing through the press. He has always retained the secluded habits of a retired student, and has never had a pastoral charge. ALEXANDER, NATHANIEL, Dr., governor of North Carolina in 1806, died March 8, 1808, aged 52. After graduating at Princeton in 1776, he studied medicine. During the war of the revolution he served in the American army, resuming the practice of his calling on the re- turn of peace. ALEXANDER, NOEL, a writer of church history, born at Rouen in 1639, and died in 17 24. He became a Dominican friar, after com- pleting his studies, and held the oﬂice of pro- fessor of philosophy in the great convent of Paris for twelve years. M. Colbert esteemed him highly, and availed himself of his talents in the education of his son, afterward archbish- op of Rouen. ALEXANDER, STEPHEN, LL. D., an Ameri- can astronomer, was born at Schenectady, N. Y., Sept. 1, 1806, graduated at Union college in 1824, and was matriculated in the theological seminary at Princeton in 1832. In the follow- ing year he was appointed tutor in the college of New Jersey, and, in 1834, was elected ad- junct professor of mathematics in the same in- stitution, which station he occupied until 1840, when the professorship of astronomy was cre- ated and assigned to him. Upon the decease of Professor Dod in 18-15, Mr. Alexander succeed- ed him in the chair of mathematics, which he exchanged in 1854: for the professorship of me- chanics and astronomy, which he yet retains. His diploma from the American philosophical society is dated in 1839, that from the Ameri- can academy of arts and sciences Boston) in 1850, and, in 1852, the degree of L. D. was conferred upon him by Columbia college.—He has written many scientiﬁc papers, which have excited considerable interest, and several of them have been translated and published in Europe. Among those which have iittracted most attention, is one on the “Physical Phe- nomena attendant upon Solar Eclipses,” which was read before the American philosophical 327 society at their centenary meeting in 1843, and an abstract of which was published in their “ Proceedings;” one “ on the Fundamental Principles of Mathematics,” read before the American association for the advancement of science in 1848, and published in the Ameri- can “Journal of Science” in 1849; one “on the Origin of the Forms and the Present Condition of some of the Clusters of Stars, and several of the Nebulae,” read at the meet- ing of the American association, at Albany, in 1850, and since published in the Astronom- ical Journal; several communications to the same association “relative to the Form and Equatorial Diameter of the Asteroid Planet,” and also on the “Harmonies in the arrange- ment of the Solar System, which seem to be conﬁrmatory of the N ebular Hypothesis of La- lace)’ ALEXANDER, WILLIAM, earl of Stirling, secretary of state in Scotland in 1626, and au- thor of several poems and dramatic pieces, died in 1640. He resided for some years at the court of James VI., where, among other works, he published “ Monarchic Tragedies,” dedicated to that prince, and a poem entitled “Dooms- day, or the Great Day of Judgment.” He was at one time gentleman usher to Prince Charles, and master of the requests. ALEXANDER, WILLIAM, a major-general in the American revolutionary army, was born in New York in 1726, died J an. 15, 1783. Claiming the earldom of Stirling, in Scotland, to which many of his contemporaries believed him to be entitled, he is known to history only as Lord Stirling. Having received an excellent education, more particularly in the department of mathe- matics, and having enjoyed the opportunity of bringing his talents and acquirements into no- tice, he attained a high reputation as a man of science. During the French and Indian war he was a member of the military family of Gen. Shirley, having, at different times, acted as com- missary, aide-de-camp, and secretary. After the close of the war he went to England, where he spent a large portion of his fortune in the un- successful prosecution of his claims to the title and estates of Stirling. On the breaking out of the war of the revolution, he was appointed colonel of a regiment. and, while stationed at New York, previous to the arrival of Washing- ton from Boston, he ﬁtted out an expedition consisting of a pilot boat and some smaller boats, with which he put to sea at night, elud- ing the vigilance of the sentinels of the British frigate Asia, which then lay in the harbor, and captured a transport laden with stores for the enemy at Boston. He opened the battle of Long Island, where, though he fought with de- termined, even obstinate bravery, he was com- pelled to surrender, after having secured the retreat of a large portion of his command. Having been exchanged, he fought with Wash- ington at Brandywine, commanded the reserve at Germantown, and led a division at Mon- mouth. He died from an attack of gout. The 328 ALEXANDRE name of Lord Stirling will always occupy an honorable place in American history, not only for his unquestioned patriotism and personal courage, but also for the part he took in expos- ing and defeating the designs of the “Conway cabal.” ALEXAN DRE, A., a famous writer on chess, born in Germany, about 1773, died in Paris in 1850. He published in Paris, in 1837, an “Encyclopaedia of Chess,” and in 1846, a “ Col- lection of the ﬁnest Problems of Chess,” works which gained for him a high reputation among the lovers of chess throughout Europe. At the age of 70 years, being still enthusiastic in the theory and practice of his profession, he undertook at once a triumphal and missionary tour through Germany and the East, striving to give his own enthusiasm to the disciples of chess, and to raise chess-playing to his own conceptions of high art. ALEXANDRIA. I. A county in N. E. Virginia, lying L on the Potomac, opposite the city of Washington. The area of the county is about 36 square miles, its surface is hilly, and its soil poor and thin. At Alexandria, the capital of the county, the Orange and Alexandria railroad terminates, and a canal connects that city with Georgetown, D. C. This county, once a part of the District of Columbia, was receded to Vir- ginia by act of congress, July 9, 1844. The products in 1850 were 28,380 bushels of Indian corn, 6,238 of wheat, 6,312 of cats, and 912 tons of hay. It contained 12 churches, and published 3 newspapers. There were 619 pupils attending public schools. In 1850, its real estate was assessed at $2,349,541, and in 1856 at $4,068,809, showing an increase of 7 7 per cent. Pop. free white, 7,217; free colored, 1,409; slave, 1,382; total, 10,008. II. Aport of entry, and capital of the above county. It is situated on the right bank of the Potomac, 7 miles below Washington, in lat. 38° 49’ N. long. 77° 4’ W. The Potomac is here a mile in width, forming a harbor able to accommodate the largest ships. The site of the city is undulating, affording a good view of the capitol at Wash- ington, and the river Potomac. Alexandria contains a court house, 3 banks, 2 newspapers, 12 churches, and several good schools. It is generally well paved, and lighted with gas, and water has recently been introduced by machin- cry. The port owns a considerable amount of shipping, in which corn, tobacco, and coal, are exported. The city is connected by a railroad 90 miles long, with the central railroad of Vir- ginia; it also enjoys water communication by canal with Georgetown, where it intersects the Chesapeake and Ohio canal. Since the comple- tion of these improvements in 1852, the busi- ness of Alexandria has considerably increased. In 1854 the shipping of the port was 3,771 tons registered, and 8,644 enrolled and licensed. Of the latter, 7,629 tons were employed in coasting, and 1,560 in steam navigation. The foreign trade of the same years consisted of 118 arrivals, and clearances representing an aggregate of ALEXANDRIA 38,451 tons. Shipbuilding is carried on here to a limited extent, and the cotton manufacture,’ which has been recently introduced, is in suc- cessful operation in a number of factories. Pop- ulation, 8,752. ALEXANDRIA, a city of Egypt, at the mouth of the Nile. It was one of the greatest cities of antiquity, little, if at all, inferior to imperial Rome, either in size, magniﬁcence, or population. After the destruction of Tyre by Alexander the Great, that conqueror saw the greatness which might be attained by a city at the mouth of the Nile, and founded Alexandria, B. C. 332. Dinocrates or Dinocharcs was the architect, and the site selected was at the Cano- pic mouth of the river, between the sea and Lake Mareotis. The city was intersected by streets from north to south and east to west. On the island of Pharos a light-house of vast height was erected by Sostratus of Cnidus, and this island itself was connected with the main- land by a dyke which divided the inner from the outer harbor, and through which vessels could pass by means of movable bridges. The court end of the town was called the Bruchion, and here the royal palace of the Ptolemies was sit- uated, who possessed themselves of the king- dom of Egypt after the death of Alexander.—- The port of Alexandria was the great centre to which the trade of Europe and the Mediterra- nean, with Persia and the far East, opened up by the Macedonian conquests converged. The population of Alexandria numbered, according to the registers, no less than 300,000 free men, to which must he added the female and juvenile members of families, and the vast numbers of slaves which swelled the numerical strength of ancient cities. Alexandria speedily became a great seat of learning. The recondite knowledge of the Egyptian philosophers, among whom physics and the mysteries of nature had from unknown ages been the object of research, was qualiﬁed by the brilliant wit and lively imagi- nation of the Greek; while the theocratic Jew, the disciple of Zoroaster, the worshippers of Buddha and Brama, brought their creeds and their philosophy to this intellectual arena. Here the schools of Grecian philosophy, and especially the Platonists, ﬂourished. In Alex- andria the Scriptures were ﬁrst made known to the heathen by the Septuagint version, and here Christianity early took root and grew with great luxuriance, although Alexandria soon became the head-quarters of sectarianism, and the scene of rancorous and unchristian disputation and vio- lence.—-Julius Caesar laid siege to Alexandria and took it 48 B. C., at which time much damage was done to the city. In 30 B. C. it fell perma- nently under the power of the Romans; and notwithstanding the removal of many of the most precious works of art to Rome, its great- ness continued until the establishment of the seat of empire at Constantinople. It suffered the wholesale butcheries of Caracalla, a sack by Aurelian, and another by Diocletian. The great temple of Serapis was destroyed by Theo- ALEXANDRIAN CODEX philus the patriarch, who left not a vestige of the magniﬁcent structure. From the rise of Con-- stantinople, though still a centre of com- merce, for which its position gave remarka- ble facilities, Alexandria as a capital began seriously to decline. In A. D. 640 it was taken by the Saracens under Omar, and in 969 Cairo was founded by the caliphs of the Fatimite dy- nasty, and made the capital of Egypt. In 1497 the discovery of the cape route to India and the East by the Cape of Good Hope completed its decay. At present the ancient city is a mass of ruins, in which the traveller walks through masses of rubbish, broken column, sand capitals, potsherds, loose bricks, and stones. The under- ground cisterns for the preservation of the Nile water are the only perfect relics of the past. The great monolith, known as Pompey’s pillar, although in reality it does not belong to his memory, and Cleopatra’s needles, are ‘con- spicuous memorials; one of these, a solid shaft of 60 feet high, was presented by the pasha of Egypt to the British museum. But its vast weight, 279 tons, has hitherto been by engi- neers considered as an obstacle to its removal.—- Modern Alexandria is situated on the causeway which once formed the communication be- tween the mainland and the Pharos, and which by constant accumulation of sand and material is now formed into a neck of land. There are two ports, one at the extremity of an extensive roadstead on the west of Pharos, in which ves- sels of the line may lie. The other the modern port on the east of the Pharos, is less advanta- geous. The lake Mareotis was dried up by ac- cumulations of sand, but in 1801 the British army cut through the narrow strip which sepa- rates it from the lake of Aboukir, and let in the sea again. The town is principally built of the ruins of ancient Alexandria. The streets are narrow and dirty, and the whole place is ex- ceedingly unprepossessing. Under the vigorous rule of Mehemet Ali its commerce revived, and the restoration of the overland route to India, of which Alexandria is one of the chief stations, has again drawn to it a great amount of traﬂic. In 1820 a canal was opened connecting Alexan- dria with Cairo, and on the sea-side the place is fortiﬁed. Mehemet Ali built a new palace, a custom-house, and a marine arsenal; and the Mahmoudy canal connecting Alexandria with Rosetta was reopened in its ancient channel by Mehemet Ali in 1820. The present population is about 60,000 of all nations. ALEXANDRIAN CODEX, an uncial manu- script of ~ the Old and New Testament, so named from the fact that it was found at Alexandria by Cyrillus Lucaris, the patriarch of Constantinople, who presented it (1628) to Charles I. of England. It was written on vellum, in double columns, condensed and unaccented. It is supposed, by notes attached to the codex, to have been written by the mar- tyr Thecla, just after the council of Nice. However this may be, it contains internal evi- dence of Egyptian origin. It contains beside ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY 329 the canonical books, most of the apocrypha, the canonical books being slightly varied in their order. Some writers have been of the opinion that the writer of this codex followed 3 differ- ent editions, the Byzantine in the gospels, the western in the Acts and Catholic epistles, and the Alexandrine in the epistles of Paul, and, therefore, speak disparagingly of its authority. Others consider it the most perfect copy of the Scriptures extant. It is considered by all a very important document. The famous pas- sage concerning the 3 witnesses (1 John v. 7) is not contained in this codex. Beside this, there are several chasms in the text, more especially in the New Testament. A portion of the Gospel of St. Matthew and of St. John, as well as of the Second Epistle to the Corinthians, is wanting. On the ﬁrst page of the text of Genesis is a declaration that the MS. was dedicated to the use of the patri- arch of Alexandria, and an anathema of excom- munication against him who shall remove it from the library. Cyrillus, the donor of the MS. to Charles, was a patriarch of Alexandria, before his removal to Constantinople. By some he has been accused of forgery in this whole matter. The MS. is in very good con- dition generally. It is the only known MS. which contains the genuine epistle of Clement to the Corinthians. This codex is now pre- served in the British museum. ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY, a collection of books, which according to some authorities was begun by Ptolemy Soter, in the city of Alexan- dria, B. C. 290, and according to others by his son, Ptolemy Philadelphus, under the persua- sion of Demetrius Phalerius. Josephus has a story about the matter in which he represents Demetrius as saying to Ptolemy Soter, that the library already numbered 200,000 volumes, and that it would soon amount to 500,000. It seems to be more certain that in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, a library was founded in the tem- ple of Jupiter Serapis, of about 100,000 volumes, and that Philadelphus was the original founder of that library called Alexandrian by way of eminence. This makes the ﬁrst portion of the library, usually called Bruchion, fabulous. However this may be, Philadelphus certainly made very energetic efforts, and not always scrupulous ones, to get books. It is related that he seized all books brought into Egypt, and caused them tcf be transcribed, returning the copies to the owners, and reserving the originals for the library, and that he refused food to the Athenians in a famine except on condition that they would give him copies of the tragedies of Sophocles, 1/Eschylus, and En- ripides, though he remunerated them with 15 tal- ents. Other bookshe purchased both at Athens and Rome, and throughout the east. Ptolemy Euergetes, his successor, pursued the plans and course of Philadelphus. It appears that in Caesar-’s Alexandrian war (B. C. 47) some pub- lic library in Alexandria was burned. It is usually considered to have been the Bruchion, 330 near the palace, but if that is fabulous, then either the story of the burning is so too, or else it was the Serapian collection which was burned. If so, then there could not have been a very great collection in the Serapeion in the time of Bishop Theophilus, who is said either to have destroyed or pillaged that collection about A. D. 400. At any rate, if Theophilns burned it, then from that time till the destruction of the Alexandrian library, by the order of the caliph Omar (A. D. 64-2), the collection made could have been of little extent, and less value, and even if Theophilus did not burn the Sera- pian collection in his time, but only pillaged it, and the contents were ﬁnally returned, even then the destruction of the caliph is of much less account than is commonly considered. Gibbon indeed urges that Abulfaragius, who gives the account of the destruction by the caliph, is not to be believed for lack of corrob- orative evidence from those whom he claims to have been better qualiﬁed by birth and circum- stances to have known the facts in the case, and who are totally silent concerning any such de- struction. Abulfaragius was a native of Melitene, on the banks of the Euphrates, and spent most of his life in Syria, and wrote about A. D. 1250. Eutychius and Elmacin, on the contrary, were natives of Egypt, and Eutychius wrote more than 800 years earlier than Abulfamgius. The general opinion of critics and historians, however, gives credence to Abulfaragius. He says that Amrou, the captain of the caliph’s army, would fain have preserved the library, but that the caliph replied, “If these Grecian books agree with the Koran, they are useless, if not they should be destroyed,” and so the order was obeyed. The manuscripts, Abulfara- gins says, were parcelled out to the 4,000 baths in Alexandria, and were there burned, the pro- cess occupying more than 6 months. This part of the story throws an air of incredibility over the whole. For plainly~, if the story of the burning has any truth in it, the only collection to be destroyed was the Serapian, and that at the largest estimate, even with the addition of the Pergamean manuscripts (2,000) by Mark Antony (and concerning this there is a doubt, for Volate- ranns says they were burned at the taking of Pergamos,and Strabo says they were at Pergamos in his time during the reign of Tiberius), could not have exceeded 700,000 volumes, and this would give less than 200 manuscripts to a bath. There were, beside the Alexandrian library, at least 2 other libraries in that city, one in the temple of Augustus, and one in the Alexan- drian school. ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL. This is a term used with no little vagueness, as applied to a certain type of human culture, or rather to a certain blending of several types of culture, which at length resulted in a kind of religious eclecticism, itself becoming in turn a most important element in the determination of Christian history. As such, the term will be used in this article, and not as signifying or in- ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL timating the existence of any speciﬁc organiza- tion for promulgating any determinate religious symbol, fully apprehended in the consciousness of its founders. For more than half a decade of centuries, Egypt had been preparing for the important part which the Alexandrian move- ment was to play in Christian history. Under Amasis (B. C. 560) permission was given to Greeks to settle in Egypt. Already, in the taking of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, a company of Jews under J ohanau, had, by per- mission of the conqueror, gone into Egypt, and so had commenced that great mingling of the two most diverse forms of thought the world ever saw, Judaism and Platonism. The impulse given by the Greek Egyptian colonies, together with other motives of policy, determined Alex- ander to make Egypt the seat of his vast em- pire. From the moment of the founding of Alex- andria, in the prosecution of his purpose, that city drew together a mixed population of Jews and Greeks, celebrated for learning and science. But the Grecian philosophy and language so entirely took the lead in the literary culture of Alexandria, that under Ptolemy Philadelphus, the Alexandrian Jews had exchanged their own tongue for the Greek. It was this very cir- cumstance that led to their world-renowned translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek, known as the Septuagint, 300 years be- fore Christ. This was the signal for transplanting the Hebrew literature to Alexandria, and from this time, that form of religious thought and feeling which might aptly be characterized as Graeco-Judaism, may be considered as having a distinct existence. The rationalism of the Pla- tonic philosophy, and the supra-naturalism of the Jewish Scriptures, were brought into imme- diate contact, and exercised a powerful modify- ing inﬂuence upon each other. The founding of the Alexandrian library, and the various other appliances and means of human culture, both intensiﬁed the struggle which now com- menced, and furnished the instruments of its prosecution. For a time it might have been uncertain how the struggle would terminate, whether in the domination of Judaism or Pla- tonism in the resulting form of the Alexandrian Gnosis. But as before, so now, discipline had the advantage of zeal, and the introduction of the oriental mysticism as an ally of Grecian thought, turned the scale in favor of the phi- losopher, and brought out of this confused mingling of elements, by a sort of elective aﬁinity, a religio-philosophical system, of which Platonism was the base, and in which Ju- daism was made to play but a subordinate part, by the neutralizing agency of Zoroaster. rfhus was the Jew on one hand lifted to the plane of a decidedly higher rational thought, while there was enough of the Jewish element in the resulting compound to humble to a cer- tain degree the haughty Greek, till he would consent to take counsel of his emotions as well as of his logic in framing the symbol of his faith. Thus had the mental movement of Alexandria I ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL resulted at the opening of the Christian era. The Judaism of Palestine was unchanged. The early teachers of Christianity on the spot of its introduction had avery simple and direct task before them. It was to teach the religion of the Nazarene mostly as a historical fact, and in behalf of that fact, to appeal to the Jews from the point of view of a pure supra- naturalism, and to the Roman Gentiles from the plane of Polytheistic conception. There was neither call nor opportunity for more. But when at length, in the extension of their labors, they came to Alexandria, it was not enough, as in other places, that they should proclaim Christianity as a dogma, or a fact. It must be in some manner related to the Alexandrian thought, translated into the philosophic tongue of that great seat of learning and civilization. Hence, the early teachers of Christianity at Alexandria naturally made it the direct effort of their instructions to show the har- mony of the gospel with the great princi- ples of this Graeco-Jewish philosophy. To do this Aristotelianism was called into requisition. This was opposed to the mysticism of the East, while at the same time it had a certain affinity with the Platonic philosophy, in its hostility to the Pantheistic sentiment, from which the re- cognition of the izhq or blind force in Nature suﬂiciently distinguished Plato, though it left in his philosophy a savor of Dualism. Thus, making an ally of the Stagirite, the doctrines of the cross triumphed over those of Zoroaster and Plato, while at the same time they received an inﬂuence from this Alexandrian eclecticism, a bias towards the rationalistic and mystic con- ception of spiritual truth, which Alexandrian Christianity has sent down through the ages, to the present hour. This is what is meant by the Alexandrian school, rather than any determinate and verbally expressed symbol. No such symbol for a moment existed at Alexandria. There was too much freedom of individual thought to secure unity of faith in any imperfect announce- ment of Christian doctrine, and too little scope to that thought to attain unity of faith in a per- fect one. Neo-Platonism, by which is meant that modiﬁcation of Platonism which more per- fectly adapted it to the Christian doctrine, is sometimes spoken of as completely developed in the ante-Christian movement described above. But it is rather to be regarded as a progressive evolution, out of the combined action of Pla- tonism, Judaism, and mysticism before the Christian era, completed by the additional forces of Christianity and Aristotelianism, in the ﬁrst and second centuries of the Christian era, and thus the result of 7 centuries of growth and con- ﬂict in human thought. That it was a vital move- ment in human history is evidenced from the fact that to this day, the type of the Alexan- drian Christianity has come down distinct from that of Antioch, which was then taking form side by side with that of Egypt. The Alexandrian movement in its post-Christian period is illus- trated with the names of Philo, Ammonias ALEXEI 331 Saccas, Plotinus, Porphyry, Iamblichus, Hiero- Oles, Proclus, Pantaenus, Clement, Origen, Athanasius, Gregory of N azianzen, and Cyril. It is not, however, meant that all sustained the same relative position to the movement. Of these Philo represents the Judaistic extreme, while Clement is the great Christian Alexan- drian, and one to whom, more than any other, the present symbol of the Protestant faith, so far as it is represented in the Alexandrian rather than the Antiochian branch, owes its de- velopment and preservation. ALEXANDRINE, or ALEXANDRIAN, in po- etry, a metre consisting of 12 or 12 and 13 syllables alternately ; so called from a poem on the life of Alexander written in this kind of verse by a French poet of the 12th century. The French have ever since cultivated this spe- cies of verse more than any other European nation. Their tragedies are mostly composed of Alexandrines. In his Essay on Criticism, Pope gives the English opinion of them: A needless Alcxandrine ends the song, That like a wounded snake drags its slow length along. ALEXANDRCV, or ALEXANDROVSK, a name given to various towns and places in Russia. The more interesting among them are: I. A small city in the government Vladimeer, with a large ancient convent where Ivan IV. estab- lished the ﬁrst printing oflice at the end of the 16th century, and where is now situated one of those institutions, which are scattered over Rus- sia, for the education at public cost, and under the superintendence of the empress, of young girls of noble families, and especially of the or- phans of civil and military oﬁicers. Here is also the central board of the imperial stud, for the im- provement of the breed of horses. II. In Little Russia, government of Yekaterinoslav, on the Dnieper, beyond its cataracts. It is a commer- cial mart, whose trade extends from the in- terior of Russia to the Black sea. The produce of the country is brought by the river Samara to within afew miles of Alexandrov; thence it is carried on wheels to the city, where it is shipped on the Dnieper. III. A place near St. Petersburg, with an imperial porcelain manu- factory. IV. A harbor in the channel of Tar- tary, south of the mouth of the Amoor, oppo- site to the island of Soghalien. ALEXEI Mionannowrron, second czar of Russia, of the Romanoff lineage, born March 10, 1629, succeeded his father Michael Fedoro- witch July 12, 1645, and died Jan. 29, 1676. During the earlier years of his reign he had for advisers his tutor, Morosofﬁ and the grand chancellor Plessoﬁl These were stormy years. An insurrection broke out against his counsel- lors, and Plessoﬁ‘ was slain. Next appeared two pretenders to the crown; one calling himself Dimitri (he was the third pretender who had taken that name), the other a certain Anku- dinoif, calling himself a son of the czar Basil Shuiski. Alexei put them down, and after- ward proved himself one of the best sover_ eigns who ever occupied the Russian throne, 332 ALEXEI His reign marked the dawn of that civilization which his son, Peter the Great, more widely diffused over Russia. He encouraged learning, fostered printing establishments, attracted to Russia from abroad men of letters, artists, phy- sicians, as well as manufacturers and operatives. He was active, intelligent, temperate, mild, just, and placable. To break the pride of the princes (Knaz) and boyards, who refused gen- erally to obey the orders of a military or civil superior, when the date of his title was later than their own, Alexei ordered these rebels to deposit all the documents relating to their rank in the chancery of the imperial council, and then burnt them together with the old no- biliar record of the empire, called the Velvet Book. Under his reign Russia for the ﬁrst ‘time began to have the advantage over the Poles, whom he defeated in a war lasting from 1654 to ’56. By the treaties of Moscow and Andrushoff, concluded with the Polish king, John Sobieski, Alexei recovered several prov- inces formerly taken from Russia. During his reign the Cossacks of the Dnieper and of the Ukraine, for centuries tributaries of Poland, seceded and submitted to Russia. He was twice married, and left children by both wives. The ﬁrst was a Miloslawska, of a Russian boyard family, the second a Naryshkine, a person of lower rank, whom Alexei chose from the sight of her shoe, which made him think she had a very small and handsome foot. She was the mother of Peter the Great. ALEXEI Pnrnowrron, the eldest son of Peter the Great, and of Eudoxia Lapuchin, born in Moscow Feb. 18, 1690, died July 7, 1718. Surrounded from childhood by the relations of his mother, he was the centre of all those who were, like her, averse to the reforms in- troduced by his father. He affected a fanatic love of old Russian customs, manners, preju- dices, and superstitions, and Peter decided to ex- clude him from the throne. Alexei, then about 22 years old, seemingly consented to this plan, saying it was his wish to become a monk. He entered a monastery, but still kept up his inter- course with the malcontents, and with his mother, who had‘ likewise been shut up in a convent, and with her numerous dissatisﬁed relations. During the travels of Peter through various European countries in 1717, Alexei announced that he had received the order of his father to join him abroad. He thus managed to escape to Vienna, where he claimed the protection of the German emperor, and thence he went to Naples. Peter sent after the fugitive Rumean- zoff, captain of the guards, and Tolstoi, the privy counsellor, who, partly by coaxing, partly by menaces, succeeded in bringing him back to Petersburg. On Feb. 2, 1718, Peter disinher- ited Alexei, impeaching him and many of his kindred and advisers for high treason. Alexei was tried by the great council of the empire, to which, for the purposes of this trial, the bishops were added, who, however, refused to vote, and would not take part in a capital sen- ALEXIS tence. While the trial was going on, Peter asked the court of Spain to give him a copy of the records of the proceedings against Don Carlos, son of Philip II. Alexei was found guilty by his judges and condemned to death. Peter pardoned him, but he died July 7, 1718, a few days after the condemnation; some say from fear and excitement, others that he was either poisoned or secretly beheaded by the order of his father. Peter himself published the proceedings of the trial. Alexei, when very young, was married to a princess, Wolfenbiittel, who died in 1715, leaving a daughter, andason who reigned afterward as Peter II. The fate of Alexei has been dramatized by the German poets Gehe and Immermann. ALEXIN, a circle of the province of Tula, in European Russia. It embraces one city, and 241 villages, containing about 90,000 inhabit- ants. The district is nearly level, well watered and wooded, and tolerably fertile. Its capital, on the river Oka, has a population of 2,000; it has 4 churches, and manufactories of hats and soap. ALEXIS, or Amsxrus I., Cosrrrnxus, emperor of Constantinople, born in 1048, died Aug. 15, 1118. The family of the Comneni, which up- held for a while the fate of the sinking empire, had ﬁrst become distinguished in the reign of the second Basil, when Manuel Comnenus con- tributed by war and treaty to appease the troubles of the east. Isaac Comnenus, one of his sons, was elevated to the throne, and be- queathed the sceptre to his brother John, who however refusing it, it passed out of the family. John Comnenus left 8 children, the third and most illustrious of whom was Alexis I., the restorer of the imperial greatness of his house. Alexis was endowed by nature with excellent talents, and had received a careful education under the direction of his mother. In his youth he had served the emperor Michael VII. in the Turkish war, from the perils of which he was recalled to render further service against the rebel Nicephorus Botaniates. He was one of the most faithful and persistent adherents of Michael, till he was deposed by his rebel enemy, when he oﬁbred his services to the new em- peror. Nicephorus, who had appreciated his valor when an enemy, now received him with esteem and conﬁdence, bestowed honors upon him, and charged him with restoring the peace of the empire then disturbed by many rebel- lions. Alexis triumphed over the most power- ful leaders of revolt, Bryennius and Basilacius, and led them in chains to the foot of the throne. His victories, however, excited the jealousy of the emperor and the envy of the courtiers; and when he refused to march against a new rebel, the husband of his sister, the merit of his past services was forgotten, and his destruction was purposed. Forewarned in time, he escaped, by the protection of the empress, to the _army, of which he was the favorite, and by which he was immediately proclaimed emperor. He marched in 1081 against Constantinople, which ALEXIS he took, and gave up to the pillage of his sol- diers; and Nicephorus was permitted to retire to a convent. Alexis found the empire in a condition which called for the exercise of all his talents, being not only in internal discom- ‘ posure, but surrounded by enemies on every side. On the east the victorious Turks, over- running the provinces of Asia, had spread from Persia to the Hellespont; on the west, the ad- venturous and valorous Normans, under their leader Robert Guiscard, after brilliant successes in Italy, were advancing eastward, ambitious of the purple; and new swarms of Scythians from the north having crossed the Danube and occupied Thrace, had several times defeated the imperial troops. The ﬁrst measure of Alexis was to conclude a peace with the Turks by abandoning to them the provinces of which they already had possession. He had found his camp without soldiers, and his treasury without money, but heavy exactions and spoli- ations of the churches furnished him the means to raise at once an army of 70,000 men, with which he marched for the deliverance of Du- razzo, besieged by the Normans. His treaty ' with the sultan had procured him an auxiliary force of some thousand Turks, and he had even succeeded in enlisting under his banner some of the wild Scythians. The battle was fought Oct. 18, 1081 ; and the Normans, led on by the equal valor of Robert and his wife Gaita, gained a complete victory. Robert was now obliged by a revolt of his vassals to return for a time to Italy, and gave Alexis leisure to repel the increasing and dangerous incursions of the Turks. By means of his marine, he contended with doubtful success against them till 1095, but was in despair when he learned that the Turks had availed themselves of the art of some Greek prisoners to build a ﬂeet, with which they were approaching Constantinople. In spite of his inventive genius, he found him- self at the end of his resources, and he ad- dressed himself for aid to the west, declaring that the existence of Christendom was threat- ened by this new irruption of barbarians. The capture of Jerusalem by the Mussulmans, the preaching of Peter the hermit, and the activity of Pope Urban II., produced a meeting of the Christian princes at Placentia. The ambassa- dors of Alexis were there present, and their recital contributed much toward deciding the princes to join the ﬁrst crusade. Alexis had thought only of a moderate succor from the west; when therefore in 1096 the promiscuous armies of the crusaders began to arrive,- num- bering untold hosts, and led on by the most re- nowned le-aders of Europe, his fears were quite as great as his hopes, and he was glad to give them a quick passage into Asia, where at ﬁrst the Turks found little diﬂiculty in annihilating them. Godfrey of Bouillon, and Hugh, count of Vermandois, encamped during the winter in the environs of Constantinople, and it was only by a skilful display of his military forces that the emperor felt his capital safe. He failed to 333 give them the assistance which he had prom- ised, and in 1097 demanded from the chiefs of the crusade that they should restore to him his ancient possessions in Asia, and should do homage to him for all the territory which they conquered out of certain prescribed limits. They consented, though Bohemond, the son of the emperor’s old enemy Robert Guiscard, long refused, and Tancred passed over into Asia to avoid the public ceremony of doing homage, at which count Robert of Paris insulted before the world the imperial majesty. These events make the theme of one of Walter Scott’s novels. A good harmony never existed between Alexis and the leaders of the crusades, and though he rendered them important assistance in the siege of Nice, and though by their aid he recovered some important towns of Asia Minor, and the islands Rhodes and Chios, yet by faithlessly abandoning the Christians before Antioch, he so outraged Bohemond, that this prince re- turned to Europe, increased his army, and began to wage war in Thrace against Alexis. He, however, gained but slight successes, and soon made peace. In the last years of his life, Alexis continued to war. against the Turks, and defeated them in great battles in 1115 and 1116. Alexis was an able ruler, valiant, active, and politic; but he proved himself also dissem- bling and hypocritical, when he could not other- wise attain his ends.—-Arnxrs II., Commmus, em- peror of Constantinople, born Sept. 10, 1167, died in 1183. He was third in descent from Alexius I., came to the throne under the guardianship of his mother Mary, and was unable to rule the ambitious and unscrupulous relatives by whom he was surrounded. Andronicus, the most conspicuous character in the history of this time, having put the empress Mary to death, soon after caused the death of Alexis, after a reign of 3 years and a few days.—-Annxrs III., ANGE- LUS, emperor of Constantinople, died in 1210. During the reign of the tyrant Andronicus, he had taken refuge with Saladin, and had returned to Constantinople only after the dethronement of Andronicus. Loaded with honors by the new emperor Isaac Angelus, he did not the less plot against him, and in 1195 managed to dis- place and succeed him. His reign was disgraced by the depredations made upon the empire, by Turks, barbarians, and his wife Euphrosyne. In 1203, Constantinople was approached by a formidable Venetian ﬂeet, and captured; the emperor Isaac was restored, and Angelus passed the remainder of his life in a monastery.-~ ALEXIS IV., emperor of Constantinople, born in the second half of the 12th century, died Feb. 5, 1284, after a reign of a few months. He was the son of the emperor Isaac Angelus, and was hated by his subjects for the efforts which he made to extort from them the money which he had promised to the crusaders, and despised by the crusaders for having made them promises which he could not fulﬁl. A rebellion broke out, which was, however, crushed by Alexis Mur- zuphlus in the name of Alexis; he then caused 834 ALEXIS the unfortunate emperor to be cast into prison, Where he was soon after StI‘3DglGC.——.ALEXIS V., surnamed Murzuphlus, emperor of Constanti- nople, born in the second half of the 12th cen- tury, died in 1204. He had caused the de- thronement and death of Alexis IV., and was immediately after obliged to ﬂee from the throne himself. He fell into the hands of the French, who precipitated him from the top of a lofty column. Artful, avaricious, and cruel, he stripped all the great lords of their wealth, proving by the strictest law that it belonged to iimself. He reigned but 3 months. ALEXIS, or ALEXIUS I., Comxnxns, em- peror of Trebizond, born about 1180, died in Feb. 1222. The relentless enmity of Isaac Angelus to the family of the Comneni, threaten- ed the entire extermination of that illustrious house. The sons of the last Comnenian em- peror of Constantinople, John and Manuel, were by his command mutilated and murdered in prison. The latter, however, left two infant sons, Alexis and David, who ﬂed with their mother to their relative Thamar, the Georgian queen of Tedis, by whom they were received, protected, and educated. They gradually formed a dominion on the banks of the Phasis, which the distracted government of the Angeli failed to suppress. On the conquest of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, they, Alexis and his brother, rallied around them numerous discon- tented Greeks, left their retreat, and passed the Phasis. Alexis captured Trebizond, Cerasus, Mesochaldion, and took possession of all that coast of the Black sea as far as Amisus, while David advanced beyond the Halys, took Sinope, and pushed his conquests even to the environs of Constantinople. Alexis now assumed the imperial title, proclaiming himself king and ruler of all Anatolia, but many of the Byzan- tine historians refused to mention him by this title, in order to ﬂatter the Latin emperors. The reign of Alexis was troubled by perpetual wars with the Turks, and with Theodore Las- caris, who having, like Alexis, become master of a fragment of the empire, was entitled the emperor of Nice. In 1214, Alexis concluded a peace with the latter, but the same year fell into the .hands of the sultan of Iconium, and purchased his liberty by yielding to the Turks the town and district of Sinope. His empire at his death was reduced to the coast of the Black sea, comprised between the Phasis on the east, and the Thermodon on the west.—ALExIs II., GOMNENUS, one of the line of Trebizond emperors, born in 1282, died in 1330. He succeeded his father John II. in 1297, under the wardship of Andronicus II., emperor of Constantinople. Andronicus desired him to marry a Greek lady, but Alexis preferred an Iberian princess, his marriage with whom put an end to the good harmony which had existed between the two Greek courts. Alexis had wars with the Turks, who in 1319 unsuccessful- ly besieged Cerasus and Sinope. He also had difﬁculties with the Genoese, who had possessed ALFANI establishments at Trebizond since the begin- ning of the 13th century. As their commerce with Constantinople was free from taxation, they demanded the same privilege from the emperor of Trebizond. The latter refused, and after a violent melée, during which a large num- ber of the factories belonging to the Genoese were burned, they no longer insisted. Alexis received, in 1329, a letter from Pope John XXIL, charging him to end the schism of the Greek church, to which he returned no answer.—ALEx1s III., Comnnxus, emperor - of Trebizond, born in 1338, died in 1390. He was the son of the emperor Basileus II., suc- ceeded Michael I. in 1349, and two years later married the princess Theodora, of the imperial house of the Cantacuzeni, at Constantinople. Alexis was, during 20 years, in war with the Turks, and at one time narrowly escaped falling into their hands in the snowy mountains of Chalybia. He at last concluded peace with them, by giving his daughters in marriage to their principal chiefs. Anne Comnenus, his second daughter, was married to Bagrat VI., king of Georgia, whence descend the present Russian princes of the house of Ba-gration. In 1380, Alexis had a diﬂiculty with Megollo Lercari, a rich Genoese merchant. Megollo having received a blow from a favorite courtier, and having vainly asked reparation from the emperor, returned to Genoa, and armed two vessels, with which he ravaged the coast of Trebizond, captured the ships, and sent insults to the throne of Alexis. T 0 obtain peace, the ‘emperor was obliged to grant great commercial privileges to Megollo and his countrymen. Alexis was a lover of the arts of peace, rather than of war, and built, during his reign, a mag- niﬁcent convent on Mount Athos.-ALEx1s IV., COMNENUS, emperor of Trebizond, suc- ceeded Manuel III. in 1412, died in 1446. He purchased peace with the Turks by an an- nual tribute, and by giving in marriage to their chief a princess of his family. He contracted alliances with the most considerable families of Georgia, Constantinople, Lesbos, and Venice, and shared the throne during some time with his eldest son, Kalo-Johannes, who was after- ward exiled for having killed his mother, sus- pected of crime. Kalo-Johannes escaped from exile, was joined by some malcontents, and succeeded in assassinating the emperor, and taking possession of the throne. It was dur- ing the reign of Alexis IV. that the Vene- tians began to displace the Genoese in the commerce of the east.—-ALEx1s V., Comxnnus, nominal emperor of Trebizond, died about 1470. He was son of Kalo-Johannes, and but 4 years of age when he succeeded his father. He was dethroned by his uncle David, and after the fall of the empire of Trebizond, was carried to Constantinople, and put to death by order of the sultan Mohammed II. ALFANI, the name of two Italian painters, Domenico di Paris, died about 1540, and Crazio di Paris, son of the former, died in 1583. The ALFARABIUS pictures of the former have often been taken for those of Raphael. ALFARABIUS, an Arabian philosopher of the 10th century. He travelled and settled at Damascus, where he was joyfully received by the Abbasside caliph, who settled apension upon him. He led an extremely temperate life, ap- proaching asceticism. His writings were very voluminous and comprehensive, and he is re- puted to have been the ﬁrst who attempted the compilation of an encyclopaedia. There is a MS. of this character in the Escurial. He wrote on logic, and Avicenna acknowledges that he is indebted to his works for his learning. He also wrote on music. ALFATAH, or ALFATII nan KHAKAN, an Ara- bian historian, native of Seville, died at Moroc- co, 1134 or 1135. We know little of his life, except that he lived at the court of one of the Almor-avid emirs, and was put to death by or- der of the sultan of Morocco. He composed a work in Arabic on the lives of distinguished Moslems, and especially of those who lived in Spain. The 1st part treats of kings and princes, the 2d of viziers, the 3d of cadis, theo- logians, and doctors, the 4th of poets and men of letters. Manuscripts of it are to be found in the principal libraries of Europe. Some ex- tracts have been republished. ALFENUS VARUS, Pnnmns, a Roman law- yer, a native of Cremona, originally a cobbler, came to Rome and was a pupil of Servius Sul- pitius. He worked himself up to the dignity of consul in 754 U. C., an.d composed 40 books of digests, fragments of which may be found in the Pandects. ALFERGAN, or ALFRAGAN, an Arabian as- tronomer, who ﬂourished in the reign of the caliph Almamoun, surnamed the Calculator. He was the author of an introduction to astron- omy, of which 3 Latin translations have been published, the ﬁrst in 1493. It contains little original matter, however, being chieﬂy taken from the Alm. west of Ptolemy. ALFIERI, Vrrromo, count, Italian tragic poet, born at Asti, Piedmont, Jan. 17, 1749, died at Florence, Oct. 8, 1803. His life is not less remarkable than his writings and his character; or rather the three are sin- gularly associated with and illustrative of each other. The ﬁrst half of his existence was an aimless search for excitement, alternate dissipation and melancholy; and the last sig- nalized by devoted intellectual effort. His tem- perament was alike sensitive and impassioned; his will indomitable; his heart equally master- ed by love and ambition. With aristocratic connections he cherished an ardent hatred of tyranny; with an intense love of country he was an incessant traveller; with a wasted youth he was a studious man, and with ample means, frequently a self-denying economist. He had a strong dislike of the French, and an in- vincible fondness for horses; subject to fre- quent crises of feeling he could live in seques- tered content, only with books or a friend; ALFIERI 335 restless when destitute of loving companionship, he could not write except while his affections were gratiﬁed; travel was his resource in dis- appointment, composition in periods of satisfac- tion. He exhibited all the caprice, sensibility, and earnestness of the poetical character. His autobiography is dated May 14, 1803, and on Oct. 8, the same year, he died, and was buried in the church of Santa Croce, at Florence, where a monument, sculptured by Canova, marks his tomb. To estimate the value and inﬂuence of his writings we must recall the circumstances of his age. Nearly every English traveller in Italy a century ago, who has left the record of his impressions, describes the national life of that beautiful land as collapsed; the associa- tions of her classic and mediaeval remains, the peerless excellence of her art, the fascination of her climate and scenery offer an entire con- trast, in their combined and permanent attrac- tion, to the listless stagnation which broods over her civil, literary, and social existence. Such was, and, to a considerable extent, is the ﬁrst impression of the intelligent and observant foreigner in Italy; but those who reside long enough in one place to explore beneath the sur- face, to discover the redeeming traits of the people, and to realize the latent force of the national mind, soon learn to attribute to cir- cumstances the greater part of this effete civ- ilization; and the justice of this inference is apparent from the fact that, at intervals, when freed from external restraint, or inspired by great occasions, the intellectual force once ex- hibited, and still embodied by Dante, Tasso, Galileo, Macchiavelli, and Petrarch, and by the painters, architects, and sculptors of the 15th century, the soldiers of the middle ages, and the composers of a later era,-—-in a word, the unparalleled genius of expression in all its forms and phases which distinguish the race, in a historical and artistic view,—-re- asserts itself with all its original emphasis. Immediately preceding the French revolution, this lapse of vitality in the political and literary world of the peninsula, was singularly coinci- dent. The tone of society was frivolous, owing to the want of a sphere for manly ‘ambition, and the neglect of female educa- tion; bigotry and licentiousness dwarfed or palsied minds of native. vigor; music and gallantry were the chief recreations; patri- otic hopes were chilled; the machinery of despotism cast a profound shadow over the land. Here and there a patient and sequester- ed scholar, now and then a secluded and aspir- ing woman, cherished an ideal of mental en- terprise, or of civic emancipation, kept aloof from petty intrigue, and lived self-devoted to a noble purpose; but isolation marked these ex- ceptions; two essential requisites of social as well as individual progress were wanting to the age and the people-—scope and motive--the impulse and the opportunity; and, therefore, to the past only, could the Italian look with complacency, and to the future alone with hope. 336 By a fortunate coincidence the poet who was destined to break this spell, and give the world assurance that the love of liberty, and the power of free thought, yet survived in his country, has bequeathed, with the noble legacy of his muse, a minute and authentic description of the manner in which a youth of high lineage, and more than average fortune, was educated then and there. Alﬁeri learned the rudiments of the Latin tongue from an amiable priest; but, at the age of 9, he was removed to the public school of Turin. His picture of the locality of this institution is elaborate ; and he mentions, as an aggravation to the restricted lot of the students, that “ on one side was a theatre which we were only permitted to visit about 5 or 6 times during the carnival; on the other, lived the pages who attended on the court, and who, con- tinually hunting and riding, appeared to enjoy much freer and happier lives than the poor im- prisoned boys.” Here the future poet expe- rienced a bitter ordeal under the name of “ edu- cation,” subsequently written down with all the indignant earnestness which invests the abuse of childhood, in the retrospect of a brave and tender soul. He was the victim of menial tyranny, being ostensibly attended by a servant, who took advantage of the helpless- ness of his young master; he was, according to the etiquette of the establishment, a prisoner, his sleep was inadequate, and his food unwhole- some; while a physique naturally delicate was thus injured by neglect of the laws of health, his mind suffered no less from the system of instruction. He tells us that he acquired considerable Latin by rote, that he could construe N epos, and Virgil’s Eclogues, but had no clear perception of either. During the second year, he exhibited talent in composition, and gained a clandestine knowledge of Ariosto, Annibal Caro, and Metastasio; but, under the name of rhetoric and philosophy, a pedantic and useless training, which he calls “ the con- trivance of those no-studies,” was followed by an equally irksome course of physics. The chief recreation of Alﬁeri during these monot- onous and ungenial years, was a visit to his sister, who was receiving her education at a neighboring convent. In 1762, he commenced the study of the law; but as is usual when the poetical mind attempts to grapple with juris- prudence, there was little genuine progress, and that was seriously interrupted by a cutaneous disorder to which the young student was liable. He found solace, however, at this juncture, by learning to play on the harp, having a strong and natural love of music. By the laws of Piedmont, a ward is emancipated from his guardian at the age of 14, and is placed under a curator, who leaves him master of his annual income. This was a moment of elation to the long imprisoned boy; his villanous servant was dismissed; and the insults, and even heating to which he had so long impa- tiently submitted, ceased. He began to fre- quent a riding school, and equestrian exercise ALFIERI greatly improved his health. His uncle having died, his domestic tormentor being sent away, and his income at command, the repressed en- ergies of the boy soon germinated into the ex- uberant recklessness of youth. Alﬁeri threat- ened to abandon law, and his teachers, to pre- vent this, passed him, at a word, to the ﬁrst apartment, where the students enjoyed full liberty. Here he formed acquaintance with for- eigners, and especially Englishmen, became fond of dress and pleasure, and ran in debt. Thus, from the most unnatural restraints, he was suddenly emancipated, just as boyhood was merged in youth, and with ample means, and no one to check or guide his impulsive and sus- ceptible character, without the discipline of true education, or the knowledge of any single elementary branch, Alﬁeri was free to expatiate in the meretricious world of French romance, dip into Fleury’s ecclesiastical history, and dream over the Arabian Nights; while these de- sultory readings were diversiﬁed by mad-cap feats of equestrian skill, and frolics, which, at all events, tended to invigorate a frame previ- ously weak, and to nerve a temperament con- stitutionally morbid, but left the mind of the young nobleman unfurnished, and without sal- utary exercise or aim. With no one to control him but his semi-governor, as Alﬁeri calls the curator, he soon rebelled at the espionage of a special guardianship, from which his com- panions were exempt. He was conﬁned to his own apartment, on one occasion, for three months, as a punishment for “being absent without leave and unattended.” The incident called forth the singular energy of volition which, in after life, redeemed his mind from inertia and dissipation. Having resolved not to ask his liberty, he suifered all the .-privations and gloom of solitude which, with his sensitive temperament, were doubly painful. From this “ brutal life ” he was suddenly freed, to attend the wedding of his sister. A month of country life gave him an opportunity to fall in love for the ﬁrst time, and although no serious attach- ment followed, the experience roused the dor- mant but profound sensibility of the future poet. A visit to Genoa, soon after, woke an- other passion of his vehement nature, the love of travel. After nearly eight years of unfortu- nate academic experience, Alﬁeri entered the army, but here subordination proved as irksome as at college, and he consoled'himself for the pains of military discipline by convivial re- unions, extravagant dress, and horsemanship. At last the restless temper of the mere pleas- ure-seeker yielded to an invincible desire for change of scene, and, by ingenious devices, he succeeded in joining three young men who were about to travel with an English Catholic tutor; and, having the consent of his brother- in-law and that of the king, after a night of feverish anticipation, he left home “ with in- describable transport” in a carriage, with four gentlemen and ﬁve servants,——his own valet eventually becoming their cicerone, the “ rest ALFIERI of us” naively says the poet, “were all babies or dotards.” rThe next 10 years of Alﬁeri’s life were chieﬂy devoted to travel, ﬁrst through Italy, and then through France, England, Ger- lllany, and the north of Europe. The advan- tages we are inclined to expect from such oppor- tunities for studying nature and mankind, were almost wholly lost on Alﬁeri. He began his pil- grimage at too early an age, and with a mind in- diﬁerently furnished and undisciplined. A mor- bid self-absorption, the want of liberal curiosity, and human interest, caused him to wander from scene to scene in an unsympathetic mood or with restless dissatisfaction. Now and then a gleam of enthusiasm redeems the narrative of his journeys ; but his traveller’s experience, like his youthful education, was anomalous. He was moved at the tomb of Michel Angelo, and, when he ﬁrst beheld the sea; he conceived an immediate partiality for London, and studied English; he was presented at courts, enjoyed the French drama, had a love-intrigue in Holland, a duel in one place, and a fall from his horse which broke his collar-bone in another; at one time read, with zest, Helvetius and Montesquieu; became enamored of Plutarch’s heroes, “prac- tised Italian” at Denmark, which he had quite neglected in Tuscany; now retrenched his re- sources even to parsimony, and again indulged in wild extravagance; profound melancholy alternated with ﬁtful passions or listless in- difference; occasionally he ﬁnds a philosophic truth, or a bold generalization wherewith to en- liven the sad record of these objectless and un- satisfactory wanderings. He soon grew weary of places, and depended upon chance for society. His servant “Elia” appears to have been his most faithful companion. Sometimes a curious adventure or a ﬁt of anger or caprice diversiﬁes the story of this epoch in his life; but his in- diﬁerence to celebrated objects of interest and remarkable characters, was extraordinary; while the pleasure he often expresses at the sight of what is beautiful, the enjoyment he can take in intellectual society, and his unaffected admira- tion for what is noble in achievement and glori- ous in nature, make the record of these aimless journeys the more provoking. Wide, for that day, was the range of the poet’s travel; and although he declares it fruitless, it is probably impossible to estimate the indirect influence upon a susceptible and expanding mind, however careless and perverse, of so much novelty and variety as ﬁlled his senses, if they did not en- rich and invigorate his soul. At the age of 24, after 5 years thus passed, Alﬁeri took a hand- some house and renewed his college friendships ; a kind of literary dieertissement, in the form of satirical essays, which enlivened their social gatherings, gives us the ﬁrst intimation of that latent propensity for authorship, stiﬁed so long, as he himself tells us by “full liberty,” “female society,” and “horses;” but, from this period, although “ plunging into another sad love-af- fair” and, for the most part, vegetating rather than living as a rational being, a “strong and VOL. I.--22 337 enthusiastic love of study and labor” asserted itself as a normal principle of his wayward and proud nature. A dangerous and peculiar illness now sobered the passions if it did not immediately mend the life of Alﬁeri; and al- though on his recovery he continued awhile to play the caraliere servente, and resigned his military commission, while keeping vigil by the sick bed of his mistress, he sketched a few scenes between Cleopatra and Antony in Ital- ian; and, thrown aside as such a crude attempt deserved, it yet opened the dramatic vein effec- tually in the author’s mind. His next enterprise was a bold attempt at self-conquest; he was dis- gusted at the amorous slavery of his position; took a journey to Rome in the hope of breaking away from his enchantress; returned and en- dured along and tearful struggle, which foimd expression in. a sonnet, “composed slowly, and with difficulty.” Father Paciaudi, an in- telligent friend of the count, praised this effu- sion, and encouraged him to undertake a course of Italian reading. This good advice was par- tially followed. Carnival fooleries, and com- bats with a “rabid passion,” as well as habits of indolence, so much interfered with the good and great resolutions induced by “ a new, high, and beautiful love of glory,” that the determin- ed poet resorted to the expedient of making his faithful valet tie him into a chair, throw over him a cloak to hide the cords, and leave him for hours to study. “ Cleopatra,”was grad- ually ﬁnished. A farce called “ the Poets,” fol- lowed. These two pieces, we are told, were received with great applause on two successive evenings. “I had already heartily repented,” says Alﬁeri, "' of so rash an exposure to the public, although I was treated with the greatest indulgence, and I prayed the actors and the manager to stop any future representation. But,” he signiﬁcantly adds, “from that fatal evening, a wild enthusiasm began to ﬂow through every vein of my body, and I burned to bear off one day meritoriously the palm of the stage, as I had never before burned with the ﬂames of love.” In the year 1775, and at the age of 27, Alﬁeri thus fairly began his career as a dramatic author. His resources for this most difficult sphere of literary enter- prise are thus summed up by him with an amusing candor: a resolute, and indomitable spirit, an intense abhorrence of tyranny, suscep- tibility to the tender passion in its extreme forms, a vague remembrance of the French trag- edies he had seen acted at Marseilles and Paris, no artistic culture, no command of ex- pression in any tongue, and a petulant, pre- sumptive, and reckless temper. Thus furnish- ed, he began to retrieve his education, went back to the elements of learning, studied gram- mar, and taking from his desk two tragedies, “Filippo” and “ Polinice,” written three months before “ Cleopatra’ was produced, began the task of translating the French prose in which they were written, into Italian verse. This experiment revealed his ignorance and 338 want of facility so completely, that he was al- most reduced to despair, and became convinced of the necessity of what he called un-French- ing and then Italianizing his mind. First, he retreated to the mountains of Piedmont, and lived with two genial abbés, one literary, and the other musical; the former read to him, and the latter taught him the guitar. He studied Horace and Phaedrus; he conned Dante, Pet-rarch, Tasso, and Ariosto; he went to Tuscany, with introductions to scholars; talked, read, and ﬁnally thought in Italian; at Pisa,wrote “Antigone; ” at Sienna, the “ Congiu- ra dei Pazzi,” the latter subject recommended by his invaluable friend, Francesco Gori Gandi- nelli. He became so excited as he pondered Macchiavelli, for the materials of this tragedy, that he laid it aside for weeks, to write an in- dignant treatise against “ tyranny ;” a Livy borrowed on his journey, gave him the hint for “Virginia,” as did Voltaire’s “ Oreste” for his dramatic version of that Greek theme. These travels and sojourns in the fairest and most cultivated cities of Italy, were quite a contrast to his previous aimless wanderings; he had now an absorbing object; he sought with avidity for literary companionship and sympathy; he worked incessantly to form his style, to express his ideas, and to develop his art. One of the ﬁrst lessons acquired by these studies, was a conviction that the hitherto merely graceful use of the Italian language, in a dramatic form, was unjust to its genius. He perceived that a language capable of the terse and severe beauty exhibited in the Divina Commedia, was ﬁtted to give intense expres- sion to the tragic muse. Accordingly, his most original characteristic is the energy, directness, and new power with which he moulded the “soft bastard Latin.” Two circumstances, near- ly simultaneous with his literary development, tended greatly to conﬁrm its triumph. After much vexatious negotiation, he emancipated himself from the ties which bound him to Piedmont, and he formed a lasting and satisfac- tory, though illegitimate attachment, which had the effect to concentrate his personal sen- timent, and make his life more regular. Having settled the bulk of his fortune on his sister, he took up his residence in Florence, and there pursued a methodical course“ of study and com- position, in the society of his beloved countess of Albany, the unfortunate, but highly gifted wife of the last of the Stuarts. Intellect and heart were thus ﬁxed, at last, each upon an ob- ject of permanent attraction, and thenceforth the poet’s work went bravely on, interrupted only by certain political or domestic vicissi- tudes. He describes the troubles of his lady love, and his mortiﬁcation at being obliged to “ court the favor of men in power, to obtain the emancipation of an innocent victim;” fora time she remained in a Florentine convent; “ the reasons,” says her lover, “ for this rupture with her husband were perfectly understood; the separation was universally approved.” “She ALFIERI took her leave,” he adds, “for Rome at the close of December, and I remained in Flor- - ence, solitary and abandoned. Incapable of every kind of application, I no longer cared for the glory I had so ardently longed for. I now felt that without her I was not half myself.” He had invested 117,000 francs in the French stocks, which secured him an independence; he had four horses; his friend, the Abbé di Caluso, had returned to Tu- rin; and he, therefore, left Florence to visit Gandinelli at Sienna, and a dearer object still at Rome. After some interviews at the gate of her convent, the count repaired to Naples; and returned to the “ city of the soul” after a few weeks, where he, for a while, gave himself up to “ diplomatic arts ;” “I did every thing,” he says, “ and bowed myself to every thing, and I remained in Rome tolerated by those Bar- bassori, and even aided by the hireling priests who felt or feigned to feel an interest in the affairs of my lady.” When, at last, restored to the society of the countess, he again took up the pen with ardor, and, in a marvellous short time, had ready for publication no less than fourteen trag- edies. Obliged, from considerations of propri- ety, to quit Rome, the grief occasioned by this renewed separation, rendered him for the time insensible to the severe criticisms which were made upon his tragedies. His literary career was greatly diversiﬁed by his favorite pastime ——trave1. He continually visited different parts of Italy, made several journeys into England-— one expressly to buy horses; and his descrip- tion of the transit of those noble animals over the Alps, is a vivacious episode of his memoirs. He resided, at intervals, at Paris, and after a three years’ sojourn there, where he superin- tended Didot’s edition of his writings, he be- held the ﬁrst scenes of the revolution. One of his last favorite retreats was “Alsatia;” and Florence witnessed the close as it had the opening of his literary life. He always shrunk from the atmosphere of courts, and breathed more freely after crossing the frontier of his native state. His last visit there enabled him to assist at the production of “Virginia,” and to see his venerable mother. The sudden death of Gandinelli at Sienna, repeated at- tacks of illness, pedantic strictures upon his tragedies, and the invasion of his country by the French, were among the trials of Alﬁ- eri’s closing years. But his mental activity and strong affections consoled him to the last; he gave vent to his “excited poetical gall” in epi- grams; he wrote satires, panegyrics, and son- nets; he translated Virgil and Terence, and, at ﬁfty, had the courage to study Greek, until Homer and Pindar became familiar and en- deared. But upon his tragedies were bestowed his best time and attention, his hopes and his enthusiasm; sketched out at ﬁrst with ardor, then elaborated with care,—revised, modiﬁed, polished, he never really completed them until the proof-sheets had been agam and again altered. A letter in reply to one written ALFIERI on the publication of four of them, by Calso- bigi of Naples, served as a critical and his- torical preface, which gives us the author’s views. Their literary rank is permanent. Re- markable for a vigor and intensity of expres- sion worthy of the best days of Italian litera- ture, their classic subjects and stern outline, however opposed to the romantic school, have yet a grand and solemn charm. Their form is severe, but their spirit often sublime. It is not imagination so much as will that they embody. He deals with passions in their naked simplicity. It is from the emphasis of concentrated emo- tion, and not through the warm tints of fancy and sentiment, that he attracts the reader. A brief reply, an eloquent phrase, a situation of great dramatic interest—the sententious dia- logue, the stern purpose, stand out in bold rc- lief, and impress the mind with grace or pathos, moral energy or deep intuitions—-but it is through the strong and few lines, and not the light and shade, the color and combination. “Saul” haunts us like Lear; and “Myrrha,” performed by a woman of genius, is inexpress- ibly affecting. No modern genius is more viv- idly associated with Italy than Alﬁeri. At Asti the traveller is shown the chamber where he was born; at Turin, one of the principal streets bears his name; and in Florence is his tomb. In the latter city also may be seen his portrait, on the back of which is the sonnet wherein he so acutely drew his own mental features. Two of Alﬁeri’s life-long peculiarities, as we have seen, were an inveterate dislike of the French and a passion for horses; the for- mer prejudice originated in a boyish detestation of a French dancing-master at Turin, whose person, manners, and profession, were equally odious to the poet, and the atrocities of the revolution conﬁrmed this anti-Gallicism. So strong was his feeling for the equine race that he incurred great vexation in transporting his favorite animals from place to place, used to dream about them, wrote of them with enthu- siasm, and would never sell one—preferring, if obliged to part with him, to do so as a gift. Alﬁeri’s political character is somewhat anoma- lous; he hated kingcraft, and prized his own nobility chieﬂy that he was free to abuse it; his 1nost intimate friend, Gori of Sienna, was a mercer; he professed democratic sentiments, but was exclusive and fastidious in his social character; he dedicated his tragedy of Bruto Primo to Washington. After Martello, Maffei, and Conti, Italy may be said to have had trage- dies, but she could not boast a native school in this department of letters‘. To Alﬁeri belongs the distinction of having supplied this want, and created this national element. Without pedantic obedience to the Grecian or the French drama, he strove to embody the profound ear- nestness of the one and the modern form of the other in the language of his country; and in this he succeeded. Energy and precision are the characteristics of his style ; many passages are deeply impressive from their force and con- ALFONSO 339 centration, few from their ﬂuent grace or natu- ral ease. The mind is kept on the strain of heroism or anguish, not by elaborate pictures, but through intensely clear dramatic utterance. Cesarotti laments that his language is so uni- formly energetic and so seldom genial; Parini, in one of his sonnets, makes a similar criticism ; and Schlegel, while he accords high praise to “ Saul,” objects that the Italian dramatist makes his virtuous characters unlovable. But these and like observations only indicate that Alﬁeri’s style lacked range and variety; that he harped too much on one string,_——-that he was all out- line and no color; which only proves his indi- viduality, and the stern necessity of a style which an effeminate literature, a passion for his country and for freedom, and the exercise of a powerful volition combined to intensify, and to render earnest and profound, resolved and terse, both in conception and language.-—Two edi- tions of Alﬁeri’s complete works have been published. 22 vols., 4to, Pisa, 1808, and 22 vols., 8vo, Padua, 1809—’10. The best edition of his tragedies, autobiography, and some of his minor works, is contained in the Milan col- lection of the Italian classics, entitled Opera Scelte, 4 vols., 8vo, 1818. ALFONSINE TABLES, an astronomical work, completed during the reign of Alfonso X. at the cost, as it is stated, of 400,000 ducats. They are substantially the same as the Ptole- maic tables, but the length of the year is more correct. The tables are constructed for the meridian of Toledo, and the year 1256. They were not held in great esteem by subsequent astronomers. ALFCNSO is the name of several kings of Spain and Portugal, variously written as Alonso, Alphonso, Ildefonso, andin Portuguese, Alfonso. They distinguished themselves in the contests with the Moors, and the establishment of a Christian kingdom. There were 5 Alfonsos in Aragon, 6 in Portugal, and 12 in Castile. The kingdom of Leon was the oldest of the minor Spanish monarchies, and sprang from the prin- cipality of Oviedo. There is some question as to the commencement of this kingdom, which by German critics is said to have commenced in 914, but the general opinion is that it commenc- ed with Auroxso I., who was elected king of Leon, about 739. He was a descendant of Leo- vigila, and son-in-law of Pelayo, a name fa- mous in Spanish chronicles. He carried on a war of extermination with the Moors, and sub- stituted Christian colonies in the stead of the towns and communities which he suppressed. His diligence in founding churches and con- vents earned him the appellation of “ the Cath- olic.” He died A. D. 7 57.—-Anronso II., elect- ed king 791, died 84:3, abolished the annual tribute of 100 Christian maidens to the Moors. In his reign lived the famous Bernardo del Car- pio, the hero of Spanish romance, the pattern of chivalry, and the opponent of the Frankish hero Roland.—Amronso III., the Great, extend- ed the limits of the Christian rule to the Gua- 340 diana. He was constantly engaged in wars with the Mohammedans, and with his own sub- jects. A conspiracy was fomented against him by his discontented nobles, in favor of his son Garcia, who was taken prisoner by his father. The old king unable to bear up against the 8,114 noyance, abdicated in favor of his son in 910. The last exploit of his active life was a victory over the inﬁdels, as general of his son’s troops.—- ALFONSO VI. son of Ferdinand I.,succeeded to the throne of Leon, 1066, and died in 1109. Under the preceding reign the kingdoms of Leon and old Castile had been united, and after much in- ternal warfare with his brothers, among whom the father had parcelled out the kingdom, Al- fonso made himself master of Leon, old Cas- tile, the Asturias, and Galicia. In his warfare against the Saracens he distinguished himself by his conduct and bravery. His successes, and in particular the terrible siege and recovery of Toledo, led to the invasion of the peninsula by the Almoravides, against whom Alfonso fur- nished assistance to his old enemy, the king of Seville, but ineffectually. Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar, the celebrated Cid, from Sidi (lord), the name given him by the Moors, lived in this reign. Alfonso VI. died without heirs male, and the united crowns fell to his daughter Urraca, a name generally reprobated by Spanish histo- rians. She married Alfonso I. of Aragon, who in her right claimed the crown of Castile and Leon, ahd became Alfonso VII. of that king- dom. The marriage was, however, dissolved, on account of Queen Urraca’s misconduct.-- Amronso X. the Wise, born in 1222, died 1284. He was the son of Ferdinand III., and -surnamed the Wise on account of his own learning, and the encouragement be afforded to learned men. He vanquished the Moors, and compelled the king of Granada to do homage to the king of Castile, and to pay a considerable sum of money. In 1256, Alfonso was elected emperor of Germany, on account of his rela- tionship to the late emperor ; Richard of Corn- wall was supported by some others of the electors. The necessity of Alfonso’s presence in Spain prevented him from visiting Germany, and his power remained a mere shadow, and in 127 3, Rodolph of Hapsburg put an end to the interregnum. In his domestic government Al- fonso was particularly unfortunate. By debas- ing the coinage he irritated the people ; by abridging the privileges of the nobility he alienated their allegiance. In 1269 the nobles, and Prince Philip, Alfonso’s brother, joined Al- hamar, king of Granada, in a revolt, and a san- guinary civil war was commenced. The death of the king of Granada, in 1273, suspended the contest, in which the new king was unwilling to join. The troubles of Alfonso’s reign were not however ended, for Abu Yussuf, king of Moroc- co, seized the opportunity of Alfonso’s absence in France to invade the kingdom. The crown prince, Don Fernando, in attempting to repulse them, was slain ; Don Sancho, the king’s sec- ond son, was more successful. He forced them ALFONSO to retire to Africa. Sancho now put forward claims to the crown, to the exclusion of his nephew, the son of Prince Fernando, and a cortes, summoned at Segovia, named him heir to the throne. This decree Alfonso refused to ratify ; and Sancho and his supporters ﬂew to arms. The king summoned a cort-es at Toledo, the rebels summoned another at Valladolid, which was more numerously attended, and pass- ed a decree deposing Alfonso from the throne. Alfonso now took the resolution of appealing to the Moors of Africa for assistance, and retiring to Seville he wrote from that city to Alonso Perez de Guzman at the court of Abu Yus- suf, describing his position ; Guzman was sent to Seville with a considerable sum of money, and afterward landed at Algesiras, whence they advanced to Cordova, and laid’ siege to that city. The Moore accomplished nothing, however, and after 20 days the siege was raised. Abu Yussuf taking offence at Al- fonso’s suspicions of his loyalty, withdrew his troops to Africa. Alfonso now negotiated with France, but the interference of the pope in his behalf proved more effective. Sancho was excommunicated, and the kingdom laid under an interdict. Alfonso did not, however, live to reestablish peace, he died in 1284.- As a man of letters, Alfonso deserves particular attention, as the father of Spanish prose, and as one of the most learned men of his age. It was his misfortune that he was born heir to a throne, and compelled to pass his life amid the cares of state, for which he was little ﬁtted. Had he been placed in a private station, where he could have devoted himself wholly to litera- ture, he would have possessed even a higher claim to the gratitude of posterity, and a still better title to the appellation of “the Wise.” He laid the foundation of Spanish prose by causing a translation of the Bible to be made into that language, by ordering all legal pro- ceedings to be conducted in it, and by the excellent specimens which he himself gave of it in his writings. He is also distinguished as a poet, and as a man of science. Of his poetry we possess the Cant-igas or chants, composed by him in praise of the Madonna, two stanzas of his QuereZZas' or complaints, composed during the misfortunes of the later years of his life, and the Tesoro or treasury, which is a treatise on the transmutation of the baser metals into gold, the genuineness of which is, however, doubtful. The Oantigas are writ. ten in the Galician dialect, are distinguished by a simple and Provencal style, and some of them have considerable poetical merit. The two re- maining stanzas of the Querellas are elegant, and are written in the Castilian language. The Tesoro is partly written in an incomprehen- sible cipher, and partly in Castilian, but has little merit. As a prose writer, he is entitled to much higher praise. His father St. Ferdi- nand, in order to remedy the evils arising from the fact that the various towns and provinces of his kingdom were possessed of different ALFONSO 341 local fueros or privileges, which they had ob- tained at various times, projected a general code of laws for his whole kingdom, a portion of which was drawn up during his reign. This fragment is styled El /Shtenario, and is, doubtless, partially at least, the work of Al- fonso. The latter, however, did not complete it, immediately on his accession to the throne, but, having prepared two smaller codes, of which the ﬁrst, called the “ Mirror of all Rights,” seems never to have been put in force, and the other, styled F/uero Real, or the Royal charter, was drawn up more especially for the use of the city of Valladolid, was at last enabled to accomplish the long-desired end by the preparation and promulgation of the celebrated body of laws, known usually as Las siete Partidas, or “The seven Parts,” so called from the number of portions into which it is divided, but named by its author the Setenar-io, from the code of his father. The materials for this work were drawn from the Justinian code, the Visigothic laws, the local institutions of different parts of the king- dom, and other sources. Its enforcement was long resisted by the great cities, who obstinately held on to their ancient privileges, but it was at last, in 1348, established on a ﬁrm footing, and has been, ever since, the basis of Spanish common law, and has even, by the admission of Florida and Louisiana into the United States, been introduced into the legal system of our own country. It is written in the form of a sort of treatise on legislation, religion, and morals, and on the mutual duties of a king and his people, containing explanations of the laws which it lays down, as well as the reasons for their establishment, and furnishing a variety of allusions to the manners of the people at the time, the whole written in a quaint and simple style, and having an interest which attaches to no similar work. Not only was it unapproached, as a literary work, by any previous Spanish prose writing, but it is declared, by Marina, an eminent Spanish writer, to be unequalled in purity and elevation of style by any prose work of the Spanish literature of the three succeed- ing centuries. In its preparation, Alfonso had the aid of the best lawyers he could procure, but there is no doubt that its literary merit, at least, is due to him. Another important work of which he is the author, is the Orénica Gen- eral de Espaﬁa, or “General Chronicle of Spain.” In the preparation of this, also, Alfonso was aided by learned men, and especially by persons having an acquaintance with the Ara- bic literature. It is divided into 4 portions; the ﬁrst beginning with the creation of the world, and coming down to the conquest of Spain by the Visigoths, devoting considerable attention to Roman history, but barely touch- ing upon that of the rest of the world; the second treating of the Visigothic monarchy and the conquest of Spain by the Moors; the third continuing the history to the reign of Ferdinand the Great, at the beginning of the 11th century; while the 4th and last brings us to the death of St. Ferdinand, the father of the author. The most interesting of these are the third and fourth periods, especially the former, which contains many of the romantic traditions of the Spaniards, which are told in a simple and poetical manner, and possess great interest. The greater part of the work, though interesting and valuable as a literary performance, must be read with caution regarded as a history. In the latter portion, however, as the chronicler approaches his own times, it becomes more worthy of reliance. Alfonso not only wrote himself, but he encouraged others in literary labors,. directed the compilation of various works, and established on a ﬁrm basis the uni- versity of Seville. He was also eminent for his astronomical and mathematical attainments, and for his researches in alchemy. The astro- nomical tables which bore his name, and were probably constructed by certain Moorish astron- omers invited by him to his court for that pur- pose, were celebrated for a long time.—-For an ac- count of the position of Alfonso with regard to the development of the literature of his country, see Ticknor’s “ History of Spanish Literature.” ALFONSO I., of Portugal, was the ﬁrst king of that country. He was several times at war with Alfonso VIII. of Castile; but, on the establishment of peace, he turned his arms against the common enemy. He fought a battle in 1139, on the plains of Ourique, against the king of Badajoz and his allies, and the slaughter was so immense that it completely broke the Arabic power in Portugal. In 1146 he took the town of Santarem, after an obsti- nate defence, and put to the sword every living soul ; and the following year these terrible victo- ries struck terror into the Saracens, and Por- tugal was free. Alfonso I. also instituted a code of laws, still known as the laws of Alfonso. He died at the great age of 91. He was suc- ceeded by his son Sancho I.—ALFONSO II., son of Sancho, was remarkable for the attempt he made to curtail the immunities of the clergy, which, however, he was compelled by Ho- norius III. to abandon. ALFONSO V. of Aragon, and I. of Sicily, surnamed the Magnanimous, born about 1394, died June 27, 1458. He succeeded his father in 1416, and the ﬁrst act of his reign displayed the chivalric generosity of his character. Hav- ing received a list of nobles who were conspir- ing to dethrone him, he tore the paper in pieces without reading it. He was fond of adventure, and in the early part of his reign, left Spain to make good his claims to the sovereignty of the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, which were then partly in the power of the Genoese. In the war which followed he met with some suc- cess, but soon relinquished this project for more dazzling schemes of ambition. Joanna, queen of Naples, being attacked by Louis IIL, duke of Anjou, sent to Alfonso, offering to make him duke of Calabria, and heir to the throne of Na.- ples, if he would aid her against the duke of _ of Toulouse. 342 ALFONSO Anjou. Alfonso eagerly accepted this propo- sition, abandoned Sardinia and Corsica, over which his sovereignty thenceforth amounted to but little, and, sailing to Naples, obliged the duke of Anjou to raise the siege, and, not long after, to make a peace on terms advantageous to the queen of Naples. But it was not long ere the queen became jealous of the power of her new ally, and open war at last broke out between them. The queen summoned to her aid Sforza Attendolo, the general of the duke of Anjou, who defeated Alfonso. The latter, however, was soon enabled by the arrival of fresh troops from Spain, to make himself mas- ter of the city of Naples, and to hold his ene- mies in check. But his presence was now re- quired in Spain to protect his kingdom of Ara- gon, which was then at war with Castile. Ac- cordingly, leaving his brother Don Pedro in charge of his affairs in Naples, he sailed for Spain in 1423. On his way thither, he made a sudden descent on Marseilles, then belonging to the duke of Anjou, captured the city with- out diﬂiculty, but neither sacked it, nor carried away from it any booty, with the exception of the body of a dead saint, Louis, formerly bishop Alfonso passed about 8 years in Spain, and then, having arranged his aﬂairs in that country, again turned his attention to- Italy. Here matters had taken an unfavorable turn, and the Spaniards, pressed upon by the queen, aided by the pope, the dukes of Anjou and Milan, and the Genoese, were almost over- whelmed. Alfonso arrived there in 1432, and, seeing the desperate state of affairs, and being ever eager for new adventure, sailed to the island of J erba on the coast of Africa, which he conquered, after gaining a victory over the bey of Tunis, to whom the island belonged. After this exploit, he went to Italy, where he employed himself with negotiations to bring about a reconciliation with Queen Joanna, and with intrigues to obtain adherents in Italy. In 1435 the queen died, bequeathing her crown to René of Anjou, count of Provence, brother and successor of Louis III., who had died some time before, and Alfonso, thinking the occasion a favorable one for asserting his claims, re- newed the war, and besieged the city of Gaeta by sea and land. But in a naval battle near the island of Ponza, he was totally defeated by the Genoese and the duke of Milan, he himself was taken prisoner, together with a great num- ber of his followers, and, shortly after, his land forces were routed and dispersed under the walls of Gaeta. These disastrous events seemed to have ruined his cause; but having by his nobleness of disposition and gallant bearing gained the affection of his captor the duke of Milan, the latter set him at liberty and became his ally, and Alfonso was thus enabled to re- sume his operations under better auspices. After a contest of several years, without effect- ing much, Alfonso succeeded, by the treachery of one of the adherents of Rene, in getting the advantage of his rival, and, in 1442, made him- ALFORD self master of Naples, and compelled René to ﬂy from Italy, and seek refuge in his county of Provence. Alfonso was soon after recognized as king of Naples by the assembled states of the kingdom, and by Pope Eugenius IV., which latter also issued a bull legitimatizing Ferdi- nand, the bastard son of the king, who had no legitimate children. From this time Alfonso resided in Naples, exerting himself to improve the condition of that kingdom, the affairs of which, during the reign of Joanna II., and the disturbances which followed, had fallen into much disorder; and, though taking part in some Italian wars of little importance, passing the remainder of his life in comparative quiet. At his death his brother John inherited the kingdoms of Aragon, Sardinia, and Sicily; while his son Ferdinand received the crown of Naples. Alfonso was brave and generous, but of an amorous and impetuous disposition. He was a patron of literature and the arts, and was himself quite a learned man, considering the active life he led. One fact only seems to reﬂect upon his generous character. In 1429, the arch- bishop of Saragossa, the enemy of the king, mysteriously disappeared. No inquiry was ever instituted, but his death was attributed to the hostility of Alfonso. Such a crime, how- ever, is little in accordance with the general tenor of his life, and it may reasonably be sup- posed that there were circumstances tending to put a different face on the matter, of which we at this day are ignorant. ALFORD, HENRY, English poet and theolo- gian, born at London in 1810; fellow of Trinity college, Cambridge, 1835; vicar of Wymeswold, Leicestershire, 1835 ; Hulsean lecturer at Cam- bridge, 1841 ; minister of Quebec chapel, London, 1853; dean of Canterbury, 1856. > Mr. Alford’s ﬁrst poetical venture, under his own name, was a publication, facetiously but not unkindly spoken of by Christopher North as “an egg with two yolks.” This was the “School of the Heart and other Poems,” in two volumes, issued at Cam- bridge in 1835. The minor poems of this col- lection had been issued anonymously in one volume, at the same place, two years before, and had met with a reception which encouraged their author to avow the paternity of them on his removal to the vicarage of Wymeswold. Mr. Alford’s appearance in the ﬁeld of English poetry was made, therefore, almost contempo- raneously with the debut of Alfred Tennyson, and although nothing can be more deceptive than any scientiﬁc classiﬁcation of poetic genius, it is perhaps fair to say of him that he holds of Wordsworth and Cowper by a descent as direct as that which links the literary features of the author of Ulysses and Locksley Hall, Maud, and the Princess, with those of Shelley, Coleridge, and Keats. Poetic fame, however, has been with Mr. Alford rather an aspiration than an aim, and the contemplations in which he delights tend to fulﬁl themselves rather in the sermon than the song. His largest and most elaborate work, the “School of the Heart,” ALFORD is not only didactic in tone, but is absolutely formless in any artistic sense, and more re- sembles the religious improvisations of a reﬁned and delicate thinker, than the solemn symphonies of a profound and impassioned poet. It abounds, however, in passages of delightful verse, which often only lack the ﬁnal touch of the master- hand to have become as memorable as the ma- jestic musings of the “Excursion” itself. His descriptions of nature are pervaded with sincere and exquisite feeling, and a singular absence of all atfectation charms us in his more emotional appeals to human experience and the sympa- thies of the human soul. It is in his lesser poems, however, that Mr. Alford has shown himself most truly poetic, and many of his son- nets will long survive all the changes of popu- lar taste and all the caprices of literary fashion. Such, for example, are a series of elegiac verses upon the death of a sister, a series of unequal but extraordinary merit, the rarest and most complete of which must take rank with the most beautiful works in this kind that adorn our literature. The atmosphere of Mr. Alford’s poetical writings is always pure and soothing; his theological views tinging rather than color- ing the substance of his thought, and modifying the essentially religious temper of his disposi- tion, but so far as to identify in him the Anglican teacher and the Cantabrigian scholar. The 2 volumes of the Cambridge collection were re- published with numerous additions, in 1 single volume, under the supervision of the author, by Messrs. Ticknor and Fields, of Boston, in 1854, and extended the reputation of this blame- less and agreeable writer into a new sphere of inﬂuence and of appreciation. In 1854, while still minister of Quebec chapel in London, Mr. Alford issued the 1st volume of the 2d edi- tion of his opus magnum, a critical edition of the Greek Testament for the use of theologians. The ﬁrst edition of this volume had been pub- lished 4 years previously, and had been followed by the 2d volume in 1852. But it is on the revised edition now (1857) in progress that Mr. Alford rests his claim to renown as a theologian. No theological work of equal excellence with this has been produced for many years by any member of the English church, and Mr. Alford justly deserves the distinction of standing al- most alone among his brethren on a level with the critical theologians of Germany. Adopting the text of Tischendorf, Mr. Alford has so care- fully revised this standard of biblical philology, as to leave room for few changes in the future, while his digest of various readings is incontes- tably the best ever presented to the world. The exegetical commentaries and the prolegomena of Mr. Alford will be variously valued, of course, by persons of various theological views, but no one will deny to him the praise of exemplary diligence in the collection of authorities, of acuteness in the investigation of vexed questions, of a noble candor not always characteristic of critical scholars, and of a sound common sense equally rare and admirable. ALFRED THE GREAT 343 ALFORT, a pleasant hamlet of France in the department of Seine, about 5 miles S. E. of the French capital. institutions a royal veterinary college, an es- tablishment designed to teach rural economy, and a ﬁne botanical garden. ALFRED THE GREAT, king of the West Saxons in England, was born at Wantage in Berkshire, in 849, and died Oct. 28, in the year 900, as is supposed. By many historians he has been pronounced the wisest and greatest prince that ever ruled in England, and certainly none have surpassed him. He was the ﬁfth and youngest son of Ethelwolf, king of the West Saxons, and seems to have been his favorite child. It has been conjectured that he was in- tended to be his father’s immediate successor, as he was sent to Rome in his 5th year with a train of attendants, where Leo IV. (according to the Saxon chronicler) “ consecrated him king.” However, the throne was ﬁrst occupied by 3 of his brothers in succession. In the reign of Ethelred, the last of them, an unusually formi- dable invasion of the Danes occurred. This name was then applied to the inhabitants of Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, who, con- sidering war the noblest pursuit in which man can be employed, were engaged in perpetual hostilities with the nations around them. On this occasion Alfred was his bnother’s most efficient general, and during the year 871 no less than 9 great battles were fought between the contending parties, in one of which Ethelred received a mortal wound. Alfred was there- upon by the unanimous voice of the people de- clared king, at the age of 22, and unwillingly entered upon the duties of his perilous office. He succeeded, however, in making a temporary peace with the invaders, which left them free to overrun the other provinces of the island. This truce seems to have lasted till 875. Alfred, meanwhile, ﬁnding it impossible to raise an army able to cope with them in the ﬁeld, ﬁtted out a naval force, with which, on the commencement of hostilities, he worsted them in several en- gagements, and in the spring of 877, according to Assor, drove 120 Danish ships on shore, causing the destruction of all on board. On the suc- ceeding year they invaded the island in greater numbers than ever, rendering all resistance hopeless; the king, with a few followers, sought safety in the woods and among the hills, and at one time was obliged to take shelter in the hut of one of his cowherds. In May, 878, having been joined by an armed body of his subjects, he attacked the main army of Danes at Edding- ton, and routed them with great slaughter. It was on the day before this battle that he is reported to have entered the enemy’s camp disguised as a harper. The defeated king God- run and his followers were made to embrace Christianity, and received the modern counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, and Cambridge, as a place of residence. They became the subjects of Alfred, who in the course of 6 years seems to have made himself the virtual ruler of all Eng- It numbers among its ' 344 ALFRETON land, though never formally recognized as such. These few years of tranquillity (from 886 to 893) were employed by him in restoring the cities and fortresses which had been destroyed during the war, in improving the navy, in sys- tematizing the laws and internal administra- tion of the government, and in literary labors. The last invasion of the Northmen in his reign, took place in 894, under a leader named Hast- ings, and after a struggle which lasted 3 years, of which every part of the country was in turn the theatre, they were once more driven out. Alfred is regarded as the founder of the British navy; he made some valuable improvements in the construction of ships, established an elabo- rate system of coast defences, having erected some 50 fortresses at various points, and regu- lated the military service so as to keep only one-half the population capable of bearing arms in the ﬁeld at a time, leaving the remainder to cultivate the soil. It is probable that the code of laws which bears his name is chieﬂy com- piled from the enactments of his predecessors. He made great improvements in the adminis- tration of justice, and caused the rights of property to be respected to a remarkable extent for that day. But his efforts for the advance- ment of literature and for the education of his subjects, constitute his best title to our admira- tion. Although he is said to have been 12 years of age before he was taught the alphabet, he afterward prosecuted his studies with such diligence as to become possessed of extraor- dinary learning. He invited literary men to his court from all parts of Europe, and although it is doubtful whether he founded the university of Oxford, according to the prevailing tradition, he certainly did much for the improvement of the monastic school which had previously existed in that place. He made numerous translations from the Latin of works which he considered adapted to the wants of his countrymen, among which are the Liber Pastomlis Uurce of Pope Gregory the Great, Boethius’ De Oonsolatione Philosophiw, and Bede’s “ History of England.” He married Alswith, the dau er of a Mer- cia-n nobleman, by whom he ' said to have had 4 sons. His disposition was gentle and amiable, and his bearing rank and affable toward all. He was mer ful and forgiving toward his enemies. Thro gh the greater part of his life he suﬁ"ered intens ly from an internal disease, which he bore w th stoical serenity, never suffering his labors be interrupted by its attacks. Many curious ncidents of his life have been related by the e rly annalists, which the critical researches of modern historians have shown to be fabulous. ’ ALFRETON, a market town in Derbyshire, 140 miles N. N. W. from London; population, 8,326. The inhabitants are employed in manu- facturing hosiery and brown earthenware, and in the collieries. ALGAE, the common name for sea-weeds and certain kinds of marine cellular plants. Un- der the term, Linnaeus included the lichens and ALG./E other plants, as an order of the class cryptoga- mia or acrogens; but modern naturalists have modiﬁed the classiﬁcation. Nothing very de- ﬁnite, however, has yet been achieved in the distinctions and minute descriptions of the in- numerable varieties of cryptogamic plants or cellulwres; and marine varieties or sea-weeds have been less observed and analyzed than other species. Professor Agardh, of Sweden, and Professor Harvey, of England, in his work on the British algae, have done much of late, for this department of botanical anatomy and physiology; and from their works we may gather the best views of the present state of knowledge in regard to algae or sea-weeds. The name is now given by botanists to the tribe of plants which comprehend sea-weeds, lavers, and submersed fresh-water species, of similar habits. In structure, form, and size, they vary through a vast variety of intermediate grada- tions, from the simple microscopic vesicle to branched woody individuals, many fathoms in length. Son1e of them are microscopic vesicles, only visible to the naked eye when collected in heaps. Such is the nature of green and red slime found in damp walks, at the bottom of shaded walls, and like situations. Others grow together in the beds of the ocean, and when dislodged, rise to the surface and form ﬂoating masses of such extent as to impede the course of ships. The sea cat-gut or chorda ﬁlum of Orkney, is of this kind, and whole meadows of it have been seen, at times, in Scalpa bay. The “gulf weed” of navigators is also of this na- ture; which gulf weed, says Humboldt, being carried by the gulf stream, forms two banks in the great basin of the northern Atlantic ocean, one of which stretches over 110 of latitude, and the other over 4°. Dr. Lindley, in his “ Vege- table Kingdom,” attempts to introduce a nat- ural order of division in this class of plants, and forms an alliance which he calls algales, embracing the following natural orders: 1, diatomacew, or brittle-worts; 2, confervacece, or confervas; 3, fucacew, or sea-wracks; 4, ae- ramiacew, or rose tangles; 5, chamceaa, or cha- rads. The ﬁrst of these 5 orders include the des-miclece, which are almost entirely micro- scopic; and which, until very lately, were hardly recognized as plants at all. Professor Harvey divides these plants into 3 sub-classes, which he terms: 1, melanospermew ; 2, rhodosper- mew ; and 3, chlo-rospermecc. The meZanos- permeaa are marine plants of an olive-green, or olive-brown color, having a monoecious or dies- cious fructiﬁcation. The spores are olive col- ored; each enveloped in a pellucid skin, and either simple or separating into 2, 4, or 8 spo- rules. They possess antheridia, or transparent, orange-colored, vivacious corpuscles, moving by means of vibratile cilia. The rhoelospe/rmece are also, with one or two exceptions, marine plants, and mostly of a rosy red or purple color. The fructiﬁcation is of two kinds; either of spores in external or immersed conceptacles, or dense- ly aggregated together and dispersed through- ALGJE out masses of the frond; or of tetraspores of a red or purple color, external or immersed in the frond, and each enveloped in a pellucid skin, which at maturity separates into 4 spo- rules. Some possess antlwm'dia, which are ﬁlled with yellow corpuscles. The chlorospermece are marine or fresh-water plants of a green color. The fructiﬁcation is dispersed through all parts of the frond. The spores are green, formed within the cells, and often at maturity having vibratile cilia. They also produce gemmules or external vesicles, containing a dense, dark- colored, granular mass, which ﬁnally separates from the frond. The mclwnosper-mace include the following orders: 1, fucaceee; 2, Woroch- nacew ; 3, Zaminariacece ,' 4, dictg/otacece ; 5, chordariacew ; 6, ectocarpaceae. The ﬁrst or- der, which have the genus fucus as their type, are all marine plants. They are of an olive brown or greenish color, and very ﬁne in tex- ture. The cellular structure which is charac- teristic of all the algae, is very condensed in the fuccwece, assuming a leathery and sometimes even a woody character. The base of their stem or stipes forms a dense shield-like root, while their upper part is often expanded in- to a broad foliaceous appendage. The repro- ductive organs consist of small black or very dark spores, which are collected into sori, or found scattered on various parts of the frond. These spores are enveloped in a thick gelati- nous mucus, which seems to be a provision for the purpose of attaching them more securely to the rocks on which they grow, amidst the restless element to which they are constantly exposed. They are of very rapid growth; a few months suffice to cover a large surface of naked rock with a sort of forest of various spe- cies of fuci. Kelp is manufactured from the species of plant pertaining to this division of the algae; the one most frequently collected for this purpose being the fucus cesicztlosus. Great quantities of this sea-weed are thrown upon the shores of the British isles. It is known by its strap-shaped, olive-green, forked divisions, with little yellowish, oval, uneven pods at their points, and by the crackling noise it makes when trodden upon; owing to its stems having a considerable number of air-bladders, by means of which it ﬂoats.-—Among many of the algae a gelatinous matter is secreted which is nutritious. In Gothland the F. oesiculosus is given as proven- der to hogs, and is called swine-tang. Other animals will also eat this weed as food, in times of scarcity. Alaria csc-ulcnm, when stripped of the thin part, forms a part of the simple fare of the poorer classes of Ireland, Scotland, Ice- land, Denmark, and the Faroe Islands.-—-The Zaminariacew or tangles are of a densely ﬁbro- cellular structure, and their spores are collected together in sori on the surface of the frond. L. escule-nta is an edible species. It grows to the length of 20 feet, and the midrib, stripped of its membranaceous covering, is the part that is eaten. L. saccharrlna, or the sugar sea-belt, is said to be eaten by the Icelanders. In Japan 345 it is considered a great delicacy. L. digitata is eaten in Scotland, and cried about the streets of Edinburgh as “tangle.”--The second sub-class, rhollospermece, includes the following natural orders: 1, Zaurenciaceoe; 2, corallinacew ; 3, delesseriacew ; 4, rhodg/mem'acew ; 5, crypto- nemiacem ; 6, ccramiacem. These orders are distinguished by their brilliant tints, their leaf- like fronds, and the collection of their pores into sori, or if scattered, being arranged on a ternary plan. The “ Carrageen moss,” or chan- drus crispus, belongs to the order cr-_2/pt0nc- miacew. It is used in Ireland as an arti- cle of food, and is sold in London as a sub- stitute for Iceland moss. It is frequently em- ployed instead of isinglass for the confection of jellies and blanc-mange. It has a slightly bit- ter ﬂavor, which may be removed by steeping in fresh water some time previous to boiling. Gelidium is another genus of the same order; one species of which is said to contain the sub- stance collected by swallows and used in the construction of the edible nests of Java. The edible dulse or iridea eclul-is is a favorite food for lobsters, crabs, &c. It is also eaten both raw and roasted by ﬁshermen; the ﬂavor rc- sembling that of roasted oysters. Amongst the ¢7t0d_2/meniaccce is the genus gracilla-r'ia, the species of which are also used as food; and one of them, the G. Zichenoides, is highly valued in Ceylon and other parts of the east. The G. tena-.1: is valuable to the Chinese as the basis of an excellent glue or varnish. The quantity an- nually imported at Canton from the provinces of Fokein and Tchikiang, is stated by Mr. Tur- ner to be about 27,000 lbs. It is sold for 12 or 16 cents per lb., and used as a gum or var- nish. Many other uses may possibly be found for sea-weeds and other kinds of cellular plants, when they have been more carefully studied and deﬁned. It was in the ranks of the algae, to which sea-weeds and the lowest orders of plants inhabiting fresh-water, belong, that those forms and functions were ﬁrst observed which had been supposed to be peculiar to animals only. Amongst the oscillatorice it was found that some of them had an apparently distinct power of self-movement; so that locomotion would no longer sufﬁce to distinguish animal from vegetable organisms. In 1843, Unger and Thuret both announced the fact that the spores of many algae possess vibratile cilia, not to be distinguished from those on animal bodies. The consequence has been that large numbers of the infusoria of Ehrenberg are now regarded as plants, and not as animalcules. The globe animalcule or eolvorc globator endowed with cilia, and possessing the most active powers of motion, has been shown, by the researches of Professor Williamson and Mr. Busk, to be un- doubtedly a plant. The presence of starch was also detected by Mr. Busk, during the growth of the young volvox. This explains the appa- rent anomaly of the supposed lower order of animals performing the same ofﬁces as the higher order of plants in absorbing carbonic 346 ALGARDI acid and liberating oxygen. The moment the volvox is proved to be a cellular vege- table organism, there is no anomaly in its vegetable physiology; and the same may be said of many other minute types of algae which have been mistaken for animalcules. ALGARDI, Amssxnnno, an Italian sculptor, born at Bologna, about the year 1600, died in 1654. His Fuega d’Attil, in St. Peter’s church, ' is the largest alto-rilievo in the world. Other works of his adorn his native city. ‘ ALGAROTTI, Fuanossoo, born at Venice in 1712, died at Pisa, May 3, 17 64. After com- pleting his studies, he visited London, Paris, and St. Petersburg. Returning through Ger- many, he became intimate with Frederic the Great, then crown prince, who after ascending the Prussian throne, persuaded him to take up his abode at Berlin, where he resided for many years, enjoying the friendship of that sovereign. His writings embrace a great variety of topics, but are not of remarkable merit. ALGAROVILLA, an astringent substance, produced by the tree juga Martha, of Santa Martha, in New Carthagena. The portions taken to England, and examined by Dr. Ure, were pods bruised and agglutinated with the extractive exudation of the seeds and husks. It is replete with tannin, and for tanning leather possesses more than four times the strength of good oak bark. It is also well adapted for the manufacture of good black ink, for a yellow dye, and for an astringent medicine. ALGARVE, a province in the south of Portu- gal. It contains 2,145 square miles. Popula- tion, 141,027. The chief town, Faro, has 8,600 inhabitants. The south-western part of the province is mountainous and rocky, and of wild and dreary aspect. The plains and valleys pro- duce fruits in abundance, which, with wines and ﬁsh, form the chief exports. Algarve was wrested from the Moors about the year 1248. It formerly extended across the south of Spain to Almeria, and included part of northern Africa. ALGAU, a name given, when used in the widest sense of its application, to the district ex- tending from the sources of the Iller to the Danube, and along the Schussen to the lake of Constance. The name is, however, generally applied to a less extensive district in the south- western part of Bavaria, on the borders of the Tyrol, extending along the Iller to Kempten, and thence to Memmingen, and the lake of Constance. The country is very mountainous, especially in its southern portion, containing off- shoots of the Alps, some of whose summits rise above the limits of perpetual snow. From the mountains of this district ﬂow the rivers Ill, Argen, Iller, Bregenzerach, Wertach, and Lech. The raising of cattle is the principal occupation of the inhabitants, though agriculture is carried on to some extent in the northern part of the district. ALGAZI. I. Cnaomm, ﬁourished'in the 17th century, and wrote the “Paths of Judg- ment,” printed at Constantinople, 1669. II. ALGAZZALI SAMUEL-BEN-ISAAC, a native of Candia, publish- ed a chronological work, the “ Generations of Adam,” in 1587. III. SALOMON-BEN-ABRAHAM, ﬂourished in the 17th century, and wrote com- mentaries on the Talmud. He was a native of the Levant. ALGAZZALI, Ann HAMED MOHAMMED, a celebrated Arabian philosopher; born at Tons, a city of Persia, in 1058, died 1111. His father was a dealer in cotton thread (gazzal), and it was from this circumstance that he received his name. When he was quite young he lost his father, and was, in consequence, intrusted to the care of a Sooﬁ, or mystical philosopher. Under the inﬂuence of this dreamer, Algazzali grew up, became a professor of theology at Bagdad, and attracted hundreds to his lectures by his eloquence and genius. But in spite of his splendid success, he was disturbed by harass- ing doubts with regard to the certainty of hu- man knowledge, which gave him no rest, and from which the only refuge he could ﬁnd was in faith. Desiring to attain to the purest state of which man is capable, in which he might have clear views of the true nature of things, and reflecting on the means of reaching this height of progress, he found that, to obtain the desired end, the soul must be puriﬁed from all connection with earth, must become indifferent to all out- ward events, and be freed from all contamination of sensual desires. Considering his own charac- ter and life, he found that he was fond of the world, that he was pleased with the approbation of others, and that sensual pleasures were not without attraction to him. This threw him into a melancholy state of mind, and he became seriously ill, his physician assuring him that he must shake off his depression of spirits, or he could not recover. He then distributed his wealth, and sought, in Syria, in solitary com- munion with himself to attain that ecstatic state for which he longed. Hespent some time in this manner, and in travelling, making pil- grimages to Mecca and Jerusalem, and also vis- iting Alexandria and Cairo. At last he re- turned to Bagdad, whence he soon after re- moved to Nissaboor, where he was appointed professor of theology, and where he passed the remainder of his days, sometimes, as he says, experiencing the highest bliss of the ecstatic state, but only occasionally, and for a short time. He was a very proliﬁc writer, but his works were not all considered entirely orthodox by the Mussulmans, and one of them was condemned to be burned on account of some strictures on the Mohammedan law which it contained. His scepticism he got from the Greek philosophers, whose writings he studied with much care, and whose inﬂuence he endeavored to coun- teract in two of his works, one of which, entitled the “Destruction of the Philoso- phers,” was afterward replied to by Averroiés. Another of his works obtained so high a reputation among the Mussulmans, that they sometimes said, if all Islam were destroyed it would be but a slight loss provided Algaz- ALGEBRA zali’s work on the “ Reviviﬁcation of the Sciences of Religion” were preserved. In this work he gives an account of his doubts and of his examination of the different sects among ' the Mohammedans, of whom he gives the pre- ference to the Sooﬁs, who claim immediate in- spiration, and assert that they can perceive es- sential truths as men see ordinary phenomena. It is from this work that the above account of his intellectual life is taken. In spite of his philosophy he was a strenuous upholder of Mo- hammedanism, and was highly esteemed by the faithful, among whom he was styled the Light of Islam, and the Pillar of the Mosque.—(See Lewes’s “Biographical History of Philosophy,” 2 vols., London, 1857.) ALGEBRA was formed. in the attempt to generalize arithmetic, and has been deﬁned as “the art of computing numbers by general symbols.” But this deﬁnition is very unsatis- factory, since the investigation of numbers is but one of the uses to which algebra may be applied. If, on the other hand, we omit from this deﬁnition the word “numbers,” we then make the statement too comprehensive, as our deﬁnition will include all the higher branches of mathesis. In algebra, as understood by modern writers, quantities are represented by letters of the alphabet (not by abbreviated words), and the only operations to be perform- ed upon them are‘ the addition of similar quan- tities, the subtraction of one quantity from another, the multiplication of a quantity any number of times, or its division into any num- ber of parts. In multiplication is included the operation of raising powers, and in division, that of extracting roots. No other operations are considered as properly belonging to algebra, and yet it is of very great advantage to the usefulness of the art, and to the ease of the student, if we add a consideration of the effect, on the result of an operation, produced by gradually enlarging or diminishing the quantity operated upon. These operations are, in all nations, symbolized as follows: The sign = signiﬁes “is equal to,” and is the principal verb in algebraic language. Every algebraic sentence must contain it, or its modiﬁcations > “is more than,” < “ is less than.” The sign + plus, signiﬁes “added to.” Thus, a+b signi- ﬁes the sum of the two quantities represented by a and b. The sign —- minus, signiﬁes “dimin- ished by.” Thus, m—- n, is the remainder left after subtracting n from m. The sign X sig- niﬁes “multiplied by.” It is sometimes omit- ted; thus, pg signiﬁes F times-g. The sign -:- signiﬁes “ divided by.” The dividend is, how- ever, frequently written in the place of the upper dot, and the divisor in place of the lower dot. The notation of powers and roots is equal- ly simple. Thus, 72.2 signiﬁes the second power of it, that is, a quantity represented by the number produced by multiplying the number it by itself, and hi signiﬁes the third root of h, that is, a quantity represented by a number which, multiplied twice by itself, will produce ALGECIRAS 347 the number h. In order to solve a problem by means of algebra, we must ﬁrst state the problem in as few algebraic sentences as possi- ble. Each sentence will be a statement of the equality of two results of operations on known and unknown quantities. Thus, m+aa:=b, is the statement that if we multiply by the known number, a, the unknown quanti- ty :0, and add as to the product, the sum will equal the known quantity b. The sign == may be called a balance, and the letters on each side are equal in weight. We wish to ﬁnd the weight of the unknown quantity; in order to do this, we may take any thing from, or add any thing to, the quantity on one scale, provid- ed we make the same change on the other side of the balance. Or, we may divide or multiply the quantity on one side, provided we do the same to the other. Thus by a little ingenuity we can reduce one side to the single unknown quantity, and on the other side of the scale will be its value. When we introduce into algebra the additional idea of a gradual enlargement of any quantity, the letter D is used in the follow- ing sense. The sentence D(a:v+ b)=a, is read, “the derivative of a times a: plus I) is equal to a.” This signiﬁes that the sum of at times :1: added to b will increase, if a: is enlarged, at times as fast as as increases. From these simple principles, various writers have built up vast and 'valuable struc- tures. The art of algebra arose in the 4th or perhaps the 6th century with Diophantus, was revived in the 16th with Cardan, and Tartaglia, but did not make rapid advances until toward the close of the 16th, and the beginning of the 17th, when Vieta, Harriot, and Descartes put algebra into a condition corresponding with the signal growth of other sciences at that pe- riod. The most striking attempt to ﬁx the place of algebra as a science, since the early writers, who called it universal arithmetic, was that of Sir Wm. Rowan Hamilton, of Dublin, who, led by a passage in Kant to consider a science of time possible, endeavored to con- struct it, and found himself led inevitably to a reconstruction of the elements of algebra. Hence we may infer that the fundamental con- ceptions in this science are drawn from our sense of time. De Morgan, Comte (translated by Dr. Gillespie of Union college), Patterson of Albany, and Davies of West Point, N. Y., have written on the metaphysics of algebra. For learning the art, there are several excellent American elementary treatises, which may be followed by Bo'urdon’s or Serret’s more extend- ed works. ALGECIRAS, a Spanish town and seaport in Andalusia, province of Cadiz, on the west side of Gibraltar bay, 10 miles N. E. of Tarifa, opposite to and 6 miles W. of Gibraltar, in lat. 36° 8’ N. long.5° 26’ 5" W. Charles III. erected Algeciras in 1760, on the capture of Gibraltar by the British. It is constructed of stone, and presents a fair appearance compared with many of the villages in W. Spain. The port is guarded by a battery called the fort de Santi- 348 ago, has a ﬁrst-class hospital, and is much fre- quented. The town is supplied with water conveyed by an aqueduct over the Miel. The principal trade is the export of coal, which is wrought in the neighboring mountains, char- coal, and leather. July 4, 1801, a sanguinary battle between the English and French squad- rons was fought here. Resident population, 11,000. ALGERIA, adivision of northern Africa, for- merly the Turkish pashalic of Algiers, but since 1830 included in the foreign dominions of France. It is bounded N. by the Mediterranean, E. by Tunis, W. by Morocco, S. by the Great Sahara. The extreme length is 500 miles from E. to W.; the extreme breadth 200 miles from N. to S. The Atlas ridge constitutes an important physical feature in the country, and divides the arable land of the sea-board from the desert. It also constitutes the northern and southern water- shed of the province. The main ridge runs from east to west, but the whole province is intersected in all directions with spurs from the central range. The loftiest of the western mountains is Mount Wanashrees, the Mons Zalacus of Ptolemy; of the eastern the Jur- jura and Aurep. These attain a height of nearly 7,000 feet. The principal river is the Shelliff. There are rivers of considerable size also, which ﬂow from the south side of the Atlas, and lose themselves in the desert. None of these rivers are navigable. They are nearly dried, up in the summer, but overﬂow a considerable’ extent of country in the spring and fertilize the soil.-—The climate is not considered unhealthy by some travellers. Ophthalmia and cutaneous diseases are common. It is said there are no endemic fevers, but the great loss of the French troops by disease may perhaps lead to a different conclusion. The atmosphere is pure and bright, the summer very hot; and in the winter severe weather is occasionally experienced, especially in the hill country. On the limits of the desert the soil is arid and sandy, but between the mountain districts it is fertile, and especially so in the neighborhood of the streams. Grain crops of all kinds, fruits, European and tropical; ﬂowers, and particularly roses, of re- markable beauty; and a species of sugar-cane, said to be the largest and most productive of any known species, grow in Algeria. The dc- mestic animals of every variety are numerous. Horses, of course, are excellent; asses are of ﬁne growth and much used for riding. The camel and dromedary of Algeria are very superior. The merino sheep is indigenous, and Spain was ﬁrst supplied from Algeria. The Numidian lion, the panther and leopard, ostriches, serpents, scorpions, and other ven- omous reptiles, are abundant.—The Berbers, Kabyles, or Mazidh, for they are known by the three names, are believed to have been the aboriginal inhabitants. Of their history as a race little is known, further than that they once occupied the whole of north-western Africa, and are to be found also on the eastern coast. The ALGERIA Kabyles live in the mountain district. The other inhabitants are Arabs, the descendants of the Mussulman invaders. Moors, Turks, Kouloughs, Jews, and negroes, and lastly the French, are found in the country. The population in 1852 was 2,078,035, of which 134,115 were Euro- peans of all nations, beside a military force of 100,000 men. The Kabyles are an industrious race, living in regular villages, excellent cultiva- tors, and working in mines, in metals, and in coarse woollen and cotton factories. They make gunpowder and soap, gather honey and wax, and supply the towns with poultry, fruit, and other provisions. The Arabs follow the habits of their ancestors, leading a nomadic life, and shifting their camps from place to place accord- ing as the necessities of pasturage or other cir- cumstances compel them. The Moors are probably the least respectable of the inhabitants. Living in the towns, and more luxurious than either the Arabs or Kabyles, they are, from the constant oppression of their Turkish rulers, a timid race, reserving nevertheless their cruelty and vindictiveness, while in moral character they stand very low.——The chief towns of Al- geria are Algiers the capital, Constantine, pop- ulation about 20,000, and Bona, a fortiﬁed town on the sea-coast, population about 10,000 in 1 847. Near this are the coral ﬁsheries, frequented by the ﬁshers from France and Italy. Bougiah is on the gulf of the same name. The capture of this place was hastened by the outrages of the Kabyles in the neighborhood, who wrecked a French brig by cutting her cable and then plun- dered her and massacred the crew.--There are some remains of antiquity in the interior, es- pecially in the province of Constantine, among others those of the ancient city of Lambessa; with remains of the city gates, parts of an am- phitheatre, and a mausoleum supported by Corinthian pillars. On the coast is Coleah Cherchell, the ancient Julia Cmsarea, a place of some importance to the French. It was the residence of Juba, and in its neighborhood are ancient remains. Oran is a fortiﬁed town. It remained in possession of the Spaniards until 1792. Tlemcen, once the residence of Abd-el- Kader, is situated in a fertile country; the ancient city was destroyed by ﬁre in 1670, and the modern town was almost destroyed by the French. It has manufactures of carpets and blankets. South of the Atlas is the Zaab, the ancient Gaetulia. The chief place is Biscara; the Biscareens are a peaceful race, much liked in the northern ports as servants and porters.—Al- geria has been successively conquered by the Roman, the Vandal, and the Arab. When the Moors were driven from Spain in 1492, Ferdi- nand sent an expedition against Algiers, and seizing on Oran, Bougiah, and Algiers, he threatened the subjugation of the country. Unable to cope with the powerful invader, Se- lim Cut-emi, the emir of the Metidjah, a fer- tile plain in the neighborhood of Algiers, asked assistance from the Turks, and the cele- brated corsair, Barbarossa Horush, was sent to ALGERIA his assistance. Horush appeared in 1516, and having ﬁrst made himself master of the country and slain Selim Cutemi with his own hand, he attacked the Spaniards, and after a war of varying fortunes, was obliged to throw himself into Tlemcen, where a Spanish army besieged him, and having succeeded in capturing him, put him to death in 1518. His brother, Khair-ed-Deen, succeeded him, sought assistance from the sultan, Selim I., and ac- knowledged that prince as his sovereign. Se- lim accordingly appointed him pasha of Algiers, and sent him a body of troops with which he was able to repulse the Spaniards, and eventu- ally to make himself master of the country. His exploits against the Christians in the Medi- terranean gained him the dignity of capudan pasha from Solyman I. Charles V. made an attempt to reinstate the Spanish authority, and a powerful expedition of 370 vessels and 30,000 men crossed the Mediterranean in 1541. But a terrible storm and earthquake dispersed the ﬂeet, and cut off all communication between it and the army. Without shelter, and exposed to the harassing attacks of a daring enemy, the troops were compelled to reémbark, and make their escape with a loss of 8,000 men, 15 vessels of war, and 140 transports. From this time forward there were unceasing hostilities be- tween the Barbary powers and the knights of Malta; thence sprang that system of piracy which made the Algerine corsairs so terrible in the Mediterranean, and which was so long sub- mitted to by the Christian powers. The Eng- lish under Blake, the French under Duquesne, the Dutch, and other powers, at various times attacked Algiers; and Duquesne having twice bombarded it, the dey sent for the French con- sul of Louis XIV., and havinglearned from him the cost of the bombardment, jeeringly told him that he would himself have burnt down the city for l1alf the money.—The system of pri- vateering was continued in spite of the constant opposition of the European powers; and even the shores of Spain and Italy were sometimes invaded by the desperadoes who carried on this terrible trade of war and plunder. Thousands of Christian slaves constantly languished in captivity in Algiers; and societies of pious men were formed, whose express object was to pass to and from Algiers annually for the purpose of ransoming the prisoners with the funds remit- ted to their care by relatives. Meanwhile, the authority of the Turkish government had been reduced to a name. The deys were elected by the janizaries, and had declared their inde- pendence of the Porte. The last Turkish pasha had been expelled by Dey Ibrahim in 17 05 ; and the janizaries by tumultuous elections appoint- ed new chiefs, whom in their mutinies they often murdered. The janizaries were recruit- ed from the immigrants from Turkey, no native, though the son of a janizary by a woman of the country, being admitted into their ranks. The dey sent occasional presents to Constantinople as a token of his nominal allegiance; but all 349 regular tribute was withdrawn, and the Turks, hampered by their constant struggles with Rus- sia, were too weak to chastise the rebels of a distant province. It was reserved to the young republic of the United States to point the way to an abolition of the monstrous tyranny. Dur- ing the wars of the French revolution and of Napoleon, the powerful ﬂeets in the Mediterra- nean had protected commerce, and the Alge- rines had been compelled to a respite of their lawless exactions. On the renewal of peace, the Algerines commenced their depredations; and the Americans, who in 1795 had been compelled to follow theexample of European nations, and to subsidize the dey for peace, now refused the tribute. In 1815, Commodore De- catur encountered an Algerine squadron, took a frigate and a brig, and sailed into the bay of Algiers, where he forced the dey to surrender all American prisoners, and to abandon all future claims for tribute. This bold example was followed by the English, who, under Lord Exmouth, bombarded the city in 1816, and re- duced it to ashes, compelling the dey to surrender his prisoners. This was, how- ever, only a punishment; for piracy was not suppressed, and in 1826 the Algerines open- ly seized Italian vessels in the Mediterranean, and even carried their incursions into the North sea. In 1818, Hussein Bey succeeded to the government; in 1823, the dwelling of the French consul having been plundered, and va- rious outrages having been committed on ves- sels under the French ﬂag, repara-tion was de- manded without success. At last the dey of Algiers personally insulted the consul of France, and used expressions disrespectful to the king of France, who had not replied to a letter which the dey had written, in respect of a debt due by the French government to Jew mer- chants who were indebted to Hussein. To enforce an apology, a French squadron was sent, which blockaded Algiers. Negotiations were opened between France, Mehemet Ali, and the Porte, by which Mehemet Ali, with the assistance of France, undertook to conquer Algiers, and to pay a regular tribute to the sul- tan, of whom he would hold the government. This was broken off partly from the opposition of England, and partly because Mehemet Ali and France could not agree as to the precise arrangements by which the scheme was to be carried into effect. The government of Charles X. now undertook an expedition against Algiers single-handed, and on June 13, 1830, an army of 38,000 men, and 4,000 horses, disembarked before Algiers, under command of Gen. Bour- mont. Hussein Dey had levied an army of 60,000 to oppose them, but having allowed them to land, he could make no effective resist- ance; and Algiers capitulated July 4, on condition that persons’ private property and the religion of the country should be respected, and that the dey arid his Turks should retire. The French took possession of the city. Among the spoil, they took 12 ships of war, 1,500 350 bronze cannon, and nearly $10,000,000 in specie. They immediately garrisoned Algiers, and es- tablished a military regency. The government pf Charles X. had intended to surrender Algiers to the sultan, and instructions to that eifect were actually on their way to Constantinople, when the events of July, 1830, deposed Charles X. One of the ﬁrst acts of his successor was to decide on retaining the conquest, and Clau- sel was sent over as general-in-chief in place of Bourmont. From the ﬁrst occupation of Alge- ria by the French to the present time, the un- happy country has been the arena of unceasing bloodshed, rapine, and violence. Each town, large and small, has been conquered in detail at an immense sacriﬁce of life. The Arab and Kabyle tribes, to whom independence is pre- cious, and hatred of foreign domination a prin- ciple dearer than life itself, have been crushed and broken by the terrible razzias in which dwellings and property are burnt and de- stroyed, standing crops cut down, and the mis- erable wretches who remain massacred, or sub- jected to all the horrors of lust and brutality. This barbarous system of warfare has been per- sisted in by the French against all the dictates of humanity, civilization, and Christianity. It is alleged in extenuation, that the Kabyles are ferocious, addicted to murder, torturing their prisoners, and that with savages lenity is a mis- take. The policy of a civilized government resorting to the Zea: talionis may well be doubted. And judging of the tree by its fruits, after an expenditure of probably $100,000,000, and a sacriﬁce of hundreds of thousands of lives, all that can be said of Algeria is that it is a school of war for French generals and soldiers, in which all the French officers who won laurels in the Crimean war re- ceived their military training and education. As an attempt at colonization, the numbers of Europeans compared with the natives show its present almost total failure; and this in one of the most fertile countries of the world, the an- cient granary of Italy, within 20 hours of France, where security of life and property alike from military friends and savage enemies alone are wanted. Whether the failure is at- tributable to an inherent defect in the French character, which unﬁts them for emigration, or to injudicious local administration, it is not within our province to discuss. Every im- portant town, Constantine, Bona, Bougiah, Arzew, Mortaganem, Tlemcen, was carried by storm with all the accompanying horrors. The natives submitted with an ill grace to their Turk- ish rulers, who had at least the merit of being co-religionists ; but they found no advantage in the so-called civilization of the new government, against which, beside, they had all the repug- nance of religious fanaticism. Each governor came but to renew the severities of his prede- cessor; proclamations announced the most gra- cious intentions, but the army of occupation, the military movements, the terrible cruelties practised on both sides, all refuted the profes- ALGERIA sions of peace and good-will. In 1831, Baron Pichou had been appointed civil intendant, and he endeavored to organize a system of civil ad- ministration which should move with the mili- tary government, but the check which his measures would have placed on the governor- in-chief offended Savary, duc de Rovigo, Napo- leon’s ancient minister of police, and on his representation Pichou was recalled. Under Sa- vary, Algeria was made the exile of all those whose political or social misconduct had brought them under the lash of the law ; and a foreign legion, the soldiers of which were forbidden to enter the cities, was introduced into Algeria. In 1833, a petition was presented to the cham- ber of deputies, stating, “for 3 years we have suffered every possible act of injustice. When- ever complaints are preferred to the authori- ties, they are only answered by new atrocities, particularly directed against those by whom the complaints were brought forward. On that account no one dares to move, for which reason there are no signatures to this petition. O my lords, we beseech you in the name of humani- ty, to relieve us from this crushing tyranny: to ransom us from the bonds of slavery. If the land is to be under martial law, if there is to be no civil power, we are undone; there will never be peace for us.” This petition led to a commission of inquiry, the consequence of which was the establishment of a civil admin- istration. After the death of Savary, under the ad interim rule of Gen. Voirol, some measures had been commenced calculated to allay the irritation; the draining of swamps, the im- provement of the roads, the organization of a native militia. This, however, was abandoned on the return of Marshal Clausel, under whom a ﬁrst and most unfortunate expedition against Constantine was undertaken. His government was so unsatisfactory, that a petition praying in- quiry into its abuses, signed by 54 leading per- sons connected with the province, was for- warded to Paris in 1836. This led eventually to Clausel’s resignation. The whole of Louis Philippe’s reign was occupied in attempts at colonization, which only resulted in land-job- bing operations; in military colonization, which was useless, as the cultivators were not safe away from the guns of their own block-houses; in attempts to settle the eastern part of Alge- ria, and to drive out Abd-el-Kader from Oran and the west. The fall of that restless and intrepid chieftain so far paciﬁed the coun- try, that the great tribe of the Hamianes Garabas sent in their submission at once. On the revolution of 1848, Gen. Cavaignac was appointed to supersede the Duke d’Aumale in the governorship of the province, and he and the Prince de J oinville, who was also in Alge- ria, then retired. But the republic did not seem more fortunate than the monarchy in the administration of this province. Several govern- ors succeeded each other during its brief exist- ence. Colonists were sent out to till the lands, but they died off, or quitted in disgust. In 1849, ALGERIA Gen. Pelissier marched against several tribes, and the villages of the Beni Sillem; their crops and all accessible property were burnt and destroyed as usual, because they refused tribute. In Zaab, a fertile district on the edge of the desert, great excitement having arisen in consequence of the preaching of a marabout, an expedition was despatched against them 1,200 strong, which they succeeded in de- feating; and it was found that the revolt was wide-spread, and fomented by secret associations called the Sidi Abderrahman, whose principal object was the extirpation of the French. The rebels were not put down until an expedition under Generals Canrobert and Herbillon had been sent against them; and the siege of Zoat- cha, an Arab town, proved that the natives had neither lost courage nor contracted affec- tion for their invaders. The town resisted the efforts of the besiegers for 51 days, and was taken by storm at last. Little Kabylia did not give in its surrender till 1851, when Gen. St. Arnaud subdued it, and thereby established a line of communication between Philippeville and Constantine. The French bulletins and French papers abound in statements of the peace and prosperity of Algeria. These are, however, a tribute to national vanity. The country is even now as unsettled in the interior as ever. The French supremacy is perfectly illusory, except on the coast and near the towns. The tribes still assert their independence and detestation of the French regime, and the atrocious system of razzias has not been abandoned; for in the year 1857 a successful razzia was made by Mar- shal Randon on the villages and dwelling-places of the hitherto unsubdued Kabyles, in order to add their territory to the French dominions. The natives are still ruled with a rod of iron, and continual outbreaks show the uncertain tenure of the French occupation, and the hol- lowness of peace maintained by such means. Indeed, a trial which took place at Oran in August, 1857, in which Captain Doineau, the head of the Bureau Arabe, was proved guilty of murdering a prominent and wealthy native, revealed a habitual exercise of the most cruel and despotic power on the part of the French oﬁicials, even of subordinate rank, which justly attracted the attention of the world. At present, the gov- ernment is divided into the three provinces of Constantine on the east, Algiers in the centre, and Cranin the west. The country is under the control of a governor-general, who is also com- mander-in- chief, assisted by a secretary and civil intendant, and a council composed of the direc- tor of the interior, the naval commandant, the military intendant, and attorney-general, whose business is to conﬁrm the acts of the governor. The conseil des contentieua: at Algiers takes cognizance of civil and criminal offences. The provinces where a civil administration has been organized have mayors, justices, and commis- sioners of police. The native tribes living un- der the Mohammedan religion still have their cadis: but between them a system of arbitra- ALGIERS 351 tion has been established, which they are said to prefer, and an oﬁicer (Paeocat des Arabes) is specially charged with the duty of defending Arab interests before the French tribunals.-— Since the French occupation, it is stated that commerce has considerably increased. The im- ports are valued at about $22,000,000, the ex- ports, $3,000,000. The imports are cotton, woollen, and silk goods, grain and ﬂour, lime, and reﬁned sugar; the exports are rough coral, skins, wheat, oil, and wool, with other small matters. ALGHALIB-BILLAH, or THE CONQUEROR FOR THE cxnsn or G01), also called ALAHMAR, the surname of Mohammed-ben-Yussuf, the ﬁrst Moorish king of Granada, in Spain. He was born in A. D. 1195, and died in 1273. When the provinces of Spain threw off the yoke of the Ahnohades, he succeeded in estab- lishing himself as sultan of Mohammedan Spain, and made Granada his capital. He lived on friendly terms with the king of Castile. The resources of his kingdom were developed under his fostering care. He commenced the famous palace of the Alhambra. ALGHERO, a strongly fortiﬁed seaport town, in the province of the same name, on the west- ern coast of the island of Sardinia. Population 7,000. It was a favorite residence of Charles V. The coral found here is the ﬁnest obtained in any part of the Mediterranean. ALGHISI. I. Fnxncnsco, amusical composer of Brescia, born in 1666, died in 1733. While residing at Venice, he composed two operas, which met with great success. He became a rigid ascetic in his old age, and was esteemed a saint. II. GALEAZZO, a famous architect, in the 16th century, born at Carpi, in Modena. He designed a very ﬁne building as a residence for the duke of Ferrara. He wrote the best treatise on military architecture that had then appeared. III. Tomxsso, a skilful surgeon, born at Flor- ence in 1669, died in 1718. His work on lithot- omy, in which branch of surgery he excelled, was published in 1707. He held the professor- ship of surgery in the university at Florence. ALGIERS (Arab, AZ-Jezair, the islands), a seaport and city of north Africa, in lat. 36° 47' N. and long. 3° 4’ E. It was formerly the capital of a pashalic of the same name, and de- pendent on the Ottoman empire, but since 1831 has been the capital of the French colonial province of Algeria. It is built in the form of an amphitheatre, on the northern slope of Mount Boujarin, which rises 500 feet above the bay, and as seen from a distance presents a very imposing and picturesque appearance, which is heightened by the dazzling whiteness of its houses. It is strongly fortiﬁed, being wholly enclosed by a wall 30 feet high and 12 feet thick, and furnished with battlements, castles, and batteries. The streets of Algiers, as of all Moorish towns, are narrow, tortuous, and dirty, but great improvements have re- cently been made by the construction of wide thoroughfares and squares, and Algiers promises 352 ALGOA BAY soon to be one of the handsomest cities on the Mediterranean. It is daily assuming a more Eu- ropean aspect, turbans being exchanged for bats, long pipes yielding to cigars, and the old Moor- ish bazaars being displaced by the glazed win- dows of French shops. The houses are annu- ally whitewashed, and in consequence of earthquakes are seldom built more than one story above the basement. Among the public buildings are 10 large mosques, several syna- gogues, a handsome cathedral, some Roman Catholic churches, 1 Protestant chapel, 6 col- leges, a government house, exchange, bishop’s palace, and public library. The kasbah, or old citadel, is itself a little town, containing not only the palace of the late dey, but several other houses, and gardens adorned with syca- mores and banana trees, and courts with ele- gant fountains, surrounded by arched galleries. The harbor of Algiers has cost immense labor. It was ﬁrst formed by Barbarossa in 1530, and has a mole 580 feet in length and 140 in width, extending from the mainland to an islet. It as yet secures to ships but an imperfect protection during severe north winds, but a. breakwater, which is to be 2,400 feet long, and was com- mencedgin 1836, will, when completed, make theyport entirely safe. The commerce of Al- giers is of great importance, it having become the entrepot of four-ﬁfths of the trade with France, with other European countries, and with other towns of the province. Steam vessels start for this port from Toulon and Marseilles 3 times each month, and the passage is made in 48 or 50 hours. Algiers is the healthiest city in the colony. It is thought to be built upon the site of the ancient Icosium, and during the succeeding centuries has been held by the va- rious occupants of the country, by Vandals, Moors, Spaniards, corsairs, and more recently by the French. It has a population of 94,600, of whom 45,000 are Europeans, and the rest natives or Jews. ALGOA BAY, lies in Cape, Colony, South Africa, about 425 miles east of the Cape of Good Hope. The anchorage is good. Itis also known as Port Elizabeth. ALGONQUIN S, a family of American In- dian tribes, distinguished by a common lan- guage and by similar traditions and customs, who at the time of the landing of the pilgrims were scattered over more than half the ter- ritory E. of the Mississippi and S. of the St. Lawrence, and constituted about one-half of the population of that vast region. They occupied mainly, though not exclusively, an extent of 60 degrees of longitude and more than 20 degrees of latitude. They encircled the Hurons who dwelt around lakes Huron, Erie, and Ontario, and embraced the powerful tribes of the Abe- nakis, N arragansets, Pequods, and Mohegans of the north-east, the Lenni-Lenapes, Powha- tans, Corees, Shawnees, and Illinois of the south and south-west, and the Ottawas, Meno- monies, Sacs and Foxes, and Chippewas of the north-west. Much uncertainty must attend ALHAMBRA. any estimate of their original number, but the population of the various tribes was probably not less than 90,000. The present number of the Algonquins is about 18,000; the Chippewas, the principal tribe, amounting to nearly 10,000. ALGUAZIL, in Spain, an inferior oﬁicer of the law, answering to a constable or bailiff. He is bound to execute the process of the king; to arrest persons guilty of malfeasance; and even to execute criminals; although in practice this unpleasant duty is performed by an execu- tioner called cerdugo. The alguazils are ap- pointed by the judges; the a-Zguazil mayor or head constable by the town council, of which he is ex oﬁicio a member. ALHAKEM-IBN-ATTA, surnamed Mom- NA, the one-eyed. He was a Mohammedan impos- tor, who appeared in the capital of Khorassan, A. D. 774, where he announced himself as the son of God. He was skilled in natural science, and produced various effects by which he imposed on the multitude. The caliph Mahdi despatched troops against him, and on ﬁnding himself at the last extremity, he set ﬁre to the fortress and made such arrangements that his body was consumed and no traces of it left; whereby the delusion of his immortal nature has been kept up among some Mohammedans to this day. His career furnished the subject for Moore’s poem of “ The Veiled Prophet.” ALHAMA, the name of various towns in Spain, from the Arabic al and ha/mmig/at (a warm bath). The most important is about 15 miles from Granada; and its mineral waters were in much request among the Moors, who drew a large revenue from the springs. The water is sulphurcous, and on the surface a substance like oil may be observed; while in cold weather a sort of soapy substance is deposited on the pipes through which the water passes. Pop. 6,000. ALHAMBRA, a suburb of Granada fortiﬁed in the strongest manner known to the middle ages, capable of containing 40,000 men, and en- closing a large palace of the emperor Charles V. The exquisite remains of a Moorish palace, whose beauties have been celebrated by all travellers, and admirably illustrated by the pen of Washington Irving, constitute the special at- traction of the place. Situated in the midst of noble woods, whose shady avenues keep off the noonday heat, surrounded with delicious gardens, and built with the most lavish sumptu- ousness and yet with the most perfect taste, this beautiful spot contained every thing that could contribute to the security and gratiﬁcation of the Granadian princes. The Hall of Lions is the grand apartment of the palace; it is so called from a splendid fountain supported by lions, and is entirely constructed of marble and alabaster, and ornamented with the most delicate fretwork and arabesques. The Sala de Comares is, however, still more beautiful. The ceiling is of cedar wood, inlaid with mother of pearl, ivory, and silver; and the walls are stuccoed and ornamented with arabesques of the most elegant and intricate design. The colors still ALHAZEN retain their brilliancy, and the delicate ﬁlligree and tracery are in perfect order, after a lapse of 500 years. The palace is under the charge of a governor and a number of invalid soldiers. The Alhambra style is commemorated by a particular court in the crystal palace at Syden- ham; and Mr. Owen Jones has published a work richly illustrated on the ornamentation and architecture of the Alhambra. ALHAZEN, or ALHASSAN, an Arabian me- chanician of the 11th century. He wrote several mathematical works; among them a treatise on optics, translated into Latin, and printed at Basel under the title of Opticce The- saurus, 1572. He believed that he could reg- ulate by machinery the inundations of the Nile; and was sent for by the caliph Alhakem to carry out his schemes. A residence in Egypt convinced him of the fallacy of his ideas, and to escape the caliph’s wrath he feigned insanity until that monarch’s death. He died in Cairo A. D. 1038. ALHONDEGA, famous in Mexican history as the spot of the ﬁrst collision between the patriots and the mother country. After the priest Hidalgo had taken up arms, he ﬁrst endeavored to attack Guanaj uato, the capital of the province of that name, against which he marched, Sept. 28, 1810. Rianon did not at- tempt to defend the city himself, but shut him- self up‘ with the Spanish troops and old Span- iards in the Alhondega or granary, a strong work in the suburbs of the city. The Spaniards were well armed, and the troops of Hidalgo, ex- cept the two Creole regiments of La Reyna and Celaya, were equipped with slings, bows, pikes, maclzetes, or cane-knives, and clubs. The Indians assaulted the place with great gallantry, charging up to the Spanish artillery, which they sought to muzzle with their hats and blan- kets. On the other hand, the Spanish ﬁre did fearful execution, until at last the guns being without balls, shells were improvised, by ﬁlling with powder the iron ﬂasks in which quicksilver was brought from Spain, and ﬁring them among the assailants. It has also been said that bags of dollars were used instead of grape-shot by the desperate defenders. At last Riaiﬁon was killed, the works were carried by storm, and the whole garrison was massacred. The number of victims is estimated at 2,000, one family alone having lost 17 members. The battle terminated on Friday night, and on Saturday morning not a Spaniard was alive in the city, and the very houses they had occupied were destroyed. Hi- dalgo got possession of a number of guns, and in the treasury, which Riation had taken with him, were $5,000,000 in dollars, beside bul- lion. The capture of the Alhondega produced dismay in the city of Mexico, Guanajuato be- ing the depot of one of the mining districts. The capital itself would have been taken had Hidalgo followed Allende’s advice and marched at once upon it. ALI BEG, died 1675. He was dragoman to the sultan Mohammed IV. He was borninPo- VOL. I.--23 ALI BEY 353 land, and, having been taken prisoner, was ed- ucated in the seraglio. It is said that he was well versed in seventeen languages. Among other works, he wrote memoirs on the liturgies of the Turks and their pilgrimages, translated by Hyde, and published with notes, Oxford, 1691. He translated the Bible into Turkish, the MS. of which is at Leyden. ALI BEN Ann TALEB, Mohammedan caliph, 655-661. He is believed to have been the ﬁrst who embraced the doctrines of Mohammed, whose blood relative he was, and by whom he had been adopted and brought up. By his marriage to the prophet’s daughter, Fatima, he acquired another tie with his great master. At Mohammed’s death without male issue, he had claims as next of kin to the throne. But he deferred, although unwillingly, to those of Mo- hammed’s friends and supporters, Abubekr, Omar, and Othman, who had been elected by the Moslems, and were supported by Ayesha, the prophet’s widow. It was not until after the assassination of Othman that he assumed the sovereign power. The debatable question of his right to the succession is a distinctive article of faith, and divides the Mohammedan world into the two great sects of Soonees and Shiites; the former denying Ali’s -right, the latter aﬁirming it. The Turks are generally Soonees, and the Persians embrace the cause of Ali ; -and this religious dogma has embittered the rivalry of the two nations. Ali’s ﬁrst act of power was the suppression of a rebellion fomented by other pretenders to the crown who were abetted by Ayesha, the prophet’s wife, an intriguing woman, and Ali’s inveterate enemy. The rebels Zobair and Talha were defeated and slain, and Ayesha was taken pris- oner. A new opponent soon arose in Moawyiah, who succeeded in establishing himself in Damas- cus, and even carried the war into Ali’s own ter- ritories, and seized the two holy cities. At the same time his lieutenant Amrou seized on Egypt. Three fanatics, having determined on ridding the world of both pretenders, succeeded in killing Ali, but failed in their attempt on the life of Moawyiah. Ali left three sons, one of whom, Hassan, succeeded him for a short time. ALI BEY, a Mameluke slave, born 1728, died 17 7 3, who, by the favor of his master, Ibrahim Bey, rose to wealth and importance in Egypt, and became one of the Mameluke beys. In 1766 he appeared in Cairo, and having secured himself adherents, he slaughtered the other beys and assumed the government. The Porte, then occupied with war against Russia, left him uncontrolled. His idea, derived from inter- course with Europeans, was the restoration of the Egyptian kingdom. He formed an alliance with Daher, pasha of St. Jean d’Acre, and they immediately seized on Mecca and sent a ﬂeet into the Red sea. In 17 7 0 they overran Syria, and Daher and Mohammed, his general, having routed the Turkish army, were on the point of rendering themselves masters of Damascus, when Mohammed, either alarmed for himself 354 or gained over by the Turks, precipitately quitted the army and returning to Egypt, en- gaged in a war against Ali, who ﬂed. He was afterward taken by Murad Bey and killed. ALI Pxsna, an Albanian chieftain, born 17 44, died Feb. 1822. He was descended from an an- cient Albanian family, which had for generations held the town and territory of Tepeleni as a ﬁef from the pasha of Berat. The Albanian chiefs live in a state of perpetual warfare with each other; and Ali’s family having lost a con- siderable portion of their hereditary property, he was born to a feud. His natural disposition by no means disqualiﬁed him for the necessities of his position, for from an early age he had associated himself with the klephts or profes- sional brigands of his native country, and in after life often spoke of his having depended on deeds of violence for his subsistence. He soon exhibited considerable address and bravery in the predatory incursions he kept up against his neighbors; but the utter absence of funds prevented him from attempting any thing like a systematic plan of warfare. He could not even defend his own stronghold; for the inhab- itants of Gardiki, his principal enemies, at one time captured Tepeleni and took his mother and sister prisoners, whom they detained for a month, subjecting them to the last outrages; for which Ali in the days of his power exacted a terrible reparation, not only on the perpetra- tors of the injury, but on their friends and rel- atives. It is narrated that one day, sitting under the ruins of a convent musing on his desperate fortunes, he struck a stick vehement- ly on the ground, and its hollow echo having caught his attention, he dug it up and discov- ered a sum of money which at once enabled him to hire a force sufﬁcient to turn the tables on his foes. By boldly putting himself in the power of the weaker of his enemies, he was enabled so to influence them by his representa- tions, that he sowed dissension among them, took the command of part of the force which had come out against him, and defeated the re- mainder. The recovery of his succession did not, however, amend his habits of brigandage. His klephts only became more numerous and powerful than before, and at length his supe- rior, the pasha of Berat, undertook to put him down, and succeeded in defeating his men and capturing himself. His own address, however, and the favor of the pasha’s daughter, saved him, and he was dismissed unharmed. His subsequent alliance with the pasha of Yanina, and the extent of his depredations, drew upon him the notice of the Ports, who, in conse- quence of the complaints made, ordered the derwend pasha, or chief of the public high- ways, to clear the roads, and to put an end to Ali Pasha and his troop. But the pasha of Berat himself happening to be the functionary charged with the execution of this com- mand, it had no further issue than the enlistment of Ali and his followers in the personal service of the pasha of Berat. This ALI PASHA was the commencement of a more regular ca- reer, and he next transferred. himself .to the service ofthe pasha of Negropont, whence he retired to Tepeleni, and married Emyneh, daugh- ter of the pasha of Delvino. This pasha was put to death by the Ports, and his successor married Shynitza, the sister of Ali; an event which greatly increased his political importance and wealth. By a succession of intrigues he acquired supporters among the chief officers of the supreme government, and he procured for himself the appointment of sub-inspector of highways in Roumelia, in which post, however, he favored the disorders which it was his duty to suppress ; he compounded with robbers for a share of the booty, and his superior, who was implicated in his misdeeds, was recalled and beheaded, while Ali himself by timely pres- ents at Constantinople averted a similar fate. During the wars of 1787, and the succeeding years, between the Porte and Russia and Aus- tria, Ali Pasha, though keeping up a treason- able correspondence with the Russians, rendered good service to Turkey, from whose weakness and disunion he saw he had most to gain. He obtained the appointment of derwend pasha, with peremptory orders to suppress all brig- andage. Levying a strong force Ali soon carried out his instructions, and having cleared the roads turned his arms toward other projects. Making war on the neighboring pasha of Yan- ina, he concocted a forged order from the Porte directing him to occupy that city, and occupied that pashalik, the subordinate beys of which were in a state of open revolt. Here he got up a petition from the principal inhabitants of the town, which he forced them to sign and trans- mitted to the Ports. His public services, and still more, his judicious bribes, procured him the pashalik. And although the fraud was subse- quently known at Constantinople, the energy of his government and the comparative order of his province, in which he himself was the only robber, made him respected, and his ap- pointment was not disturbed. Ali Pasha probably had some general idea of consolidat- ing Greece into a separate kingdom; for by force or fraud, or both, he extended his domin- ion over the greater part of northern Greece. The Venetian territories on the coast of west- ern Greece, which by treaties with the Ports, had been secured to Venice, were seized by Ali Pasha, so soon as the French republican army occupied them. He opened a negotiation with Napoleon for his support, in case the French expedition against Turkey should suc- ceed, and Napoleon sent M. de Pouqueville to Yanina; but on the defeat of the French cause in Egypt, Ali Pasha adhered as usual to the cause from which he had most to gain, and assisted in driving out the French from Prevesa and Parga. He also carried on a war of exter- mination against the Souliotes, a Christian pop- pulation which resided in the mountains not far from Gardiki, and who had maintained their independence against the various chiefs. By ALIABAD his accustomed combination of treachery and arms, Ali Pasha managed, after a desperate re- sistance, to subdue them, accompanying his suc- cess with circumstances of revolting cruelty and barbarism. During these various incidents of his career, he still continued to keep up a show of allegiance to the Porte. His schemes of aggrandizement were perfectly notorious to the government, but the system of subsidy in which he kept many of the leading statesmen, prevented the question of his usurpations from coming to open discussion. He was in advanced years before he had attained the summit of his power, and unlike Mehemet Ali, he never openly set the power of the Porte at deﬁance. This cautious policy was at last forgotten. Ismael Pasha Bey, a former conﬁdant of Ali, held an appointment in the seraglio at Constantinople. Ali Pasha, either from motives of revenge, or from fear of unwelcome disclosures, hired as- sassins to kill him. The attempt having been made unsuccessfully, the assassins were seized, and made a full confession. The insult to the sovereigns accomplished what political reasons had failed to do, Ali Pasha was now outlawed. An army marched against him, which he re- pulsed ; but in 1821, Koorshid Pasha laid siege to Yanina, and forced Ali to retire to a strong- hold which he had on the lake, and in which he kept his treasures and his magazine. Here he shut himself up, and refusing to surrender, threatened to blow himself up unless he received an amnesty. The cupidity of the Turks being aroused by the amounts of his vast treasure, it became important to secure the place. The in- cidents of his closing scene are variously nar- rated. But the general facts are that he was deluded by a pretended ﬁrman of pardon into a personal interview with Koorshid Pasha, in which he was attended by a small body of his oﬁicers. In this interview the sultan’s com- mands for his decapitation were made known, on which Ali Pasha immediately ﬁred at his enemies, and killed or wounded some, but was himself shot dead, his head out off and sent to Constantinople. Ali Pasha’s two sons, Veli and Muchtar Pasha, men of considerable abili- ty, who had entered the service of the Porte, suffered the fate of their father on suspi- cion of being implicated in the Greek conspi- racies. Ali has been usually characterized as a man of extraordinary powers and abilities. In a primitive state of society, however, daring courage and unscrupulous duplicity always command a certain share of success, and fortu- 'nate circumstances having given the initiative to his career, the possession of such qualities could scarcely fail of achieving comparative greatness. Had his abilities and forecast really been those of a statesman, the fabric Of his power would not have melted away so rapidly, or he would, at least, have left some enduring impress on his country’s institutions. ALIABAD, a village of Persia, containing about 500 houses in the province of Irak-Ajemee. A palace built by Shah-Abbas is in its vicinity. ALICANTE 355 ALIAS (Lat. otherwise), in law, a second name. Where aparty sues or is sued, generally the latter, by two names, he is described as George Brown alias William Smith. Some ﬁne-drawn arguments were once extant as to the possibility of a man’s having a second name. But in mod- ern times, with the facilities of amending, wisely favored in judicial proceedings, the name of the individual is less important, provided the actual party is before the court. In an indictment for murder, the name of the deceased is obviously of the very highest importance, the whole ques- tion turning on the identiﬁcation as well of the murdered as of the murderer. ALIASKA, or Amasnxa, in Russian Ameri- ca, a peninsula extending eastward into the north Paciﬁc, between lat. 50° and 55° N. and long. 155° E.; it is covered with volcanoes, some of which are active, and is barren and uninhabited. ALIBAUD, Lorne, notorious for his attempt to murder Louis Philippe, born at N ismes, 1810, died on the scaffold July 11, 1836. In his 18th year he entered the army as a volun- teer. During the July revolution in Paris he went over to the popular side, but took no active part in the struggle, although he received a severe wound in an engagement. Falling into disgrace, he retired from the service in 1834, and resided for a time at Perpignan and Barcelona. Seized with a fanatical desire for the death of the king, he resolved to satisfy it, and returned to Paris. He made an unsuccess- ful attempt June 25, 1836. Being instantly seized by the soldiery, his only regret was that he had failed in his endeavor. After a speedy trial, he was condemned to die by the guillo- tine. ALIBERT, J EAN LOUIS, baron, a celebrated French physician, born at Villefranche in 1775. He studied medicine in the city of Paris. The success of his ﬁrst work on intermittent fevers was the means of gaining him the po- sition of professor in the medical faculty. He afterward became physician in chief in the St. Louis Hospital, and in 1818 body physician to Louis XVIII. The attention which he be- stowed upon this monarch in his last illness was rewarded by Charles X. with a baronetcy. ALIBI (Lat. elsewhere). When a defendant is charged with committing an offence, and he can show his absence from the particu- lar place at the time, he is said to prove an alibi. It is a line of defence held in little favor by the courts, as one easily supported by per- jury. In the days of notorious public depre- dators, it was a frequent device to gallop on a ﬂeet horse straight across the country, and, by appearing before credible witnesses soon after an exploit, thereby to acquire the means of set- ting up an alibi. ALICAN TE, the principal port of Valencia, and capital of the province of that name, is situated on the eastern coast of Spain, in 38° 22’ N. lat.; 0° 25’ W. long. Population, 21,000. The commerce was formerly extensive, but has 356 ALICATA been almost ruined by the prohibitive duties of the last tariff. The chief exports are raisins, almonds, olive-oil, and barilla. It is the seat of a bishop, and has a cathedral. The popula- tion of the province is 363,219. ALICATA, a seaport on the south coast of Sicily, in the province of Girgenti. Population, 13,465. It exports corn and sulphur in con- siderable quantities. The harbor is a mile from the town. The ruins of ancient Gela are a few miles distant. ALICONDA, an African tree, which attains a great size, and serves a variety of uses. The ﬁbres of the bark make a coarse thread, the rind and small leaves are used for food, the large leaves as rooﬁng for huts, and their ashes to make soap. ALICUDI, one of the Lipari islands. It is of conical form, with precipitous sides. Popu- lation about 1,000. Its circumference is about 6 miles. The summit is the crater of an extinct volcano. Though the soil is of poor quality, it is carefully cultivated. ALIEN (Lat. alienus), is a foreign-born resi- dent of a country, in which he does not pos- sess the rights and privileges of citizenship. To be an alien, a person must have been born under circumstances that give the govern- ment, under which he resides, no claim to his allegiance. Alienage is determined at birth. Hence, the children of aliens, if born within the jurisdiction, are citizens; while the native subjects of a foreign country, as was settled in the great case of the post nati, decided soon after the union of Scotland and England, are still aliens as regards the country in which theirs is merged by annexation, while those born subse- quently to annexation are natives. Children of public ministers abroad, where both parents are citizens, have never been considered aliens; and by recent English statutes, all children born abroad, where the mother only is British, are entitled to the right of acquiring land by pur- chase or succession; and, where the father only is British, to all the rights and privileges of natives. In the United States, a temporary statutory provision to a similar effect with that last mentioned, was enacted in 1802, and was made perpetual in 1854. With reference to the right of a citizen to renounce his allegiance and thus make himself an alien, as regards the land of his birth, different opinions are held. The political tie between the subject and the sovereign power is regarded by some as abso- lutely indestructible; by others as in the nature of a civil contract, dissoluble by mutual consent alone; and by others still as an obligation from which either party may permanently release himself at pleasure. This matter was somewhat discussed in the recent (1853) correspondence relative to the extradition of Martin Koszta, between Mr. Hﬁlsemann, Austrian chargé d"affaires, and Secretary Marcy. “ The laws of his country,” says the former, “ are opposed to Koszta’s breaking asunder of his own accord and without having obtained permission to ex- ALIEN patriate himself from the authorities of that country, the ties of nationality which bind him to it ”—a statement apparently in conformity with the second of the above views. But Mr. Marcy states the third to be “the sounder and more prevalent doctrine,” and speaks of the right to withdraw, under certain circumstances, as “similar in principle to the right which legitimates resistance to tyranny.” This po- sition would seem to ﬁnd countenance in several works on public and international law, and in the language of some of our state constitutions. But the English common law holds that the allegiance of natural born subjects is intrinsic and perpetual, and not to be divested by any act of their own; and the weight of authority in the American courts, and, until the Koszta letter, in the language and action of the federal government, had been in favor of the doctrine that a citizen cannot renounce his allegiance to the United States, unless authorized so to do by congress, which has, as yet, taken no action in this direction. In 1857, however, Mr. Attorney General Black, in a case presented to the federal executive, gave it as the ofﬁcial opinion of the United States government, that a naturalized citizen may renounce his allegiance to the United States, and resume his previous relation to the country of which he is a native. A citizen may, by the usage of all civilized countries, acquire a foreign domicil, whereby, without losing his allegiance to the country of his birth, he re- ceives a new national -character for commercial purposes, but is subject to recall by the home government and to the penalties of treason in case of refusal or of lending aid to an enemy. The often-stated doctrine that the manner in which aliens are treated is a criterion of civili- zation is true, with exceptions and limitations, having regard to the difference between one age or nation and another. As Athens became more powerful and enlightened, she encouraged the immigration of foreigners, especially of merchants, but always placed citizenship be- yond the reach of any but the most eminent persons. During the palmy days of Rome, the rights of citizenship were conferred upon few ; but after her decline had commenced, Caracalla gave the freedom of the city to the whole Roman world. In Athens, foreigners could not make a will, and their property, after death, was appropriated to the public use. Such was also the case in republican Rome, except that the patron sometimes took possession by the jus appltcationis ; but, under the imperial code, aliens could both will and inherit property. During the middle ages, great jealousy was felt of foreigners-—those being often considered and treated as such who were born under the same sovereign, but in another district from that in which they settled. They were reduced to the condition of serfs in some places by law, and the sovereign had the legal right, by the droit d’aubaz'ne, which was often usurped by the feudal lords, of inheriting all the property, both real and personal, of strangers who died with- ALIEN out native heirs. In several European countries, the clroit d’aubaine still survives, if not in full force, in the milder form of the droit dc de'trac- tion, the right to deduct for the use of the state a certain proportion of the effects of one who dies without native heirs. This is, how- ever, by the operation of treaties with several nations, abrogated in favor of their citizens, as regards personal property. In France, the droit d’aubaz'-ne, which had been renounced in respect to persons dying in various commercial cities, often before, was abolished by the con- stituent assembly in 17 91, reéstablished by the code of Napoleon, and ﬁnally swept away in 1819, since which time aliens have been at liberty to acquire, enjoy, and transmit property of all descriptions, as if they were citizens; but they enjoy no civic or political rights unless speciﬁcally granted by the govern- ment of France, or by the provisions of a treaty with their own government. In Eng- land and America, aliens could always freely acquire, hold, and transmit personal estate, but could have, until recently, no property in real estate as against the state——the distinction dating back to the times of feudalism, when to hold land implied an obligation to perform ser- vices, such as only a subject could perform. It is said in the old books that real property, which descends to or from an alien, escheats at once, while that purchased by or devised to him does not vest in the state until “oﬁice found,” in the barbarous law language, i. e., until the fact of alienage shall have been proven before the proper ofﬁcer. But in mod- ern times, the state rarely asserts the .right of escheat in the former class of cases, or directs an inquest of oﬁice to be held in the latter. Even where the rule of the old common law exists, it is, in point of fact, little more than a rod in terrorem over the heads of resident foreigners. On this account, but few incident- al questions growing out of the general doc- trine have been put in controversy so as to be deﬁnitively settled by judicial decision. Some have supposed, for example, that an alien might, to all intents and purposes, hold and transmit real estate, by taking title in the name of a trustee; but, according to the better opinion, such is not the law. The fact that this harsh rule of the common law had become gradually almost obsolete, is perhaps the main reason why legislation upon the subject has been so tardy, an auxiliary reason probably being the frequent- ly exercised legislative power to pass private acts, remedying the evil in special cases. With- in the last 25 or 30 years, however, many statutes, more or less remedial, have been enacted. By an act passed in 1844.-, “alien friends in England take, hold, and transmit lands, houses, and tenements, for residence, occupation, and trade, for a term not exceed- ing 21 years.” In 8 of the United States, Viz-, Massachusetts, Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, Iowa, Wisconsin, Louisiana, and Florida, aliens have, in respect to real estate, equal rights ALIGHUR 357 with citizens. In New Hampshire, the sole pre- requisite is residence in the state. In New York, Rhode Island, Connecticut, Maine, Delaware, Maryland,Virginia,Tennessee,Arkansas,Indiana, Missouri, California, Minnesota, and Georgia, a declaration of intention to become a citizen, either alone or accompanied with residence in the United States or the state, is required. Ver- mont, North and South Carolina, require resi- dence and the oath of allegiance. In New Jer- sey and Pennsylvania, the privilege is limited to alien friends (natives of countries in amica- ble relations with the United States), and in the latter state, also, to the ownership of 2,000 acres of land, except where it comes by de- scent. In Kentucky, Alabama, Mississippi, and Texas, the matter remains substantially as at common law. Aliens may, as a rule, sue and be sued, but are incapable of serving in juries, voting, or holding ofﬁce. Where they can hold property, they are generally subject to militia duty, and the other burdens and taxes of citi- zens. The practice of trying aliens by a jury dc medietate Zinguw (half aliens) has fallen into general disuse. The power to expel aliens from the state is vested, in France, in the minister of the interior, and in England and America theoretically in the executive, ‘ though it has never been exercised in either of the two latter countries, except in pursuance of an act of parliament or of congress. Such an act was passed in England in 1848, but a report made in 1850 showed that it had not been en- forced in asingle instance. By the census of 1850, it appears that there were 2,210,839 for- eigners in the United States, of whom 961,719 were Irish born, 573,285 Germans, and 278,675 English. An alien woman, who marries a citi- zen or a subject, whether he be native-born or naturalized, becomes thereby, by recent statutes both in England and America, a citizen or subject herself. The secretary of state of Eng- land may, in his discretion, grant a certiﬁcate to any alien, who memorializes him therefor, entitling the memorialist to all the rights and capacities of a native, except that of being a member of the privy council or of either house of parliament, and such other exceptions as may be stated. An easy way is provided in this country for an alien to become a citizen to all intents and purposes, except that of being president of the United States. (See NATURAL- IZATION.) ALIGHUR, or ALLYGHUR. I. A district of India, in the province of Meerut, lying between the rivers J umna and Ganges. In its northern portion it is uncultivated, and mostly covered with low jungle, but its southern part is very fertile. II. The capital of this district, situated about 50 miles north of the city of Agra. It is a strong place, and it was only with severe loss that the British‘ made themselves masters of it in 1803. The principal civil authorities reside at Ooel, a town 2 miles distant from Alighur, with which it is connected by an avenue plant- ed with ﬁne trees. Alighur itself is rather a 5 ." 358 ALIGNAN fortress than a town. Pop. of the district in 1846 estimated at 766,161. ALIGNAN, BENOIT D’, a learned Benedictine, who died in 1268. In 1229 he was appointed bishop of Marseilles, and in 1239 he joined Thibaut, king of Navarre, in his expedition to the Holy Land. In 1252 a new religious order was introduced under the auspices of his pre- lacy, which received the sanction of Clement IV. in 1266, but was vetoed by the council of Lyons in 1276. He was a writer of considerable ability for his time, and left many theological works, some of which have been printed. ALIGRE. I. TIENNE 1)’, chancellor of France, born at Chartres in 1550, died in 1635. He was president of the presidial court of Chartres, and intendant of Charles de Bourbon, count de Soissons, who appointed him tutor to his son. In 1624 he obtained the appointment of keeper of the seals, and at the end of the same year, after the death of Sillery, the rank of chancellor. In 1622, in consequence of having given an undiplomatic answer to Gaston d’Orléans, which gave umbrage to Cardinal Richelieu, he was obliged to tender his re- signation. II. ETIENNE his son, born in 1592, died in 1677, was more fortunate. After having been councillor, intendant of justice in Languedoc and Normandy, ambassador at Venice, director of ﬁnance, president of the councillors of state, he became keeper of the seals in 1672, and chancellor in 1674. III. ETIENNE FRANoo1s, a French magistrate, born in 1726, died at Brunswick in 17 98, is a descendant of the same family, but must not be confounded with Etienne. Etienne Fran- cois was the president, at one time, of the parliament of Paris, and remonstrated with the king on the subject of taxation. One of his memoirs on this subject, read in the presence of Necker before the king, not having produced the desired effect, he tendered his resignation, was arrested, barely escaped death on the day of the capture of the Bastille, eventually ex- patriated himself, and died in exile. ALIMENT, Foon. The body is in a state of constant change, every one of its movements, every exertion of the mind, even the contrac- tions of the heart, by which the blood is driven through the vessels, or of the muscles by which we breathe, are attended by the disintegration of a certain portion of the tissues, which thus becomes unﬁtted for the uses of the organism and must be eliminated from it. Again, we live in a temperature habitually lower than that of the body, and yet the maintenance by it of a certain ﬁxed temperature is a necessary con- dition of life. That temperature is maintained by chemical changes occurring within the body itself, by the union with oxygen, by the -slow combustion of matter, which at the time was a portion of the living being. The constant waste of the tissues and the necessity of maintain- ing a ﬁxed temperature, demand suﬁicient sup- plies of food, by which the waste may be repaired and the temperature maintained. According ALIMENT as food serves one or the other of these require- ments, it has been termed plastic or histo-genetic (tissue-forming) or calorifacient (heat-pro- ducing); this last, too, from its uniting in the course of the circulation with the oxygen ab- sorbed during respiration, has been termed res- piratory food. These terms have only a relative truth; the tissues themselves, in the process of disintegration, unite with oxygen and are calorifacient, while fat, one of the principal of the respiratory forms of food, enters largely into the composition of the nervous system, and its presence is essential to the process of cell growth, by which the tissues themselves are formed. A better division of the varieties of food, is a modiﬁcation of that produced by Dr. Prout, and by which they are formed into 4 groups; the saccharine, the oleaginous, the albuminous, and the gelatinous. The ﬁrst of these divisions contains starch, sugar, gum, and their allied substances. They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen alone, the oxygen and hydrogen existing in the same pro- portions as in water. By themselves they are insuﬂioient for nutrition, and animals fed upon them exclusively invariably die of starvation in a short time. They appear, however, to be capable of being converted in the organism into fat; bees fed entirely upon raw sugar still forming wax, and animals fed upon weighed quantities of food, all the oil contained in which had been calculated, forming fat to an extent which could only be accounted for by the con- version into that substance of a portion of the saccharine principles of their food. Their chief use as food is, however, the maintenance of the animal heat; as the hydrogen and oxygen they contain exist already in the pro- portions which form water, their carbon is the representative of their heat-producing value. This uniting with oxygen within the organism is eliminated as carbonic acid, while their other elements pass off as water. Connected with this group are the vegetable acids, the tartaric, citric, malic, racemic, &c., contained in many fruits and vegetables. In them the oxygen is in ex- cess of the hydrogen ; they serve when eaten as heat-producing aliment, but from the small quantity in which they, are used, exercise but little inﬂuence. To the oleaginous group be- long the fats and oils whether of animal or of vegetable origin. Like the preceding group, they will not of themselves sustain life. Be- peated experiment has proved, that no amount of mere oil or fat, or no combination of them with each other, or with pure starch or sugar, will prevent starvation. Like the preceding group, one of their chief uses is the production of animal heat, and to this purpose their chem- ical constitution adapts them in a peculiar manner. They consist, like starch, of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen alone, but the hydrogen and oxygen do not exist in the same proportion as in water, the hydrogen is in excess, and by so much the heat-producing power is enhanced. One part of fat, according to Liebig, is equiva- ALIMENT lent to two parts and a half of starch for calorifacient purposes. It is this which renders oil so valuable an article of diet in high lati- tudes, and the enormous quantity of fat he con- sumes plays a principal part in enabling the Esquimaux to resist a temperature of many de- grees below the zero of Fahrenheit. The fat not immediately called for by the wants of the economy, is often stored up within the body for future use. In temperate climates the food of herbivorous and graminivorous animals is par- ticularly abundant and nutritious during the autumn. Thus the approach of winter ﬁnds them fat and in good condition, and the fuel so stored away, helps to supply their wants during the inclemency of winter. Fats are not only found in the animal kingdom and in the seeds and fruits of various plants, but in a less degree they are widely distributed throughout the vegetable kingdom; Indian corn or maize owes its superiority in fattening animals to the large percentage of oil it contains. In addition to carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen, the albuminous group contains nitrogen, together with minute proportions of sulphur and phosphorus. It forms, eminently, the histo-genetic or plastic material of food. The muscular and glandular structures of animals, the parts in which waste goes on most rapidly, consist mainly of albu- men and ﬁbrine, and no aliment which does not contain either these substances or some modiﬁcation of them, is sufﬁcient for the repro- duction and repair of the organs into which they enter. As vegetable ﬁbrine and albumen they constitute the most important element in the ce- real grains, they are found in all the esculent roots and seeds, and in less extent they exist in grass- es, and indeed are spread throughout the vege- table kingdom. Caseine exists in milk, legumine in peas and beans, and animal and vegetable ﬁbrine, caseine, and legumine, are all nearly iden- tical in chemical composition, and are mutually convertible into each other. The process of nutrition in animals does not consist in the formation of new material from the substances offered in their food; they ﬁnd in their food substances identical with their own tissues, and nutrition is essentially the separation, solution, absorption, and vitalization of these substances. The vegetable kingdom is the great storehouse whence animal life is nourished. Under the in- ﬂuence of heat, vegetables absorb carbon from the atmosphere, and suck up by their roots water holding ammonia and salts in solution from the earth, and elaborate them in their tex- tures, and render them ﬁt for the food of man and animals. No animal derives nourishment from the inorganic kingdom. The stories of savages in South America who feed upon an unctuous earth are destitute of foundation. They may take such substance for the purpose of ﬁlling their stomachs and thus allaying the cravings of hunger, or from amorbid appetite, but they derive no nutriment from them. Like albumen, gelatine is one of the constituents of all the higher animals; like it, too, it contains 359 nitrogen. It forms the chief part of the skin, of the tendons, ligaments, and cartilages, and it is particularly abundant in the tissues of young animals. It is soluble in water, and forms the chief material of soups, which derive from it their power of gelatinizing, of becoming a thick jelly-like mass. At one time it was deem- ed highly nutritious, and as it is contained in large quantity in bones, it was proposed to ex- tract it from them by boiling under high pres- sure in a digester, and thus obtain for the sick in public hospitals a cheap concentrated nutri- ment which would otherwise be wasted. But it was soon found that the patients did not thrive on their new diet; however disguised or ﬂavored, they soon rejected it in disgust. Commissions were appointed both at Paris and Amsterdam to test the nutritive value of gel- atine, and it was discovered that animals fed upon it, died rapidly of starvation. It does not seem even to assist in the formation of the gelatinous tissues of the body; these are form- ed from albumen and ﬁbrine by a process of disintegration. Its utmost use is as a heat pro- ducing agent of low value, which is readily ab- sorbed and taken into the system. Beside the organic substances, the sugar and starch, the fat and albumen which enter into the composition of food, certain inorganic substances are equally necessary. Phosphate of lime is needed to give ﬁrmness to the bones; the globules of the blood contain iron; dissolved in its serum are com- pounds of sodium, potassium, and magnesium; chlorine exists in it in the form of chlorides of sodium and potassium. These substances are necessary ingredients of food. They are essen- tial to the growth of the young animal, and without them the adult perishes as surely, if not so rapidly, as if deprived of fat and albu- men. Man obtains them in part from the ani- mals he consumes as food, the herbivora from the vegetables from which they derive their nutriment. It is remarked by Liebig that there is a striking similarity between the ash of the blood of animals and of the substances which they habitually consume. The ash of the blood of the sheep differs from that of the fowl, very much in the same way as the ash of tur- nips differs from that of peas and rye. The salts essential to nutrition are; as a rule, con- tained in suﬁicient quantity in food appropri- ate to the animal, but when not so furnished the deﬁciency may be sometimes made up by the animal taking it directly from the mineral kingdom. Unless fowls are furnished with lime their eggs have not the necessary ﬁrmness of shell. In one of Boussingault’s experiments, a pig kept upon a weighed amount of food, which afforded an amount of lime insuﬁicient for the growth of his bones, obtained the neces- sary material from the hard water containing ~ lime which he drank. Nearly three-fourths of the weight of the living body consist of water alone. It gives liquidity to the blood and juices of the ﬂesh; rendered ﬂuid by it, the materials adapted to nutrition are taken into the circula- 360 tion, and through it are appropriated to the va- rious wants of the body; it is essential to the various changes which are constantly going on in the body; and dissolved in water, those sub- stances which have already served their pur- pose in the economy, are carried out of the system. From the immense waste of ﬂuid which is constantly going on from the lungs, skin, and kidneys, a frequent‘ supply is more immediately necessary to life than of food itself. Man then, for perfect nutrition, requires a supply of plastic material in the form of albu- men, or its allied substances, of heat-produc- ing food, as fat, starch, &c., of the inorganic substances, iron, lime, phosphoric acid, chlo- rine, sodium, potassium, &c., which, in minute quantities, are contained in the blood, and of water, the vehicle of which is necessary for the activity of the other substances. Milk, the food which nature provides for the young of the mammalia, contains all the ingredients ne- cessary for complete nutrition; the albumen is represented by caseine, the fat and the sugar of milk concur in the formation of fat and in the production of heat, while the salts, held in so- lution in the whey, are almost identical with those of the blood, with an excess, however, of the phosphate of lime and magnesia required by the hardening and growing bones of the young animal. The proportion of the different ingredients of the milk is varied in different families to suit their different requirements. The young calf walks from the time it is drop- ped, and cow’s milk is relatively rich in caseine or plastic material, while the human infant, in whom locomotion begins only at alater period, is supplied with a milk relatively deﬁcient in caseine and rich in heat-producing material. The ﬁbrine and albumen, the gelatine and fat of all animals ordinarily used as human food, are chemically identical; the difference in ﬂavor depending on mechanical differences of texture and on the presence of sapid principles in mi- nute quantity, which have not hitherto been iso- lated. Lean ﬂesh is richest in plastic material, 17 parts, according to Liebig, being equal in histo-genetic value to 56 parts of wheat ﬂour; while, on the other hand, it is deﬁcient in calo- rifacient power, 100 parts of fat being, for such purpose, equal to 770 parts of lean ﬂesh. The flesh of young animals is rich in gelatine, the least valuable of the constituents of animal food, while it is deﬁcient in ﬁbrine and albumen; veal beside consisting largely of gelatine is want- ing in fat, and in common with the other white meats contains a much smaller proportion of iron than the ﬂesh of adult red-blooded animals. On the other hand, pure fat or oil, whether of animal or vegetable origin, is the most valuable of all food for the production of heat. It must, moreover, be remembered here, that while lean ﬂesh contains over 75 per cent. of water, fat is destitute of moisture. While pure fat con- tains no nitrogen, the cellular tissue, in the meshes of which the fat is deposited, contains it in notable proportion, and has a certain plas- ALIMENT tic value. To look upon fat as solely a means of maintaining the heat of the animal economy, is however to take a far too limited view of its action; as was before mentioned, it is a neces- sary ingredient in the formation of cells, essential alike to life and growth. The Hindoo inatropical climate takes the rancid butter (ghee), which he cats with his rice, with as strong a relish as that with which the Esquimaux devours his raw blub- ber. There are many circumstances which go to show that its free use does much to protect the system from scrofulous and tubercular disease, and not the least among these is the fact, that the population of Iceland, in whose diet ﬁsh oil is a large ingredient, though exposed to con- ditions largely calculated to produce such dis- orders, are remarkably exempt from them. (Analysis of Dr. Schleissner’s report on the san- itary condition of Iceland, in the British and For. Med. Chirurg. Review, vol. 5, p. 456.)- The mode in which meat is cooked exercises a considerable inﬂuence upon its nutritive value. In roasting, the loss amounts, in beef, to 19, in mutton to 24, in lamb to 22, and in fowl to 24 per cent. This loss consists of water which is evaporated and of fat which is contained in the gravy; the chemical constitution of the meat is the same after as before roasting. With boil- ing it is diﬁ"erent; here the apparent loss is much less, consisting in beef of 15, in mutton of 10, and in fowl of 13% per cent., and this loss is chieﬂy fat, gelatine, and water, for in boiling meat loses, but does not imbibe that ﬂuid; but the water is not simple water, but the juice of the meat containing various salts essential to it. Ten pounds of fresh meat yield, according to Liebig, 2% oz. or 662.8 grs. of ash on incinera- tion; when exhausted, by washing and boiling the same weight of meat yields only 118 grs. The ash of fresh meat contains more than 40 grs. of potash, the ash of the boiled meat yields less than 5 grs. of the same alkali. A dog fed exclusively on such meat starves. To obtain the full value of boiled meat the soup should be eaten with it. If meat is intended for soup it should be put in cold water and the heat gradually and slowly raised to the boiling point. If the meat is the principal object it should be plunged in boiling water, and after boiling a few minutes the heat should be lowered to 160° F. and kept at that point until the meat is cooked. . By this means the albumen on the external part of the ﬂesh is coagulated and protects the inte- rior of the ﬂesh from the loss of its juices. When fresh meat is covered with dry salt, the salt soon becomes moist and is ﬁnally converted into a liquid; by the superior affinity of the salt for water, it abstracts it from the meat, which thus becomes denser, drier, and less susceptible of un- dergoing putrefactive change. The brine will be found to contain not only the water from the meat, but potash, phosphoric and lactic acid, to- gether with albumen, which coagulates when the brine is heated. With the exception of gelatine it contains, in fact, the substances which are found in soup, the albumen indeed being in larg- ALIMENT er quantity. The meat is rendered at once less digestible and less nutritious, and when, as on shipboard in long voyages, it constitutes the principal article of food, scurvy is induced in those living upon it, not by the presence of salt in the meat, but by the deﬁciency of the latter in potash and other inorganic matters.—Of all substances derived from the vegetable kingdom, wheat is the one which by common consent of civilizednations is best adapted in man for per- fect nutrition. In it the average proportion of plastic to heat-producing matter is as 1 to 4.7, and this proportion is not greatly departed from in the cereal grains most commonly used for food. Thus in rye it is 1 to 4.9, in cats 1 to 5, in barley 1 to 5.75, in Indian corn 1 to 5.76, in buckwheat the proportion descends to 1 to 11, in rice 1 to 12. In the leguminous plants, on the other hand, the amount of plastic material is proportionally much greater, being in peas as 1 to 2.33, in beans 1 to 2.29, and in lent-iles 1 to 2.13. (Knapp’s Technology, calculated from the analysis of I-Iorsford, Krocker, and Thom- son.) It must be recollected that various speci- mens of the same grain vary much from each other, according, 1, to the climate; 2, the variety used as seed; 3, to the soil, and the degree to which it is manured; and 4, to the dryness or moisture of the season. Wheat, which has been more thoroughly studied than the other grains, is found richer in gluten in the south than in the north, in dry than in wet sea- sons; while the starch is in inverse proportion to the gluten, taking its place when absent, and Hermbstiidt found that with certain manures wheat contained in 10,000 parts, 3,670 parts of gluten, while the same variety on unmanured land yielded but 1,108 parts. (Knapp’s Chemical Techn. vol. iii., p. 82.) The salts contained in the ash of wheat vary in the same manner according to the mineral constituents of the soil. “There are,” says Liebig, “varieties of wheat, the ashes of which are in quantity and the relative proportion of salts the same as those of boiled and lixiviated meal, and it can- not be maintained that bread made of such ﬂour would, if the only food taken, support life permanently.” Wheat owes its superiority for the use of man over the other cereals, prin- cipally to the fact that the toughness and vis- cidity of the form which its nitrogeneous prin- ciple assumes (gluten), enables it to retain more completely the aériform matters which are dis- engaged in the process of bread making, thus giving a lighter and more porous bread. The gratiﬁcation of our palate and fancy, in the use 05 a perfectly white ﬂour, entails a large loss 0 nutritive material. The external parts of the grain are richest in gluten and salts, the central parts contain comparatively more starch; it is impossible to separate the woody ﬁbres, which constitute the envelope of the grain, without taking with it more or less of its most nutritious portion. In this way more than ,1, of the grain, and much more than t in nutritive value, is lost as human food. 361 Rice contains a smaller amount of nitrogeneous matter than the other cereals ; Horsford, from the result of analysis, puts down the nutri- tive value of rice as compared With wheat, as 100 to 228, while Boussingault, by actual ex- periment on animals, found 100 parts of wheat equal to 225 parts of rice. It is likewise deﬁ- cient in salts; wheat gives, when incinerated, from 14,- to 1% per cent. of ash, rice yields from 3.3 to 3.5 per cent., and the Carolina rice, which affords the largest and plumpest grain, gives the smallest proportional amount of ash. Dr. Baikie, on his voyage up the Niger, found that the Kroc- men who composed part of his crew, fed on an al- lcwance of 1% pints of dry rice per diem, became affected with scurvy. The Doctor attributes the disease to the insuﬁicient amount of nutriment, but though this may have had its inﬂuence, it is probable that the deﬁciency of the rice in mineral constituents was the principal cause of the dis- ease ; it was deﬁcient in the same way as salt- ed beef. The great productiveness of the pc- tato has, in somecountries, particularly Ireland and Germany, where many of the inhabitants have to subsist upon the cheapest and conse- quently the coarsest and least nutritious food, rendered it the principal article of diet for large masses of people. A hectare (2.471 of an acre) of land, that yields 3,400 lbs. of grain in wheat, will produce 38,000 lbs. of potatoes; now in these amounts there are contained in the wheat 570 lbs. of plastic material, and 1,590 lbs. of starch, while the potatoes yield respectively 950 and 6,840 lbs ; the diiference in the amount of mineral constituents is equally striking, the wheat affording 90 lbs. of ash, the potatoes 323 lbs. But when, instead of the total product, we consider the nutritive value of equal weights of the two, a widely different result obtains. In the ﬁrst place, while wheat contains but 14.5 per cent. of moisture, the potato on an average yields 75 per cent. ; 2d, it is deﬁcient in nitrogeneous matter, the principal bulk of the dried potato consisting of starch. While in wheat the pro- portion of the former to the latter is as 1 to 4.7, in the potato it is as 1 to 10. In his table of practical equivalents, Boussingault estimates 100 lbs. of wheat to be equivalent to 581 lbs. of potatoes. But we must not estimate the value of the potato as human food solely by its plastic or heat-producing matter; it forms a va- riety of vegetable food, rich in potash and other salts, and readily preserved from one year to another, and in modern times it has been the great means of preserving the population from the recurrence of scurvy endemic which desola- ted Europe every winter and spring before its introduction. In the years of the failure of the potato crop numerous cases of scurvy occurred throughout Great Britain and Ireland, showing its great value in this respect. In boiling, a portion of the soluble salts contained in the po- tato remains in the water; thus it happens that the raw tuber is more beneﬁcial than the boil- ed, in that disease. Other vegetables, whether roots, as turnips, beets, carrots--or leaves, as the 362 different varieties of lettuce, cabbage, &c., are little used by themselves as human food, but form merely an addition to more substantial aliment. They all, however, contain a large amount of alkalies, particularly potash, on which, according to Dr. Garrod, their efﬁcacy as an- ti-scorbutics depends. The same remark is ap- plicable to the fruits of temperate climates. They consist largely of water, holding in solu- tion organic salts, mainly citrates, tartrates, malates, and oxalates of potash, in which the acid is in excess, of sugar and starch, with, in proportion to their bulk, an exceedingly small proportion of nitrogeneous matter. In tropical climates the sugar, &c., contained in fruits is of- ten largely increased, and with this there is an increased proportion of plastic matter. The banana, date, and ﬁg, in their native countries, are important articles of food. Thejuice of the sugar-cane contains, too, aconsiderable amount of nitrogeneous matter, so that it possesses de- cided value as a plastic nutriment. In the manufacture of reﬁned sugar this is removed, leaving that substance, of course, free from ni- trogen. While the proportion of plastic to heat-producing food, contained in wheat ﬂour, 1 to 4.7, is that which seems best adapted to man in temperate climates, and that to which, in most diet lists, an approximation is made more or less close, health can be maintained and la- bor performed under a widely different consti- tution of food.‘ On the pampas of South America, the Guacho lives almost exclusively on animal food alone, and by it in a warm cli.- mate, with constant exposure and active ex- ercise, maintains his strength and vigor. He despises lean meat, and the fat of his cattle is his only respiratory food. The Hindoo in India lives almost entirely on rice. ‘To obtain from this the necessary plastic material, he consumes it in enormous quantity; the starch,-which is not needed, passes undigested through the ali- mentary canal. With food various condiments, salt, vinegar, pepper, mustard, spices, &c., are constantly employed. Of these, salt (chloride of sodium) alone, forms a constituent part of the economy, and in most substances used as food, it is contained in quantity sufticient for the wants of the system; from the universal de- sire for it, somewhat more than this is probably beneﬁcial, and considerably more may be taken with impunity. Vinegar, in some instances, increases the. solubility and digestibility of 'va- rious articles of food, and in itself‘, like the other organic acids, has a slight value as an aliment. The other condiments are chieﬂy used as stimulants to arouse and excite the languid powers of the stomach, and, like other stimu- lants, their habitual use is injurious. For the other accessory matters of food, tea, coffee, chocolate, alcohol, &c., see the articles on those subjects. ALIMENTARY CANAL, or Drensrrvn TUBE, are words used to designate the continuous passage and hollow tubular form of the diges- tive organs, from the mouth to the anus. This ALIMENTARY CANAL passage, or canal, although continuous through. out, is not of equal dimensions in all parts 5 nor is it always open from beginning to end, but closed by valves, at certain distances, as the lips are closed or opened at will, to admit food, and utter sounds. There are three great divi- sions in the alimentary canal; the stomach, the small intestines, and the large intestines. Each of these has its peculiar form and structure, as well as its appropriate functions. The stomach is, comparatively, large, short, and capacious; the small intestines very long, and convoluted in many folds or windings; the large in- testines are of intermediate form, capacity, and length. A straight duct or passage, some 10 inches long, and of medium capacity, called the oesophagus, leads from the mouth down to the stomach; another duct, called the duodenum, some 12 inches long, and also of medium ca- pacity, leads from the stomach to the small intestines ; these open immediately into the cmcum, or lower portion of the large intestine; and a third straight duct, called the rectum, some 10 or 12 inches long, and also of medium capacity, leads from the sigmoid ﬁexure of the large intestine to the anus. The oesophagus and the rectum, therefore, form connecting tubes between the two extremes and the internal portions of the alimentary canal, while the duo- denum forms a similar connecting link between the stomach and the small intestines. Certain portions of the alimentary canal are always more or less free and open, while others are habitually closed, as temporary obstructions. The lips form a valvular opening for the mouth externally; the velum pendulum palati and the uvula form a valvular obstruction to the pas- sage of the food during mastication, and special efforts of deglutition are required to overcome this valvular impediment; the lips of the oesophagus close upon the food when it has fallen into the stomach, and a valvular'redupli- cation of the lining membrane of the duodenum forms atemporary obstruction to the passage of the food from the stomach onward, while it is undissolved by the gastric juice and churnings of the stomach, and therefore unﬁt for entrance into the duodenum. This valvular arrangement is called the pylorus, and a special involuntary movement is most probably required to open it for the passage of the chyme, as the act of deglutition is required to pass the food from the mouth into the pharynx, and thence through the oesophagus into the stomach. Below this point of communication between the stomach and the duodenum, the pancreatic and the biliary ducts, leading from the pancreas and the liver, open into the duodenum, to which they are attached, and pour upon the food already partially dissolved, while passing through the mouth and through the stomach, the bile and pancreatic juices necessary for the further transformation of the mass from acid chyme to bland and milky chyle, in which state it passes into the small intestines, and be- comes ﬁt for absorption by the lacteals and ALIMENTUS commixture with the blood, to which these vessels carry it. The refuse passes onward from the small intestines to the large, and in these regions numerous secreting follicles elaborate waste matter from the blood, and pass it onward through the large intestines and the rectum, to be thence eliminated in the form of faeces from the body.—A valvular arrange- ment at the entrance of the small intestine into the caecum or large bowel, also prevents the faecal matter from returning upward, when it has been passed along on its way outward from the system. The movements and the opera- tions of the alimentary canal are all involuntary, with the exception of the two extremes, inges- tion and egestion only being to some extent under the control of the will. The alimentary canal in man, when stretched to its full length, is about ﬁve times the length of the whole body, i. e. from 28 to 80 feet. In the carniv- orous animals it is about 3 or 4 times the length of the body, while in the herbivorous tribes, it is proportionally longer than in man. ALIMENTUS, Looms Omorus, a Roman historian, antiquary, and jurist. The dates of his birth and death are unknown, but he was praetor in Sicily, having 2 legions under his command, B. G. 209. He was for some time a prisoner in the hands of Hannibal, and al- though that general usually bestowed rather harsh treatment on those Romans who fell into his power, he appears to have treated Alimen- tus with consideration and kindness. He gave him an account of his march through Gaul, and over the Alps, and evidently saw in his prisoner tokens of genius which attracted his attention, and commanded his respect. Ali- mentus, and his contemporary, Fabius Pictor, are spoken of by Dionysius of Halicarnassus as the oldest of Roman annalists. The-former wrote a history of Rome from the foundation of the city to his own times, which is quoted by Livy as a valuable authority. In this work he is stated (for only some fragments of his works are preserved) to have said little con- cerning the early history of the city, which was even then obscured by fables, but to have dwelt at greater length on the account of the more recent times, and especially of the events of his own day. He also wrote an account of his imprisonment among the Garthaginians, and a history of the rhetorician, Gorgias Leonti- nus, though it is not improbable that both these works were incorporated in the history above mentioned. He is highly praised by Nie- buhr as an accurate investigator of the ancient history of his country, to which he applied the tests of a critical examination. Beside his his- torical works, he wrote others treating of va- rious subjects, especially of law and antiqui- ties. The fragments of this author which are still existing are appended to Oorte’s edition of Sallust. ALIMONY, in law, is the allowance made to a wife out of the husband’s estate or income, up- on her separation from him. By the Roman ALISON 363 civil and by the English common law, the es- tate of the wife becomes absolutely vested in the husband. She may have settlements for pin money, or may have property of her own at the time of marriage which is reserved to her separate use. If this be the case, and such property being suﬁicient for her support, ac- cording to her station in life, she will not be granted further allowance from her husband’s income. within the discretion of the judge, but about g of the husband’s net income is probably a fair approximation to the allowance in the English courts. It may be observed that in English law, alimony is applicable only to set- tlements made by the ecclesiastical courts of England under the wife’s suit for separation at mensa et thoro ; in other cases the term main- tenance is generally employed. In other coun- tries alimony has a more extended and general signiﬁcation, applying to every allowance by whatsoever court or jurisdiction apportioned. ALINARD, a French prelate born in the latter part of the 10th century, died in 1052. Against the wishes of his family, one of the most inﬂuen- tial of Burgundy, he entered the monastery of the Benedictines of St. Benigne of Dijon. He was soon made abbot, and the reputation of his wisdom and holiness attracting the attention of the king of France, and emperor of Germany, he was in 1046, at the request of the clergy and laity of Lyons, appointed archbishop of the city. Having accompanied the emperor Henry of Germany, who was present at his installa- tion, to Rome, his aifability and eloquence made such a favorable impression upon the Romans, that after the death of Clement II., they desired him for pope, but in his modesty, he kept aloof from Rome until Leo IX. had ascended the pontiﬁcal chair. When Leo was to pay a visit to the emperor of Germany, he invited Alinard to preside over the Vatican until his return to Rome. Alinard died, as was supposed, from poison, on occasion of inviting to dinner Hugo, ex-bishop of Langres, and was buried with the greatest pomp in the church of St. Paul. ALIPEE, a thriving town of Travancore, Hindostan. It is a seaport, situated about 30 miles S. E. of the town of Cochin, with an active trade in teak timber, betel nut, coir, and pepper. Population, 13,000. ALIQUOT PART. A smaller number by which we can divide a larger number and have no ‘remainder, is called an aliquot part of the larger number; in colloquial language it is called an even part. ALISON, AROHIBALD, a clergyman of Scot- land, and author of “Essays on Taste,” born in Edinburgh, Nov. 13, 1757, died in the same town, May 17, 1839. Indicating at an early age his inclination for literary pursuits, he was in 1772 sent by his father, a gentleman of ailin- ence and position, to the university of Glasgow. His talents gave him eminence there, and in 1775 he was transferred to Baliol college, Ox- ford, and selected the ministry in the church The amount of alimony is perfectly. society of the metropolis. 364 of England for his future profession. He gained high honors at Oxford, and became one in a small circle of young men, several of whose names were afterward distinguished, among whom were Dugald Stewart, Sir William Jones, and Dr. Matthew Baillie. In the year 1784 he received the degrees of master of arts and bachelor of laws, entered sacred orders, and married the daughter of Dr. Gregory, professor in the university of Edinburgh. He was pre- sented to different livings by Sir William Pulteney and Lord Loughborough, to that of Sudbury in N orthamptonshire, and of Brance- peith in Durham, and in 1790 obtained the per- petual curacy of Kenley, in Shropshire, where he lived happily and tranquilly, with mingled literary and pastoral labors, till 1800, when he removed to Edinburgh for the education of his children. There he became senior minister of St. Paul’s chapel, in York place, and his elo- quence and the high character of his sermons soon attracted the attention of the cultivated His chapel was fre- quented by those most distinguished for their rank or talent, eager to hear discourses which were esteemed the ﬁnest specimens of pulpit oratory that the country could boast. Mr. Alison retained this position, in the midst of friends and admirers, till 1831, when increasing years and failing health obliged him to with- draw from public duties. The ﬁrst edition of his “Essays on the Nature and Principles of Taste” had been published in 17 90, and, though highly esteemed within a limited circle of men of culture, had been issued in too expensive a style for general circulation. Asecond edition, with additions, was published in 1811, received the applause of Mr. Jeffrey in the Edinburgh Review, became popular, and has since then passed through several editions. The work is elegantly and eloquently written, in illustration and defence of a peculiar metaphysical the- ory. According to Alison, beauty is not an inherent quality of objects, but belongs to them from their association with our moral feelings, -—material forms being not beautiful in them- selves, but only because they express certain qualities and phases of the soul. This theory -is a sort of Berkeleian idealism, transferred from the intellectual to the aesthetic nature of man; and, though recommended by Alison in a charming style, and illustrated with great beauty of language and of ideas, has been re- ceived by but few philosophers. In 1814, Mr. Alison published 2 volumes of sermons, which obtained a very wide-spread popularity, passing rapidly through 5 editions, and being repub- lished in America. Their reputation has sub- sequently declined, but Lord Brougham has pronounced several of them to be among the most ﬁnished models of composition in the English language, and Lord J effrey thus elo- quently refers to them: “ VVe cannot help en- vying Mr. Alison the power of uniting so much wisdom to so much eloquence, and giving us in the same work the highest gratiﬁcations of consistent conservative. ALISON taste, and the noblest lessons of virtue.” Mr. Alison passed the latter years of his life in re- tirement, amid the society of his friends and the beauties of nature, in a villa which he pur- chased in Colintou, 3 miles from Edinburgh. ALISON, ARCHIBALD, a Scotch advocate and historian, the eldest son of the preceding, born at Kenley, Dec. 29, 1792. He was educated in the schools and university of Edinburgh, whither his father removed in 1800. He chose the legal profession, was called to the bar in 1814, and availed himself of the ﬁrst income from his practice to travel extensively in Eu- rope. In 1823 he was appointed advocate- general, in 1828 became a member of the crown council, and in 1834 was made sheriff of Lan- arkshire, an oﬁice which he still holds, and which is the highest judicial station in Scotland next to the bench. His ﬁrst publication was a work on the “ Principles of the Criminal Law,” issued in 1832, which was followed the next year by a work on the “Practice of the Crimi- nal Law.” These books procured him consid- erable reputation as a writer, and became standard authorities with the Scottish bar. His literary fame was conﬁrmed and spread throughout Europe by his great work, the “History of Europe, from the commencement of the French Revolution to the battle of Wa- terloo,” the ﬁrst volume of which appeared in 1833. The whole work extended to 10 vol- umes, was published at intervals during the next 10 years, and achieved a great success. It ran through numerous editions in England, was reprinted in America, and translated into French and German, and even into Arabic and Hindostanee. The author is said to have con- ceived the plan of this history in his youth, while the extraordinary events of the Revolu- tion were taking place,-—amid the excitement, enthusiasm, and the subsequent disappointment of all the cultivated young men of Edinburgh, and to have cherished his purpose during 15 years of travelling and study, and 15 more of compo- sition. This work is especially valuable for the vast materials which it contains, culled with industry and judgment from the national repositories of Europe. The ability of the author is seen in the skill with which he man- ages his large collection of facts, arranges them in order, and presents them with an eye to effect. The style is always animated and gen- erally clear, though not free from occasional verhosities and perplexities. Yet, with all the merits of this history, it has something of a partisan character. Mr. Alison belongs to the high Tory party of England, and is a strict and He cherishes the Brit- ish constitution as it was before the passage of the Reform bill of 1832, which he regards as one of the destructive consequences of the Revolution, and as the commencement of na- tional ruin. His partialities of statement, how- ever, as for instance the account of the battle of Waterloo, are not frequent; and through his tendency to write in support of a preconceived ALISON theory, there is discerned an evident desire to deal fairly with all parties and concerning all events. In the spirit of his political creed, Mr. Alison has for many years contributed articles to Blackwood’s Magazine on the principal events and the most important questions of the time. A selection of these has been published under the title of “Essays.” He has also written a work entitled “Principles of Popu- lation,” in which he combats the theory of Malthus; another work, entitled “England in 1815 and 1845, or a suiﬁcient or contracted Currency ;” and a “Life of the Duke of Marl- borough,” published in 1847, and which has reached its third edition. He has been engaged since 1852 on a continuation of his history of Europe to the accession of Louis Napoleon, of which 5 volumes have already appeared. Mr. Alison in 1851 was elected rector of Glasgow university, and received the honorary degree of D. C. L. from the university of Oxford; and soon after the formation of the Derby-Disraeli ministry in 1852, he was created a baronet. ALISON, WILLIAM PULTENEY, physician and professor of the practice of medicine in the university of Edinburgh, is a younger brother of the historian. He has bestowed much atten- tion on the poor and suffering classes; and in a work published at Edinburgh in 1850, entitled “A Dissertation on the Reclamation of Waste Lands,” he recommends the colonization of such lands by paupers and criminals. ALIWAL, a village in north-western India, near the bank of the river Sutlej. On the plain of Aliwal, Jan. 28, 1846, Gen. Sir H. Smith, with about 12,000 troops, obtained a brilliant victory over a Sikh army of more than twice that number. ALIX (of Champagne), queen of Louis VII. of France, died in 1246. She was distinguished for her judgment and courage. During the expedition of her son Philippe-Auguste to the holy land, she was proclaimed regent of France and tutor of his son, her grand-child, Louis. Her ﬁrmness prevailed over the intrigues of the no- bility and clergy, and contributed to strengthen the position of royalty against the pretensions of the papacy. ALJUBARROTA, a town of Portugal, in the province of Estremadura, situated on the summit of a mountain, and about 15 miles S. W. of the district of Leiria. Here, Aug. 14, 1385, John I. of Portugal gained a victory over John I. of Castile, destroying about 12,000 Castilians. ALKALI (Arabic, al, the, and kali, ashes), name for a plant and also for salt-ash, or carbonate of soda extracted from its ashes. The term is now applied to a class of bases, soda, potash, ammonia, and lithia, whose dis- tinguishing peculiarities are solubility in alcohol and water, uniting with oils and fats to form soap, neutralizing and forming salts with acids, reddening several vegetable yellows, and chang- ing reddened litmus to blue. These proper- ties are the reverse of those of acids, and the ALKANET 365 two classes are regarded as antagonistic to each other. Some other substances, as lime, baryta, strontia, and magnesia, possessing some of the qualities of the alkalies as neutralizing acids, and changing the vegetable colors, are called alkaline earths. Pure anhydrous alkalies are exceedingly caustic, destroying vegetable and animal tissues. They abstract moisture rapidly on exposure to the air. Combined with car- bonic acid and water, forming carbonates, they are used in medicine as diuretics and for cor- recting acidity, as well as for other effects. The alkalies and the earths also were until the present century regarded as simple substances. Lavoisier ﬁrst suggested that they were metallic oxides. Sir Humphrey Davy proved this in 1807, by separating the metals, to which he gave the names potassium, sodium, barium, strontium, and calcium, the last the metallic base of lime. The discovery of these metals led to that of pure potash and soda. The alkalies were known before only in the state of hydrates, though incorrectly regarded as anhydrous. ALKALIMETER, a measure for estimating the quantity of an alkali in its solution. They are usually graduated glass tubes. They are employed principally for commercial purposes, for testing the strength of such articles as soda- ash, carbonates of soda and potash, &c. ALKALIMETRY, the process employed to estimate the quantity of alkali present in any mixtures. Its principle consists in exactly neu- tralizing a certain weight of the alkali, and knowing the quantity of acid of a given strength which is required to effect this. The alkaline substance, carefully weighed, is dissolved in warm water, placed in the alkalimeter, and diluted sulphuric acid cautiously and slowly added till the solution is made neutral. This is known by the use of little bits of test paper in the liquid, which, by their change of color, indicate the slightest acid or alkaline reaction. The process maybe reversed to test the strength of acids, and is then called acz'dz'metry. ALKALOIDS, vegetable extracts which possess alkaline properties in a low degree. They generally possess very powerful medicinal qualities. Most of them are obtained in a crys- talline form; they are sometimes amorphous, as aconitina; and sometimes only in a liquid state, as nicotina, &c. Their ultimate elements are carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Among the most important and best known of them are morphia, quinia, sanguinaria, solania, strychnia, veratria, &c. Several varieties known by dif- ferent names are extracted from the opium plant, but usually only one is obtained from a single plant. ALKANA, the name of the root and leaves of Zausania tnarmis, used in the east as a dye for the nails, teeth, hair, tails of horses, garments, &c.. ALKANET, a term corrupted from the French orcanéte, a rouge pot. The substance is a resinous coloring matter, obtained from the roots of the anchusa tinctoria, which is exten- 366 ALKINDI sively cultivated near Montpellier, in France. To alcohol and all unctuous matters, as oils, pomades, lip-salve, cheese, ointments, and plasters, it imparts a ﬁne red color. It is also used in compositions for rubbing and giving color to mahogany furniture, and staining marble. ALKINDI, an Arabian physician and philoso- pher, born at Bassora, at the end of the 8th, died in the middle of the 9th century (some place his life in the middle of the 12th, and others again at the beginning of the 11th cen- tury), was a lineal descendant of the Amrou-l- Kays, an Arabian tribe of Kindah; hence the name Al-kindi. He wrote more than 200 differ- ent works on logic, music, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, medicine, &c. One of his theories was to make the virtues of medical prescriptions dependent upon mathematical and musical rules. One of his most interesting works, Sefr, a pre- diction of the ruin of empires and general proph- ecy, was lost at the time of the capture of Bagdad by the Tartars. His work, De Theoria magicm-um Artium, has secured for him the fame of a magician. Various other works of his were translated into Latin during the middle ages, and published at Paris, Strasburg, and Venice. His theories are distinguished by great ingenuity, so much so that Cardan ranked him among the 12 subtle spirits of the world. ALKMAAR, a well-built and strongly forti- ﬁed town in the province of North Hol- land, on the Helder canal, about 20 miles from Amsterdam, in lat. 52° 38’ N. long. 4° 43’ E. Its environs are laid out in beautiful gardens, and ﬁne meadows; and broad canals intersect its streets, the banks of which are planted with trees. Alkmaar successfully with- stood a siege of 10 years, by the Spaniards, from 1573 to 1583, and in the expedition of 17 99 the British and Russians, under the Duke of York, halted here. A court of ﬁrst resort, and a tribunal of commerce, sit in Alkmaar, and the town is well supplied with public schools, educational and scientiﬁc institutions, Latin and drawing schools, a clinical and medi- cal school, and kindred establishments. The haven is commodious, and there is a large export trade in cheese and butter, of the former 9,000,000 pounds being annually weighed in the public scales. There is also a considerable trade in cattle and corn. The manufactures consist of sail cloth, parchment, salt, soap, vine- gar, leather, and earthenware. The principal buildings are the town hall, a richly decorated gothic ediﬁce, the church of St. Lawrence, built in the 15th century, the arsenal and for- tiﬁcations. Cornelius Drebel, inventor of the thermometer, who died in 1634, was born here, and here Paschiers Lam mertyn invented damask weaving in 1595. Population, 9,000. ALKMAAR, Hammon von, a poet of the 15th century, a native of Alkmaar in North Holland, became celebrated principally in con- nection with his supposed authorship of the famous German poem entitled Reinecke Fucks. ALL SOULS This poem, which is a satire upon the state of society in Germany during the middle ages, and the feudal regime, ﬁrst made its appearance in print in 1498 at Lubeck. This edition being the oldest, and Alkmaar’s name being attached to its preface, it was generally taken for grant- ed that he was the author. However, the mat- ter is involved in doubts; and from Alkmaar’s own statements in his preface, it seems more probable that he was rather the compiler than the originator of the poem. ALKORAN. See Konmv. ALL-FOURS, a game at cards played by 2 persons. The name is derived from the 4 chances of which it consists, namely, high, low, jack, and game. ALL-HALLOWS, the English and Scottish version of All Saints’ day. Hallowe’en is thought to be a night when witches, devils, and other mischief-making beings are all abroad on their baneful midnight errands; particularly those aé rial people, the fairies, are said on that night to hold a grand anniversary. Burns’s poem of “Hallowe’en” describes the supersti- tious custoins and beliefs of the Scottish'peas- antry concerning this festival. ALL-HANDS-A-HOY, a nautical term, the order by which the ship’s company is summon- ed on deck by the boatswain. All hands to quarters a-hoy is the order given to prepare the crew for battle. ALL IN THE WIND, the state of the ship’s sails when parallel to the wind. ALL SAINTS’ BAY, in the province of Ba- hia, Brazil, is one of the largest and ﬁnest nat- ural harbors in the world. The bay is 37 miles long, and 27 wide, and its surface dotted with islands. The town of Bahia, or St. Salvador, lies on the east side of the bay. Lat. 12° 42' S. long. 38° 42’ W. ALL SAINTS’ DAY, a festival in honor of all the angels and saints of heaven, observed in the Roman Catholic church on Nov. 1, and also in the Protestant Episcopal and Lutheran churches. In the eastern churches the same festival has been observed since the 4th century. In the West, it was instituted by Pope Boniface IV., in the early part of the 7th century, on the occasion of dedicating the Pantheon, a temple built by Marcus Agrippa, B. C. 25, in honor of Jupiter the Avenger and all the gods, to the worship of the true God, under the invocation of the Virgin Mary and all the saints. This church is still standing, and is called the Rotunda. This feast became general in the 9th century, and is of the ﬁrst class with an octave. The oﬂice was composed by Pope Pius V., on the basis of an older one. ALL SAINTS’ ISLANDS, three small islands belonging to France lying to the southward of Guadeloupe, 15° 51’ N. lat. 61"’ 41’ W. long. The area of the three islands is about ﬁve square miles. Population in 1849, 1,311. ALL SOULS, the day after All Saints, set apart by the Catholic church for the commem- ALLA BBEVE oration of all the faithful departed, for whom the mass of requiem is said, and the oﬁice of the dead recited. In Germany, the people, both Catholic and Protestant, visit the grave- yards on this day, and strew ﬂowers on the graves of their friends. ALLA BREVE, a musical term applied to that species of measure whose parts consist of breves. As a designation of time it denotes that the breve is equal to a semi-breve in 5 time, and is to be played with twice the usual rapid- ity. This mode of time is marked by a C with a perpendicular line through it, placed at the beginning of the staﬁ'. ALLAH (Arabic, al, the, and lllah, God), the Mohammedan name ofthe Supreme Being. The unity of the Deity is the great postulate of the Mohammedan creed. His attributes are thus summed up by the Koran: “ There is no God but God. This only true, great, and most high God, has his being in himself; is everlasting; witnesseth not and is not witnessed; is all-suf- ﬁcient in himself; ﬁlls the universe with his inﬁnity; is the centre, in which all things unite, as well the manifest as the hidden; is Lord of the world of bodies and spirits; crea- tor and governor; ahnighty; all-wise; all- merciful; tender hearted; and his decrees are unchangeable.” Mohammedans repeat a ro- sary of the 99 epithets of the Supreme Being, closing it with the great, all-inclusive name of Allah. Allah alcbar (God is great) and Allah illah Allah, are battle cries of the Moslem; while Bism Illa-h or Bism Allah (in the name of God) is the grace before meat of the pious, and the invocation at the commencement of every literary performance. ALLAHABAD, a province, city, and ju- dicial district of British India. The city is 450 miles from Calcutta, lat. 25° 27’ N. long. 81° 50’ E. Population, 40,000. It is situated at the conﬂuence of the sacred rivers Ganges and Jumna, to which the Bramins assert the Ser- eswati adds its holy current, which, although in- visible on the surface, is held to communicate by a subterraneons channel. Immersion is a sa- cred rite of the Hindoos, and those who bathe here receive the beneﬁt of a triple immersion. So holy indeed is the spot, that many pilgrims voluntarily drown themselves. About 200,000 visit the place annually. The city is supposed to occupy the site of Palimbrotha; and the modern buildings, which are mean and of poor materials, are raised on foundations that show the size and importance of the ancient city. The emperor Akbar resided here, and the town was fortiﬁed by him so as effectually to com- mand the navigation of the great rivers on which it stands. In 1765 it was taken by the English, but restored to the native powers; and it became a British possession by treaty in 1801. There is a good native school here in which native students are taught Persian and Hindostanee, geography, arithmetic, and geome- try.—-The province is fruitful, producing indigo, cotton, and sugar, and bordering on Malwah, the ALLAN 367 great opium district of India, it also produces a considerable quantity of this valuable drug. Wheat is the grain most cultivated, and the peasants get 56 bushels from the acre by using a system of careful irrigation. Diamonds are also found, but the rivers have fallen off in their yield. Mahmoud of Ghuznee, who had made a vow to invade India for several succes- sive years, overran the province in 1020; and it subsequently fell into the power of the Mo- guls, on the breaking up of whose empire the nabob of Oude took possession of the northern part, and by various treaties ﬁnally ceded it to the British. The length of the province is 270 miles, and breadth about 120 miles. The inhabitants are chieﬂy Hindoos. Allahabad was an important military point during the great insurrection of the Bengal army in 1857. ALLAMAND, JEAN N rooms Snexsrmn, naturalist, born at Lausanne in 1713, died at, Leyden in 1787. He was professor of phi- losophy and natural history at the university of Franeker, member of the London royal society, and of the Haarlem academy of science. The Dutch sailors rejoiced to collect for him, in their expeditions into distant countries, specimens of plants, animals, and fossils. These he placed in the botanical garden and museum of the university, which were under his care. He de- voted much time to the study of electricity, and was the ﬁrst to explain the phenomena of the Leyden jar. ALLAN, MADAME Cxnanom, a distinguished singer, was born at Milan in 1800. Her father, the Baron de Munck, formerly an oﬁicer in the French service, dying when she was about 20 years of age, she was obliged to employ, pro- fessionally, her musical talents, which had pre- viously been cultivated under the direction of her mother, as an elegant accomplishment. On J an. 12, 1822, she made her debut at the King’s Theatre, London, as the page in Mozart’s “ F i- garo,” under the name of M’lle Caradori, having studied the music and the part only 3 days. Her success was at once established, and for 20 years she was one of the most popular singers in Europe, appearing to equal advantage in the concert room or on the stage. In 1840 she made a successful concert tour through the United States. Madame Caradori Allan, in ad- dition to a voice of great sweetness and ﬂexi- bility, possessed the faculty of singing and ac- companying vocal music at sight in a higher degree than almost any of her contemporaries. In August, 1823, she married Mr. Allan, secre- tary of the King’s theatre. Of late years she has retired from professional life. ALLAN, DAVID, “ the Scottish Hogarth,” born at Alloa, in the county of Clackmannan, Feb. 13, 1744, died at Edinburgh, Aug. 6, 1796. When a schoolboy, he evinced so much skill in caricature, that his father determined to make him an artist, and apprenticed him to Robert Foulis, master of the drawing academy in Glas- gow. He remained 9 years in this capacity, and learned to draw, paint, and engrave. At the 368 ALLAN age of 20, he returned. to Alloa, and Mr. Erskine of Mar, on whose estate he was born, sent him to study at Rome, where he soon dis- tinguished himself, and, among other honors, obtained from the academy of St. Luke the gold medal for the best historical drawing. The subject was the traditionary origin of painting, and Wilkie said that Allan had made it one of the best told stories that color and canvas ever united to relate. It was engraved, and largely circulated, not only in Italy but in Scotland, and was the only good specimen of high art ever produced by Allan, whose skill lay in de- picting the familiar and the humorous. His earliest productions in this line, Which made the Italians call him “the Scottish Hogarth,” were 4 sketches of the carnival at Rome, subsequently popularized by Paul Sandby’s prints from them. On his return from Rome, in 1777, Allan ﬁvisited London. Soon after, he settled in Edin- burgh as a portrait-painter, and in 1786, after the death of Runciman, he was appointed mas- ter of the academy of arts. About the same time, he commenced the works by which he is best known, twelve drawings, with more broad humor than elegance, of Allan Ramsay’s pastoral drama of ‘f The Gentle Shepherd.” He subsequently engraved these in aquatinta, and published them as illustrations of the poem. He also made some designs from the lyrics of Burns, who so highly estimated him that he said, “Mr. Allan and myself are the only genu- inc and real painters of Scottish costume in the world.” Mr. Allan left a son and daughter, the former of whom went to India as a cadet in 1806. As an artist, he was not in the ﬁrst rank, nor, though compared to Hogarth, did he aim at the moral teaching of that true painter. In the delineation of grave humor and open drollery, still so peculiar to the Scottish charac- ter, Allan was completely at home. ALLAN, SIR WILLIAM, R. A., and president of the Scotch royal academy for the ﬁne arts, born at Edinburgh in 17 82, died Feb. 22, 1850. He was of humble origin, and after attending the high school for some time, was placed with a coach-painter, to learn the trade. He soon left him and entered the school of design, where he was the fellow-pupil of Wilkie. After study- ing here for some years, he removed to Lon- don, and entered the royal academy; his ﬁrst picture was exhibited there. Failing to obtain patronage in London, he determined to visit Russia, and taking a few letters of introduction, he set out. Arrived at St. Petersburg, he found an ample ﬁeld for the exercise of his talents, through the assistance of Sir Alexander Crichton, the imperial physician, and others. He spent 10 years in this country, and made visits to the Crimea, Circassia, Tartary, and Turkey, obtaining thereby abundant materials for use in his profession. In 1814 he returned to Scotland, and took up his residence at Edin- burgh, where he became intimate with Sir Wal- ter Scott, through whose inﬂuence his picture of the “ Circassian Captives” was purchased by ALLARD subscription for 1,000 guineas. It was rafﬂcd for, and became the property of the earl of Wernyss. The grand-duke Nicholas, after. ward emperor of Russia, also purchased 2 of his best paintings, when he visited Edinburgh. About this time he painted the “Murder of James Sharp,” “Parting of Charles Stuart and Flora Macdona1d,” “Murder of the Regent Murray,” and other scenes in Scottish history. Being obliged by a disease of the eyes to lay aside the pencil for a year or two, he visited, in the interval, Rome, Naples, and Constantinople, as well as parts of Asia Minor and Greece. Among other fruits of this journey, was his “ Slave Market of Constantinople.” In 1834, he visited the south of Spain and Morocco, and in 1841, once more went to St. Petersburg, where he executed for the emperor, a painting of “ Peter the Great teaching his Subjects the Art of Ship-building,” which now adorns the winter palace. For a year or two before his death he was conﬁned to the house by chronic bron- chitis; but until his inﬁrmities became too great, he still perseveringly devoted himself to his art, his last work, “ Bruce at Bannockburn,” being incomplete at his death. In 1826, he was made an associate of the royal academy at Lon- don, and in 1835 an academician. He held the presidency of the Scotch academy from 1838 until his death in 1850. The honor of knight- hood was conferred upon him in 1842. The paintings to which he chieﬂy owed his celebrity were his Russian and Circassian scenes, and his representations of incidents in Scotch history. In the latterpart of his life, he painted several battle pieces, in which he treated his subjects successfully. ALLANTSEE, Lnonnann and Lucas, two brothers, the ﬁrst booksellers of Vienna after the invention of the art of printing, natives of Augsburg, lived at the end of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th century. The elder, Leon- hard, died in 1508, and the younger, Lucas, in 1522. They were engaged in active relations with the publishers of Augsburg and Venice. Th e ﬁrst work which they brought out upon their own account was a Latin poem, 1511, 4to. ALLARD, JEAN Fnamgors, a French gene- ral who gained distinction in India, born at St. Tropez in 1785, died at Peshawer, Jan. 23, 1839. Under Napoleon, he served in the staff of Marshal Brune, after whose murder he left France and repaired to Leghorn, thinking to emigrate to America. Changing his intention, however, be repaired to Egypt, and thence to Persia, where he was well received by Abbas Mirza. In 1820 he went to Lahore, and en- tered the service of Runjeet Singh, by whom he was ﬁnally made commander-in-chief of his army. In 1835 he revisited France, accompa- nied by his family, and was received with dis- tinguished honors, Louis Philippe appointing him chargé d’a_faires in Lahore. He returned in the following year to the Punjaub, leaving his family in France. He died at Peshawer, and at his own request was buried at Lahore. ALLARDE ALLARDE, PIERRE GILBERT LEROI, baron d’, a French political economist, born at Montlu- con in 1749, died at Besancon in 1809. He was a deputy to the states-general, and in 1790 a member of the committee on taxations. He took a prominent part in all ﬁnancial questions, and was an ardent advocate of all measures tending to alleviate the burdens of the peo- ple. From the later scenes of the revolution he kept aloof, and devoted himself to com- mercial pursuits until 1803, when for a short time he held the oﬁice of manager of the Paris octroi. ALLARDICE, ROBERT Banomr, commonly known as CAPTAIN BARCLAY, a famous Scottish pedestrian, and a captain in the British army, was born Aug. 25, 1779, and died May 8, 1854. His father, a skilful farmer, of an old Scotch family, was himself a noted pedestrian, having walked 510 miles in 10 days. The son, at the age of 15, won his ﬁrst match, walking 6 miles within an hour. In December, 1799, he walked 150 miles in 2 days, and in June, 1801, 300 miles in 5 days, the weather being exces- sively hot. One of his most surprising per- formances was walking 1,000 miles in 1,000 successive hours. One hundred thousand pounds were staked on the result. This feat has sel- dom been surpassed by any pedestrian. In 1815, one Josiah Eaton walked 1,100 miles in 1,100 successive hours, and in 1850, Rich- ard Manks walked 1,000 miles in 1,000 hours, at Sheﬂield, beginning each mile at the begin- ning of each hour, while Barclay was only obliged to complete a mile within each hour, and thus by walking 2 miles at atime, contriv- ed to get an hour and a half of uninterrupted sleep. Manks was completely exhausted at the expiration of his task, and came very near dying, while Barclay, after sleeping 17 hours, awoke in the possession of his usual health and vigor. The same feat has been repeated by a woman in New York, during‘ the present year (1857). Captain Barclay engaged in farm- ing, in the latter part of his life, particularly in raising stock, and effected great improvements in the breed of sheep and cattle. ALLART, MARY GAY, a literary woman, born at Lyons in 1750, died at Paris in 1821. She received an excellent education, and at the age of 18 was proﬁcient in almost all the modern languages, especially the English. At ﬁrst, she translated some English works into French, but her most successful effort was a novel of her own composition, Albertine de Sainte Alba. Her translations from the Eng- lish, chieﬂy from Mrs. Radcliife, are highly spoken of by Chénier, in his “Review of Lite- rature since 17 89.”—Her daughter, HORTENSE ALLART, has published La Oonjuration d’Am- Qoise, and letters on the works of Madame de taél. ALLASS STRAIT, a channel between the islands Lombok and Sumbawa, in the Sunda group of the Malay Archipelago. The strait is about 50 miles in length, and 9 miles wide in its VOL. I.—-24: ALLEGHANY 369 narrowest part. It is considered the best for navigators, of all the passages of the group east of the island of Java. ALLATIUS, LEO, librarian of the Vatican, and editor and translator of several authors, and an author himself, born in the island of Chios in 1586, died at Rome in 1669. While young, he was adopted. by an inﬂuential Calabrian, and educated in the Greek college at Rome. His writings indicate learning and re- search, but are deﬁcient in taste and discrimi- nation. Though of Greek descent, he was a zealous partisan of the Roman church. ALLE, a river of Prussia, rising on the S. borders of Polish Prussia, and after a course of 115 miles, uniting with the Pregel 27 miles above Ktinigsberg. ALLECTUS, the chief oﬁicer of Carausius, king of Britain, in the reign of the emperor Diocletian. Fearing to be brought to account for his misdeeds, he murdered his master in the year 293, and usurped his throne, of which he held possession for about 3 years. At the expiration of that time, Caesar Constantius prepared to invade the island, from Gaul, and sent a detachment under one of his oﬁicers, which eluded the British ﬂeet, landed on the western coast, and taking Allectus by surprise, routed his army completely. His body was found among the slain. ' ALLEGAN, a county in the W. S. W. part of Michigan, on Lake Michigan, has an area of 840 square miles. The Kalamazoo river (nav- igable by small steamboats) intersects it, and it is drained by the Black and Rabbit rivers. The soil is a deep black alluvium on the river mar- gins, and in some other parts sand and clay pre- dominate; the surface is undulating, and mostly covered with forests, affording large quantities of lumber. There is a limestone quarry in the S. W. part of the county.--In 1850, the produc- tions were 52,155 bushels of Indian corn, 2,521 of wheat, 16,711 of cats, 43,741 of potatoes, and 92,610 pounds of maple sugar. There were 6 churches, 1 newspaper oﬁice, and 1,196 pupils in the public schools. In the S. W. part of the country is a quarry of good limestone. Capital, Allegan. Population, 5,125. ALLEGHANY. I. A countyinW. S. W. New York, on the Pennsylvania border, contains about 1,045 square miles. It was formed from Genesee county, in 1806, and contained in 1855, 42,910 inhabitants. The products of that year were 183,631 bushels of wheat, 504,466 of cats, 258,870 of potatoes, 73,212 tons of hay, 1,141,162 lbs. of butter, 270,212 of wool, and 1,145,371 of cheese. The Genesee river and its tributaries supply this county with abundant water, giving the motive power of numerous grist and‘ other mills. On each side of the Genesee valley, the country rises until it be- comes table-land in the E. and W. parts. The industrial resources, in addition to agriculture, consist of 18 ﬂour and grist mills, 122 saw mills, 18 tanneries, 5 woollen mills, 8 iron -founderies, 2 carding and fulling mills, and 3 newspapers. 370 It also has 46 churches and 6,301 children in the public, and 384 in private schools. Bog- iron ore and limestone are obtained here, and facilities for transportation are afforded by the New York and Eric railroad and the Genesee canal, which pass through the county. Capital, Angelica. II. A county in W. S. W. Pennsyl- vania, was organized in 1778, and contains 750 square miles. Near the centre of the county the Ohio is formed by the conﬂuence of the Alle- ghany and Monongahela rivers. The Youghi- ogheny and several creeks also drain it. Near the rivers the surface is broken into ravines; most of the upland is hilly, and very pictur- esque. Nearly all of the county is arable, producing in 1850, 526,856 bushels of wheat, 438,966 of corn, 257,408 of potatoes, 35,836 tons of hay, and 971,434 pounds of butter. It then contained 179 churches, 36 newspapers, 28 distilleries, 8 nail, and 2 coach and spring factories, 9 glass manufactories, 2 glass cutting factories, 17 iron founderies, 4 hardware manu- factories, 13 machine shops, 13 rolling mills, 1 copper reﬁnery, 69 ﬂour and grist and 32 saw mills, 21 tanneries. In the public schools there were 12,664 pupils, and 3,468 under private tu- ition. Water power is abundant. The Pem1- sylvania canal, the central railroad, the Ohio and Pennsylvania railroad, the Alleghany val- ley, Pittsburg, and Steubenville and other lines traverse the county. Alleghany is the second county in importance in the State. Capital, Pittsburg; population, 138,290. III. Acounty in W. Maryland, on the borders of Pennsylva- nia and Virginia, containing an area of 800 square miles. The river Potomac and its N. branch form its S. boundary. The Youghiogheny river intersects its W. part, and it is drained by several creeks. The main Alleghany mountains and several smaller ridges traverse it, and its surface is rocky and broken. Limestone, sand- stone, iron ore and stone coal, abound, the latter being extensively mined at Cumberland, the capital. The glades or valleys in the mountains furnish the celebrated glades butter and mutton. In 1850 the population amounted to 22,769, of whom 22,045 were free, and 724 slaves. The products were 101,773 bushels of corn, 73,525 of wheat, 163,943 of oats, 231,038 lbs. of but- ter, and 10,896 tons of hay. There were also 2 woollen factories, 1 iron foundery, 1 iron fur- nace, 4 saw mills, 1 machine shop, 31 churches, and 3 newspapers. In the public schools were 2,480 children, and 105 in private seminaries. The Baltimore and Ohio railroad passes through the county. IV. A county nearly in the centre of Virginia, area 500 square miles, with a population of 3,515, of whom 2,821 are free and 694 slaves. J ackson’s river cuts into it, and uniting with Cow pasture river, on the E. border, forms the James river. Its N. W. boundary is the main Alleghany chain. Middle mountain extends along the S. E. line, and Peters mountain and the warm springs through the centre. The products of the county in 1850 were 88,426 bushels of corn, 16,937 of ALLEGHAN Y ALLEGORY wheat, 42,210 of oats, 1,211 tons of hay, and 29,712 lbs. of butter. It contains 2 iron fur- naces, 2 forges, and 2 ﬂour mills, 10 churches, and had 153 pupils in the public, and 30 in private schools. The James river canal, and the Virginia central railroad, terminate at Covington, the capital. The Covington and Ohio railroad is in progress of construction. The county contains iron ore, and the Red Sweet Springs, which have become somewhat noted. In 1850 its real estate was assessed at $624,256, and in 1856 at $869,040, showing an increase of 39 per cent. ALLEGHANY CITY, an im ortant manufac- turing city in the vicinity of ittsburg, on the right bank of the Alleghany river, at the junc- tion of this river and the Monongahela. It has, with other towns, sprung up from the overﬂow- ings of Pittsburg, and now contains 120 manu- facturing establishments of various kinds. For details, see Pwrsnune. ALLEGHANY COLLEGE. See MEADVILLE. ALLEGHANY MOUNTAINS. See APPA-' LAOHIAN Mounrxrns. ALLEGHANY Rrvnn, rises in Potter county, N. Pennsylvania, ﬂows circuitously through New York, returns to Pennsylvania, and unites at Pittsburg with the Monongahela river. Its course is through a hilly country, abounding in pine forests and coal. The river is navigable for small steamboats nearly 200 miles from Pittsburg. The principal towns along its course are Warren, Kittanning, and Franklin. ALLEGIANCE, the duty of a subject to a sovereign. According to the general policy of nations, a subject may not renounce his alle- giance even by emigration, or naturalization in another country. The oath of allegiance is the oath which every subject may be called upon to take, and which is usually taken either upon assuming the higher offices of state, or ju- dicial,.and some other oﬁices; or upon being naturalized. In the United States the oath is simply of obedience to the constitution, and with it is implied in the case of persons apply- ing for naturalization, the renunciation of na- tive allegiance to any other sovereign power. In England the oath of allegiance is to be faith- ful, and to bear true allegiance to the sovereign, and with the oath of allegiance is usually coupled the oath of abjuration, by which the right of the royal family to the crown of England is expressed, and the supremacy and authority of the pope are abjured. ALLEGORY (Gr. ahhos, another, ayopevw, I speak), a ﬁgure of speech in which one thing is said and another meant, or more strictly, a sustained description or narrative of supposed facts concerning one thing, with a clearly per- ceivable design to have them applied to another. Of course, an allegory always implies compar- ison, which in turn implies abstraction. The objects compared in an allegory must be on dif- ferent planes of thought. The use of the al- legory depends on the fact that we are better acquainted with the objects of sense, than we ALLEGORY are with those of pure intellect, and can there- fore make one of these classes of objects ser- viceable to convey a more vivid apprehen- sion of the other. Hence the allegory must always run from the world of sense to the world of intellect. The allegory in its con- struction implies that there is actual resem- blance between the objects on these diiferent planes, and that such resemblance is discerned already by the allegorist, or in other words, that he understands equally the objects he com- pares, and so sees their resemblance. Hence the allegory is not a means of discovering truth, but only of conveying it, when discovered. It is plain that no processes of comparison can, strictly, be processes of discovery. The discov- ery has already been made when the compar- ison begins. Allegory is a form for dogmatiz- ing--but not an instrument of reasoning. And yet allegory must be broadly distinguished from analogy. The allegory is an artiﬁcial, and arbitrarily constructed panorama\ of sen- sible images, behind which intellectual truths are seen by the mind, as through a trans- parency, while the analogy is the assertion of an organic law running through two planes of existence, and necessitating correspondences in those planes. An allegory may always be con- structed where there is an analogy, but there is not always an analogy where an allegory has been constructed; for an allegory can be made of purely ﬁctitious details arbitrarily arranged, whereas analogy conﬁnes itself to the ﬁeld of fact and truth, and only exists as the result of law. Allegory is especially pleasing to chil- dren, and is, therefore, a valuable auxiliary of elementary instruction. For the same reason, allegory is more in vogue in the early than in the later development of a people and a lan- guage. Poetry, considered aside from its rhyth- mical structure, is mainly allegory. Hence, the ﬁrst era of a nation is its poetical era. Hence, also, attempts have been made from time to time to discover an allegoric character in many ancient writings, where probably it never ex- isted. Thus Homer was at one time made the sub- ject of such attempts, doubtless simply because it was an ancient production. But the most re- markable attempt of the kind is found in the history of religion. About two centuries since theologians got the fancy that every thing in the scriptures was allegorical, and resorted to all extravagances of exposition to discover the symbolical meaning of every board and badger skin of the tabernacle. The distinc- tion was lost between an allegory and an enig- ma. An allegory should not be too long sus- tained, as a general rule—the “ Faery Queen” is often quoted by critics as an instance of unsuc- cessful allegory, from its length. And yet, the “Pilgrim’s Progress” may be referred to on the other hand, in the face of the rule. Oriental liter- ature is especially rich in allegory. Allegorical writing requires a vivid imagination, while an- alogical demands profound knowledge and pa- tient reﬂection. Allegory is to be distinguish- ALLEIN 371 ed also from myth. A myth is originally and intrinsically a spontaneous unconscious ex- pression of a truth--an allegory, an artiﬁcial and deliberate one. legory is created. The present use of the term myth, especially by Strauss in his Life of Jesus, is not altogether in harmony with this distinction. ALLEGRAIN, Ormrsrornn GABRIEL, a French sculptor, born at Paris in 1710, died in 17 95. His statue of Narcissus gained him admission into the academy. He executed various works of art for Madame du Barry, who placed them in her park at Luciennes. Those of his statues most admired, at the time of their production, were his Venus and Diana. ALLEGRETTO, the diminutive of allegro. A musical term, signifying a time less quick than allegro. ALLEGRI, Gmreouro, an ecclesiastic, and composer of church music, born at Rome about 1580, where he died, Feb. 16, 1640. He was the pupil of N anini, and on terms of intimacy with Palestrina. His voice was not remarkable, but he was a perfect master of harmony, and so highly esteemed by the professors of the art in his time, that he was made one of the singers in the pope’s chapel in 1629. He was conspicuous for his benevolent disposition, and crowds of the city poor were the recipients of his charity, beside which he made frequent visits to the prisons, to mitigate the suffering of the more deserving of their inmates. So valuable were his musical contributions to the church service, that his death was felt as a heavy calamity. The famous Miserere, performed yearly on Wed- nesday and Good Friday of Passion Week, in the papal chapel, is one of his compositions. Yet the eifect which it produces is due rather to the perfect manner in which it is given, than to its intrinsic merit. ALLEGRO, an Italian word, signifying mer- ry, joyful, and used to designate a quick, but not necessarily a gay, movement in music. The term is also applied to an entire composition, or a part of one of a quick and lively charac- ter. It denotes one of the 6 distinctions of time, which succeed one another as follows: grave, adagio, largo, vivace, allegro, presto. Other words are sometimes added to it to heighten or lessen the effect, or vary the ex- pression, as allegro assai, very quick; allegro non molto, not very quick; allegro con brio, quick, with brilliancy. ALLEIN. I. J osarn, a nonconforming clergy- man, author of the famous “Alarm to Uncon- verted Sinners,” and other religious works, born at Devizes, in 1633, and died in 1668. He was educated at Oxford, and a man of exten- sive literary acquirements. Though ejected from his curacy for nonconformity, he yet pre- served his reverence for the ecclesiastical au- thorities, and his loyalty to the king. His work above named, has passed through numerous editions. II. Rrcnann, another English non- conforming clergyman, was born at Ditchet A myth grows——an al- ‘ 372 in Somersetshire, in 1611, and died in 1691. He was educated at Oxford, and entering the church, was made rector of Batcombe, in Somer- setshire. He was a rigid puritan, and assisted the commissioners appointed by parliament to purify the church of “scandalous ministers.” He was deprived of his rectory, after the res- toration, as a nonconformist, but continued to preach in a private house, notwithstanding the risk of punishment which he incurred thereby. Although often censured for so doing, his vir- tues shielded him from any severity on the part of the authorities. He wrote Vindicice Pie- tatis, “Heaven Opened,” and “The World Con- quered.” The ﬁrst is still a favorite work with theologians of the same school. ALLELUIA, a Hebrew compound, signifying praise ye the Lord, and variously employed by the Hebrews in their worship and sacred writ- ings. It was early adopted by the church as a hymn of praise, but on account of its joyful character was forbidden to be sung during Lent. ALLELUIA . Musical composers have made frequent use of this term as a text for some of their grandest compositions, as in the sublime hallelujah cho- rus .in Handel’s “Messiah.” ALLEMAND, ZAOHARIE J accuse Tnfzononn, comte, a French vice-admiral, born at Port Louis in 1762, died at Toulon, March 2, 1826. He entered the marine at the age of 12, and gradually was promoted to the rank of vice- admiral. He was one of the ﬁrst chevaliers of the newly founded Zégion d’h0n/near, and was soon after its formation raised to the rank of oﬂicer. In 1805, when commanding the squadron of Rochefort, he operated at sea for six months, seized and destroyed 100 English merchant vessels, and the English man-of-war Calcutta. In 1806 he also inﬂicted some losses upon English commerce. In 1808 he was the sub- commander of the naval force of Toulon, and in 1809, commander of the squadrons of Brest, Toulon, and Rochefort, in the capacity of rear- admiral. The ﬂeet was anchored in the bay of the island of Aix, when on the 6th of April, Lord Cochrane made his appearance with 50 ﬁre-ships and several infernal machines, invent- ed by Col. Congreve. The English were vic- torious, but the success which they achieved was very slight compared to the immense ex- penses connected with the attack. Allemand remained in active service until 1814, when, chieﬂy on account of his somewhat intractable character, he was put on the pension list. ALLEN. I. A county in S. Kentucky, on the Tennessee line, has an area of 300 square miles. On the N. E. it is bounded by Big Barren river, and Trammel’s creek ﬂows through it. The surface is level, and the soil moderately fruit- ' ful. In 1850 the population numbered 8,742, of whom 7,428 were free, and1,314 slaves. The products amounted to 411,655 bushels of corn, 9,563 of wheat, 65,206 of oats, and 760,806 lbs. of tobacco. There are several caves and salt springs in the county. The county was formed in 1815, and named in honor of Col. ALLEN John Allen, who was slain at the battle of Raisin. Capital, Scottsville. II. A county in W. N. W. Ohio, with an area of 405 square miles. The Auglaize and Ottawa rivers, and Riley and Sugar creeks, intersect it. It has a fertile soil, with a surface generally level, and abounding in hard wood timber. In 1850 it contained 12,109 inhabitants, and produced 288,450 bushels of corn, 140,580 of wheat, 62,254 of oats, 8,636 tons of hay, and 191,- 831 lbs. of butter. It also contained 19 churches, and a newspaper office, and had 4,500 children in the public schools. The Ohio and Indiana railroad and the Miami canal pass through the county,--the latter aifording good water power. Capital, Lima. III. A county in N. N. E. In- diana, on the Ohio line, with an area of 638 square miles. It is nearly level in surface, with a fruitful soil, and well watered by the St. Joseph and St. Mary rivers, which unite at Fort Wayne, the county seat, and form the Maumee river. There are also several creeks ﬂowing through the county. Aside from some oak openings and wet prairies, the country is well wooded with oak, hickory, beach, maple, and other trees. The population in 1850 was 16,919, and the product amounted to 281,339 bushels of corn; 189,509 of wheat; 58,125 of oats, and 5,919 tons of hay. The yield of wheat exceeded that of any other county in the state, with the exception of La Porte. There were 12 churches and 2 newspapers in the county, and 2,500 pupils in the public and 410 in private schools. The Wabash and Erie canal passes through Allen county. There are also a number of good plank roads, and it has communication with Pittsburg and Chicago, by the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne, and Chicago rail- road, which passes through the capital. The county was organized in 1824, and received its name from Col. Wm. Allen, of Kentucky. ALLEN, Boe or. Most of the Irish bogs lying to the eastward of the Shannon, and occupying a considerable portion of King’s county, and the county of Kildare, are called the Bog of Allen. This name, however, is not applied to one great morass, as the bogs included in it are distinct from each other, and often separated by dry ridges of land. These bogs extend across the country from Wicklow Head to Galway, on the S., and from Howth Head to Sligo on the N., embracing an extent of 27 miles at the E., and 80 miles at the W. extremities. ALLEN, EPHRAIM W., printer and editor of the “Newburyport Herald,” born about 1780, died March 9, 1846. He published that journal for over 30 years, at one time uniting in his single person the functions of compositor, press- man, editor, and carrier. ALLEN, ETHAN, American revolutionary partisan, born, according to some authorities, at Salisbury, Ct., according to others, at Woodbury, and according to Mr. Sparks, probably at Litch- ﬁeld, in 1742, or thereabout, died at Burling- ton, Vt., Feb. 13, 1789. His parents, Joseph Allen and Mary Baker, soon after his birth em- ALLEN igrated to Cornwall in Vermont, where his 6 younger brothers and 2 sisters were born. As we have said, there are no precise data by which we can ﬁx his age decisively, though it is probable his birth took place about 1742, as even his youngest brothers were men at the era of the commencement of the revolution- ary contest, and were all decided whigs. Previous to the revolution, there existed a dispute between the colonies of ‘New York and Massachusetts relative to their bounda- ries, and the debatable land included the whole of the present state of Vermont, which was claimed by New York. To this dis- pute New Hampshire and Connecticut were parties, and on more than one occasion, the quarrel, growing out of the absurd and conﬂict- ing grants of Charles II., .nearly led to armed collision. Among the settlers in this disputed territory was the family of Ethan Allen, and in the controversy which grew out of the at- tempt to enforce New York law, he ﬁrst be- came conspicuous. Actions of ejectment being brought, Allen was selected as agent to repre- sent the settlers in the litigation about to com- mence at Albany. The decision was adverse to them, and they resolved to resist. They adopted Allen’s own phrase—“ that the gods of the hills were not those of the valleys.” The New York authorities were everywhere set at deﬁance. Allen was made colonel of the armed force which was organized, and which not only protected the New Hampshire grant- ees but removed the New York settlers. This state of affairs remained unaltered until the revolution, New York maintaining her hos- tile attitude, and the Vermonters the pos- session of their farms. In 1775, when war with the mother country had become inev- itable, the occupation of Ticonderoga was determined on, and the task conﬁded to Allen, who set out at once at the head of his Green Mountain Boys, reaching Castleton May 7, 1775. A party was also detached under Capt. Herrick toward Skenesborough, and another under Capt. Douglass to Panton in the vicinity of Crown Point. On the morning of May 10, Allen, who had previously beenjoined by Arnold, surprised Ticonderoga, summoning Capt. De la Plaine, who commanded the post, to surrender in the name of “the great Jeho- vah and the continental congress.” By this coup-de-main, 2 oﬁicers, 48 rank and ﬁle, 120 pieces of artillery, and a large quantity of small arms, were captured, and the command of the Green mountains wrested from the English. The other enterprises were equally successful, Skenesborough, with an armed sloop, and Crown Point being also captured. A diﬂiculty ensued between Arnold and Allen relative to the com- mand, which, however, the latter maintained until he was relieved by the arrival of the Con- necticut regiment, commanded by Col. Hinman, to whom he delivered his conquests. Allen then proceeded to Philadelphia, where the con- tinental congress oﬁicially acknowledged his 6 373 services. He next joined Gen. Schuyler’s army, and rendered valuable aid in Montgomery’s ex- pedition to Canada, but in an unfortunate dem- onstration against Montreal was captured and sent a prisoner to England ; his old antagonist, Tryon, former governor of New York, contriv- ing that he should suffer hardships unusual to an oﬁicer of his rank. After a long captivity in various places, he returned to America to be shut up in one of the dreary prison ships of New York, where, on May 3, 1778, he was exchanged. Kindly received by congress and by Washington, he was about to enter the mil- itary service again, when the old colonial trou- bles regarding Vermont were revived. Allen was now chosen general, and appointed to com- mand all the militia of that state. In the mean time certain of the western counties of New Hampshire sought annexation to Vermont, _sending a petition to that effect to the legisla- ture, who referred the matter to the people. The governor of New Hampshire protested against this course, writing in the premises to the continental congress to interpose its author- ity. Allen was sent as the agent of Vermont to explain to congress the course of the state, and succeeded in the great object of his mis- sion, which was the ultimate recognition of Vermont as one of the separate states. At about this time the English commanders in America began to meditate the restoration of royal authority in Vermont, and while the Vermont claim to self-government was in abey- ' ance, sought to. take advantage of the dispute. A tempting offer was made to Allen through Beverley Robinson, a well-known tory of the time, without any result, except that, by feign- ing negotiations, Allen was able-to preserve the neutrality of the English authorities toward his mountaineers, who were consequently un- molested until nearly the end of the war. Dur- ing this season of retirement Allen served in the legislature, and wrote, in addition to various political pamphlets, a work called “ Reason, the only Oracle of Man,” in which the Bible and the Christian religion are assailed. Before the end of the war he removed to Bennington, thence to Arlington, and subsequently to the vicinity of Onion river, where he resided till he died. He was twice married, and left a wife and several children behind him.—lnx, brother of Ethan, was born in 1752, and died Jan. 7, 1814, at Philadelphia. He served in the Ameri- can army during the revolution, was a mem- ber of the constitutional convention of Ver- mont, and held many ofﬁces of trust under its state organization. In 1795 he went to France, where he purchased 20,000 muskets and 24 cannon, expecting to sell them to the state; but while returning home with a portion of them on board, he was taken and brought to England, under the accusation of furnishing arms to the Irish rebels. A lawsuit of 8 years duration followed, in which he was successful. ALLEN, HENRY, a religious enthusiast, born at Newport, R. I., June 14, 1748, died at North- \ 'nances of the gospel. 374 ampton, N. H., Feb. 2, 17 84. He held peculiar opinions on religious subjects, believing that the soul is an emanation from God, that our ﬁrst parents were not corporeal before the fall, that therewill be no resurrection of the body, and that men are not bound to obey the ordi- These doctrines he reached in Nova Scotia, about the year 1778. He published some treatises and sermons, and a book of hymns. ALLEN, J orm, archbishop of Dublin, born in 147 6, and assassinated in 1534, by Thomas Fitzgerald, son of the earl of Kildare. Af- ter graduating, he was sent to Rome on church business, where he remained 9 years. On his return, cardinal Wolsey made him his chaplain and judge of his court as legate a latere, in which position he was suspected of the most ﬁagrant_malpractices. In 1528 he received the appointment of archbishop of Dublin and chancellor of Ireland. ALLEN, J orns, M. D., a writer on physiology, politics, and metaphysics, born near Edin- burgh, in 1770, died at Dulwich college, of which institution he was master, in 1843. After leaving the university, he became a leo- turer on physiology in his native city, and at this time identiﬁed himself with the parlia- mentary reform movement. About the year 1800, he became acquainted with Lord Hol- land, and accompanied him in a journey through France and Spain. He afterward became his private secretary. His contributions to the “Edinburgh Review” were numerous and valuable, chieﬂy relating to the British consti- tution, and French and Spanish history; and his investigations determined, in a great meas- ure, the views of that periodical on constitu- tional questions. The most valuable work pro- ceeding from his pen is his “Inquiry into the Rise and Growth of the Royal Prerogative in England,” published in 1830. He was under- secretary of the commissioners for treating with America, in 1806. Dr. Allen possessed a ﬁne intellect, and had stored his mind with extensive information. ALLEN, JOSEPH W., an English landscape painter of considerable merit, born at Lam- beth, Surrey, in 1803, died Aug. 26, 1852, of heart-disease. He was for a time a school- master, but soon gave up teaching, and went to London to study art. At this time, being in narrow circumstances, he used to paint signs and transparencies, to eke out a subsistence, and afterward took up scene-painting. He ﬁnal- ly became principal scene-painter at the Olym- pic theatre, then under the management of Mad- ame Vestris, and his productions contributed materially to the success of the pieces repre- sented there. But the result of his engaging in this branch of the art was to corrupt his style in landscape painting. He had excelled in depicting quiet, rural scenery; but, when he began to employ the “ brilliant effects” which should be conﬁned to the stage, the results which he obtained were far inferior in ﬁdelity ALLEN and truth to nature, to those exhibited in his earlier productions. On the whole, he does not rank high among English painters. ALLEN, Mosns, a clergyman of Midway, Georgia, born in Northampton, Mass., Sept. 14, 1748, died Feb. 8, 1779. He enjoyed the friendship of James Madison, and was an ardent patriot. In 1778 his church was burned by the British troops. He render- ed himself very obnoxious to them by his zeal for the revolutionary cause, and conse- quently, when captured, he was closely con- ﬁned in a prison-ship. He endeavored to escape by swimming ashore, and was drowned. ALLEN, PAUL, an editor and author of several poems, born at Providence, R. I., Feb. 15, 1775, died at Baltimore in 1826. After graduating at Brown university, he went to Philadelphia, and was employed to write for the “Portfolio” and “United States Gazette.” In 1801, he published a small volume of poems. He also, about this time, superintended the publication of “Lewis and Clark’s Travels.” Soon after, he projected a “Life of Washing- ton,” and obtained a great number of sub- scribers; but such was his indolence that he made no effort whatever to fulﬁl the obligation which he had thus assumed. He then became successively the editor of the “Federal Re- publican” and the “Journal of the Times,” but was unsuccessful in both capacities, sank into extreme poverty, and for a time his reason was obscured. He ﬁnally assumed the manage- ment of the “Morning Chronicle” at Balti- more, and conducted that journal until his death. In 1821, the “Life of Washington” appeared, published in his name, but really written by John Neal and another of his friends named Watkins. Allen merely con- tributed a portion of the preface. His poem of “Noah” was published in 1821, in 5 cantos. It had originally consisted of 25; but, having been placed in the hands of Mr. Neal for re- vision, he judiciously reduced it to its present dimensions. It now begins with the sending forth of the raven. The composition, as a whole, is pleasing, and contains some excellent lines, although many of the couplets, from their extreme literalness, have an air of burlesque. ALLEN, SAMUEL, a London merchant, who died May 5, 1705, aged 70. He purchased from Mason’s heirs in 1691 a large tract of land in New Hampshire, including Portsmouth and Dover, and extending 60 miles inland. He acted as governor of New Hampshire until the arrival of Lord Bellamont in 1699. His pur- chase involved him in a protracted lawsuit with the actual settlers, who produced an Indian title, subsequently found to be a forgery, but not until the Allen family had become extinct. ALLEN, SOLOMON, American revolutionary soldier, born at Northampton, Feb. 23, 1751, died Jan. 20, 1821. He rose to the rank of major during the revolution, and assisted in putting down Shay’s rebellion, at a later period. At the age of 50, he became a clergyman, and, ALLEN although deﬁcient in intellectual culture, having enjoyed but scanty opportunities for acquiring knowledge in early life, he had remarkable success in his new sphere of exertion. ALLEN, THOMAS. I. A famous mathemati- cian, born at Uttoxeter, Statfordshire, in 1542, died in 1632. He received his ﬁrst degree at Ox- ford, and in 1580 took up his residence at Gloucester Hall, where he devoted himself to the study of philosophy and mathematics. He afterward resided for some time with the earl of Northumberland, where he enjoyed the so- ciety of many learned men. His scientiﬁc at- tainments brought upon him the suspicion of dealing in magic, and he was accused of using the black art to promote a match between Queen Elizabeth and his friend the earl of Leicester. A great part of his valuable collec- tion of manuscripts was presented to the Bod- leian library. II. SIR Tnonms, an English ad- miral, who gained the ﬁrst naval victory over the Dutch. In 1665, with a squadron of 8 ships, he defeated their Smyrna ﬂeet, and, taking 4 vessels, compelled the remainder to take refuge in the harbor of Cadiz. III. TI-roMAs, an American clergyman, born at Northampton, Mass., Jan. 17, 1743, died at Pittsﬁeld, Mass., Feb. 11, 1810. He graduated at Harvard college in 1762, and was ordained in 1764 at Pittsﬁeld, of which town he was the ﬁrst minister. Twice during the war of the American revolution he served as chaplain, and in the battle of Bennington he took an active part. He was minister of the same church from the time of his ordination until that of his death, a period of nearly 46 years, and during this time delivered many lectures, and preached 600 or 7 00 funeral sermons, in addition to his usual Sabbath discourses. He was a man of piety, energy, and determination, and of a warm and affectionate disposition. ALLEN, WILLIAM. I. An American clergy- man and author, was the son of Rev. Thomas Allen, the ﬁrst minister of Pittsﬁeld, Mass.; his mother was Elizabeth, daughter of the Rev. Jonathan Lee, the ﬁrst minister of Salis- bury, Conn., and was a descendant of Gov- ernor Bradford. Dr. Allen, the ninth of 12 chil- dren, was born in Pittsﬁeld, J an. 2, 1784. He was a graduate of Harvard college in 1802, and pursued the study of theology with Dr. Pierce, of Brookline. After being licensed in 1804 by the Berkshire association, he preached for some months in the western part of New York in various places. Upon his return he was ap- pointed a regent in Harvard college, as successor to Dr. Channing ; while in that ofﬁce he prepared the ﬁrst edition of his “ American Biographical and Historical Dictionary,” published in 1809, and containing notices of about 7 00 Americans. This was the ﬁrst book of general biography is- sued in this country. In 1807 the author had prepared the lives of American ministers for the Rev. David Bogue’s “History of Dis- senters,” published in London in 4 vols. The second edition of Dr. Allen’s Dictionary ap- 375 peared in 1832, and contained more than 1,800 names. The third edition, published in Boston in 1857, is much enlarged, having biographies and notices of nearly 7 ,000 Americans, more or less distinguished. His connection with the univer- sity ceased in 1810, when he delivered the ora- tion before the Phi Beta Kappa society, Washington Allston being the poet of the occa- sion. In October, 1810, he was ordained pas-‘ tor of the church in Pittsﬁeld, as his father’s successor. In 1812, he married Maria Malle- ville Wheelock, daughter of President John Wheelock, of Dartmouth college. The legisla- ture of New Hampshire in 1816 altered the charter of Dartmouth college, and created in its stead a university, of which Dr. Allen was made president in 1817. Upon an appeal to the supreme court at Washington, the rights of the college against the state were maintained in 1819, in a decision which has had a wide in- ﬂuence upon the subject of corporate rights. In the following year, 1820, Dr. Allen was ap- pointed president of Bowdoin college, Me., as successor to Dr. Appleton, and retained that position until his resignation of the oﬁice in 1839, since which time he has lived in North- ampton, Mass., engaged in various literary la- bors. Among these, is a collection of more than 10,000 words not found in dictionaries of the English language; nearly 1,500 being con- tributed to Dr. Worcester’s dictionary (1846); more than 4,000 for Webster’s (1854); and about 6,000 for the projected new edition of Webster.—-His other chief writings are: Bac- calaureate Addresses, 1823—29; J unius Un- masked, to prove that Lord Sackville was the real J unius; Accounts of Shipwrecks; Psalms and Hymns, with many original hymns, 1835 ; Memoirs of Dr. Eleazer Wheelock, and of Dr. John Codman, 1853; An Historical Discourse on the fortieth anniversary of the second church in Dorchester, 1848; a Discourse at the close of the second century of the Settlement of Northampton, Mass., 1854; Wunnissoo, or the Vale of Hoosatunnuk, a poem, with learned notes, 1856; beside a Dudleian lecture at Cambridge, and various sermons and reports. II. A celebrated pharmaceutical chemist and lecturer on chemistry at Guy’s hospital, London, was born in 1770, and died in 1843. Having studied the science in the establishment of a London chemist, he afterward carried on the business on his own account. He was made a fellow of the royal society in 1807, and the results of his researches in company with his friend Pepys, were published by that body. He was remarkable in private life for gene- rosity and benevolence. III. Chief justice of Pennsylvania before the war of the revolution. He was the son of William Allen, a distinguished merchant of Philadelphia, and succeeded his father-in-law, Andrew Hamilton, as recorder of that city in 1741. He was opposed to the movement of the colonies against the mother country, and before the revolution broke out, removed to England, where he died in 1780. He 376 ALLEN was a friend to literature and the ﬁne arts, and assisted Franklin in establishing the college at Philadelphia. ALLEN, WILLIAM HENRY, an officer of the American navy, born at Providen ce, R. I., Oct. 21, 1784, died at Plymouth, Eng., August 15, 1813. Against the wishes of his father, Wil- liam Allen, a major in the revolutionary army, he entered the navy as a midshipman in 1800. After serving with credit in various different vessels, and in different capacities, he was in 1809 appointed ﬁrst lieutenant of the frigate United States. Oct. 25, 1812, he distinguished himselfin the action between this vessel and the British frigate Macedonian, which resulted in the capture of the latter. Lieut. Allen was intrusted with the command of the prize, which he carried to New York. He was afterward promoted to be master commandant, and re- ceived the command of the brig Argus, in 1813. In_ this vessel he conveyed to France the American minister to that country, Mr. Craw- ford, and having discharged this duty, pro- ceeded to cruise in the neighborhood of England. He took a great many prizes, and captured property to the amount, as was estimated, of $2,000,000. On August 14, he fell in with the British brig Pelican, and in the action which ensued, and which resulted in the capture of the Argus, was mortally wounded. His leg was amputated at sea, and he was carried to Plymouth, where he died on the day after the action. He was eagerly desirous of glory, brave in action, and courteous in his manners. ALLEN, WILLIAM Howann, an American naval oﬁicer, born in Hudson, New York, in 1792, was 2d lieut. of the Argus, Capt. Allen, when she was taken by the Pelican on the coast of England in 1813, and commanded in the latter part of the action when both his su- periors had been carried below wounded. He was killed in the vicinity of Matanzas, in Nov. 1822, while gallantly leadinga boat attack upon a piratical squadron. He had attained a high reputation in the navy, and fell at the age of 30. His native town erected a monument to his memory. ' ALLENDE J ., a Spanish ofﬁcer, of Mexican birth, to whom the Mexican revolutionist Hidalgo ﬁrst intrusted his plan of revolt against the Spanish power in Sept. 1810, and the ﬁrst man of rank who joined the curate of Dolores in his ﬁrst demonstration. Allende was at that time a captain of the Mexican regi- ment of La Reyna, and brought to the service the military skill of which Hidalgo was so much in need. When the regiment of La Reyna and that of Celaya joined Hidalgo, Al- lende was able to give some consistency to the native levies, and enabled them to storm the famous Alhondega of Guanaj uato. After Nov. 29, 1810, Allende joined Hidalgo, and was able to replace the guns which had pre- viously been lost at Aculco, by bringing others from San Blas, the great naval station of Spain on the Paciﬁc, of which Morelos had obtained ALLEN TOWN possession. The whole of these guns, though of heavy calibre, were borne by the naked In- dians over the Cordilleras. Contrary to the ad- vice of Allende, Hidalgo determined to ﬁght the enemy, and was defeated. Allende brought off the fragment of the army, and was arrested near Saltillo, on the very ground of Gen. Taylor’s victory over Santa Anna, by the treachery of an old comrade named Elizondo, and shot with his chief at Chihuahua, July, 1811. After Hidalgo had defeated Truxillo, Allende was anxious to march at once on Mexico, and Hidalgo’s refusal has been considered the cause of the failure of this ﬁrst attempt at revolution. Allende had much power over the natives; so much, indeed, that in more than one of the early actions of the revolution they charged up to the mouths of the Spanish artillery, which they thought to muﬁde by stuffing their straw hats into their mouths. ALLENT, PIERRE ALEXANDRE J osnrn, a French general, born at St. Omer in 1772, died July 3, 1837. In 1792 he served as a simple artilleryman, on the occasion of the bombard- ment of Lille. He was admitted to the corps dc génie, and in 1795 promoted to the rank of captain; subsequently he was appointed chqf cl’état major du génie of the armies of Mentz and the Danube. Under the empire he was pro- moted to the grade of chef de bataillon or major, and put at the head of the committee of fortiﬁcations. In 1814 he distinguished himself by his valiant exertions on behalf of the defence of Paris. After the restoration, he became chief of the staff of the national guard and councillor of state. In 1832 he was raised by Louis Philippe to the dignity of peer of France. Gen. Allent had received a ﬁnished clas- sical education, and distinguished himself in the ﬁeld of literature, not only by his works on military subjects, but also by an essay on the moral and political inﬂuence of the art of paint- ing, which, in 1798, gained a prize at the national institute of France. ALLENTOWN, the seat of justice of Le- high county, Pennsylvania ; situated on the west bank of the Lehigh river, 18 miles above its junction with the Delaware. The ﬁrst house was built by William Allen in 1750, on a grant of 20,000 acres received from William Penn. Around him were large tracts owned by Phila- delphians, called “ Gentlemen’s land,” and used by them as hunting grounds. William Plumstic, of the governor’s council, built his “hall ” upon one of these tracts called Egypt, which was after- ward known as “ Whitehall.” Upon this, on the site of the present “Egyptian church,” was built the ﬁrst Lutheran church in America, on the west side of the Lehigh. In 1762 the town was laid out and called Northampton, the name of the county it then belonged to. It contained 13 families. In 1776 there were 54 houses, of which 7 were taverns. Early attempts were made to remove the county seat from Easton to Northampton, the latter being represented as the centre of the county, and the region be- ALLERSTAIN tween it and Easton, now one of the most high- ly cultivated portions of Pennsylvania, “as an unbroken wilderness without inhabitants or water.” In 1812 Lehigh county was established and Northampton was made the county town, having been incorporated as a borough the year previously. In 1838 the name was changed to Allentown. In 1830 abundant supplies of excel- lent water were introduced from a large spring near by, on the bank of the Little Lehigh; and from this time the place has rapidly increased in population. By a railroad extending up and down the valley of the Lehigh, it is connected in one direction with the anthracite coal region at the head waters of this stream, and in the other it has direct communication with New York and Philadelphia, each of which by the way of Easton is about 100 miles distant. The construction of another railroad of 36 miles in length is just commenced, which will connect the Lehigh valley with that of the Schuylkill above Reading, and complete the last link in the most direct line of communication between New York city and the south-west. By these railroads and the Lehigh canal, Allentown is made a very important central point for sup- plies of iron ores and anthracite. Several large blast furnaces are already in operation; and the business must become far more extensive, al- though this valley even now produces one-tenth of all the iron manufactured in the United States. The population of Allentown are mostly of Ger- man descent, and the German language is still commonly spoken. The newspapers are in both the German and English languages; the courts are conducted, and the records are kept in both. The population in 1857 is between 8,000 and 9,000. ALLERSTAIN, or HALLERSTAIN, a German Jesuit, born at the beginning of the 18th century, died about the year 1777. He went as mission- ary to China, where his mathematical and astro- nomical attainments attracted the attention of the Chinese emperor Kien-long, who promoted him to the rank of mandarin, and put him at the head of the mathematical department of the govern- ment. Allerstain obtained from the statistical department the Chinese census for the years 1760 and 1761, from which it appears that the population, which in the ﬁrst-named year was 196,837,977, rose in the next year to 198,214,624. These pieces of information, translated by Father Allerstain himself from Chinese into English, were received in Europe in 1779, and are considered very valuable, especially as they corroborate the accounts of the celebrated mis- sionary Amiot, and establish the fact of the grogressive increase of the Chinese population. ut the publication of the census has been dis- continued by the Chinese government out of fear of revealing the secret of its strength. The census procured by the energetic activity of Al- lerstain is included in the Description générale de la 0/zine. ALLESTAR, a town in the peninsula of Ma- lacca, on the bank of the Queda river, in the 377 kingdom of Queda or Kedda. It has 2,000 dwellings, among them many ﬁne buildings, and was at one time the residence of the king. ALLESTREE, or ALLESTREY, RICHARD, an English divine, a native of Uppington, in Shrop- shire, born in 1619, died in 1680. During the civil war he joined the king’s party, and was at the battle of Keinton-ﬁeld in Warwickshire. At the conclusion of the war he took orders, and was afterward one of those expelled when the parliament, in 1648, sent visitors to Oxford to demand the submission of the university. He found an asylum in the family of Lord Newport, Shropshire, and after the battle of Worcester, he was ﬁxed upon by the royalists as a proper person to convey despatches and have a con- ference with the king at Rouen. Soon after the return of Charles, he was made canon of Christ’s church, king’s chaplain, regius pro- fessor of divinity, and in 1665 promoted to the provostship of Eton, which he resigned 1678. He was a graduate of Oxford, where, in 1684, 40 of his sermons were published. ALLETZ, PIERRE Enouxnn, a French writer, born at Paris in 1798, died at Barcelona in 1850. Throughout his life he was the personal friend of Guizot and Lamartine. From 1844 to the overthrow of the government of Louis Philippe, he was consul-general of France at Geneva, and after that event until his death he held the same oﬁice at Barcelona. His principal literary work which gained him distinction was published at Paris in 1832 under the title of Esqmlsses de la souﬁrance morale. The other productions of his pen consist in a dramatic poem, Walpole, and in miscellaneous, historical, ethical, political, and poetical writings. ALLEVARD, a town of France, on the river Ozeins. It is noted for its iron mines, which yield 4,500 tons a year, and as the birth-place of the chevalier Bayard. - ALLEY, WILLIAM, an English prelate, born at Wycombe, Bucks, in 1500, died in 1570, a graduate of Eton college and King’s college, Cambridge. He afterward studied at Oxford; but as he was a zealous advocate for the refor- mation, he retired during Mary’s reign into the north, where he kept a school and practised physio. Under Elizabeth he was made lecturer at St. Paul’s, and in 1560 bishop of Exeter. He wrote the “Poor Man’s Library,” containing sermons, &c., besides a commentary on St. Peter’s First Epistle, and a translation of the Pentateuch in the bishop’s Bible. ' ALLEYN, EDWARD, an English actor and play-house proprietor, was born in London in 1566, and died at Dulwich college, of which institution he was the founder, in 1626. He was the friend of Jonson and Shakspeare, and acquired a large fortune by the theatres which he owned in London, and by his mastership of the bear-gardens. He ﬁnally settled down quietly at Dulwich with his wife, contenting himself with the same allowance of food and clothing which was allottedto each of his pen- sioners. At his death he left property for the ALLEYN 378 ALLGAIER endowment of 20 almshouses, besides legacies to his wife and relatives. His muniﬁcent charities, and not his skill as an actor, have perpetuated his fame. ALLGAIER, J onxxx, a noted chess-player and German writer on the game, lived during the greater part of his life in Vienna, but died at Prague in 1826. For some years he was a captain in the Austrian service. His work, Anweisung sum Schachspiel, was ﬁrst published at Vienna in 1795. It has since gone through 7 editions, the last and best of which appeared at Vienna in 1841. A peculiar method of opening the game received from him the name of the Allgaier gambit. ALLGEMEINE ZEITUNG, one of the old- est German daily newspapers, established by the publisher Cotta, in Augsburg, at the time of the ﬁrst French revolution. It has no spe- cial character, and never had any, opening its columns to all opinions. It publishes no lead- ing articles, but is made up of correspondence, which it receives from almost all parts of the world, and of news extracted from other pa- pers. It is often employed by governments and diplomatists, especially by those of Germany and northern Europe, as a vehicle of bringing news unoﬂicially before the public, as well as of discussing questions and attacking each oth- er. On this account the Allgemeine Zeitung enjoys a great consideration among continental politicians. It forms one of the best political and diplomatic records of the century. A part of its columns is also devoted to objects of va- ried general information, to scientiﬁc disquisi- tions, and reviews of the prominent literary works of most European nations. This part of the paper is made up with ability and conscien- tiousness. ALLIER, a department of France, part a of the old province of Bourbonnais. It contains 2,828 square miles of territory, and had in 1851 a population of 336,758. The river Allier ﬂows through the department. Its capital is Mou- lins. Allier is the see of a bishop. ALLIGATION, the name of a rule that teaches the solution of questions concerning the compounding or mixing together of different ingredients, or ingredients of different qualities or values. Alligation is generally divided into medial and alternate. Alligation medial, from the rates and quantities of the simples given, discovers the rate of the mixture. Alligation alternate, being the converse of alligation me- dial, from the ratio of the simples, and ratio of the mixture given, ﬁnds the quantities of the ‘ simples. ALLIGATOR, a large carnivorous, amphibi- ous reptile, of the saurian family, peculiar to America. The name was ﬁrst given to this animal by the English colonists of the southern portion of what are now the United States; but has been gradually extended to all the vari- eties of the family, called caymans, crocodiles, jacarés, &c., by the Spaniards, Portuguese, and Indians of the southern continent. The alliga- ALLIGATOR tor was formerly believed to be identical with the crocodile of the old world; but there have subsequently been found to exist distinctions, which are, however, merely speciﬁc and not generic differences, and are not, therefore, suffi- cient to constitute a distinct variety. The ge- neric characteristics of the family are long ﬂat heads, thick necks and bodies, protected by regular transverse rows of square long plates or shields, elevated in the centre into keel- shaped ridges, and disposed on the back of the neck into groups of different forms and num- bers, according to the species. The mouth is extremely large, extending considerably behind the eyes, and furnished in each jaw with a sin- gle row of conical teeth, all of different sizes, and standing far apart from one another. The eyes are placed on the upper surface of the skull, very near to each other, and provided with three eyelids. The feet have ﬁve toes be- fore, long and separate; four behind, more or less perfectly connected by membranes; the in- terior toes only, on all the feet, being provided with claws. The tail is of great length, slen- der, strongly compressed at the sides, and sur- mounted toward its origin by'a double series of keel-shaped plates, forming two upright dentic- ulated crests, which, gradually converging toward the middle of the tail, there unite and form a single row to the extremity. This tail is the great instrument of progression to the animal when in the water, and its great wea- pon of defence when surprised on land. Both species, the alligators and crocodiles, hybernate, or retire to rest, taking no food during the win- ter months; the Nilotic crocodiles, according to Pliny, withdrawing into caves and holes in the banks, while the alligators of America bury themselves in the mud of the stagnant rivers, which they frequent. The principal food of both alligators and crocodiles is ﬁsh, but they watch for, capture, and devour all land animals, which descend to the banks of the waters, which they frequent in order to drink, or which endeavor to pass across them. Even men are constantly seized by these ﬁerce and voracious reptiles; and it is even said that in the rivers of the Carolinas, Louisiana, and the Mississippi country, their favorite food is the ﬂesh of the negro, which they are supposed to prefer to all other diet. It is alleged that the musky ﬂuid secreted from the glands of the throat, acts as a sort of bait, and attracts the ﬁsh on which they prey, within reach of their terrible snap- ping jaws. The alligators are distinguished from the true crocodiles, according to Cuvier, by having the head less oblong than the croco- diles. Its length is to its breadth, measured at the articulation of the jaws, as three to two; the teeth are unequal in length and size; there are at least nineteen, sometimes even as many as twenty-two, on each side in the lower, and nineteen or twenty in the upper jaws. The front teeth of the under jaw pierce through the upper, at a certain age; and the fourth from the front, which are the longest of all, enter ALLIGATOR into corresponding holes of the upper jaw, in Which they are concealed when the mouth is closed. The hind legs and feet are round, and neither fringed nor pectinated on the sides; the toes are not completely webbed, the connecting membrane only extending to their middle; and ﬁnally, the post-orbital holes of the cranium, so conspicuous in the true crocodiles, are very minute in the alligators, or even entirely want- ing. Further than this, it is observable that the alligators are rarely, if ever, to be found in running streams, preferring stagnant ponds and the creeks of large rivers, in which, particular- ly in South America, they may be seen in countless numbers, protruding their large ﬂat heads through the leaves of the nymphaea, pontederia, and other aquatic plants, which cover the surface of the water, and watching for their prey; or sometimes basking in the sun, or sleeping on the banks, while the croco- diles affect swift rivers. They never come on shore, except during the hottest part of the day, and always retire to the water on the ap- proach of night, during which they are ex- tremely active in search of their food. They generally lay from ﬁfty to sixty eggs, in one place, of about the same size as those of the goose, which they cover up with sand, and leave to be hatched by the heat of the sun, never, however, removing to any great distance. When the young ones come forth, they are about ﬁve or six inches long, and are immedi- ately conducted to the water by the female alligator. Seldom more than half the brood reach the water, the remainder being devoured by the male alligators, and by various ravenous ﬁshes; while multitudes are destroyed in the egg by the vultures, which watch the female alligator when she goes ashore to deposit her eggs, and, when she returns to the water, take advantage of her retreat to banquet on her treasure. It is remarked that the true alliga- tors never leave the fresh water, while the crocodiles frequent the mouths of the large riv- ers, and swim out into the open sea, passing be- tween different islands at considerable dis- tances. So perfect a characteristic is this of the two subgenerae, that the animal of the West India islands, which swims out into the salt water, is distinctly a crocodile, varying from all the other American species, and exhibiting the modiﬁcations which belong only by right to those of the old world.--The principal Ameri- can varieties are, 1. THE ALLIGATOR, properly so called, crocodilus Zucius, of Ouvier. It in- habits the waters of the Oarolinas, Mississippi, and the other southern states. It grows to the size of 14 or 15 feet; its head is one-seventh of the entire length, and half as broad at the ar- ticulation of the jaws as it is long. It has these distinguishing modiﬁcations from the other American crocodiles. The snout is ﬂattened on its upper surface, and slightly turned upward at the extremity; the sides of it are nearly parallel, and the nose forms a regular parabolic curve. It is this similarity to the head of a 379 pike whence it has its name Zucius. It is said to be far more ﬁerce and voracious than the South American varieties, often seizing and de- stroying men and large land animals, the bodies of which it conceals under the banks until they begin to putrefy, when it draws them ashore and devours them; for its teeth, unﬁtted to mastication, cannot cut the ﬂesh in its crude state. The female of this species is remark- ble for her maternal attention to her young, never losing sight of her nest until the little alligators are excluded from the shell. Bar- tram the American naturalist found great num- bers of these amphibia in a mineral spring near the Musquito river, in Florida, though the water, at its exit from the earth, was nearly at the boiling point, and strongly impregnated with copper and vitriol.——2. THE CAYMAN, crocodilus palpebrosus. This variety is distin- guished by its bony eyebrows, which form knobs as large as the ﬁsts of a man. Its toes are almost entirely free from connecting mem- branes, and its skull has no post-orbital aper- tures. It is smaller and less ﬁerce than the others of its species; and the female takes no heed to her eggs when they are once deposited. This is the alligator of Guiana and Surinam.—- 3. THE CROCODILE on BRAZIL, crocodilus trigo- natus. A variety of the above species, scarcel ly distinguishable from it, but suspected, al- though having all the characteristics of the American subgenus, to be of African origin. The only distinctions which divide it from the cayman are a long ridge between the orbits running toward the snout, a notch in the pos- terior margin of the skull, and a peculiar arrangement of the cervical plates.—4. THE J AOARE, orocodz'lus sclerops. This is the alli- gator of all tropical America, particularly nu- merous in Brazil. Its head is more elongated than that of the North American alligator, the sides converging toward the snout so as to form nearly an isosceles triangle. The bones of the skull have a rough scabrous appearance, as if diseased; and the orbits of the eye are sur- rounded by prominent rims of bone, connected by a ridge between the orbits, constituting, to- gether, the resemblance of a pair of spectacles, whence its name. It grows to a very large size, attaining even to 18 feet, its length be- ing above 8 times that of the head. It never attacks men, or even dogs, whether on land, or in passing rivers, unless they be in the neighborhood of its nest; nor does it then prey on the carcases, feeding only on ﬁsh and water- fowl. These are the several-American alliga- tors, as distinguished from the crocodiles of the old world, as yet characterized and classiﬁed. The bony armor of all the species is their pro- tection against all enemies, even against the artiﬁcial weapons of man, being proof against the riﬂe ball, which can only take effect when it strikes the eye, or the unarmed- skin on the belly and about the insertion of the forelegs. The construction of this armor, however, pre- vents them from turning rapidly, when on dry 380 ALLIGATOR SWAMP land, so that their pursuit is easily avoided. Their ﬂesh, and even their eggs, although both have a strong musky ﬂavor, are said to be both wholesome and nutritious. The American alli- gators have neither their allied protector bird, the spur-winged dotterel, nor their character- istic enemy, the - ichneumon, which protector assail their congeners, the crocodiles of the Nile. The hideous aspect, disgusting habits, abominable smell, and odious roar of these vast 1-eptiles, added to the repulsive and awful char- 'acter of the regions they inhabit, have ren- dered them objects of undue apprehension. They are, in fact, rather subjects for the antipa- thy and disgust, than for the fears of man. ALLIGATOR SWAMP, a large tract of marsh in North Carolina, covering nearly the entire peninsula between Pamlico and Albe- marle sounds. It is said that the surface of the swamp is higher than the surrounding dry ground, and that it holds the water by capillary attraction. ALLIOLI, J osarn FRANZ, German theolo- gian, born at Sulzbach, Aug. 10, 1793. In 1816 he took holy orders and received the degree of D. D. In 1818 he went to Vienna, where he remained two years, engaged in the study of the eastern tongues, and then visited Rome and Paris. In 1825 he was appointed Biblical professor at Landshut. The following year he was removed to the university at Mu- nich, of which he was appointed rector in 1830. I11 health obliged him in 1835 to resign his pro- fessorship, and he has since been provost of the cathedral at Augsburg. ALLIONI, Came, an Italian botanist, born at Turin in 1725, died in 1804. He graduated at the Turin university, and subsequently was attached to it as professor of botany. He was a man of extensive knowledge, a member of the institute of Bologna, of the royal societies of London, Giittingen, Madrid, and of other learned societies. His works, chieﬂy botanical, are nu- merous; but the most prominent of them is his Piedmontese Flora, in 3 folio volumes, with plates. His name, “ Allionia,” was given by Loeﬁiing to a genus of plants. ALLISON, FRANCIS, D. D., born in Ireland in 1705, died in Philadelphia in 1777. He was a graduate of the university of Glasgow, and, on coming to.America, distinguished himself for his zeal in the cause of learning in Philadelphia, where he held the oﬁice of vice-provost of the college from 1755 to the time of his death. ALLISON, Tnomas, an English traveller, and, for some time, boatswain in the Russian navy. He lived toward the end of the 17th century. He wrote an account of his travels and observations in Russia, which has been cor- roborated by the accounts of subsequent travel- lers. His book contains much valuable infor- mation about the climate, the inhabitants, &c., of Russia, and was published at London in 1699. ALLISON IA, a ﬂourishing village on the river Elk, Franklin co., Tenn. It is a station of considerable importance on the railroad from ALLOBROGES Nashville to Chattanooga, being situated about midway between them, and contains an exten- sive cotton factory, which eost $100,000. It also possesses the ﬁnest water-power in the state. ALLITERATION, an ornament of language, chieﬂy used in poetry, and consisting in the use of words commencing with the same letter in the same line. In the middle ages this conceit, like so many others, was much in vogue. Take for example such a Latin verse as this, Propterea properans proconsul, poplite prono. In English poetry Spenser uses this fashion prodigally; his principal followers in the prac- tice of alliteration have been Pope and Gray. ALLIX, J ACQUES ALEXANDRE FRANQOIS, a French general of artillery, born at Percy, in Normandy, Sept. 21, 1776, died Jan. 26, 1836. His spirited conduct, while with the army of the north, was favorably noticed in a decree of the French convention, and he was only 20 years old when he was promoted to the rank of colonel. He took a distinguished part in the battle of Marengo and the expedition of St. Do- mingo; but, being a sincere republican, Napo- leon did not pay much attention to him, and Allix offered his services to Jerome, while king of Westphalia, who conferred upon him the dig- nity of general. On the occasion of the inva- sion of France by the allied powers, he hurried home to defend his country, and during the hundred days he had charge of the fortiﬁcation of St. Denis. Prescribed in the ordinance of July 24, 1815, he took refuge in Westphalia, but was recalled to France by the decree of 1819, and reinstated in his position. General Allix wrote various essays on military subjects. He is also the author of a Nouoeau S3/stéme du Monde, written with the ambitious view of re- futing the Newtonian theory. ALLIX, PIERRE, a French protestant divine and writer on theology, was born at Alencon in 1641, and died at London in 1717. He held the oﬂice of minister of the church at Rouen until the revocation of the edict of Nantes, when he ﬂed to England. Here he acquired a complete knowledge of the English language, and composed “A Defence of the Christian Re- ligion ” in that tongue, which he dedicated to King James. He was afterward made a doc- tor of divinity, and received the oﬂice of treas- urer of the church of Salisbury. ALLOA, a seaport town in Clackmannan- shire, Scotland, 27 miles from Edinburgh, on the north side of the Frith of Forth. Pop. in 1851, 6,676. It has an excellent harbor, and a dry-dock capable of containing the largest ships. Brick and tile are manufactured in large quan- tities, and the glass-works produce every qual- ity of glass-ware. There are several extensive distilleries in the vicinity, and the ale of its breweries has a high reputation. ALLOBROGES, a people of Gaul, whose ter- ritory comprehended what is now called Dau- phine, Piedmont, and Savoy. Their principal ALLODIUM town was Vienna, now Vienne, on the left bank of the Rhone. They were brought under the dominion of Rome by Fabius Maximus, and ever after remained faithful to their conquer- ors. Their name arose from the physical char- acteristics of the country which they inhabited, and signiﬁed “dwellers on mountains.” ALLODIUM, in law, signiﬁes a landed pos- session, freed from all feudal tenure or service. Several explanations have been given of the etymology -of the word, but they are all only more or less ingenious conjectures. In early ages the allodium was the most desirable property. In process of time the anarchy conse- quent on the want of a supreme power made the mutual protection and support of lord and vassal more expedient; and in England all land passed into fee land, the king being suzerain of the whole country. The theory still remains in slight services, or in small fee farm rents; and in the escheat to the sovereign for want of heirs. In France, before the revolution of 1789, the actual services still remained; not nominal, but real, unequivocal, and in some cases odious bur- dens; serfdom, indeed, was only abolished by an express decree of the assembly. Nulle term was seigneur was a maxim of law, and the tyranny and monstrous oppressions of the local seigneur proved that it was no dead letter. In Germany the allodium yet remains to be per- fected. The system of man service is not yet exploded, such as the right to several days’ work in harvest, or at hunting parties; al- though this is much modiﬁed, particularly in Prussia, of late years. The conversion of the feudal soil into allodial land is effected either by means of an annual fee rent, or of a ﬁne payable at once, in lieu of all customary ser-‘ vices. Even in 1595 the last traces of bond- age and serfdozn in England were not ob- literated. A patent to’ Sir Henry Lea was issued by the crown, giving power to this indi- vidual, as commissioner, to enfranchise a limited number of crown villeins, and to seize all the rest of the estates acquired by parties in villan- age, to his own use. This monstrous commis- sion, which was, like many other similar enor- mities, a means of enriching some needy or proﬁigate courtier, at the expense of the people, could not have operated except in the case of crown serfs : the doctrine nullum tempus occurrit regs’, coming into operation against the unfortunate landholders whose title was barred by the impurity of their blood. In the case of subjects, villanage had become obsolete. ALLOMAKEE, a county in the N. E. ex- tremity of Iowa, on the borders of Minnesota, is separated from Illinois by the Mississippi river, and contains an area of 660 square miles. The Yellow river forms its S. boundary, and the upper Iowa intersects it. The soil is productive, and the surface undulating woodland and prairie. It contained in 1856 a population of 7,709, and produced 1,191 bushels of corn, 84,865 of wheat, 128,827 of oats, 4,819 tons of hay, and 63,990 lbs. of butter. Columbus is the capital. ALLOPATHY 381 ALLOPATHY, a word created by homoeopa- thists to distinguish other systems of medical practice from their own. Having adopted the opinion that “like cures like,” or similia sivnz'libus curantur, as the fundamental prin- ciple of his doctrine, Halmemann gave to his own system the name of “ homoeopathy,” derived from the Greek 6,u.owv, like, or similar, and 1ra0os‘, disease, and to other systems the name of “ allo- pathy,” from ahhoz/, other, or different, and vmdos, disease. According to Hahnemann, there are three leading doctrines in medicine, two of which are erroneous, and one alone true. One he names “enantiopathy,” or the doctrine of contraria contrariis owrantur, of which Galen is the founder; the other he names “allopathy,” or the doctrine of “ revul- sion,” substituting one disease to cure another, which doctrine was introduced by Theophras- tus Paracelsus; the third and last he names “homoeopathy,” or the doctrine of sz'miZia similibus cumntur, of which he himself is the founder. To this doctrine he adds a certain theory with regard to psom and other en- tities which cause infection; and a second theory concerning the “ dynamization ” of med- ‘ical substances by means of “ trituration,” -“ suc- cussion,” and inﬁnitesimal division or dilution. The old schools of medicine do not receive the theories of Hahnemann, as science; nor do they follow any sectarian leader systematically. Galen’s doctrine is not received for more than it is worth in practice; Paracelsus’ theory is treated with the same reserve; and Hahne- mann’s views are not deemed capable of scien- tiﬁc demonstration. Meanwhile, the sects and so-called “doctrines” of “homoeopathy,” “ en- antiopathy,” “ allopathy,” “ hydropathy,” and other exclusive systems of therapeutics, divide the world of medicine, and proclaim the imper- fections of all one-sided views of science. Anat- omy and surgery, microscopical observations of organic structures, physiology, pathology, chemistry, pharmacy, botany, materia medica, and physical science are nevertheless, making daily progress toward perfection, and the art of healing is deriving new supplies of infor- mation and assistance from the developments of all these tributary streams of knowledge. Men of inquisitive intelligence set up no one-sided doctrine of therapeutics, but examine all new developments of truth in science, testing them by practical experiment, as far as possible, and giving to the world-the beneﬁt of their experience and knowledge, with the reasons which support or militate against particular theories and doctrines, put forth, from time to time, by those who are ambitions to im- prove the art of healing. The chief differ- ence between homoeopathists and those whom they call “ allopaths” and “ enantiopaths,” may be summed up in afew words: the “ prin- ciple ” of “like cures like,” is deemed absolute and universal by the former, to the exclusion of all others ; the latter admit the relative value of the so-called “principles,”—-similia aimilibus, 382 Al.-LORI contrar-ia contrariels, and the revulsive means of action; but none of these are deemed worthy of the name of principle or science. The homoe- opathists believe in the “dynamization ” of drugs by “succussion,” “trituration,” and inﬁnite or indeﬁnite division and dilution; the others say, “not proven.” The microscopical tenuity of miasmatic molecules and other subtle poisons, is not the result of succussion or trituration. The abuse of large doses of medicine, and more especially of mercury, is condemned by homoe- opathists; and all intelligent physicians say, “amen.” The effect produced by medicines is known by practical experience, through long ages of observation, but the modus ope- rancli is still too little understood to warrant the assumption of a doctrine of any kind. The human being is not yet dynamically understood ; its modes of action in the physical organism, are abundantly mysterious, and until these problems are completely solved, the art of heal- ing must be founded chieﬂy on a knowledge of effects ; which knowledge is obtained from prac- tical experience alone. ALLORI, Auzssannno, a painter of Flor- ence, born 1535, died 1607. He was one ofthe best artists of the anatomical school.—Cms- crorano, son of the preceding, born 1577, died 1621. He excelled in the coloring and delicacy of execution of his pictures. ALLOTMEN T SYSTEM, is the cultivation of small portions of garden land by agricultu- ral laborers, and sometimes by urban artisans in their times of leisure. It is one of those plans that have originated in England in a de- sire to better the condition of the laboring classes, and ﬁrst began to be used extensively in 1830. The freehold land system has, how- ever, rather superseded the allotment system in the favor of the urban operatives of England, as the former oﬁ‘ers him a freehold plot where- on a house of his own can be built, while the latter only gives him a small piece of land which he rents for garden purposes. Garden allot- ments still continue to be popular with the agri- cultural population of England,who have no hope of being able to form freehold land societies. The best size of each plot is judged to be from 20 to 40 rods. The allotment system, if uni- versally carried out, is not favorable to the highest productiveness of land. ALLOWAY KIRK, remarkable as the scene of Burns’s poem of Tam O’Shanter. The cot- tage in which the poet was born is in its vicini- ty. An elegant monument has been erected to the memory of Burns. At its base ﬂows the river Doon, and almost within its shadow are the melancholy ruins of the kirk. ALLOY. As commonly applied, this word is used to signify a compound of two or more metals fused together, and its origin is traced to the French word allter. For its ancient and true signiﬁcation, however, we must refer to the time of the alchemists, who ﬁrst introduced it. The metals, with them, were called “noble,” and “ base,” and when one of the latter was ALLOY brought into combination with one of the for- mer, the nobility of this was said to be “al- layed,” or “ alloyed.” By an old writer, alloy is described as “ the proportion of a baser metal mixed with a ﬁner or purer ;” and assay- ers at this day still use the term in this sense. Using the word in its common signiﬁcation, the ﬁrst point of interest that presents itself is the indeﬁnite multiplication of metals that may be produced by their different combinations; for even with proportions of the original metals slightly varying, products are obtained of differ- ent qualities. Some metals, of little value in their pure state, are also made useful by the new properties they assume in combination with others. Most alloys are mixtures of no exact proportions; the metals dissolve in one another indeﬁnitely, as sulphuric acid unites with water. Some, however, appear to be combinations in equivalent proportions, and of these there are found examples in nature, as of the native gold, which occurs combined with silver-4, 5, 6, or 12 atoms of gold to one of silver, but never a fractional part of an atom of gold. The tendency of some alloys to take crystalline forms seems also to indicate deﬁnite combinations. But the metals of other alloys, far from thus ‘perfectly uniting, are with difﬁ- culty brought into combination, and even tend to separate from each other while in the melted state, and in some instances to form layers which contain different proportions of the metals. The column of the Place Vendome in Paris, was cast from cannon captured in Ger- many by the French. The contract with the founder was, that it should be of a composition agreed upon. When completed, the ﬁrst assays gave a much larger proportion of tin than the alloy should contain, and the contract would have been repudiated, had not a large number of assays, made by a committee of chemists, proved that while some portions contained an excess of tin, - others contained an ex- cess of copper.—It has been proposed, in order to remove the confusion arising from the indeﬁnite mixtures of metals, to limit the appli- cation of the term alloy only to those combina- tions that are in atomic proportions, but we imagine greater confusion would be involved in thus attempting to restrict its meaning, for substances hardly differing in composition, and not at all in their general qualities, would have a different general name, to be ﬁxed only by the scientiﬁc chemist. The changes in the physical properties of metals that are effected by their combinations, are of great variety, and cannot, before experiment, be at all anticipated. Even slight variations in the proportions of the metals involve great changes in the product of their union. The speciﬁc gravity of the alloy may be greater or less than the mean of that of the component parts. In the alloy of gold and tin it is greater; in that of gold with silver, lead, iron, or copper, it is less. Alloys are always more fusible than the metal most difﬁcult to melt that enters into their combination, and gen- ALLOY erally more so than the most easily melted one. The fusible metal discovered by Sir Isaac New- ton melts at different temperatures between 198° and 210°F. It is composed of bismuth 5 or 8 parts, lead 2 or 5, and tin 3 parts. These metals melt, the ﬁrst at a temperature of 476°, the second at about 600°, and the last at 442°. —Alloys conduct heat and electricity less per- fectly than their pure metals.‘ They are also generally more brittle. But their power of cohesion is usually greater than that of either of the metals, the alloy resisting more strongly the force applied to draw a bar apart, than does a bar of either one of the metals composing it. The color which the alloy will take is as uncer- tain as any of its other properties. A large addition of zinc will not make its alloy with copper whiter, but will give it the rich pinch- beck hue. Alloys composed of metals of dif- ferent degrees of fusibility may sometimes be separated into their distinct metals by heating to the melting temperature of one of them. An alloy of tin and copper may be thus treated, the tin melting at 442°, and the copper at 1,996°.. This “sweating process,” called cl-igaation, is used to separate silver from copper. Lead is ﬁrst melted in with the other metals, and when sweated out it takes the silver along with it. This alloy is then separated by another process, depending on the easy oxidation of the lead.—- An interesting property of the metals, which may seem somewhat opposed to the one just de- scribed, is the tendency of one, when melting, however fusible it may be, to cause any other in contact with it, however infusible, to melt al- so. The easily melted metals act like ﬂuxes upon those most diﬁicult to fuse. the latter are washed away, till nothing solid is left. Platinum, which is among the most dif- ﬁcult metals to melt, is very susceptible of in- jury from this cause. The costly crucible, and other vessels of the chemist, may be ruined in an unguarded moment by contact with other metals highly heated. On this property is based the principle of soldering two pieces of metal by means of a third. Their surfaces are ﬁxed together by interposing an alloy, which is more fusible than either of the metals to be joined; and this must also consist of metals which are disposed to unite and form a new alloy with them. Pieces of gold are soldered together with an alloy of gold with silver or with copper; articles of silver with an alloy of silver and copper; of copper, with an alloy called hard solder, which is brass containing a large proportion of zinc.—Another interesting proper- ty of alloys is the diiferent effects produced by the order in which their component parts have been mixed, the proportions continuing the same. Ten parts of antimony added to 90 of tin and 10 of copper, make a compound of very different physical properties from that produced by adding 90 parts of tin to 10 of copper, and 10 of antimony. This appears to be analogous to what we witness in vegetable chemistry, as in the identity of composition in The surfaces of . 383 starch and sugar.-—The number of alloys al- ready in use are very numerous, and new valu- able combinations are continually discovered. Those alone of copper with zinc form a long list, in which we ﬁnd the names of many very useful compounds, some of which have been known from the time of Tubal Cain, who was probably among the earliest workers in brass; and others only slightly differing in composi- tion, and still of great importance, are the dis- coveries of yesterday in comparison ; such, for instance, as Muntz’s yellow metal for sheathing, a compound of 40 to 60 of zinc, with 60 of copper. Pewter has l_ong been a useful, though a very homely alloy. It is made of different combinations of lead and tin, with additions, sometimes, of antimony, bismuth, and copper. German silver, composed of copper, nickel, zinc, and iron, has in part displaced it, and is likely to be itself displaced by some improved combinations. In importance, no alloys can rank higher than those of which printers’ types are made, and no known metal possesses the properties essential -to them. They consist of lead and antimony, in proportions varying with the kind of types. This alloy is generally be- lieved to have the property of expanding as it cools, thus ﬁlling the minutest portion of the mould, and preserving the sharp outline of the letter. The beautiful metal, silver, is too soft for use in a pure state. It is alloyed with cop- per to give it hardness, and the copper may be used in equal quantity with the silver, without materially impairing the color. The standard silver of Great Britain consists of silver 11.10, and copper 0.90. The French silver plate con- tains 9.5 parts of silver, and 0.5 copper; trin- kets 8 parts silver to 2 of copper. In our own country, these alloys are made as rich or as poor as the individual manufacturer judges best for his interest. His reputation is the only guarantee that his work is what it is sold for. There is no test but actual analysis, and this is not applicable to the articles without destroy- ing them. Speciﬁc gravity may be employed to some extent, but as the resulting alloy often has a different density from that of the mean of its metals, the calculation becomes a complica- ted one for ordinary use. The following rule, however, given by Dr. Ure, may be applied to this purpose : “Multiply the sum of the weights into the products of the two speciﬁc gravity numbers, for a numerator, and multiply each speciﬁc gravity number into the weight of the other body, and add the two products together for a denominator. The quotient obtained by dividing the said numerator by the denomina- tor, is the truly computed mean speciﬁc grav- ity of the alloy. On comparing with that den- sity the density found by experiment, we shall see whether expansion or condensation of volume has attended the metallic combination.” An alloy, which closely resembles gold in color, speciﬁc gravity, and ductility, is made of 16 parts of platinum, 7 parts of copper, and 1 of zinc. These are put into a crucible, covered 38-1 ALLSPICE with charcoal powder, and melted. The gold coins of the United States are required to be 900 parts in 1,000 ﬁne gold, and the remaining 100 parts must be one-half, and may be more, copper; the rest is silver. The ﬁne bars sent on from the New York assay office to be coined in Philadelphia, contain 8 to 10 thousandths sil- ver. This is what goes into the coin ; the rest of the alloy is made up of copper. Occasional- ly, more silver goes into the alloy than the le- gal amount, from the supplies of gold furnish- ed already containing it. It is this variable proportion of silver and copper that causes the different colors of our gold coins. The alloy of silver coins is strictly copper. The standard of these is also 900 parts of the ﬁner metal, but a deviation is allowed from 897 to 903. The new cent is 88 parts copper, and 12 nickel. This has the effect of whitening the copper. At 20 per cent. the alloy is white. British gold coin is 916.66 parts in 1,000 gold, the remainder mostly copper. The French standard is the same as ours, 900 parts ﬁne gold. British sil- ver coins are 925 parts ﬁne metal; the rest is copper. ALLSPICE, or Jamaica-pepper, is the fruit of the mg/rtus pimento ; and is called allspice from its combining the ﬂavor of several other spices, such as cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg. The allspice pimento, or bay—berry tree (Euge- nia pimenta), is a native of South America and the West India Islands, especially J amaica. The tree is of a highly ornamental character, often upward of 25 or 30 feet in height; the leaves inclining to oval, covering the numerous branches with a luxuriant evergreen foliage; the ﬂowers small and without show, succeeded by spherical berries with a persistent calyx, and a fragrant aromatic odor. When they are quite ripe, they are of a dark purple color, and ﬁlled with a sweet pulp. -In many parts of J a- maica the allspice tree grows in great abun- dance without cultivation, but is not easily pro- pagated by artiﬁcial means. The commercial value of the fruit, which in 1848 amounted to over £5,000,000, makes it an object of great in- terest with the planters, and no crop receives a larger share of attention. The favorite situation for a pimento walk, or plantation, is among the hills on the north side of the island. A spot is selected in the vicinity of another plantation, or in a locality favorable to the spontaneous growth of the trees; this is stripped of all other wood; and the young pimento plants soon make their appearance, either from seeds pre- viously existing in the soil, or which have been deposited by birds who feed upon the berries with great avidity. (See Bigelow’s “Jamaica in 1850,” New York and London, 1851.) It is said that a single tree has been known to pro- duce 150 lbs. of the raw fruit, or 100 lbs. of the dried spice. The crop, however, is uncertain; and abundant only once in 5 years. The ber- ries require care in gathering as well as drying. They must be picked when they have attained full growth, but before they begin to ripen. ALLSTON They are then dried in the sun, on raised board- ed ﬂoors, and frequently turned during the ﬁrst and second days. They are then put into sheets, often winnowed, and exposed to the sun until sufﬁciently dried, which is indicated by the color and the rattling of the seeds in the her- ries. When the seeds are allowed to ripen fully, they lose that aromatic warmth, for which they are esteemed as spice, and acquire a taste almost exactly like that of juniper ber- ries; which renders them agreeable food for birds, the most industrious planters of these trees. The leaves and the bark participate in the warm aromatic properties of the berries. The pleasant ﬂavor of allspice makes them use- ful as a spice or condiment in cookery. The virtues depend on a volatile oil. ALLSTAEDT, the capital of the bailiwick of the same name, situated on the Rhone, in the duchy of Saxe Weimar. Pop. 2,550. It has manufactures of cloths, saltpetre, and potash. An imperial diet was held there in the reign of Otho II. in 974. . ALLSTON, J osnrrr, some time governor of the state of South Carolina, and husband of the celebrated and unfortunate Theodosia, the lovely and accomplished daughter of Aaron Burr. She was lost at sea, supposed to have been taken and murdered by pirates. Gov. Allston was a planter of South Carolina, well educated, able, a man of talents, though, as usual with the southern planters, only devoting a portion of his time to public business. His correspondence argues a capacity for political life which might well have justiﬁed his entire ileyotion to politics. He died September 10, 8 6. ALLSTON, Ronmrr Fnancrs Wrrnnns, gov- ernor of South Carolina in 1856—’7, born in All Saints’ Parish, Waccamaw, of that state, April 21, 1801; was educated at home till his 16th year; entered the military academy at West Point, Dec. 1817. His was the ﬁrst class that went through a regular 4 years’ course under Col. Thayer. Mr. Allston graduated in June, 1821, received an appointment in the 3d artillery, and was immediately ordered on the coast survey, under Lt. Col. Kearney, of the topographical engineers. He assisted in surveying the harbors of Plymouth and Province- town, Mass., and the entrance of Mobile bay. But domestic duties required that he should leave the service, which he did at the close of those labors; and he retired upon a small patrimony, becoming a rice planter on the Great Pedee. He surveyed his lands in person, re- claimed a wild territory, and found his military education eminently useful in laying out the course of canals, embankments, &c. In all these works he proved highly successful, and has become one of the most thorough, well-in- formed, and prosperous of the southern rice planters, contributing greatly to the improve- ment of this peculiar sort of culture. In 1823, he was made surveyor-general of the state, an oﬁice which he ﬁlled worthily 4 years. In WASHINGTON ALLSTON 1828, he was returned by the people of Winyah to the lower house of the legislature. In 1832, he was sent to the senate. He continued to be returned to this body at each election, was ﬁnally made president of the senate in 1850, and left it only when elected governor of the state. His career has been one of continued employ- ment, public and private, and unvarying useful- ness in all relations. His ambition aimed at use- fulness only. In its exercise, he has been modest, gentle of demeanor, courteous always, and duly considerate of the claims of others. His morals are beyond reproach. As a politician, he be- longs to the states rights school of Mr. Calhoun. But he has never suffered himself to sink into the partisan. He has always steadily avoided ultraism; shrunk from controversy; was too mild and genial of nature to suffer his political course to run into any extremes; and, while honestly proud of the honors bestowed upon him by his people, has never so hungered‘ after ofﬁce as to make a single sacriﬁce of feeling or character in its pursuit. Agriculture and edu- cation, the free, or public school system, espe- cially, were always the leading objects of his care while in the legislature. As a planter, his pro- gress in improvement has been steady and decid- ed. He is one of those by whose industry, intel- ligence, and active exertions, the rice culture of the southern states has gone so far beyond that of the regions from which this nutritious grain was originally introduced. He has contrived and introduced better modes of culture, better varieties of seed, and farm stocks, and farming implements of every kind. His was the ﬁrst thresher ever erected on the Pedee. He devotes annually a considerable portion of his income to the work of improvement, to new inventions in machinery, structure, manuring, canalling, em- banking, &c. To economize capital, labor, time, to keep his ‘land especially “in heart,” by feeding properly, and duly resting, are among the prominent secrets of his success. Commencing with 300 acres, he now cultivates 1,300, of which about 1,000 are in rice. He is identiﬁed with many of the improvements of his precinct. He is an indulgent master. Himself a religious man, his negroes are care- fully instructed in morals and religion. Their tasks are easy, and under his management they work with regularity and system. He has built them a rustic church on each of his plantations, where a missionary attends them regularly, and they have their frequent prayer- meetings beside, where persons of their own color assist in their instruction. Gov. Allston’s life is that of a model gentleman and planter. No citizen commands more certainly the re- spect of the people, for his virtues, intelligence, and perfect amiability of character and conduct. He resides, during the winter, at his plantation called “Chiccra Wood,” on the Pedee; and, during the summer months, on the Wa;ccamaw Beach sea-shore, where the climate is genial, the sea-bathing excellent, and the ﬁsh par- ticularly ﬁne, various, and plentiful. He is a VOL. I.—25 385 hospitable gentleman, who naturally asserts all the virtues of the old school gentry. ALLSTON, Wasnmoron, an eminent Ameri- can painter, born at Waccamaw, S. C., on the plantation of his father, N ov. 5, 17 7 9, died at Cambridge, Mass., July 9,1843. His temper- ament was highly nervous, his mind quick and active, and his sensibility acute. As is usual under such conditions, his health was delicate, and it became evident in his youth that a more bracing climate than that of his native state, was essential to his harmonious physical development, while a greater variety and scope than are afforded by the life of an isolated plantation, were requisite to in- form and discipline his intellect. Physician and teacher thus united in advising the removal of the gifted boy to a northern school; and the exigency proved auspicious to the future artist, by introducing him to scenes and inﬂuences which gave new vigor to his frame, and im- pulse to his genius. At that period there was no town in New England that boasted a more cultivated and wealthy community than New- port, R. I. . Trade had enriched many of its resident merchants; Bishop Berkeley, Dr. Stiles, and other distinguished clergymen, had given an intellectual tone to its society ; Dr. Water- house cites its laboratories as the best in the coun- try ; a tolerant spirit among its rival sects, fre- quent intercourse with foreigners, and habits of colonial elegance and hospitality, combined to give a liberal spirit and attractive manner to the social life of this favorite rendezvous of our French allies during the war of independence. Allston was sent there primarily with a view to health, at the age of 7 ; but he remained 10 years, and attended a very excellent private school kept by Robert Rogers. Slight as was the taste and unfrequent the practice of art at that time among us, Newport enjoyed an un- usual share of the few associations connected with a pursuit so interesting to the Carolina boy, whose school-days were‘ passed there.—- The ﬁrst English painter of note who visited our shores, had accompanied Dean Berkeley in 1728 on his voyage to Rhode Island ; and we havethe artist’s record of a visit with his cler- ical friend, to the Indians of Narraganset; where also Gilbert Stuart was born in 1757, and owed his ﬁrst encouragement as a painter to the kindness of Newport friends. While Allston was a schoolboy there, a manufac- turer of quadrants and compasses of the name of King, who had received a partial artistic education, sometimes painted a portrait; he recognized young Allston’s genius, and did all in his power, by correcting his early attempts and suggesting the best methods, to develop the ability and cheer the hopes of the novice. Long afterward his casual pupil spoke of him with gratitude; “it was a pleasant thing to me,” he wrote, “ to remind the old man of those kind- nesses ;” a portrait of this venerable friend-- probably one of the earliest experiments of Allston in oil—still exists at Newport; the head abandoned the experiment. .siduously given to sketching, copying, drawing, and the investigation of color. 386 is noble in contour and the expression benign; a discriminating. eye can also perceive distinct indications of that mellow tone and felicity in coloring which subsequently distinguished All- ston’s pictures. In addition, however, to this imperfect and incidental tuition, gained only at the intervals usually dedicated by boys to amusement, at the critical time when childhood began to merge in youth, a new impulse was given to his artist’s instinct, by the magnetism of sympathy. He formed the acquaintance of Edward Malbone, also a native of Newport, whose remarkable promise as a miniature painter was united to personal qualities and in- tellectual tastes singularly akin to those of All- ston. It is easy to imagine how such an ex- ample and companionship, at a susceptible age, and aperiod when it was so diﬁicult to meet with congeniality in an uncommon vocation, must have conﬁrmed and expanded the love and study of art, in a mind ostensibly engaged in academic education. The walks, discussions, criticisms of each other’s drawings, and, above all, the mutual enthusiasm of these youths, alike gifted, candid, and earnest, seem to have been of great mutual advantage, as well as the source of the most pureenjoyment. Although Mal- bone removed to Providence, R. I., soon after his acquaintance with Allston, their intercourse was resumed in a few months, when the painter was at work in Boston, and the student a colle- gian at Harvard. After graduating in the year 1800, Allston went to Charleston, S. C., where he again met his friend, and fairly commenced his artist-life. Allston, in one of his letters, justly de- ﬁnes the genius and moral worth of Malbone. “He had the happy talent, among his many excel- lences, of elevating the character without im- pairing the likeness; this was remarkable in is male heads; no woman ever lost any beauty from his hand; nay, the fair would become still fairer under his pencil. To this he added a grace of execution all his own. He was ami- able and generous, and wholly free from any taint of professional jealousy.” While an un- dergraduate pursuing his studies at the univer- sity, Allston not only enjoyed the society but emulated the artistic skill of this charming friend; he was, however, dissatisﬁed with his own attempts on ivory and in miniature, and soon His leisure was as- With the com- parative absence both of sympathy and ex- ample in art, it is interesting to inquire what means the future painter discovered, at this early stage of his education, to foster and dis- cipline his genius. Art was then in its infancy . among us-—chieﬂy represented by the elaborate but artiﬁcial portraits of Copley, the histori- cal groups of Trumbull, and the fame of West, then at the height of reputation and courtly favor in England; Stuart’s vigorous pencil had begun to be appreciatedby the judicious few; and the visits of Smybert, Pine, Wright, and others, had left a few notable memorials of their WASHINGTON ALLSTON skill in likenesses; C. W. Peale was a respected name in the middle states, and that of Bem- bridge well known at the south; the latter had studied under Mengs and Romney, and gave pro- mise of excellence, but Allston did not remember his works suﬂiciently, in after life, “to speak of their merits.” Yet with so few and scattered illustrations of painting, he arrived at a mar- vellous degree of knowledge and practical abil- ity in the higher elements of the art ; thus in.-~ dicating a positive and mature genius, before he had actually'embraced it as a profession. One of his ﬁrst works, a portrait of himself in early youth, now in the possession of a venera- ble friend (Mrs. Nathaniel Amory, of Boston), exhibits a vigor and grace of treatment, a ﬁnish of style and transparency of tint, which bespeak the future master. His own account of his studies at Newport and Cambridge, refers to a practice of drawing from prints—ﬁgures, scene- ry, and animals; after this imitative exercise in regard to form and perspective, instinctively adopted in boyhood, he tells us that the two pictures which initiated him into the mys- teries and art of color were an old landscape, either Italian or Spanish, that hung in the house of a friend who resided near the uni- versity; and a head of Cardinal Bentivoglio in the college library, copied by Smybert from Vandyke, “which,” he adds, “I obtained permission to copy one winter’s vacation ;” in which (alluding to his obligations to Pine) “I had a higher master.” These inadequate hints stimulated the intuitive perception of color in which Allston so early excelled. One of his favorite pastimes when a child at the South prophesied the artist, and espe- cially the delight in blending and harmo- nizing effective tints; he used to convert fern stalks into men and women, by array- ing them in colored yarn and making them hold pitchers of pomegranate ﬂowers. N o sooner was his academic career over, thus be- guiled by the companionship of Malbone, the old landscape of southern Europe, and the ﬁne head after Vandyke, into incidental studies akin to his genius, than he went to Charles- ton, S. C., and, among kindred and early friends, found Malbone and Charles Frazer both occupied there in the same way; and he set up forthwith what he quaintly calls a “ pic- ture manufactory.” In a short time, with the former friend, he embarked for London to en- large his knowledge by art-studies in Europe. “ Up to this time,” he remarks, “my favorite subjects, with occasional comic intermissions, were banditti, and I did not get over the mania until I had been more than a year in England.” He alludes, with humorous zest, in the same letter, to his delight when he succeeded in making a gashed throat look real. The charm of such themes was their tragic character, and especially the accessories of dark w_oods, pic- turesque disguises, and terrible sohtude; we can trace in such experiments the effect of that favorite landscape and impressive cardinal’s WASHINGTON ALLSTON head, as well as the imaginative promptings of a poetic and wild instinct. Arriving in London in 1801, Allston immediately became a student of the royal academy, in the presidency of which institution our countryman, Benjamin West, had just succeeded Sir Joshua Reynolds. The integrity and benevolence of West won the conﬁdence of Allston; they soon became intimate, and were attached friends through life. The uniform kindness of the venerable president to his young and gifted compatriot, was ever a subject of grateful remark and re- membrance on the part of Allston. The latter’s cultivated mind, delightful conversation, and reﬁned manners, would have insured him a welcome in the artistic and literary circles of London, independent of the prestige of his genius as a painter. But while enjoying the highest social privileges of the British metrop- olis, and a singular favorite with his profes- sional brethren, he devoted his best time and powers to the study of his art. For 3 years he sought, in assiduous practice and observation, for those principles and that facility which subsequently raised him to the highest rank among modern painters. Among his memo- rable friends, at this epoch,were Dr. Moore, the author of “Zeluco,” and Fuseli; but his range of association included the best minds and noblest characters of the time; and his reminiscences of men, artists, and life in Lon- don, were always vivid and full of interest. In spite of constant practice at the academy, in- numerable studies at home, and many social engagements, such was his zeal and industry, that the very next year after his arrival, be exhibited three pictures at Somerset House— a landscape begun while in college, a rocky coast with banditti, and a comic piece. In 1804 he visited Paris in company with another American painter, afterward celebrated, John Vanderlyn. The Louvre then contained the chief treasures of art from all parts of the con- tinent, and Allston enjoyed a rare opportunity to examine and compare the chqﬁs-d’wuore of every school. His partiality for the Venetian instantly declared itself; there was in his genius a natural aflinity with those masters of color, his successful emulation of whom ob- tained for him, at a subsequent period, the name of the “American Titian.” In the con- templation of this unrivalled series of pictures, and in study, a _few months were occupied, when he repaired to Italy, and passed four years, chieﬂy at Rome, in the sedulous cultiva- tion of his art. Here he became the intimate companion of Thorwaldsen and Coleridge; and the latter fondly remembered, to the last, his intellectual obligations to Allston. The results of this long communion with the old masters, and this familiarity with nature in Italy, may be distinctly traced in his paintings and writ- ings, and were most attractively exhibited in his conversation.——Allston returned to his na- tive country in 1809, after this fruitful visit to Great Britain, France, and southern Eu- 387 rope. Having married a sister of the cele- brated Unitarian divine of Boston, Dr. Chan- ning, he again took up his abode in Lon- don. Although on the occasion of his ﬁrst visit there, Fuseli, upon learning his purpose to devote himself -to historical painting, said, “ You have come a great way to starve;” he ﬁnished and exhibited, on his return, the ear- liest work of the kind, on a large scale, “ The Dead Man Revived,” a‘ scriptural theme which gave ample scope both to his imaginative and executive powers. It may be considered as at once the presage and the pledge of his subse- quent reputation, having instantly obtained the prize from the British institution, of 200 guineas, and being soon after purchased by the Pennsylvania academy of ﬁne arts. His next important work was “ St. Peter liberated by the Angel,” ordered by Sir George Beau- mont, and now in the church of Ashley de la Zouch; this was followed by “Uriel in the Sun,” now belonging to the duke of Suther- land, and for which the British institution awarded him a gratuity of 150 guineas; and “Jacob’s Dream,” now in the collection of Lord Egremont at Petworth. The intervals between these great achievements were occu- pied with smaller but not less characteristic paintings, all of which found eager and liberal purchasers. Those cognizant of the condi- tions for the development of art, both as an individual pursuit and a national interest, and especially those who were familiar with Allston’s character and organization, ﬁnd cause for deep regret that he did not remain abroad and follow the impulse and the success which, at this time, crowned his life. The intelligent sympathy, the external resources, the public encouragement, and the fellowship of great artists, all so important as stimulants to eﬁbrt and guides to excellence, were there available; whereas, on this side of the water, comparative isolation and public indifference awaited our great painter. The contrast must have been unpropitious and discouraging, and, when added to the want of health and habits of seclusion, undoubtedly lessened the zeal and limited the works of the only man in the country who gave undisputed evidence of genius in the highest sphere of painting, united to a discipline and ﬁnished style, which announced another “ old master,” as native of the western hemisphere. Unremitted toil, acquiescence in the English custom of late dinner, and thus many consecu- tive hours of work and fasting, together with a period of deep aiiliction on account of the death of his wife, however, combined to undermine the delicate constitution of this great artist, at this period of his more genial activity and most eminent success. He returned home in 1818 in feeble health, and with but one ﬁnished picture —“ Elijah in the Wilderness,” subsequently pur- chased and taken. to England by the Hon. Mr. Labouchere. During the succeeding twelve years Allston resided in Boston; but his name and works were cherished in his fatherland, 388 and soon after his return he received the compliment of election to the royal academy. Among the productions of this period, inter- rupted as were his labors by inadequate health, the most celebrated are “The Prophet Jere- miah,” now belonging to Miss Gibbs, of New- port; “Saul and the Witch of Endor,” pur- chased by the late Col. T. H. Perkins, of Bos- ton; and “Miriam singing the Song of Triumph,” owned by Hon. David Sears, of the same city. Of minor works, the most memorable are “Dante’s Beatrice” and “The Valentine,” fe- male ideal portraits which exquisitely illustrate Allston’s extraordinary gifts as a colorist and in poetic expression; the former is the property of Hon. S. A. Eliot, and the latter of George Ticknor, Esq., of Boston.—In 1830 Allston mar- ried for his second wife a daughter of the late Chief Justice Dana, of Cambridge, Mass. He there ﬁxed his studio, and thenceforth led a life of great seclusion, enjoying the society of a few intimate friends and kindred, always receiving with cordiality visitors of his own profession and enlightened lovers of art, but avoiding, as far as practicable, the hospitalities of the neigh- boring city, and the encroachments of general intercourse. In the spirit of a true artist, modi- ﬁed by the habits of an invalid, he secluded himself from the world, to give his better mo- ments to painting, and his leisure to contempla- tion. At this time many of his best though less extensive pictures were executed, such as “ Spalatro’s Vision of the Bloody Hand,” an il- lustration of one of Mrs. Radc1iffe’s most super- stitious creations, made for Mr. Ball, of South Carolina, and the beautiful “Rosalie,” belong- ing to the Hon. Nathan Appleton, of Boston. Congress, in 1836, invited him to ﬁll one of the panels in the rotunda of the capitol with a historical picture; but his mind was now intent upon an extensive project, conceived and par- tially commenced in London, and he declined the national commission. The retired life, ex- tensive fame, and recognized genius of Allston, united to raise the public anticipations in regard to this promised work to the highest degree. The subject was “Belshazzar’s Feast; ” and those acquainted with the painter’s taste and skill, his power of high and broad conception, his mastery of form and color, and his sense of moral grandeur and historical effects, at once beheld in the subject the most desirable scope and inspiration. A few of his friends had caught glimpses of a ﬁgure or an effect of light on the carefully hidden canvas; some had stood as models, and others had heard an eloquent ex- position of the design from the lips of the artist; the result was to awaken unreasonable expecta- tions, and for years Allston’s “great picture” was one of the most interesting triumphs of American art, to which the future was destined to give birth. Mean time, although some pro- gress had been made during the painter’s twelve years’ residence in Boston, the want of aproper studio caused the work to be laid aside; and, when resumed at Cambridge, various circum- WASHINGTON ALLSTON stances were unpropitious-among them, pe- cuniary embarrassment (which had led at one time to the conﬁscation of the unﬁnishedwork)-- the necessity of more lucrative employment, dis- couragement from the want of adequate models, frequent indisposition, change of plan, and dis- satisfaction with what had been already achieved. It was perhaps too extensive an enterprise for the means and the strength of the artist, situ- ated as he then was, and was therefore from time to time postponed; doubtless the impatient and extravagant views of the public, as well as the painful associations connected with the work from the cause already mentioned, tended still more to retard the prosecution of his elaborate task. In its unﬁnished state, however, as left at his death, it is no inadequate memorial to a discriminating eye, of the genius of the great painter ; a sublime signiﬁcance and a gran- deur of design, as well as a splendid arrange- ment of light and color, foretell a wonderful picture; and the noble pictorial fragment is the delight of artists. It is now the property of the Boston Athenaeum. His original view of the subject and his own design may be gather- ed from a letter he addressed to his friend, Washington Irving, on hearing of that gentle- man’s sudden resolution to embark for Amer- ica. It is dated London, May 9, 1817, and speaking of the plans upon which he had hoped to consult him, he says: “One of these sub- jects (and the most important) is the large pic- ture-—the prophet Daniel interpreting the hand- writing on the wall before Belshazzar. I have made a highly ﬁnished sketch of it. I_ think the composition the best I ever made. It con- tains a multitude of ﬁgures, and (if I may be allowed to say so) they are without confusion. - Don’t you think it a ﬁne subject? I know not any that so happily unites the magniﬁcent and the awful. A mighty sovereign, surround- ed by his whole court, intoxicated with his own state, in the midst of his revelry, palsied in a moment, under the spell of a preternatural hand suddenly tracing his doom on the wall be- fore him; his powerless limbs, like a wounded spider’s, shrunk up to his body, while his heart, compressed to a point, is only kept from van- ishing by the terriﬁc suspense that animates it during the interpretation of his mysterious sen- tence. His less guilty but scarcely less agitated queen, the panic-struck courtiers and concu- bines, the splendid and deserted banquet table, the half arrogant, half astounded magicians, the holy vessels of the temple (shining as it were in triumph through the gloom), and the calm, solemn contrast of the prophet, standing, like an animated pillar, in the midst, breathing forth the oracular destruction of the empire 1” He was, however, at length, nearly 40 years after this was written, advancing in this long- neglected work, and, though physically no long- er vigorous, as strong in intellectual force and elevated sentiment as in his youth and prime,-— when his masterly hand was forever stilled, and his eloquent speech forever silenced. About mid- WASHINGTON ALLSTON night, on a Saturday, after a week of steady labor on Belshazzar’s Feast, having passed the even- ing with his family in thoughtful but pleasant discourse, he suddenly but gently expired, from a renewed attack of disease of the heart, to which he had been for some time liable. He was in the 64th year of his age. His appear- ance was unchanged by death; his burial took place by torch light; and thus closed in tran- quil beauty and wise self-possession of his tran- scendent faculties, the artist-life and the earth- ly being of Washington Allston.—The literary claims of Allston have been thrown into the shade by the consideration of his artistic fame. He exhibited, however, a versatility, invention, and expressive power in language, quite as individual as that he so nobly manifested in lines and hue§. With remarkable ﬂuency, vivid imagination, and intense love of beauty and truth, he had also a peculiar sense of the awful and sublime, and a decided analytical percep- tion. Accordingly, in the few of his writings which have been published, these essential gifts of authorship, proclaim him capable of works of the pen not less eifective than those he achieved with the pencil. But it was only to beguile a leisure hour, to gratify the demands of friendship, or give play to an im- portunate fancy, that he wrote. In 1813, dur- ing his second residence in London, he pub- lished “ The Sylphs of the Season,” a poem in which are pictured, with minute felicity, the natural phases of spring, summer, autumn, and winter, with especial reference to their respect- ive inﬂuence on the mind; the poem evinces the most loving observation of nature, and introspective habits of mind. Several minor poems and occasional verses are distinguished for originality of idea and beauty of execution. “The Two Painters ” is an excellent >metrical satire, and the “Paint King” weird and im- aginative enough to have proceeded from the most fanciful of German bards. In 1821, when his brother-in-law, Richard H. Dana, was en- gaged in the publication of a serial work of eminent interest, “the Idle Man,” Allston wrote for it an Italian romance. The periodi- cal was suspended and the tale not published until twenty years later. In “Monaldi,” his experience in Rome is vividly and gracefully embodied, as accessory to a tragic story of pas- sion, interspersed With the most wise and bean- tiful comments on art and nature. The style, conception, and philosophic insight exhibited in this tale, its power as an exposition of the passions—especially of love and jealousy, and its grace as a narrative, indicate great constructive talent and literary aptitude. He prepared a course of lectures on art, which were never deliv- ered, but published after his death; they prove the ardor of his devotion to painting, and the deep intelligence of one who had studied for himself the philosophy, history, and science of his profession. Indeed, the writings and paint- ings of Allston exquisitely illustrate each other. By their mutual contemplation we perceive the 389 individuality of the artist, and the pure spirit of the man; and realize that unity whereby the genius harmonizes all expression to a com- mon and universal principle, making form and color, words and rhyme, express vividly and tru- ly what exists in the artist’s nature. “Rosalie,” for instance, the poem, is the reﬂection of “ Rosa- lie,” the picture; and his letter describing a view among the Alps breathes the identical feeling that pervades his landscape depicting the scene.- Such pictures of this great master as could be obtained on this side of the Atlantic, were col- lected for exhibition at Boston in the spring of 1839 ; and, although his largest and most cele- brated works were not included, the variety, originality, artistic ﬁnish, and beauty—--the ma- ture skill and reﬁned genius manifest in this gallery, made a deep and delightful impression upon all spectators versed in art or endowed with a sense of the beautiful. The paintings numbered 42 ; and they represented every department of pictorial art and every excellence for which her most gifted votaries have been celebrated. The exhibition, limited as it un- avoidably was, proved an epoch in the history of art in the United States; it illustrated the genius of a native painter by the most perfect productions; nothing crude, unskilful, insigniﬁ- cant, disturbed the harmony of the scene; it was diﬁicult for the visitor, acquainted with foreign galleries, to believe that he stood in the midst of American works on American soil, for, on all sides, he beheld the evidences of a master hand and an individual mind, worthy to take their permanent place by the side of works long since stamped with universal love and praise. The ﬁrst impression conveyed by the Allston Gallery was that of the versatile range of the artist’s conceptions, the next that of the individuality of his genius. We turned from the impressive ﬁgure of the “Reviving Dead,” slowly renewing vitality at the touch of the prophet’s bones, to the pensive beauty of “Beatrice,” ineffably lovely and sad; the coun- tenance of “Rosalie” seemed kindled like that of the maiden described by Wordsworth, as if music “born of murmuring sound had passed into her face;” aérial in her movement and embodied grace in her attitude and drapery, “Miriam” sounded the timbrel; the very foot of the scribe appeared to listen to J eremiah—- stern, venerable, and prophetic; keenly glit- tered the Alpine summits and sweetly fell the moonbeams, and darkly rose the forests in the landscapes, as if glimpses of real nature, instead of their reﬂex, made alive the canvas; full of char- acter and dignity were the portraits; magniﬁcent old Jews’ heads, and exquisite brows of maidens, and imposing forms of prophets, and marvellous light and shade, deep, lucent, mellow hues-all ﬁitted before the senses of the visitor, while each picture formed an inexhaustible object of contemplation and became a permanently beau- tiful and impressive reminiscence. A remark- able trait in the genius of Allston was his sen- sibility to the awful, the mysterious, and the 390 WASHINGTON ALLSTON grand. As a boy he tells us, “I delighted in being terriﬁed by the tales of witches and hags, which the negroes used to tell me.” This characteristic, in its more elevated aﬁinities, drew him into the sphere of the spiritual, and was exhibited in a profound religious sensi- bility and faith, and an exaltation of mind and motive which excited the deepest veneration; in its more casual tendency, it made him alive to the supernatural, fond of speculating on the mysteries of life and the soul, and an eager recipient of tales of superstition and wonder. In this we recognize an element of the sublime. Allston indicated its prevalence in his fondness for such themes of art as “ A Forest with Ban- ditti,” “The Witch of Endor,” “The Dead Man Restored,” “ Spalatro’s Vision of the Bloody Hand,” and “ Belshazzar’s Feast.” He has worked out a like vein in the description of the mysterious picture in “Monaldi;” and he always excelled as a relator of ghost-stories. Incidental to this idiosyncrasy, was his deep sense of the principle of conscience in humanity, shadowed forth in more than one of his artistic conceptions. His own moral sensibility was extreme. Indeed, want of self-satisfaction was a primary cause of the frequent interrup- tion of his labors; his ideal in art and in life was exalted, and he would have painted and written more had he been less self-exacting. No painter ever cherished a more elevated view of the ministry and legitimate aims of his profession. On one occasion, when crippled in resources in London, having sold a picture for a considerable sum, as he sat alone at evening, the idea occurred to him that the subject, to a perverted taste and prurient imagination, might have an immoral effect; he instantly returned the money and regained and destroyed the painting. But, perhaps, his convictions and sympathies in regard to art were best exhibited, indirectly, in his judgment of pictures and in his relations to artists. He was a magnani- mous critic and a disinterested friend. His taste was comprehensive and catholic, recog- nizing every phase of merit and modiﬁcation of genius, however diverse from his own. His letters and conversation evinced a remarkably appreciative mind. He called himself “ a wide liker;” and proved himself such by the dis- crimination and geniality with which he pointed out and advocated the slightest token of excel- lence in pictures, books, and character. Per- haps it was this enlightened sympathy that drew so constantly to him artists and art- students of every age and degree of culture; for the humblest he had a cheering word or an invaluable counsel; and the number who date their improvement or aspirations from an inter- view with Allston, vindicate his claim to be regarded literally, as they affectionately called him, “ the Master,” in all the old genuine and personal signiﬁcance of that title: many a youthful votary of sculpture and painting can echo the words of Horatio Greenough, in speak- ing of Allston, “ he was a father to me in what 8 ALLUVIUM concerned my progress of every kind.” The temperament of Allston was preéminently that of aman of genius; it was highly nervous; a ﬁne ﬁbrous texture made his frame elastic and susceptible, quick to receive and transmit im- pressions. To every aspect of the beautiful he was keenly alive; no effect of nature, expres- sion, and especially of color, escaped him. In the latter his endowment was most remarkable. Leslie compares the harmony of tint in “Uriel seated in the Sun” to the best pictures of Paul Veronese; we have seen that in Rome he was called the American Titian; and there is a mellow, rich, vital, and sometimes ineffable hue in his pictures unrivalled since the days of the old masters. But it was not mere negative or receptive traits which distinguiphed Allston; he was earnest, often to religious concen- tration, in his convictions and his tone of feeling. “ His eyes,” says Irving, “ would dilate; his pale countenance would ﬂush; he would breathe quick and almost gasp in ex- pressing his feelings when excited by any ob- ject of grandeur or sublimity.” A man thus gifted and sensitive, thus noble and ﬂuent, nat- urally attracted the most select companionship and won the most sympathetic admiration. Accordingly we ﬁnd that, notwithstanding his habits of intense application in Europe, and of invalid retirement in America, he was sought for, loved, and revered by the choicest men and women of his time. In youth the chosen friend of the gentle and graceful painter, Malbone; on ﬁrst going abroad the favorite companion of the best London artists and the most intelligent English noblemen; in Rome, exploring the Uampagna with Irving, and talking of the mys- terious and the beautiful with Coleridge; at his modest abode in Cambridge discussing sub- jects for a picture with Lord Morpeth, or a principle of art with Mrs. Jameson, or of beauty with his poet brother-in-law Dana; encour- aging the young, sympathizing with the old, delighting in his pencil and palette to the last, full of reverence for truth, of faith in God,—- eloquent, profound, earnest, yet meek, gentle, and benign, living above the world, yet alive to all human interest and spiritual meaning, he realized the ideal of a Christian artist. Mr. Allston was a person of a tall, lithe ﬁgure, full expressive eye, broad .and emphatic brow, with, in his latter years, long hair of silvery whiteness. His aspect at once proclaimed a remarkable character. ALLUT, J EAN,th6 pseudonyme of Elie Marion, a French fanatic, born at Barre, a village near Montpellier, toward the end of the 17th cen- tury. In 1714, he proceeded to London with a view of founding there a new religion. His writings, explanatory of his peculiar religious views, comprise 6 octavo volumes, which were published at London at the time, but are at this day almost all out of print. ALLUVIUM (Lat. aZlwvz'o, an inundation), a geological term, which includes the deposits of sand, gravel, marl, &c., brought down by running A-LLUVIUM streams of the present period. Other recent accumulations also, as those of peat, and of the hills of sand blown together by the wind, are often called alluvial. They all belong to Lyell’s uppermost group, the post-tertiary, and are characterized by containing human relics and remains.- In the same group are also included the calcareous - rocks of recent origin, which occur on the coast of Guadeloupe, and contain human skeletons embedded in solid limestone; and also the coral reefs, which are in process of formation in tropical seas, spreading out in cal- careous strata of hundreds of miles in extent. These are not usually included in the term al- luvium; and yet it is not easy to draw a line, that shall exclude any formations of recent origin; for the wash of our rivers, as it settles in the bays at their mouths, often ﬁnds some cementing matter, that soon binds it into solid rock, and in this hard rock are entombed as fossils, works of art, or remains of man. Such alluvium hardened into rock is constantly forming in the Mediterranean from the calcare- ous wash of the river Rhone. A specimen ﬁshed up from the bottom contained an anchor as a fossil. In New York harbor the same pro- cess is going on‘; a piece torn off from the solid bottom, not many years since, brought up an old musket almost hidden in the pebbles and salt water shells that embedded it. The old Spanish dollars recovered from sunken wrecks have sometimes to be requarried almost, as their native ores were, out of the solid rock; and the coral reefs receive from oceanic currents allu- vial deposits of drift wood, weeds, and sand; all which aid in building up these extensive formations. Thus the term alluvium has no precise signiﬁcation. The great deposits of alluvium accumulate so slowly and silently, that we little appreciate the immense changes made by running water upon the surface of the earth; yet in the short period from the time to which our records extend back, we ﬁnd that the sedi- ments of a few small Italian rivers have carried out the coast line into the gulf of Venice from 2 to 20 miles; and that the ancient port of Adria, which, in the time of Augustus, gave its name to the gulf, is now an inland town, 20 miles from the shore. Before the time of He- rodotus, the ancient priests of Egypt regarded their country as “the gift of the Nile.” From the great pyramids down to the sea all is made land. Herodotus himself remarks, that Egypt was once a long narrow bay like the Red sea, and the two gulfs were separated by a narrow neck of land; and that if the Nile should discharge itself into the Red sea, it might choke it up with earth in a term of years. The ‘great rivers of the world, as the Mississippi, Amazon, Ganges, Orinoco, &c., are producing effects far greater than those of the Nile; but our obser- vations of these extend but a few generations back, and we lack suﬂicient data for calculating very exactly the rate of increase of their deltas. With the Mississippi, however, this has been attempted by Mr. Forshey, an eminent engineer, I 391 from observations extending through 30 years. Adopting the estimate of Dr. Riddell, of New Orleans, that the weight of sediment is 7-21“ of that of the water, or §,,1,,b- of its volume; and allowing the quantity of water brought down per second to be 447,199 cubic feet, the whole amount of sedimentary matter annually added to the delta and carried into the gulf, is equal to 4,083,333,333 cubic feet, enough to cover 144 _ square miles 1 foot deep. And yet at this rate for the river to have built up the great accumu- lations of alluvium which make its delta, it would have required 61,000 years; and in the great plain, higher up the river than the upper limit of the delta, which is also evidently of the same formation, there are the accumulations at this rate of some 30,000 years more. Thus long at least, it is probable, the great rivers have ﬂowed as they now ﬂow; and during this latest epoch few changes have occurred in the lower forms of animal life ; for in the strata next older than these alluvial deposits, the land and river shells are all of the same species with those now living in the same region.—-The delta, through which ﬂow the Gauges and the Bra- mapootra, is far more extensive than that of the Mississippi. It is described as a wilderness ﬁlled with a labyrinth of rivers and creeks, in- fested with tigers and crocodiles, and larger than the principality of Wales. In the great freshets frequent to these rivers, the conﬁgura- tion of this region is greatly changed. In a short time many square miles of land have been known to be swept away and deposited in new places. The rivers pour down their turbid waters more fully charged with sediment, and more abounding with the ruins of animal and vegetable life, than are those of the Mississippi. These are swept on toward the bay of Bengal, the waters of which are discolored with the ﬁne mud near 100 miles from its month, while the heavier materials subside near the shores, and build up the alluvial strata. Near Calcutta, it was ascertained, on boring for water, that these strata continue below the surface to the depth reached, which was 481 feet. They were alternations of beds of clay and of marl, with others of decayed vegetable matter like peat, which last no doubt had at times formed the surface, until submerged by subsidence, and then buried beneath the deposits of the rivers. In these strata various fragments of fossil bones and shells were brought up, all of which indi- cated the existence of the same animals that now inhabit the region.—-What the rivers are accomplishing in the interior, the tidal currents are effecting along the coasts. They wear down what has been built up in former times, and strew the materials in new deposits of alluvium. In Germany these accessions, called Anliinclang, are of great value alorrg the coasts of the North sea. On our own coasts they are more commonly of a sandy character, stretching out in long beaches, the material of which is blown inland by the winds, and piled into barren hills. The long sandy strip of land 392 called the Great South Beach on the south side‘ of Long Island, which is a remarkable example of these sandy strips or “ spits,” is more than 100 miles in length, exceeding any such accu- mulation in Europe. These sands are now formed into alluvial beds by the action of the winds and of the ocean currents; but there is good reason to believe, that the greater proportion of the superﬁcial covering of the rocks of Long Island is nothing more than the accumulations of sediment discharged by the Hudson, Passaic, Raritan, and Hackensack rivers.--Alluvial de- posits are frequently found in positions above the level of present running waters. Thus, around the shores of some of our great lakes are occasionally seen in the banks, layers of sand and clay containing the same species of shells that are now common in their waters, but several feet above their reach. The famous “Ridge Road,” which is traced along ' the southern border of the western half of Lake On- tario, from 3 to 8 miles back from it, is a remark- able terrace formed of the materials of modern alluvium with recent shells, but standing in a ridge, the summit of which varies in height within moderate limits. In New York its height is from 158 to 188 feet above the lake. A similar ridge is traced along the southern shore of Lake Erie, where it has been found to vary from 187 to 190 feet in height above the lake. Other parallel ridges at higher elevations, but not so strongly marked as this ridge road terrace, seem to indicate that the land has been elevated at different times, as the coast of Chili has been raised in modern times. Similar terraces marking similar elevations, or drainage of the waters to a lower level, are common along our rivers. Niagara furnishes an interest- ing example of running water, excavating a deeper channel and leaving its more ancient deposits at a higher level. From the falls for 4 miles down, a deposit of ﬂuviatile character (determined by the fresh water shells it con- tains, which are the same species as those now found in the rivers above the falls), is spread over the surface on both sides the river, reaching to the edge of the cliffs. It is 40 feet in thickness, and its bottom is 250 feet above the present channel of the river. These layers of sand and gravel could have been deposited only by water running at their level; and this must have been before the deep gorge was ex- cavated through them, which is now the chan- nel of the river. From the most exact data that can be obtained as to the rate of excava- tion of this gorge, Lyell estimates that we can- not assign a less period than about 30,000 years for the time it has been progressing back from Queenstownto the falls, a distance of 7 miles.—It is during this modern period of the formation of the alluvium, that the gigantic mammoths and mastodons became extinct. Their bones are found in the peat bogs and marl beds, the origin of which probably does not extend far back from the introduction of man. Indeed, if we may place conﬁdence ALLUVIU M in the traditions of the aborigines of this coun- try, we must believe that these animals were contemporary with man. It is stated that in the Indian tribes particular persons are se- lected to preserve their history and tradi- tions, and thoroughly instruct their succes- sors in this oﬂice ; and that among the nota- bilia thus handed down were accounts of the living monsters, whose bones they were fa- miliar with. They were described as “ tree- eaters,” as never lying down, but leaning against a tree when they slept. The bonesof these animals have been often dug out from the alluvium of New Jersey and New York. Pre- vious to the year 1700, a description of some found near Albany was sent by Increase or Cot- ton Mather to the royal society of London. The bones were supposed to have belonged to some extraordinary American giant. A speci- men of the mastodon giganteus, probably the largest ever found, was discovered in the year 1845, at Newburg near the Hudson river. The length of the skeleton was 25 feet, its height 12 feet, and length of the tusks 10 feet. In the same year, in Warren county, New Jersey, no less than 6 skeletons of the same species of mastodon were found 6 feet below the surface in the rich mud of a small pond. In the in- terior, within the ribs of the most perfect one, were taken out with the clay 7 bushels of vege- table matter. Some of this matter microscopi- cally examined in London for Sir Charles Lyell, proved to be small twigs of a coniferous tree, probably the white cedar, such as is still com- mon in our woods. In the western states the bones of these animals are generally discovered in the low places around salt-licks-—spots that are still frequented by the deer and other wild animals, that come to suck up the saline waters.—If the alluvium is interesting for these gigantic fossils, it is no less so for the micro- scopic forms of animal life, which, though in- visible to the eye, yet by the immensity of their numbers exceed in aggregate bulk that of all the mastodons and mammoths that have ever lived. For it is not as occasional fossils in geo- logical formations that they appear, but as the substance itself of these formations. The sili- cious deposit, resembling ﬁne white marl, found underlying peat, and at the bottoms of ponds and marshes, especially in a region of primary rocks—a substance often used as a polishing powder-—is found on examination by the microscope to consist of the remains of in- fusorial These obscure forms of life, of which it is diﬂicult to say always, whether they be- long to the vegetable or animal kingdom, are found both as fossils and living species-—the lat- ter almost in every situation where water oc- curs upon the surface of the earth. They have been the particular study of the German natu- ralist, Ehrenberg, and of the late J. W. Bailey, professor of the natural sciences at West Point. The latter remarks of them as follows: “Few organic bodies exceed in beauty the symmetri- cal, elegantly sculptured forms of many of the ALLUVIUM species. The ﬂuviatile species may be found in every pond, stream, rivulet, bog, or pool, either nestling among confervae, parasitic, or aquatic plants, or living in the sedimentary matter at the bottom. They often occur in such vast quantities as to cover hundreds of square yards, to which they give a peculiar color-green, yellowish, or ferruginous, according to the in- ternal coloring matter of the individuals. Most of the species are exceedingly minute, many are entirely invisible to the naked eye; others, however, are quite perceptible without the aid of the microscope. Notwithstanding their ex- treme minuteness, it is evident, from their vast abundance, that they have some important of- ﬁces to perform in the economy of nature; and like the coral insect, although the individuals are minute, the result of their united labors is on a scale by no means insigniﬁcant. The infusoria are so minute, that many millions of their shells and coverings are contained in a cubic inch of the infusorial earth, which forms extensive deposits in many parts of our coun- try, and particularly in the primary regions of New England and New York. By the silent and until lately unnoticed operations of such minute animals, the foundations of new surfaces,. capable of subsequent tillage, are laid. Daily additions are thus made to the habitable sur- face of the earth, and the stagnant ponds and marshes become verdant and beautiful meadows. These minute animals undoubtedly secrete the silicious matter from the silex dissolved in the water ‘in which they live, as we do the mate- rials in our bony system from the food that we eat.”-As the infusoria secrete from the pri- mary rock its principal ingredient, so a class of larger testaceous animals secrete from the limestone the calcareous matter for their shelly coverings; and of their remains are made up the marl beds and other beds of alluvium that abound in shells, as the oyster banks and muscle beds of our coast. The lime of which the latter is composed is no doubt mostly ab- stracted from that held in solution in sea water; but salt water, fresh water, and land shells, all ﬂourish best where limestone rocks abound, and where this source of lime is deﬁcient, they even acquire the material of their own ' shells from the remains of former individuals. The accumulations of this nature going on in our ponds, lakes, and harbors, though now little ap- parent to observation, are a part of the alluvial formation, that will have an important bearing in the future economy of our globe, as the similar formations of previous epochs have in the present period. And the same remark may be extended to that extraordinary vegetable production, peat, beds of which are found rival- ling, in the quantity of carbonaceous matter they contain, the beds of fossil fuel, into which they too will in time be converted.—The most in- teresting feature of the alluvium, which has been already incidentally alluded to, is its being the only geological formation, which contains human relics and remains. By multitudinous catastro- ALMA 393 phes and of the most diverse characters,‘by ﬂood and by ﬁre, the human race is exposed to de- struction, and the remains of man and of his works to be embedded in the strata of the pres- ent epoch. The solid land opens and ingulfs him and his cities; the waters swallow him up and the treasures which. he intrusted on their unstable surface; they rise upward from their accustomed bounds and sweep away villages with thousands of people at once, and hundreds of thousands of domestic animals. Rivers of mud and showers of ashes overwhelm him and bury large towns beneath their accumulations; and by slow, insidious subsidence of the surface, the‘ works of his hands are carried down to be buried in the sedimentary deposits that soon gather around them. The wrecks of all these matters become a part of the recent strata of the globe. The alluvial deposits of the bays, of the lakes, of the bottom of the ocean itself, abound in them. In no other formations are they found, or ever will be; for the races of animals and plants, that have lived at different periods, have not failed to leave permanent re- cords of their most delicate organizations, and in the rocks of a very distant epoch are still to be seen the foot-marks left by strange forms of birds. Thus man and his works charac- terize the rocks of this period, as the gigantic birds characterize the new red sandstone, and the great saurians the formations from the has to the chalk.-—The economical applications of the alluvial deposits are numerous and import- ant. They produce our most fertile lands. The clays are the materials of our houses and house- hold utensils. The sands are used for the man- ufacture of glass, for the composition of mor- tars, and for many purposes in the mechanical arts. Bog iron ores collect in low marshy places from the ﬁltration of water through older formations, in which ferruginous matters of various forms are diffused. The water dis- solves the oxide of iron, and conveys it away, as it dissolves the potash from ashes, through which it leaches. It gathers the scattered ma-. terials of the ore together, and as it evaporates leaves them in forms suitable for use. As the ores are removed, more collect and renew the supply; so that they are believed by many, who do not comprehend the manner of their silent accumulation, to be endowed with a principle of growth analogous to that possessed by or- ganic bodies: a belief which, after all, may not, in one sense, he so very extravagant; for ac- cording to the researches of Ehrenberg, the ochreous particles, under the microscope, prove to be portions of an organic body of extreme minuteness, which is now believed to be a plant. ALMA, a small river in the Crimea, run- ning from the high ground in the neighborhood of Bakhtchisarai in an easterly direction, and emptying its waters into Kalamita bay, between Eupatoria and Sebastopol. The southern bank of this river, which rises very steep toward its mouth, and everywhere commands the op- 394 ALMA posite shore, was selected during the late Russo- Turkish war by Prince Mentchikoif as a defen- sive position in which to receive the onset of . the alliedarmies just landed in the Crimea.- The forces under his command comprised 42 battalions, 16 squadrons, 100 Cossacks, and 96 guns, in all 35,000 men. The allies landed on Sept, 14, 1854, a little north of the Alma, 28,- 000 French (4 divisions), 28,000 English (ﬁve infantry and one cavalry division), and 6,000 Turks. Their artillery was exactly as numer- ous as that of the Russians, viz.: 72 French and 24 English guns. The Russian position was of considerable apparent strength, but in reality offered many weak points. Its front ex- tended nearly 5 miles, far too great a distance for the small number of troops at Mentchikoﬁ"s disposal. The right wing was completely un- supported, while the left (on account of the allied ﬂeets, the ﬁre from which commanded the coast) could not occupy the position as far as the sea, and therefore labored under the same defect. The plan of the allies was founded on these facts. The front of the Russians was to be occupied by false attacks, while the French, under the cover of the 5 ﬂeets, were to turn the Russian left, and the English, under the cover of their cavalry, to turn their right.--On the 20th the attack took place. It was to be made at daybreak, but owing to the slow move- ments of the English, the French could not ven- ture to advance across the river before that time. On the French extreme right, Bosquet’s division passed the river, which was almost everywhere fordable, and climbed the steep banks of the southern shore without ﬁnding any resistance-. Means were also found, by vigorous eifort, to bring 12 guns up to the plateau. To the left of Bosquet, Canrobert brought his division across the river, and began to deploy on the high ground, while Prince Napoleon’s division was engaged in clearing the gardens, vineyards, and houses of the village of Alma from the Russian skir- mishers. To all these attacks, made with 29 battalions, Mentchikoif opposed in his ﬁrst and second lines only 9 battalions, in support of which 7 more soon arrived. These 16 battal- ions, supported by 40 guns and 4 squadrons of hussars, had to bear the brunt of the immense- ly superior attack of the French, who were soon supported by the remaining 9 battalions of Forey’s division. Thus all St. Arnaud’s troops were engaged, with the exception of the Turks, who remained in reserve. The result could not long be doubtful. The Rus- sians slowly gave way, and retired in as good order as could be expected. In the mean time the English had commenced their attack. About 4 o’clock the ﬁre of Bosquet’s guns from the height of the plateau at the left of the Russian position had shown the battle to be seriously engaged; in about an hour the Eng- lish skirmishing line engaged that of the Rus- sians. The English had given up the plan of turning the Russian right, since the Russian ALMACK’S cavalry, twice as strong, without Cossacks, as that of the British, covered that Wing‘ so as even to menace the Englishleft. Accordingly, Lord Raglan determined to attack the Russians straight before him. He fell upon their centre, having in his ﬁrst line Brown’s light ‘division and Evans’ division; the two divisions of the duke of Cambridge and Gen. England formed the second line, while the reserve (Cathcart’s division), supported by the cavalry, followed behind the left wing. The ﬁrst line deployed and charged two villages before its front, and after dislodging the Russians, passed the Alma. Here the reports vary. The English distinctly maintain that their light division reached the breastwork behind which the Russians had placed their heavy artillery, but were then repulsed. The Russians declare that the light division never got well across -the river, much less up the steep on which this breastwork was placed. At all events, the second line marched close behind, deployed, had to fall into column again to pass the Alma and to climb up the heights; deployed again, and after several vol- leys, charged. It was the duke of Cambridge’s division (guards and Highlanders) especially, which came to the rescue of the light division. Evans, though slow in his advance, was not repelled, so that England’s division in his rear could scarcely give him any support. The breastwork was taken by the guards and High- landers, and the position was, after a short but violent struggle, abandoned by the Russians. Eighteen Russian battalions were here engaged against the same number of English battalions; and if the English battalions were stronger than the Russian by some 50 men each, the Russians amply made up for this by their superiority in artillery and the strength of the position. The English infantry ﬁre, however, which is generally reputed as very murderous, was especially so on this occasion. Most of the troops engaged were armed with the Minié riﬂe, and the impact of their bullets, killing whole ﬁles at once, was most destructive to the deep Russian columns. The Russians, having all their infantry, except 6 battalions, enga ed, and no hope to stem the advancing tide, roke off the battle, the cavalry and light artillery, together with the small infantry re- serve, covering the retreat, which was not mo- lested. The English fought decidedly better than any other troops in this battle, but in their habitual clumsy way of manoeuvring, de- ploying, forming columns, and deploying again, unnecessarily, under the enemy’s ﬁre, by which both time and lives were lost. The con- sequence of this battle was to the allies the undisputed possession of the open country of the Crimea as long as the Russians remained without reinforcements, and the opening of the road to Sebastopol. By the ﬁrst advantage they did not proﬁt, but of the second they availed themselves without delay. ALMACK’S, a suite of assembly rooms situ- ated No. 26 King street, St. J ames’s, London, so ALMACK’S called after the original proprietor, who changed his rather prosaic name of M‘Call into the more euphonious one of Almack. They are occa- sionally called Willis’s rooms after the present proprietors, Frederic and Charles Willis. Here take place the concerts of the musical union, under the direction of Mr. Ella, charity balls, and select public meetings. The annual balls, however, which are held during the sea- son, constitute the chief claim to the fashiona- ble prominence of Almack’s. They are man- aged by a committee of ladies, and the only mode of admission is by vouchers or personal introduction. From a letter written by l:lOl‘£1(;B Walpole to the Earl of Hertford, Feb. 14, 1765, it appears that the exclusiveness of the lady- patronesses, great as it is now, was incomparably greater at the time of the opening of the rooms. “The new assembly room at Almack’s was opened the night before last, and they say is very magniﬁcent, but it was empty; half the town is ill with colds, and many were afraid to go, as the house is scarcely built yet. Almack advertised that it was built with hot bricks and boiling water. Think what a rage there must be for public places, if this notice, instead of terrifying, could draw everybody thither. They tell me the ceiling was dripping with wet; but can you believe me when I assure you the duke of Cumberland (the hero of Culloden) was there? nay, had a. levee in the morning and went to the opera before the assembly?” A week afterward, Feb. 22, Gilly Williams wrote to George Selwyn: “There is now opened at Almack’s in 3 very elegant new built rooms, a 10 guinea subscription, for which you have a ball and a supper once a week for 12 weeks. You may imagine by the sum the company which is chosen; though, reﬁned as it is, it will be scarce able to put old Soho [referring to the fashionable reunions at the house of Mrs. Cor- neleys, a German actress, which were then the favorite resort of the cream of London so- ciety] out of countenance. The men’s tickets are not transferable; so, if the ladies do not like us, they have no opportunity of changing us, but must see the same persons forever.” In March, we ﬁnd in the same correspondence: “Our female Almack’s ﬂourishes beyond descrip- tion. If you had such a thing at Paris you would ﬁll half a quire of ﬂourished paper with the descriptions of it. Alrnack’s Scotch face in a bag-wig, waiting at supper, would divert you, as would his lady in a sack making tea and courtesying to the duchesses.” The great change wrought by the spirit of the age upon the exclusiveness of Almack’s is evidenced by the fact that the price of the highly coveted ticket has been reduced from 10 guineas for the whole 12, to half a guinea for each ball. Down to about 1830, it retained a great deal of its ancient prestige, but since that time it has been gradually declining, as a fashionable resort. This is chieﬂy owing to its having been used as an instrument of conferring po- litical favors on political supporters. It has ALMADA 395 always been so from its very foundation, and many a man has been brought to vote on cab- inet questions and strong party divisions by vouchers to Almack’s for his daughters and for himself. But since the railways have brought such a tide of visitors to London, the effect upon Almack’s has been very decided, as their ﬁrst business, upon arriving at the metropolis, was to call upon city and county members, and ask for their inﬂuence in procuring tickets for Al- mack’s. Few of the ladies of fashion ever go to Almack’s now, with the exception of the lady patronesses, who drop in for a few mo- ments to lend to it their countenance, and in order to consummate the artiﬁce practised upon those who have been invited for political pur- poses. The supper, which in former times was one of the chief attractions of Almack’s, has been entirely discontinued, and in its stead light refreshments are -offered to the guests. In Wilson’s Noctes Ambrosz'ame we ﬁnd a humorous allusion to anovel founded upon Almack’s, which, at its appearance about 30 years ago, created much sensation, and the author of which is justly characterized by North’s friend the Shepherd as aﬂunky. Agam- ing club of the same name opened under the auspices of the same proprietor in Thatched House tavern, 85 St. J ames’s street, was celebra- ted or rather notorious toward the end of the 18th century, the play there having been deeper than either at White’s or Brookes’s. Topham Beauclerk writes to the Earl of Charlemont, Nov. 20, 1773: “ Would you imagine, that Sir Joshua Reynolds is extremely anxious to be a member of Almack’s?” Gibbon, the historian, was elected a member of it in 1776, and in his letter of June 24, dated from the club, he gives the following ﬂattering account: “ Town grows empty, and this house, where I have passed many agreeable hours, is the only place which still invites the ﬂower of the English youth. The style of living, though somewhat expensive, is exceedingly pleasant, and, notwithstanding the rage of play, I have found more entertain- ment, and even rational society, here than in any other club to which I belong.” Before Brookes’s club house was built, the Whig party used to meet at Almack’s, where a regular book was kept of the wagers laid by the different mem- bers. The following are a few specimens : “March 11, 1775, Lord Bolingbroke gives a guinea to Mr. Charles Fox, and is to receive 1,000 from him whenever the debt of this country amounts to .£171,000,000 sterling. Mr. Fox is not to pay the £1,000 till he is one of his maj- esty’s cabinet. Aug. 7, 1792, Mr. Sheridan bets Lord Lauderdale and Lord Thanet 25 guineas each, that parliament will not consent to any more lotteries after the present one, voted to be drawn in Feb. next.” ALMADA, a town of Portugal, near the mouth of the Tagus, in the province of Estre- madura. Population, 4,538. The town of St. Sebastian, one of the defences of the Tagus, is near by. 396 ALMADEN _ ALMADEN DEL Azoeun, or THE MINES or Qurcxsmvnn, a Spanish town in New Castile, dis- trict of La Mancha, about 50 miles N. of Cordova. It issimply one long -street, built on a ridge of quartz rock, which is rich in cinnabar. The quicksilver mines here are perhaps the richest and most ancient in the world. They were worked by the chain labor system, until within the past 40 years. About 5,000 free persons of all ages now labor in them 6 hours a day. The annual product is 2,000,000 lbs. of quicksilver. The town has a large practical mining school, two Latin schools, three hospitals, and 8,645 inhabitants. ALMAGEST, a name given by the Arabians to Ptolemy’s compend of astronomy, written at Alexandria, in the second century, translated from Greek into Arabic, in the 9th century, and translated from the Arabic into Latin, in the 13th century. A better Latin translation from the original Greek was published at Basel in 1541. The name is derived from the Greek }Le'yl.o"n7 (greatest), with an Arabic preﬁx. ALMAGBO, a city of Spain, twelve miles E. S. E. from Ciudad Real. Pop. 12,605. It is celebrated for its laces, in the manufacture of which 8,000 females are engaged in the town and its vicinity. Almagro was founded in 1214 by Archbishop Roderic of Toledo. ALMAGRC, Drneo DE. 1. One of the asso- ciates of Pizarro in the conquest of Peru, was born of humble parents in a village of Spain, in 1463, and died in 1538. In the division of ofﬁces among the leaders of the enterprise, Almagro was appointed to man- age the forwarding of supplies of men and provisions, in which he had to contend with many formidable obstacles, but by his dili- gence and perseverance overcame them all. From the time of the ﬁrst landing of the Spanish forces, until the death of Atahualpa, Almagro was engaged in repeated quarrels with Pizarro, whom he accused of practising the blackest treachery toward him, in depriving him of his just share in the fruits of their con- quests. He ﬁnally attempted to seize Cuzco, the capital, but was persuaded by Pizarro to undertake instead the reduction of Chili, of which kingdom he was to have the undivided control. In 1535 he set forth with 570 Euro- pean troops, aud underwent great hardships among the mountains. The natives resisted him bravely, but he had made some progress, when a rising of the Peruvians, who had attacked Lima and Cuzco, summoned him home. Re- turning by a toilsome march along the coast, he defeated the natives, and took possession of Cuzco, which be resolved to hold. A civil war ensued, in which Almagro neglected to avail himself of his advantages, until Pizarro, having gained time to recruit his forces by negotiation, marched to Cuzco with 500 men, and, defeating him in a bloody engagement, took him prisoner. After several months of conﬁnement, he was tried, condemned, and strangled. He was a man of frank and winning manners, and far ALMANAC more popular among his men than Pizarro. His success was the more remarkable, as he had never learned to read or write. II. The son of the preceding, by a Peruvian wo- man, was a brave, generous, and accomplish- ed youth; his father, mindful of his own deﬁciencies, having spared no pains in his education. He became the leader of the party opposed to Pizarro, upon the death of Almagro, senior, and, after the assassination of the gov- érnor, was proclaimed his father’s successor. He enjoyed authority for a very brief season, however, as Vaca de Castro soon arrived, bearing a royal commission as governor. Al- magro attempted to resist him, and on Sept. 16, 1542, a sanguinary engagement took place be- tween the forces of the rival leaders, in which the victory remained with his opponent. Al- magro escaped after the battle, but was given up by his own oﬂicers, and beheaded at Cuzco. ALMALEE, a city of Anatolia, in Asiatic Turkey, on the river Myra, 25 miles from its mouth. Lat. 36° 47 ’ N. long. 29° 50’ E. Pop- ulation about 20,000. It lies in a beautiful valley among the Massacytus mountains. The stream on which the town is built furnishes a motive power for numerous mills, and is also used in several tanneries, dye-works, and fac- tories. The place is visited for the purposes of trade by numerous Frank merchants. ALMAMOUN, a caliph of the Abbasside dynasty, son of the great Haroun al Rashid, from A. D. 813-833. After the death of his father, he had to contest the throne with his brother Al-Ameen. The reign of Almamoun commenced the period of literary celebrity, and rivalled that of his father, which had attained so great a height of political splendor. In the interval of their warlike successes, the Arabs di- rected their energies toward more peaceful vic- tories; and, while Europe was buried in bar- barism, the torch of science was kept alive by the Arabs only a few generations removed from pagan barbarism. Almamoun converted his chief town into seats of learning. The new city of Bagdad was the abode of men of science and letters. Philosophers and students came from the most distant parts of the Mohammedan rule to seat themselves on the skirts of the ruler of the faithful. Various works were translated from Greek and Sanscrit. Algebra and arithmetic were borrowed from the Hin- doos. Of astronomy the natives of the plains of Mesopotamia retained the traditions, even if they had lost the practice; the degenerate Greeks of the lower empire placed logic, -natural history, and the Aristotelian system, within the power of the Arabs. Almamoun was succeeded in 833 by his brother Almotassem, under whose reign the Turks ﬁrst became body guards of the caliphs, whose empire they were in time to usurp. ALMANAC is probably derived from two Arabic words, signifying “ the diary.” .In its generalized sense it is a calendar containing the days and months of the year, to which are added ALMANAC the times of various astronomical phenomena, such as the sun’s rising and setting, eclipses, and the like. But the almanac is a species of literature common to so many ages of the world, and to so many different communities, and re- ﬂeets so faithfully everywhere the local genius of the people for whose taste it is prepared, that a general idea of what an almanac has been and now is—what various shapes it has as- sumed—can only be gained by a thorough ex- amination of the subject. The pastoral life of the Arabs, and the solitary wastes in which they are accustomed to live, predispose them to religious fanaticism and a belief in astrology. They perform no operation of daily life, and undertake no expedition, without ﬁrst consult- ing the stars as the Greeks consulted their oracles. To satisfy this general demand for celestial knowledge, almanacs or books, giving general information and advice upon the move- ments of the heavenly bodies, became common over the Arabian and Mohammedan world. From them this fashion of literature spread over Christendom, together with most of the Arabian prototypes, so that it is only of late years that astrological predictions have not been contained in nine almanacs out of ten. Many manuscript almanacs of the middle ages are preserved in the libraries of Germany, France, and England. Some of the 14th cen- tury are to be seen in the library of the British museum and of Corpus Christi college, Cam- bridge. The Blbl'iothc‘que Impériale at Paris, contains an almanac for 1442. The earliest printed almanac of which we have any record is that of George von Purbach, who lived at Vienna about the year 1460. In 1474 Regio- montanus, a German mathematician, resident at the court of the Hungarian king, Matthias Corvinus, published afamous series of almanacs in German and Latin, lasting from 1475 to 1506. Since that time we can trace a tolerably con- tinuous chain of such productions down to our own day. The series of Regiomontanus con- tained only the eclipses and the places of the planets, and sold for 10 crowns of gold. Year- ly almanacs ﬁrst appeared in the 16th century. They began to be ﬁlled with partisan prophe- cies against parties and individuals in the state. This was forbidden, as to French almanacs, by Henry III. of France in 1579. The Almamach Royal of Paris, 1679, contains notices of post times, court reception days, fairs, and mar- kets. To this was soon added the genealogy of the reigning house, a list of the clergy, and other things. The history of almanacs in Eng- land, like the history of her periodical press, is peculiarly interesting, because the freedom of printing, the parliamentary government, and the quantities of almanacs that have been pre- served _in old libraries, enable us to follow the several stages of their growth with much facil- ity. James I. granted a monopoly of the trade in almanacs to the universities and the station- ers’ company, subject to the censorship of the archbishop of Canterbury, and the bishop of 397 London, and under their auspices astrology and popular superstition ﬂourished almost unoppos- ed until the year 1775. The puritan spirit of England was naturally very repugnant to this style of almanac, and to suit that taste the alma- nac of Allstree was published. This calls the supposed inﬂuence of the moon upon different members of the human body “ heathenish,” and vindicates the cause of rational science in the following lines : Let every philomathy (i. e. mathematician,) Leave lying astrology, And write true astronomy, And I'll beare you company. In 17 7 5, a blow was struck at the monopoly by Thomas Carnan, a London bookseller, who thought it illegal. The case was argued before the court of common pleas, and decided against the stationers’ company. Lord North, the prime minister, brought in a bill to legalize the privilege, but the house rejected it by a ma- jority of 75, after an able argument by Erskine at the bar of the house against the maintenance of the monopoly. The freedom of competition in almanacs did not result in an immediate improvement of them. They continued to be ﬁlled with nonsense and obscenity, because the popular taste demanded it. An experiment was tried by the stationers’ company, of omit- ting from Moore’s almanac the column of the moon’s inﬂuence on the parts of the human body; most of the copies were returned. to them. In 1828, the society for the diffusion of useful knowledge published the British Almanac, which was intended to operate and did operate an entire revolution in the time-honored usages of almanac publishers. From that time the empire of astrology was at an end. The news- paper press of Britain took the matter up and covered the old style of publications with ridi- cule. The stationers’ company were at last obliged to follow the example, and they brought out the improved Englishman’s Almanac. Of other British almanacs, the most deserving are Oliver and Boyd’s Edinburgh Almanac, Thorn’s Irish Almanac and Oﬁicial Directory, Punch’s Comic Almanac, and Dietrischen and Hannay’s London Almanac. Of German almanacs, the Almanach dc Gotha, now in its 94th year, has the widest reputation; Belgium has its much- esteemed Al-manach Royal de Bclgiguc ,' the French Almanach Imperial and Almanach dc France extend to about 1,000 octavo pages. We name also, as productions of importance, the Almanac of Napoleon, the Almanac of Litera- ture and the Fine Arts, and a pictorial Almanac]: d’1llustration ; but the majority are given up to drollery and light reading. Of such are the al- manacs of dwilcs, wits, and laughers, of anec- dotes and games. Astrological and necromantic almanacs keep their ground in France, and manifest much vitality. The earliest intel- lectual productions of the European race on this continent were psalm-books and almanacs. Benjamin Franklin’s Poor Richard’s Almanac (1732) was the ﬁrst rational one of its class, 398 ALMANAO and seems to have preceded the English rational almanacs by nearly a century. The American Almanac, published at Boston, has reached its 28th volume, which contains 357 octavo pages. Almanacs are at the present . time essentially a branch of popular literature; there is no such thing as a general polyglot al- manac of civilization, but each nation, able to produce an almanac of its own, moulds its almanacs to suit its own tastes and habits of thought. Acollection of almanacs of all ages and countries would form a very instructive pic- ture of the march of the human mind upward from the lowest stages of superstition and igno- rance. Such a collection would also exhibit the local diversities which distinguish, and have long distinguished, one people from another. However, the trade of almanac-making, like that of the court journalist, the minstrel and the bard, does not hold the place it did in the times of Regiomontanus and Purbach. What was once the daily companion and cherished luxury of kings and queens, court ladies and royal mis- tresses, has become popularized, and placed with- in the reach of the wives of country farmers and city mechanics. Fame can no longer be acquired in this way, but an amount of information, use- ful to the domestic sanctuary and the counting- house of the man of business, can be diffused by our contemporary compilers, which the learned doctor, who revelled in a court pension some cent-uries ago,could never have dreamed ALMANAO, NAUTICAL, is an almanac con- taining the fullest astronomical information. The British “Nautical Almanac” was com- menced in 1767, under Dr. Maskelyne. That part which is useful at sea for the deter- minations of latitude and longitude has been for many years republished in New York. The French Oonnaissance des Tems is of a similar character, and still more valued is the Berlin Astronom-isches Jahrbuah, long conducted by Bode, and recently by Encke. The American Nautical Almanac owes its origin indirectly to the immense impulse given to American as- tronomy by the great comet of 1843, and di- rectly to the national and scientiﬁc ardor of Capt. G. H. Davis, U. S. N ., the ﬁrst superin- tendent of its publication. The ﬁrst volume for 1855 was published in 1853. This was a true Minerva birth, taking at once a stand equal, and in some respects superior to that of its three rivals mentioned above. Much of the excellence of the work is due to the genius of Prof. Peirce, the industry of the late Sears C. Walker, and the skill of Prof. Winlock, the present superintendent. AL-MANSOOR, or, with his full name, ABU GIAFFAR ABD-ALLAH AL-MANSOOB, the second caliph of the Abbasside dynasty. He succeed- ed A. D. 753, on the death of Al-Satfah. On his accession, the sovereignty was claimed by Abdallah, his cousin. Abdallah, however, was completly ' defeated by Al-Mansoor’s lieu- tenant, Abu-Moslem, who was soon after put to ALMEH death for declining to serve as governor of - Egypt. In 758, Cufa, the then residence of the caliphs, was the scene of a riot got up by the Ravendites, a sect who believed in me- tempsychosis. This so disgusted Al-Mansoor, that he founded Bagdad, to which city the seat of government was removed. Al-Mansoor’s reign was again disturbed by a revolt of the descendants of Ali ben Abu Taleb, which was suppressed. Al-Mansoor was the ﬁrst of the caliphs who departed from the example of the valiant Omar, and introduced the taste for lit- erature which afterward so distinguished the Mohammedan sovereigns. In his reign many of the best Greek writers were translated into Arabic. ALMARIO or BENE, a teacher of theology in Paris, ﬂourished in the 13th century. He was the principal exponent, during the middle ages, of the theory of Scotus Erigena. Accord- ing to Almaric, God reveals himself as the true substance of all things, and has ad different ages or phases of revelation. Almaric reckoned 3 ages of divine manifestation: 1. The Old Testament age, when Gogl was incarnated in Abraham. 2. The New Testament age, when God was incarnated in the son of Mary. 3. The Almaric age, when God, as the Holy Ghost, was to be incarnate in every person. Hence, his doctrine was denominated the Al- maric. It was condemned by the council of Sens (1209). His disciples are reputed to have been immoral and fanatical. ALMAS, a large market town of Hungary, in lat. 46° 7’ N. and long 19° 23’ E. Pop. 8,500. The inhabitants are nearly all Roman Catholics. This name belongs to 39 places in Hungary. ALMASY, PAUL vorr, a Hungarian who took part against Austria, in the late struggle of his country for independence, born at Pesth, 1818. In 1844, he represented the district of Fleves in the imperial diet at Presburg, and in 1846 he was a member of that at Pesth. He af- terward performed the duties of president of the parliament of Debreczin, on the resignation of Patsmandy and Palffy, and after the ruin of the Hungarian cause took refuge in Paris. ALMEH (properly ALIMEH, the singular of AWALIM), an Arabic word signifying learned fe- male, and applied to female professional singers in Egypt. Many of the inferior almeh often dance for the amusement of the harem, and hence the word is incorrectly used to describe the public female dancers, who are of another class. The almeh are hired upon the occasion of a féte in the harems of the wealthy, but are hidden from the sight of the master of the house. When there are male guests they sit below in the court, and the almeh are sheltered by the lattice over the window of the harem. The almeh are often highly paid. They excite the enthusiasm of the hearers so much that they frequently lavish large sums for the enjoy- ment. As much as $250 has been some- times collected for a single almeh in the house ALMEIDA of a merchant of moderate means. Some of the almeh deserve their name of learned women. The famous dancing women of Egypt, improp- erly called almeh, belong to a distinct tribe called Ghawazee. The dancers are of both sexes, but onlyr the females are Admitted into the harems. They also perform unveiled in the streets to amuse the populace, and they are often hired to entertain a party of men in a private house. Egyptian dancing is a trade of disreputable character, and consists less of steps than expressive but inelegant postures- The dancers are usually in pairs, and play brass cas- tanets, while the dance is accompanied by the Egyptian violin, drum, and tamborine. The Ghawazee drink arrack or brandy, or some ﬁerce stimulant, before they begin, and the musicians cheer and excite them with excla- mations as they proceed. The body of the dancer seems to be convulsed, all the mus- cles vibrate, she kneels, she writhes upon the ground, still clicking the castanets, and rising to her feet, advances, retreats, and then stop- ping; after this extraordinary muscular exertion, her body is cold and her respiration regular. The dance itself is a ballet, generally a lasciv- ious pantomime, agreeing precisely in charac- ter with the descriptions of Martial (lib. v. epigr. 79) and Juvenal (sat. xi. v. 162), of the dancing girls at Cadiz. The Ghawazee are the most abandoned prostitutes, but they are often Very handsome. They are rarely admitted in- to the most respectable harems, and the most religious Egyptians frown upon them. In the year 1834, Mehemet Ali Pasha banished them to Esne. The best authorities consider them a distinct race from the rest of the Egyptians. They claim themselves to be descended from very remote times; and it is not improbable that the dance described by Juvenal in Cadiz was brought thither by the Arabs. Like the gyp- sies they are clannish, and marry among them- selves. Yet a respectable Arab is not disgraced who marries one of the Ghawazee who has relin- guished her profession. They are Mohammed- ans in religious faith, and sometimes accompany the caravans to Mecca. They hold black female slaves, and trade in camels, asses, &c.,'and at- tend all the great religious festivals, and follow a crowd wherever it goes. Some of them sing like the ordinary almeh, and they all wear a profusion of ornament. ALMEIDA. I. A town of Portugal, in the province of Beira, between the rivers Coa and Duas Casa. Population, 6,200. It is strongly fortiﬁed, and was the scene of the defeat of the French, under Massena, by the duke of Wel- lington, Aug. 5, 1811. II. A seaport town of Brazil, in the province of Espirito-Sauto. It is pleasantly situated on an eminence overlooking the sea, and has some trade with Victoria and Rio J aneiro. The inhabitants are employed in ﬁshing, agriculture, in felling timber and in the manufacture of earthenware, and the spin- ning of cotton. The town was founded in ‘1580 by the Jesuits, and contains a church, ALMENAR 399 market-place, and a large building erected by them, and now used as the town hall, the jail, and the curate’s house. Population. 4,000. ALMIEIDA, Fnancrsoo DE, the ﬁrst Portuguese viceroy of India, born about the middle of the 15th century, died March 1, 1510. He was alrea- dy well known as a successful general against the Moors, and on his appointment to the govern- ment of the newly discovered Indian provinces, he was attended by a large number of volun- teers. On his arrival on the Malabar coast, he built several forts to protect the Portuguese commerce, and formed alliances with some of the native princes. He sent his son Lorenzo on an expedition against the king of Calicut, who had ill-treated some Portuguese merchants. This potentate was, however, supported by a ﬁeet sent by the sultan of Egypt, and an engage- ment taking place ended disastrously to the .Portuguese, for after a display of great gal- lantry by the young Ahneida, he was slain, his ﬂag ship destroyed, and the survivors of his crew taken prisoners, the rest of the squadron with diﬁiculty escaping. At this j uncture, Albu- querque came out to India, but Almeida re- fused to recognize him, and cast him into prison. Bent on avenging the death of his son, he sailed, himself‘, on an expedition, and after doing much injury along the coast, met the Egyptian ﬂeet, and totally destroyed it. On his return to the Portuguese settlements in the province of Cochin, he laid down his gov- ernment, and sailed for home in 1508. Going ashore at Saldanha bay with a watering party, he was massacred by the natives. Almeida’s lieutenants discovered Madagascar. Under his government a Portuguese establishment was made at Ceylon, the Maldives discovered and taken possession of, and factories established at Sumatra. ALIVHELO, an arrondissement in the province of Oberyssel, in Holland. It has 5 cantons, and 62,000 inhabitants. Its capital, Almelo, is the seat of some linen manufactures. Population, 3,200. ALMELOVEEN, or ALMELOVEN, J AN, ' a Dutch engraver of some celebrity, who ﬂour- ished in the ﬁrst half of the 17 th century. His best works are engravings from pictures by Hermann Saftleeven. —THEonoRUs Jansson van, a Dutch physician and scholar, born near Utrecht, July 24, 1657, died at Amster- dam, July 28, 1712. In 1697 he was appoint- ed professor of Greek and history at Harder- wick, and in 1702 was appointed to the chair of medicine at the same place, retaining, how- ever, his former professorship. He is known as an editor of classical works, especially those of a medical character. ALMENAR, JUAN, a Spanish physician who lived toward the end of the 15tl1 and begin- ning of the 16th century. He was one of the ﬁrst syphilographists, and in his work, De morbo Gallico, published at Venice in 1502, and re- printed at Pavia, Lyons, and Basel, he gives an accurate description of the mercurial treatment-. 400 ALMENDINGEN, Lunwm Hansormn vox, a German jurist, born at Paris, March 25, 1766, died at Dillenburg, in the duchy of Nassau, Jan. 16, 1827. His father was minister of Hesse-Darmstadt at Paris, where the young Almendingen was educated. He afterward studied law at Gtittingen, and in 1794 was ap- pointed professor of law at Herborn, in the duchy of Nassau. He held several ofﬁces of importance in this duchy, and was ﬁnally, in 1816, appointed vice-president of the Aulie council at Dillenburg. He was also a member of the commission of legislation at Wiesbaden, and distinguished himself by his zeal for the improvement of the laws. He conducted the cause of the widowed duchess of Anhalt- Schaumburg, against the duke of Anhalt—Bern- burg, and the case having been carried before the tribunal at Berlin, and there decided against him, he published an account of the proceedings in the suit, in which he animad- verted very severely on the Prussian adminis- tration of justice. For this he was condemned, in 1822, to a year’s imprisonment. This sen- tence was never carried into effect, but Almon- dingen was deposed from his oﬁice, and never again took part in active life. His works are numerous, and are mostly on legal or political subjects, including a valuable treatise on the origin of war. ALMENRADER, KARL, a German musi- cian, born at Ronsdorf, in Prussia, in 1786, was for someyears teacher at the academy of mu- sic of Cologne. In the campaign of 1815, he joined the army as director of military music. On his return, he officiated for some time at the theatre of Mentz, and in 1820 he founded in Cologne a manufacturing establishment of ﬂutes and clarinets, but ill health compelled him to abandon the business, and in 1822 he accepted the appointment of bassoonist in chief of the chapel of the duke of Nassau at Bibs- rich. He has composed many pieces, princi- pally for his favorite instrument, the bassoon. ALMERAS, Loms, a French general, born at Vienne in Dauphiné in 1768, died at Bordeaux, Jan. 7, 1828. In 1794, while on duty in theAlps, he, with only 200 men, routed a Sardinian corps of 1,500. This brilliant exploit led at once to his promotion. He followed Kleber to Egypt, and distinguished himself there, as well as, on his return, in the different campaigns against Austria and Russia. In 1810 he became briga- dier-general. In 1812 he took an active part in the Russian campaign, and in 1823 he was ap- pointed governor of the city of Bordeaux. ALMERIA, a province of Spain, embracing the eastern part of the old kingdom of Granada, bounded on the north by J aen and Murcia, on the east and south by Murcia and the Mediter- ranean, and on the west by Granada. It has an area of 3,800 square miles. Population in 1849, 292,234. Almeria is one of the richest provinces of Spain in mineral wealth. The sil- vermi'nes of the Sierra de Almagrera produced in 1843 upward of 1,700,000 ounces, and the ALMENDLNGEN ALMODOVAR lead mines of the Sierra de Gador yielded in 45 years 11,000,000 quintals of that metal. Mining and agriculture are the chief branches of indus- try. Grain and silk are among the principal productions. Cotton is raised to some extent along the coast, its cultivation having been in- troduced by Mr. Kirkpatrick, U. S. consul at Malaga, many years ago.--ALMERIA, capital of the province, in 36° 51' N. lat., 2° 33’ W. long., was one of the most important commercial towns of Granada in the reign of the Moorish kings. It has a magniﬁcent cathedral, and is the see of a bishop. The town is still sur- rorunded by the old Moorish walls. Population, 1 ,s00. ALMEYDA, FRANCISCO DE, a Portuguese theologian, born at Lisbon, July 31, 1701, diedin the latter part of the 18th century. He achieved great fame, particularly by his extensive knowl- edge of the canon law. He wrote various books on theological subjects; His most curious production, and one of peculiar value to stu- dents of ecclesiastical history, is his work on the ritual and church discipline of Portugal. ALMLOF, Nn.s VILHELM, a distinguished Swedish actor, born at Stockholm, March 24, 1799. He commenced the study of medicine, but an unconquerable passion for the stage in- duced him to abandon that profession, and he made his debut at the Royal Theatre in Stock- holm, May 2, 1821, in the character of Leices- ter, in Schiller’s “Maria Stuart.” Since that time he has maintained the ﬁrst place upon the Swedish stage. His chief roles are Appius, in Leopold’s “ Virginia,” Othello, Wallenstein, and Fiesco. ALMODOVAR, Iwnrouso DIAZ DE RIIBERA, count of, a Spanish statesman, born at the end of the 18th century, in Valencia, descended from. the family of Ribera in Valencia, hold- ing his title from his wife’s family. He re- ceived a military education in the artillery school of Segovia, and adopting liberal princi- ples fought for the popular side in the war of independence. Soon after the return of Fer- dinand VII. from France he was thrown into the prison of the inquisition on suspicion of being implicated with secret societies. 1820 he was released by the people, and made governor of Valencia. In 1823 he quitted Spain and retired into France, from which he returned on the invitation of the regent Chris- tina, and was appointed president in the cham- ber of the Procuradores, a'post for which his talents, either as a speaker or thinker, do not seem to have qualiﬁed him, and in 1835 he was restored to a more congenial post, captain-gene- ral of Valencia. The administration of Toreno gave universal dissatisfaction, and juntas were formed throughout the country-with the view of restoring the constitution of 1812. Almo- dovar, as the chief executive oﬁicer of Valen- cia, was particularly energetic in -supportof the movement; he dismissed all government em- ployés, and replaced them with others favorable to a change of system; and directed a sale of - In- ALMOHADES the movables and other effects of the religious houses to provide funds; he also imposed a tax on all those who were not enrolled in the mi- litia or were notoriously unfavorable to the rev- olutionary cause. He headed an address to the regent demanding the restoration of the con- stitution of 1812. Notwithstanding his decided liberalism, as a member of the aristocracy, he gave offence to the extreme democratic party, which now got the upper-hand, and Almo- dovar was obliged to take refuge on board an English vessel of war in the harbor. A re- action taking place, Almodovar returned to Valencia as captain-general, and declared the city in a state of siege. He took sanguinary vengeance for every murder committed by the insurgents, and when he could not arrest the actual criminals, he shot their relatives. Under Mendizabal, he obtained the ministry of war, and issued a decree for the enrolment of 100,000 men, with the idea of at once crush- ing the Carlists. This only resulted in signal failure, and even with the support of the re- sources of the kingdom which were in the hands of the government, Almodovar could not keep an effective army in the ﬁeld, nor maintain active operations. From being as- sailants the Christinos were put on the defen- sive, and in 1836 Almodovar was compelled to relinquish the war department in favor of Gen. Rodi], and to take the ministry of foreign affairs, from which he retired with Mendi- zabal in 1836. Under Isturiz he was vice- president of the chamber. In 1837 he was appointed senator. He joined the Espartero ministry, and in 1842 became again foreign secretary. ALMOHADES, a dynasty of northern Afri- ca and Spain, which began with Abd-el-Mu- men A. D. 1147, and terminated with Alma- moun A. D. 1231. The term is an abbreviation of Al-Mowahedun, which means the Unitarian. The origin of their power is traced to a certain Mohammed ben Toumert, who travelled to Cordova for education, and thence to Cairo and Bagdad to complete his studies. On his return from the east, Mohammed ‘became conspicuous by the austerity of his life and the boldness of his preaching. He made the acquaintance of Abd-el-Mumen, a youth of high birth, and was intrusted by his relatives with the care of his education. Mohammed ﬁlled the mind of this young man with his own ambitious views, and instilled into him a belief that he was reserved for a high destiny, and that he was intended to inaugurate a reformed Moslem creed. The two travelled about, and visited both Fez and Mo- rocco. At the latter place, Mohammed’s con- duct was so insolent, that the king expelled him from the town, upon which ,he took up his abode in a burial ground, where he preached to the people the coming of the great Mahadi, who was to establish the reign of universal justice and peace upon the earth. One day as he was thus preaching, Abd-el-Mumen remarked, “You are yourself the great Mahadi,” and im- von. I.—26 401 mediately swore allegiance to him as such, in which he was followed by 50, and soon after by 70 others. They retreated to the moun- tains, preaching the unity of God, and soon their number was swelled to 20,000; and a victory over the king’s brother, in which the royal troops were seized with a panic and ﬂed, established the inﬂuence of the Almohades. The war was kept up against them with vary- ing success, but in 1128 they marched against Morocco, and obtained a complete victory over the royal troops. The Mahadi now summoned his followers, and announcing his approaching departure, laid down his power, and was said to have been translated. His doctrines were contained in a book written by the famous Algazzali, and comprised slight reforms in the profession of faith. Abd-el-Mumen was now elected sovereign. He overran Oran and Fez, and reduced Morocco, the last refuge of the Almoravides, to extremities. After a desper- ate defence, the city was taken, A. D. 1148, and Abd-el-Mumen massacred the inhabitants, and razed the town to its foundations. In Spain, the Almohades were equally successful. The Almoravides were defeated at every point. Abd-el-Mumen proclaimed a holy war, but died in the midst of his preparations, A. D. 1163. Yussuf ben Abd-el-Mumen succeeded his father, Abd-el-Mumen, at the age of about 24, and reigned until about 1184, when he died, while besieging Santarem in Portugal. He was en- gaged during his reign in wars with the Chris- tians, and also with his African neighbors, but found time to devote considerable attention to the adornment of the city of Seville, where he ﬁxed his residence in Spain. The long aqueduct, still existing, by which water is brought to the city from the neighboring mountains, was the work of this monarch.-—Yacoub ben Yussuf or Al-Mansoor, his successor, carried on the war against the Christians, and defeated Alfonso III. of Castile, at Alarcos. He is remarkable for his humanity, for he set his prisoners at lib- erty, and for the liberal encouragement he gave to the arts and sciences. He died in Africa, A. D. 1199.—-Mohammed Abu Abdallah, his son, succeeded him. He levied a vast army against the Christians; and the pope having authorized a crusade, the clergy exerted them- selves to repel the invasion; and on June 12, 1212, a battle was fought, in which the forces on either side were of enormous number, and Mohammed barely escaped with life, leaving 170,000 dead on the ﬁeld. He returned to Morocco, and resigning his crown to his son Yussuf Abu Yaccub, who was only eleven years old, died in 1213, after a life of licentious indulgence.—With this prince, who died child- less in 1223, the direct Almohades line ter- minated. Al-Adel and Almamoun, both nearly related to Abu Yaccub, held for a time the empire of the Almohades, but it was soon torn asunder by internal divisions, and, toward the middle of the 13th century, the last de- scendant of this house, who still maintained a 402 ALMON show of power in the city of Morocco, fell by the hand of an assassin. ALMON, Jonrr, an English political writer, born at Liverpool in 1738, died in 1805. After serving an apprenticeship to a bookseller, he went to sea, and in 1759 settled in London. On the death of George II., he published a re- view of his reign, which went through two editions. His next production was a “ Review of the Administration of Mr. Pitt,” which gained him the patronage of Lord Temple. He published also three volumes of “Anec- dotes of Lord Chatham;” three volumes of “Biographical Anecdotes of Eminent Persons,” and an edition of “J unius,” in two volumes, in which he attempted to prove that Hugh Boyd was the author of these celebrated letters. He was a man of strong sympathies, with liberal ideas, and put his pen and press at the disposal of Wilkes. On this occasion he published a pamphlet on “Jurymen and Libellers,” for which he was arraigned at the king’s bench, but the government could not obtain a verdict against him. He was also arraigned for having sold copies of J unius’s letters to the king, com- pelled to pay a ﬁne, and to ﬁnd bail to keep the peace for two years. He was the publisher of Wilkes’s North Briton, and biographer of the same. In 1774 he established the “Parlia- mentary Register,” a periodical which still enjoys a prosperous existence. ALMOND (amygdalus), a genus of plants, the type of the sub-order am;/gdalece, compre- hending the almond, the peach, the nectarine, and a few unimportant bushes of a somewhat gay appearance. The common almond (A. commands) is a native of Barbary, but has long been cultivated in the south of Europe, and the temperate parts of Asia. The fruit is produced in very large quantities, and exported into northern coimtries. It is also pressed for oil, and used for various domestic purposes. There are numerous varieties of this species, but the two chief kinds are the bitter almond and the sweet almond. The sweet almond af- fords a favorite article for dessert, but it con- tains little nourishment, and, of all nuts, is one of the most diﬂicult of digestion. The tree has been cultivated in England for about 3 cen- turies,for the sake of its beautiful foliage, as the fruit will not ripen without a greater degree of heat than is found in that climate. The bitter almond contains less ﬁxed oil than the sweet almond. It has a strong narcotic power, derived from the presence of hydro- cyanic acid, and is said to act as a poison on dogs, and some other of the smaller animals. The distilled water of the bitter almond is highly injurious to the human species, and, taken in a large dose, produces almost instant death. The leaves of all the varieties of amygdaleaa contain hydrocyanic acid, and are often dangerous, while the fruit may be used with entire impunity. To this order, beside the fruits named above, belong the plum, cherry, and nectarine. ALMON TE ALMONDBURY, a village in the township and parish of the same name in the West Rid- ing of Yorkshire, two miles from Huddersﬁeld. Population of the township, 9,749 ; of the whole parish, 41,804. It has a number of woollen mills, and a grammar school. ALMONDE, PI-11L1PP vsn, a Dutch vice-ad- miral, born at Briele in 1646, died on his estate, Haaswyk, near Leyden, in 1711. He served under Admiral Ruyter on the memorable occa- sion of June 11, 12, 13, and 14, 1668, and after Ruyter’s death, near Palermo, in 1676, the duty of taking the command of the Dutch ﬂeet, on its way home from the Mediterranean, devolved upon him. He covered himself with glory at the battle of La Hogue, in 1692, when, as commander of the outposts of the combined English and Dutch ﬂeets, he himself ﬁred the ﬁrst gun, which became the signal for an en- gagement, that ended in the overwhelming de- feat of the French squadron. He also assisted Cornelius Van Tromp in his eﬁ’orts to reduce the naval power of Sweden, and to afford pro- tection to Denmark. In the expedition against the French and Spanish coasts, under the com- mand of the English admiral Rooke, Almonde was again conspicuous for his intrepidity and bravery. To commemorate his memory, a monument has been erected to him by his nephews in St. Catherine’s church, in his na- tive town of Briele. ALMON ER, anciently written AMNER, was an oﬂicer in a king’s, prince’s, prelate’s, or oth- er great man’s household, who distributed his master’s alms to the poor. Monasteries also have their almoners. The kings of France had their grand aumonier, and the popes had early a similar officer attached to their household. In England, the oﬂice of lord high almoner is held by the archbishop of York. In France, the oﬂice of grand aumonier was held by an ecclesiastic of the highest rank. After the rev- olution, it was restored by Napoleon, and con- ferred upon Cardinal Fesch. At the revolution of 1830, it was again abolished, and has not since been heard of.-—Almoner (eleeinosg/nerius) is also used in ecclesiastical history for the dea- cons of churches. ALMONTE, J UAN Nnromucnuo, a Mexican general and statesman, born in the latter part of the 18th century. He received a superior edu- cation, and early distinguished himself by his talents and his courage. He was one of the Mexican generals who in 1836 served in the Texan war under Santa Anna, and the records of the “Massacre of the Alamo” were chieﬂy made up from Almonte’s journal, which was found on the battle-ﬁeld. He gave a further evi- dence of his daring at the battle of San J acinto, and in token of his services he was appointed minister of war by President Bustamente. Here he displayed much courage in quelling the in- surrection instigated by Urrea, in July, 1840. The revolution toward the end of the same year, which drove Bustamente from power, deprived Almonte of his oﬁice, and for some time he sup- ALMORAH ported himself as lecturer on science, in the city of Mexico. Afterward he was appointed am- bassador to the U. S., and remained at Washing- ton for a considerable time, winning by his high bearing and varied attainments the good will and regard of all with whom he was brought into contact. During the suspension of diplo- matic relations with this country he oﬁiciated for some time as Mexican minister at the French and British courts, and when in 1853 Santa An- na, with whose views Almonte sympathized, and to whom in the dictator’s times of prosper- ty as well as of adversity, he always stood in the most friendly personal relations, reassumed the reins of power, he was re-appointed minister at Washington, where he remained until 1856, whence, shortly after the downfall of his friend’s dictatorship, he was removed to London, where he has since held the oﬁice of Mexican ambassa- dor. ALMORAH, the capital of the British prov- ince of Kumaon, and the most important place held by the East India Company in Northern Hindostan, is situated among the Himalayas, 5,337 feet above the sea level, in N. lat. 29° 35’, E. long. 79° 42’. The town is built along a mountain ridge, in the midst of a barren and desolate region, and approached by a road which a small force might bar against the advance of an . army. The artiﬁcial defences of the place are, however, very slight. It was captured by the Gorkhas in 1790, and held till 1815, when the town was attacked and stormed on the 25th of April, by the British forces under Col. N ic- olls. On the following day a proposition to treat was made by the Gorkhan commander, which ended in an agreement on the part of the Nepauleese to give up the possession of the prov- ince, which thereupon was annexed to the Brit- ish territory. , ALMORAVIDES, an Arabian tribe which travelled into Syria in the time of the ﬁrst ca- liph, afterward traversed Egypt, and ﬁnally set- tled in Mauritania. They were very ignorant of the principles of the Mohammedan religion, which they professed, and were instructed or almost converted to it during the 5th century of the Hegira, by Abdallah ben Yassim, who ﬁrst introduced the term Marabouts, since so fa- mous in Moorish history, which means “ relig- ious men.” This chieftain assumed the command of thetribe, and died in battle, A. D. 1058. Abubekr ben Omar succeeded him, but during his absence on a warlike expedition, his lieu- tenant, Yussuf ben Tashfyn, seized the supreme power. Abubekr on his return, ﬁnding his ri- val too strong, resigned the crown, and Yus- suf acknowledged his forbearance by magniﬁ- cent presents, which he repeated annually dur- ing Abubekr’s life. Yussuf ben Tashfyn now established, founded the city and empire of Mo- rocco. He was invited to Spain to conquer the Christian invaders, and sent an embassy to Al- fonso VI. announcing his arrival in the Penin- sula, and summoning that monarch to an uncon- ditional surrender, and to embrace Mohammed- ' ALNWICK 403 anism. This haughty demand was treated with scorn by Alfonso, and a desperate battle was fought in the plains of Zalaca, in which the Christians were worsted inasmuch as the enemy kept the ﬁeld. Yussuf however retired, but the following year returned, and turning his arms against his fellow-believers, he conquered the Moorish kings in detail, and having proclaimed his son as his successor, retired to Morocco, where he died in 1106. ALMQUIST, KARL J orms Lnnwre, a Swed- ish writer, born in 1793, who began life as a pol- itician, but soon left politics for the charms of a primitive mode of life in the Swedish forests. After this he tried the pulpit, but the sphere of theology did not afford sufficient scope to his aspirations, and he eventually devoted him- self to literature, where he has already gained some distinction by a collection of roman- tic poems, called the Trirnrosevza B070, (Thorn Rose Book). He has written various ele- mentary works on history, geography, &c., in addition to grammars and lexicons, and has like- wise composed two epic poems, Schems-eZ-Ni- I bar and A'rth'u1"s Jagd, beside romances, dra- mas, tales, and humorous stories. ALMS, a general term for charitable dona- tions to the poor. In the early ages of the church, Christian charity was divided into four equal parts: one for the bishop, one’ for the priest, one for the deacons and sub-deacons who lived upon their share entirely, and a fourth for the poor.-—Alms also used to denote lands left to religious houses on condition of praying for the soul of the deceased. ALMY, WILLIAM, an eminent philanthropist of Providence, R. I., born Feb. 17, 1761, died February 5, 1836. He belonged to the Society of Friends, and was a public teacher. He mar- ried the only daughter of Moses Brown, and was engaged in business with his brother-in-law, Obadiah Brown, in manufacturing cotton goods. Having become a man of wealth he used it in a manner congenial to a most liberal and generous disposition. The charities with which his life was ﬁlled seem only the expression of a general love of his fellow-men. Among others he en- dowed the New England yearly meeting board- ing school, at Providence, to which he not only freely gave money, but also his personal atten- tion, and paid the expenses for the education of 80 young persons placed there by him. ALNWICK, the county town of N orthumber- land, is situated on the river Alne, in 55° 25’ N. lat. and 1° 42' W. long., 29 miles south of Ber- wick. Pop. 7,327. The town is well built, chieﬂy of stone, with broad, well-paved streets, lighted with gas. It has aﬁne town hall, and a market house erected by the late duke of North- umberland. The ancient castle of the same name lies north-west of the town. It covers 5 acres of ground, and was restored in 1830 at an outlay of £200,000. It is built of freestone, in the Gothic style, and is one of the ﬁnest old baronial residences in England. Alnwick cas- tle formed one of the strongest bulwarks against 4Q4 ALOADIN the incursions of the Scots, in ancient times, and was repeatedly besieged by them. Near its walls, Malcolm, king of that nation, was slain in 1093, and his army routed, and eighty years after- ward, William, another Scottish monarch, was defeated, at the head of an army of 80,000 men, and taken captive in the neighborhood. ALOADIN, or ALA-EDDYN, a native of an- cient Parthia, prince of the Arsacides or Assas- sins, was called the Old Man of the Mountain. He lived in the middle of the 13th century, in a castle between Damascus and Antioch, and was surrounded by a number of intrepid youths, whom he intoxicated with pleasure, and ren- dered subservient to his views by promising still greater voluptuousness in the next world. They were thus incited to assassinate his ene- mies, and he became a terror to the neighbor- ing princes. From the name and character of his followers, the word assassin is commonly supposed to be derived. See Assassms, and also Baraurras. ALOE, AMERICAN. See Aeavn. ALOES, the inspissated juice of the leaves of different species of aloe; succulent plants with long, ﬂeshy; narrow, toothed leaves, grow- ing in tropical countries. The juice is produced either by draining from the leaves, or by ex- pression, or by boiling. Several varieties are known in commerce, some much superior in quality to others. “ Cape aloes,” obtained from the aloe spicata, growing at the Cape of Good Hope, occurs in masses of a shining dark olive- green color, of a vitreous fracture, and translu- cent at the edges; the powder is of a greenish- yellow color, with a very disagreeable odor, and intensely bitter taste. “Barbadoes aloes ” is prepared in the West Indies, and is the pro- duct chieﬂy of the A. oulgaris. The color is a dark brown, not shining ; the odor is unpleasant, and the drug is used for horses. “ Socotrine aloes,” from the A. socotrina, oc- curs in pieces of a yellowish-brown color, less shining than the “ Oape a1oes;” the fracture is conchoidal, the odor aromatic, and the taste very bitter. This is much the most valuable variety. “Hepatic aloes,” known in India as “ Bombay aloes,” has a dark liver-color, and is probably an inferior kind of drug, manufactured from the dregs of other sorts. Aloes consists of a peculiar soluble matter termed aloesin, and an insoluble substance called apotheme. It yields its virtues to water and alcohol, and is often administered in its natural form, or in combination with other substances, in pills. It is an irritant purgative, slow in operation, and acting chieﬂy on the lower bowel and the rectum. It is sometimes used in constipation, combined with soap, rhubarb, or colocynth. From 2 to 5 grains form a laxative dose; from 5 to 10 grains, a strong purgative. If long con- tinued, it will irritate the mucous membrane of the rectum and produce piles. It has a ten- dency to irritate the whole of the pelvic viscera, and should be used sparingly and with discrim- ination.-The Aloe is a genus of succulent ALOMPRA. plants belonging to the natural order asp?» delew. It has been divided into. a variety of species, consisting of trees, shrubs, and ever- green herbaceous plants, Which differ in height from a few inches to upward of 30 feet, and no less widely in the character of their leaves and ﬂowers. A large proportion of these different species have no medicinal properties, but are seen as objects of curiosity, in collections of suc- culent plants; while the few species above named are highly valued for the juice of their leaves, which forms the aloes of commerce. The pro- cesses of preparing the drug are various. Some- times the leaves are cut 011' at the stem, then cut in pieces, and the juice drained off in iron ves- sels. It is then suffered to stand for 48 hours, during which time the dregs are deposited, and the remaining portion is poured oﬁ into broad ﬂat vessels, and becomes inspissated. In other places, the leaves are pulled, and after being cut in Cpieces, the juice is extracted by pressure. GI, a religious sect ﬂourishing about A. D. 170, and so denominated because they rejected the doctrine of the Logos, and there- fore of the Trinity, and for this latter reason denominated Monarchians. They also rejected the idea of the prophetical gifts of the spirit, and hence became specially involved in the Montanistic controversy of that day. Whether the Alogi took the Patripassian or subordination branch of the Monarchian faith does not clearly appear, as all the accounts left of them, and indeed of the whole Monarohian movement, are by Tertullian, a Montanist, and therefore a vio- lent antagonist of the Monarchians. ALOIDES, in classical mythology, Otus and Ephialtes, the sons of Poseidon and Aloeus’ wife. They were giants whose bodies, though but 9 years’ growth, measured 9 cubits in‘ breadth and 27 in height. Had they waited until they had grown to manhood, nothing could have saved the gods. Fortunately they misconducted themselves when young and com- paratively tender by waging war on Olympus and piling Pelion upon Ossa. They put the god Ares (Mars) in chains and kept him so 13 months. Ere their beards began to grow, Phoebus Apollo destroyed the dangerous youths with his arrows, and relieved Olympus from its eril. ALOIS, MARIA J osarn J oaonna FRANZ, reigning prince of Lichtenstein, and duke of Troppan and J agerndorf, born May 26, 1796. He succeeded his father in 1836. In 1831, he married Francisca de Paula, countess of Kinsky, by whom he has had 8 daughters and 1 son, namely Johann Maria Franz Placidus, who was born Oct. 5, 1840. Prince Alois resides gen- erally at Vienna, and is president of the im- perial agricultural society of that city. ALOMPRA, or Aroone-B’Hou1>.A, the found- er of the Burman empire, was born about the year 1710, and died in 1760. He was of obscure birth, a hunter by trade, but, being bold and enterprising, he raised himself to in- dependence and sovereign power, and estab- ALOOSHTA lished a new dynasty about the middle of the 18th century. He founded the city and port of Rangoon, and made a treaty with the English. In 1757, after the destruction of the capital of the king of Pegu, his enemy, Alompra, ad- dressed a pompous letter to the king of Eng- land. A copy of this letter, which was written upon a sheet of gold surrounded with diamonds, is preserved in the collection of Colonel Burney. ALOOSHTA, a town of European Russia, situated on a rock on the south coast of the Crimea; it is a very old place, and seems to have been very important. In the 6th century the castle, the ruins of which crown the sum- mit of the rock, was rebuilt by the Emperor Justinian.- ALOPA, Lonnnzo DE, more generally known under the Latin name of Launnrrrrus Fnanorsor DE ALOPA, a native of Venice, was established as a printer at Florence toward the end of the 15th century, and attended chieﬂy to the print- ing of Greek books. He published: “Greek Anthology,” edited by Lascaris, with a com- mentary, and dedicated to Pietro de Medici, Aug. 3, 1494, in 4to; “The Hymns of Calli- machus,” in 4to; Gnomm Morzostichw, with the poem of the Musaeum, in 4to; Four tragedies of Euripides: Medea, Hippolytus, Alcestes, Andromache, small edition in 4to; the ﬁrst edition of the Argonaut of Appollonius of Rhodes, 1496, in 4to. These editions are re- markable for the beauty of the paper and the elegance of the type; all printed in Greek characters. The ﬁrst edition of Ficin’s Latin translation of Plato, which contains at the end of the Banquet the name of Laurentius Venetus, is also supposed to have come from the press of Lorenzo Alopa. This edition is printed in Gothic characters. ALOPECY (Gr. aAmnq§, fox), the fox-evil or scurf-disease, which causes the hair to fall off, a disease of the follicles which secrete the hair, named by the Greeks alopecia, or the fox dis- ease, because that animal is frequently liable to lose his hair in old age. The loss of the hair may be conﬁned to certain portions of the scalp, or it may extend to the whole body. The former, however, is very frequent, and the latter very rare. The causes of alopecy may be either local, or constitutional. A hot dry skin, throw- ing off scurf abundantly, is one of the local causes of bald head ; irritating dyes and appli- cations are another ; any skin disease, in fact, may cause the hair to fall by causing chronic inﬂammation and debility in the secreting bulbs of the hair on the scalp. Typhus fever may also cause the hair to fall ; but as the bulbs are not always destroyed by this disease, a little care will cause the hair to grow again. All that is required when the skin is dry and scaly is to brush the scalp with a wet brush gently every morning a few minutes, and apply a stimulating lotion, composed of equal parts of rum and oil of sweet almonds ; when the skin is soft and ﬂabby, wash it welland rub it briskly with soap and water every morning, and then apply a ALOST 405 lotion of rosemary water. When the bulbs of the hair are completely destroyed, no remedy will restore them or cause the hair to grow. Amongst the general and constitutional causes of the loss of hair are hereditary tendencies, scorbutic and syphilitic affections, constant head-aches, pernicious fevers, excessive venery, and general debility. In such cases local ap- plications alone are useless ; constitutional treatment is absolutely necessary; and when the general health is perfectly restored, the hair bulbs may perhaps revive and secrete hair again ; but there is very little chance of such a result, where the functions have been dormant for a length of time. Advertising amateurs who promise immense crops of hair from the application of their nostrums, are generally humbugs. ALOPEUS. I. Count DANIEL, a Russian diplomatist, born at Viborg in Finland, 1769, died at Berlin, June 13, 1831. He was edu- cated at the military school at Stuttgart, and, in 1807, appointed minister at the court of Sweden. When Gustavus IV., king of Sweden, heard of the invasion of Finland by the Russian troops, he immediately imprisoned Alopeus, but, on the downfall of this king, the latter was set at liberty, and was rewarded by his royal master with an estate and the oﬁice of chamber- lain. He afterward signed, on the part of Russia, the treaty of F rederikshamn, by which Sweden ceded Finland to Russia. In 1813 he was commissary general to the allied armies, and, in 1815, was appointed to the government of Lorraine, a duty which he fulﬁlled with much credit. He was afterward appointed minister plcnipotentiary of Russia at Berlin, which ofﬁce he held at the time of his death. II. Baron MAXIMIHAN, elder brother of the preceding, and also a distinguished Russian di- plomatist, born at Viborg, Jan. 21, 1748, died at Frankfort-on-the-Main, May 16, 1822. He studied theology at Abo in Finland, and at Gtittingen, but was afterward diverted to the career of diplomacy by Count Panin, who chose him for his private secretary. After having held a high oﬂice at St. Petersburg, he was sent, in 1785, to Eutin (Lubeck) as Russian ambassador. In 1790 he went to Berlin as minister plcnipotentiary, and gained great credit by the manner in which he fulﬁlled the arduous duties of this post. In 1807 he went to London as ambassador extraordinary, and afterward, in 1813, took his place again as Russian minister at Berlin. In 1820 he resigned this oﬁice, went to Frankfort for the reestab- lishment of his health, and there died. ALOST, a town of considerable trade and manufactures in the province of Belgium, in East Flanders. It lies to the west and north of Brussels, and near the Ostend and Brussels rail- way. It is situated on both sides of the Den- der, which has been made into a canal for the accommodation of trade. It has a population of about 15,000, and was formerly the capital of Austrian Flanders. It became the property ‘._a~ 406 of the French in 1667. But in 1706, in the battle of Ramilies, the duke of Marlborough gained a victory over the French and Bavarians, and the French evacuated East Flanders. Alost was consequently abandoned to the allies. The town is well built and clean. In the church of Saint Martin is a picture by Rubens, represent- ing “ the Plague of Alost.” ALPACA, a species of the genus lama of Fr. Cuvier (properly llama), and auchenia of Illiger, which with the genus camelus con- stitutes the family of camelidea, of the order of bi-sulca ¢umz'nantia. The alpaca is found in the mountainous regions of Peru, and sub- sists on the coarse and scanty forage which grows on the sterile soil of that quarter. The upper part and the sides of the body of this animal are covered with light chestnut- brown wool, which hangs down in slightly curled meshes of almost one foot in length, and is very soft and elastic, almost as ﬁne as that of the Cashmere goat; the face up to the posterior margin of the jaws, as well as the legs, has short smooth hair; from the forehead a stiff silky hair falls down upon the face. The shearing of the wool, takes place at irregu- lar times, annually or every other year, without great care, and without a proper assortment of the various colors or qualities. From 10 to 12 lbs. are obtained from one animal. England surpasses all other countries in the fabrication of tissues from this wool. The most promi- nent manufactories of France are at Turcoing, and at Lille. ALPAGO, ANDREA, an Italian physician, a native of Bellune, born at the beginning of the 16th century, died at Venice in 1555. He had a great veneration for the physicians of Arabia, and with a view to enable himself to read their works in the original, he travelled for many years in the East, and resided for some time at Damascus. On his return he was made pro- fessor of medicine at the university of Padua, but died a few months after his installation. He translated Avicenna, Averroes, and Sera- pion, and enriched their works with notes, some of which now remain in manuscript. ALPAIS or ALPAIDE, surnamed La belle, the wife of Pepin of Heristal, the major-domo of the Merovingian kings and the mother of Charles Martel, lived in the 8th century. She won the heart of Pepin of Heristal, who repu- diated Plectruda for her. Lambert the bishop of Liege condemned the transaction, and would not bless the glass that was presented to the bride at the marriage festival. Alpais excited her bro- ther Dodou to avenge her. He did so, and Lam- bert was assassinated. The murderer was eaten up with worms, so says the chronicle, and had to drown himself in the river Meuse to slake his consuming pain. Pepin remained attached to Alpais until his death. She then retired to a convent in Namur, in order to be safe from the malice of Plectruda. ALP-ARSLAN, the second sultan of the Seljueid dynasty of Persia, born in 1028, died ALPACA ALPHA in 1072. In 1071 Persia was invaded, for the fourth time, by the Greek emperor of Constan- tinople, but this fourth expedition was defeated by Alp-arslan, who, emboldened by this bril- liant victory, determined on extending his do- minions even beyond the Oxus. He crossed this river at the head of an imposing army, seized Caryr, a little town across the river, ex- acting, at the same time, allegiance from the governor Yussuf. Yussuf, however, refused this, and as the sultan, in his indignation, was levelling his arrows against him, he was stab- bed by the refractory governor. He died of the wound inﬂicted, was buried at Merve, and succeeded on the throne by his son Melik Shah. ALPEDRIN HA, J ones DA Cosrn, archbish- op of Lisbon, born in the village of Alpedrin- ha, in the province of Beira, about 1406, died at Rome in 1508. Noble, rich, brilliantly edu- cated, he exerted a great inﬂuence at the court of Alfonso V., but his relation with the prince regent, J oao II., was of a less auspicious charac- ter, and to prevent all unpleasant collisions, the archbishop departed for Rome, where his rare combination of the advantages of wealth, birth, and intellect, gave him a preponderating inﬂu- ence over the councils of the Vatican. During his long life, spread over a whole century, he was on the most intimate terms with not less than 5 Popes: Sextus IV., Innocent VIII., Al- exander VI., Pius III., and Julius II., while, from his palace at Rome, he continued, until his death, to exert a favorable inﬂuence over the destiny of Portugal. ALPENA, a new county in N. E. Michigan, on Lake Huron and Thunder bay, which is drained by Thunder bay river. It has an area of 700 square miles. The census has not yet furnished any returns of its population, or productions. ALPES, Bnssns, a department of France, on the Sardinian frontier, and part of the old kingdom of Provence. It has an area of 2,666 square miles, and, in 1852, had 152,070 inhab- itants. It is mostly a barren and mountainous district, with some fertile valleys scattered among the hills. The department is divided into 5 arrondissements, 30 cantons, and 256 communes. It is the most thinly settled por- tion of France. Its chief town, Digne, has a population of 4,781. 1 ALPES, Haurns, a department of France, part of the old province of Dauphiné, and lying north of the Basses Alpes. The loftiest of the French Alps lie within its limits, and give the department its name. Mount Pelvaux, the highest mountain in France, rises upward of 14,000 feet above the sea-level. The surface of the whole district is rugged and uneven in the extreme. It is divided into 3 arrondisse- ments, 24 cantons, and 189 communes, contain- ing (in 1851) 132,038 inhabitants. The capi- tal is Gap; pop. 8,797. ALPHA and OMEGA, the ﬁrst and last letters of the Greek alphabet. The book of Revelation three times designates Jesus Christ by the title alpha and omega. So also Isaiah (xiv. 6) repre- ALPHABET sents God as saying, “ I am the ﬁrst, and I am the last.” We see perhaps the germ of this form of expression in the ﬁrst commandment of the decalogue. From the brevity with which the apocalyptic declaration might be represented in device, several forms of it came into early‘use as Christian keepsakes and or- naments, and was also placed as a sort of symbol at the head of epistles and written productions generally, to designate the faith of those using it in the divinity of Christ. The simplest form in which it was used was (a co). In this form, combined with the cross, it is also found on ancient coins, sarcoph- agi, tombs, churches, &c. Some of them reach back to the second, and one perhaps even to the ﬁrst century. In this designation of Jesus some of the early Christians found sym- bolic and mysterious meanings, as, for instance, that the numerical value of the letters a and (1) is 801, precisely the same as the added value of the letters composing the Greek word 1repLs"repa, dove, and that so Christ meant to affirm his di- vinity, as attested by the descent of the dove. ALPHABET, a word formed by coupling the ﬁrst two letters of the Greek alphabet (a. 8. alpha, beta). There is but one evidence that the Greeks themselves used this compound word. Athenaeus, describing an ignorant man, calls him at/a}\ AMBROSCH, J osnrn J nuns Arrmnasms, a German scholar, born at Berlin, Dec. 18, 1804. His father, Joseph. Karl Ambrosch, was a cele- brated singer and musical composer of that city. The young Ambrosch was educated in his native city, and in 1829 went to Italy, where he remained until 1833, having passed a great portion of this period at Rome. He was appointed, in 1834, professor of archaeology and philology at Breslau, which appointment he still holds. His works are, for the most part, essays on subjects connected with the antiqui- ties of Rome. ‘ AMBROSE, SAINT, doctor in the Latin church of the 4th century. He was born at Treves, in Gaul, in the year 340 of our era, died at Milan in --397-.~ ~His__,f_ather was the/Roman governor of Gaul, but his mothéi"was an ardent Christian. His sister took the veil from the hands of the bishop, Liberius, and his inclinations and educa- tion alike made him afriend to the religion of the cross. He was trained to the profession of law, and intrusted at an early age with the govern- ment of a province. His probity and wisdom in this public administration seemed to jus- tify his removal from the chair of secular oﬂice to the more important place of bishop, although at the time of his election he had not even been baptized. The various objections and stratagems by which he tried to escape the honor and the charge thus pressed upon him were all disregarded ; and at the age of 34 he was consecrated bishop of Milan, and continued to hold this oﬂice until his death in the year 397, a period of more than 22 years. His in- ﬂuence in his own age was very great, though upon succeeding ages it has been less important, far less than the inﬂuence of Jerome and Augus- 448 tine, with whose names his is usually joined in the history of the church. He was chosen as a compromise candidate, receiving the suifrages of both parties, at a time when the strife between the Orthodox and the Arians ran very high. His predecessor, Auxentius, was an Arian. The sympathies of Ambrose, how- ever, were decidedly with the supporters of the Nicene creed, and the Arians soon found that they had no favor to expect from him. He would yield no churches for their use, nor would he in any way tolerate their worship. At the same time, he protected an Arian priest from the violence of the mob, and did not allow his own dogmatic preferences to lead him into acts of injustice or tyranny. He resisted ﬁrmly the dictation of the Empress Justina, who wished that an Arian bishop should be appointed for the city, and would not consent to any dis- cussion with such a man. His principal contro- versy, however, was not with heretics in the church, but with the arrogance of the secular power, and with the attempt to resuscitate ex- piring Paganism. Repeatedly, in the discharge of his duty to the church, was he brought into direct conﬂict with the highest secular authori- ty. He rebuked Valentiuian, deﬁed Maximus, and compelled the great Theodosius to a humil- iating penance and submission, paralleled only by the penance of Henry of England at the tomb of Becket, and the penance of Henry of Germany at the palace of Hildebrand. By his remonstrance he prevented the rebuilding of a Jewish synagogue which had been torn down ' by the Christians in a riot, insisting that The- odosius had no right, even from a sense of jus- tice, to compel the true believers to aid in awork of impiety. If it were a sin to pull the building down, it would be a greater sin to build it up. When all the oﬂicers of the court, the senators, and the wise men were silent upon the massacre which in a ﬁt of anger Theo- dosius had ordered at Thessalonica, Ambrose alone did not fear to speak boldly, and de- clared to the emperor that his crime was beyond absolution without a special act of penance, and that the mass could not ﬁtly be celebrated in such a presence. His boldness prevailed, and the humble emperorpbeyed his orders, and continued ever after to be his ﬁrmest friend. His contest with Symmachus, the Roman senator, is scarcely less remarkable. At the instigation of this learned and eloquent man, then prefect of Rome, the senate took oc- casion of a famine which in the year 383 deso- lated Italy, to ask that the Pagan worship might be revived, a support given to the Pagan priesthood, and a new altar to “Victory” raised in the capitol. In the default of the Roman bishop, who did not venture to raise his voice, Ambrose was prompt to throw against the scheme all the force of his authority, his zeal, and his eloquence. In answer to the pleading of Symmachus, that the heroism and glory of ancient Rome was bound to its ancient faith and rites, Ambrose urged that the question was not SAINT AMBROSE what was due to the memory of great men, but what was due to the truth of God. Symmachus takes up the frequent claim of the Christians, and demands only toleration, that all religions shall have a fair chance, that the rights of con- science shall be respected, and the citizen be left free to choose the worship that best suits him. Ambrose now returns upon him the old Pagan argument against toleration, insists that a falsehood exposed cannot have equal rights with the truth victorious in spite of its persecu- tion, and vehemently protests that no power on earth has the right to establish the worship of false gods. He has the advantage of his adversary, when he contrasts the simplicity, the disinterestedness, the long-suffering, the voluntary poverty, and the indefatigable zeal of the Christian priests and the Christian vir- gins, with the ostentation, pride, rapacity, sloth, and worldliness of the Pagan priests and virgins. Ambrose was by no means the equal of his ad- versary in graces of rhetoric, and fulness of scho- larship, but his earnestness, and perhaps in some degree his threatenings, won the cause for him, and the demand of the senate was rejected by the emperor. The inspiration of some of the ﬁnest verses of Prudentius, who has been called the ﬁrst of Christian poets, was borrowed from this plea of Ambrose against Symmachus.—The writings of Ambrose ﬁll 2 folio volumes in the editions of Erasmus (Basel, 1527), and of the Benedictines (Paris, 1686—’90). His exegetical treatises,which are a series of frag- ments, quaint fancy-pieces with scriptural titles, are unsuccessful specimens of the allegorical style. Ambrose adopted the method of Origen, without the ability of that great master of alle- gorical explanation. His ethical writings, which are numerous, seem rather to be ‘E5'n'stﬁIcted on heathen models than to be drawn from the text of the gospel His list of cardinal virtues, “wis- dom, justice, rmness, and moderation,” leaves out every one of the beatitudes, and reminds us of Cicero more than of Christ. But the meaning which he assigns to these terms gives them an evangelical character, and rescues him from the charge of Stoicism in his philosophy. “ Wisdom,” as he teaches, is the true relation of man to God, and so synonymous with piety; “justice ” is the true relation of man to his brethren, and so is equivalent to brotherly love; “ ﬁrmness ” is the true relation of man to out- ward events, and so means contentment; and “moderation,” the true relation of man to him- self, is only another name for self-denial. He divides duties into two classes, partial and perfect. The 1st are duties which all can fulﬁl and which all ought to fulﬁl, such as duties to parents, to teachers, to society, and the state. The 2d are duties which only the fewest do fulﬁl or are able to fulﬁl,—duties to the church and religion, such as fasting, prayer, almsgiving, and celibacy. The 1st class are indispensable to comfort. The '2d class are voluntary. The moral teaching of Ambrose has throughout an ascetic tote, though less austere than the tone of the Greek SAINT AMBROSE fathers. He was hostile to all amusements and all pleasures of sense, and commended the mo- nastic life as the truest way of Christian obedi- ence and spiritual growth. He wrote treatises on “widows,” on “virginity,” on penance, on the “duties of ministers,” which satisﬁed the severe taste of Jerome much better than his seven books on “Faith and the Holy Spirit,” which that harsh critic pronounced to be at once weak, fantastic, and stolen from the Greeks. His panegyrics, as we read them now, hardly justify his reputation for a wonderful oratory. They are tame and commonplace, without dig- nity either of thought or style. Yet Ambrose loved this form of composition; and the oppor- tunity fell to his lot of pronouncing the funeral eulogy of the great Theodosius. Of the let- ters of Ambrose only a part have come down to us. They show very faithfully the character of the man, his moderation, his courage, his ﬁdelity to duty, his practical wisdom, and his unaffected piety. He was the model of a good bishop, discreet in diﬂiculties, ready in emer- gencies, happier in serving his brethren than in receiving their gifts or their homage. He magniﬁed his ofﬁce by alms and prayers and labor for souls. He was glad of his inﬂuence, without being proud of it. His word and his life were consistent. He loved the service of the altar, and his majestic presence never ap- peared to greater advantage than when he blessed the people from the steps of the holy place. He loved to visit the houses of the poor, and was at hand to pray at the bedside of the dying. He loved to reconcile foes and to judge in cases of dispute, and all relied upon his decision as alike wise and righteous. His views upon the relation of “right” to “ ex- pediency” seem to anticipate in some degree the modern doctrine of Paley; but he did not allow, in inferior cases, the interests of the church to make him unj ust to any communicant. His musical voice charmed sorrow away, while it forbade complaint and anger. There was a divine dignity in his manner and bearing, which made him appear at once like a ruler and a saint. Arbogastes, a Roman general, making war upon the Franks of the Rhineland, was asked by one of their chiefs whom he had conquered, if he was a friend of Ambrose. From motives of policy, he gave an aﬁirmative answer. “N o wonder that you have beaten us,” was the reply, “since you have the favor of a man whom the sun itself would obey, if he should command it to stand still.” The most valuable legacies of Ambrose to the church were the hymns which he wrote and the improvements which he made in the method of chanting the sacred oﬁices. Before his time, there had been no ﬁxed method. He ﬁrst reduced the chants to an or- derly style and system. The more perfect no- tation and harmony of the Gregorian chant has superseded the Ambrosian chant in the church at large; but the churches of Milan make boast that they retain the rhythm and cadences which their great bishop left to them. They pretend voL. I.--29 "~v . AMBROSI 449 that Ambrose is the author of the “ Te Deum” which is sung on the high days of festival, and there is a legend of some centuries to support . their claim. Yet its origin is unquestionably far later than the 4th Christian century. Sev- eral of the hymns of Ambrose are still used in the churches of Milan. The most famous of these are the morning song, xﬂtemc rerum Gon- ddtor, the evening song, Deus, Creator omnium, the Christmas chant, Vent, Redcmptor gcntiam, and the short hymn to the Trinity, which Lu- ther translated and adopted. Indeed, the hymns of Ambrose gave to Luther the form and the example for many of his own lyrical composi- tions. These hymns of Ambrose are not to be praised for the beauty of their diction or for any artistic merit. as far from the musical ﬂow of later Christian rhyming as from the ancient ﬁnish of classic Latin verse. But their vigor, their fervor, their striking imagery, not less than their association with the sacred name of their author, give them a place in the veneration of the faithful above many later hymns of far greater merit. The body of Ambrose is kept in the ancient basilica of Milan which bears his name, and his shrine, if less magniﬁcent, is hardly less sacred than the shrine of St. Charles Borromeo in the great ca- thedral. His feast day is observed by the Latin church on the 7th of December, the day of his ordination as bishop. But he has also the rare honor of a place among the saints of the East- ern church, and his name is classed on their registers with the names of Basil, Athanasius, and the two Gregories. N o father of the church has a fame more wide, more beautiful, or more deserved. His life has been written by many biographers, Catholic and heretic, and all consent to that verdict which ranks him with the chief of saints. The kings whom he thwarted respected him. The heretics whom he silenced praised him. The priests and peo- ple of his charge were unanimousin their love. Jews and heathen came to mourn with Chris- tians at the funeral. Scholars, courtiers, and soldiers, alike marvelled at his holiness. And the faith of multitudes in the region of his former home assigns to his spirit an enduring power of miracle, and believes in his presence as a guardian angel. AMBROSI, Pononmnov, archbishop of N ov- gorod in Russia, born in the government of Vladimeer, 1742, died at Novgorod, 1818. He held various oﬂices in the Greek church, and, in 1775, gained the favor of the Empress Cath- erine H. by a sermon which he preached in her presence. Not long after this he was made a bishop, and in 17 99, archbishop of the govern- ments of St. Petersburg, Esthonia, and Finland. In 1800, he was appointed to the archiepiscopal see of Novgorod. He was released from the administration of his see in 1818, as is said, at his own request, and died in the same year. His discourses, published in 3 volumes at Mos- cow, 1810, show depth, and have a practical character. They are rude, loose, and V 450 AMBROSIA AMBROSIA, the food of the gods, in Greek mythology, which was brought to Zeus by . pigeons, and which conferred upon the dwell- ers on Olympus eternal youth and immor- tality. It supplied the presence of all terres- trial comestibles. Favorites of the gods are also recorded to have tasted it as a. great favor, as a child does wedding cake. It was also used by the gods to anoint their body and hair; hence we read of the ambrosial locks of Zeus. AMBROSIAN CHANT, a method of singing hymns ﬁrst introduced into the Western church by Ambrose, bishop of Milan, about the year 386. Not only in various passages of the New Testa- ment, but in the writings of Pliny the Younger, and Lucian, among pagan authors, and of Jus- tin Martyr, who ﬂourished in 163, Ignatius, a cotemporary of the Apostles, Origen, and others of the fathers of the church, do we ﬁnd direct testimony to the propensity which the early Christians had to singing psalms and hymns, even before churches were built or their reli- gion was established by law. No specimens of the music used by them at this remote period remain, but authorities generally concur in supposing that, except in Palestine and among Hebrew converts, the method of singing the hymns ﬁrst introduced into the Christian church conformed very nearly, if not exactly, to that familiar for many ages to the temple worship of the Greeks and Romans. Of this the versi- ﬁcation of the hymns is of itself a sufﬁcient proof. Especially was this true of the eastern church, in which music formed a part of the religious services for many years before its in- troduction into that of the West. Gradually the practice grew into a system, and in the time of Constantine the Great the church of Antioch had established a regular choir and method of singing the service, which, founded on that employed by the Greeks in their wor- ship, formed the model for all Christendom, and was continued in the church with few al- terations until the time of Gregory the Great. About seventy years after this, in the reign of the Emperor Theodosius, Ambrose ﬁrst ordered that psalms and hymns should be sung in this manner in the church at Milan, “ that,” in the words of St. Augustine, “the people might not languish and pine away with a tedious sor- row; ” so that what is known as the Ambro- sian chant, and is generally supposed to be the foundation of all church music, was in fact a method of singing, derived, through the Eastern church, from the Greeks, and which Ambrose had the credit of having ﬁrst perma- nently established in the Western church. The Ambrosian chant, which was sung by the whole congregation, in union with the choir, is so little known at this day, that it is impossible to say more of its general character than that it was constructed on the ancient Greek tetra- chords, and embraced the four authentic modes, the four plagal or collateral ones being added by Gregory to form what is known as the Gre- gorian chant. Dr. Burney admits, however, AMBROSIUS that he was unable to distinguish any substan- tial diiference between the two, but suggests the reason in the fact that there are no vestiges of the Ambrosian chant remaining suﬁicient to ascertain its peculiar character. The Am- brosian chant, and indeed all kinds of church music, were at ﬁrst limited strictly to the per- formance of the psalms and doxologies, from an apprehension among the early fathers and bishops that heretical doctrines might creep into the services by the introduction of original hymns. Ambrose, however, in imitation of the Greek fathers, subsequently wrote several hymns, including, it has been erroneously sup- posed, the Te Deum, which he caused to be habitually sung according to the new method in his church, and St. Augustine, who was baptized there, speaks with great delight of the impression which the performance of the psalms and hymns made upon him. The design of Ambrose doubtless was to re- lieve the monotony of the religious services, and to render them also attractive to heretics and pagans, by inculcating simple melodies, which, although founded on rules of art, would be so familiar and easy that the whole congre- gation might join in the performance. The Ambrosian chant continued to be used in the services of the church until about the com- mencement of the 7th century, when it was superseded by the new method adopted by Pope Gregory. AMBROSIAN LIBRARY. This library was founded in Milan (1609) by Cardinal Frederic Borromeo, archbishop of that city, and was named in honor of St. Ambrose. It is especially rich in MSS., for the collection of which learned men were sent into all parts of Europe, and into Asia. A very large number of palimpsests belong to this library; some of them are ex- ceedingly rare and valuable, among which may be mentioned Cicero’s De Repub lice, fragments of his orations, and the letters of Marcus Aure- lius and Fronto. The palimpsests were mostly obtained from the monastery of Bobbio, and were discovered by the librarian, Angelo Maio, in 1814. Among the MSS. is one of Virgil, valuable for its marginal notes by Petrarch, among which is one relative to his ﬁrst meeting with Laura. The library at present contains about 70,000 printed vols. and more than 15,000 MSS., beside a large collection of statuary, antiques, medals, and pictures. Among these is the cartoon of Raphael, the “ School of Athens,” and the studies of Leonardo da Vinci. Many of the treasures of this library were carried to France during Napoleon’s campaign in Italy, and some of them have never been returned. A printing-press is connected with the library, and several professors and editors are constantly engaged in collating and translating the MSS. The building is of good proportions, and 1s well arranged in the interior. AMBROSIUS, or Amnnosmnus Aunnnmnus, a general and afterward a king of the Britons ’t0W3.1‘(1 the 5th century. By some historians AMBROTYPE he was supposed to be the son of Constantine, the soldier elected emperor by the legions in Britain in 407, but the more credible opinion is that he -was son of one of the kings elected by the Britons after the Romans aban- doned the island. He was educated at the court of Aldroén, king of Armorica, whence he returned in 457 to his country with 10,000 troops to defend it against the invading Saxons. The king Vortigern having abdicated, Ambro- sius became in his place sovereign over the Whole nation. He governed with ability, was eminent as a military leader, and fought suc- cessfully against the Saxon invaders in the north. But in the 8th year of his reign, he lost several battles against Hengist and his son Eck. Four years after, he again combated the Saxons commanded by Ella, and won a battle against Hengist. The chronicler Godfrey of Monmouth pretends that Ambrosius died by poison given him by a Saxon physician, but it is more probable that he was slain in 508 in a great battle against Cedric, the chief of the West Saxons. AMBROTYPE, a daguerreotype taken on glass instead of the metallic plate used by Daguerre. AMBRYN, an island of the New Hebrides, having an active volcano. It was discovered by Bougainville (1768). It is about 50 miles in circumference, and is inhabited, its southern slope being fertile. AMBUEHL, J OHANN Lunwre, a German poet and dramatic author, born at Wattwyl, in the Swiss canton of St. Gall, 1750, died April 22, 1800. The son of a schoolmaster, he took his father’s place when he became blind, then ac- cepted the position of private tutor of a rich young heiress, and was, 1798, made deputy- governor of the Rheinthal, an office which he held until his death. AMBUKOL, a small town in Nubia, on the river Nile, not far from Old Dongola. It is the seat of a little commerce, and west of it lies the desert tract known as Haagbarlak, which is curious among travellers for its fossil trees in coarse sandstone. AMBULANCE (Lat. ambulare, to walk or ambulate). This word is used to designate a sort of temporary and movable military hos- pital, formed on the ﬁeld of battle for the im- mediate succor of the sick and wounded, and so arranged as to move from place to place with an army, or the division of an army, to be ready in all cases of emergency; the word is technically applied to covered wagons on springs, in which wounded men are removed from the ﬁeld of battle to a sort of military hospital outside the camp, or to any distant and convenient position; and also to a sort of oblong wooden box on wheels, carrying 6 sur- geons drawn by 2 or 4 horses, and thus moved rapidly from place to place wherever the sick or wounded men require medical or surgical assistance. The ambulance is a comparatively modern invention, due mainly to the French. AMBULANCE 451 Military surgery was formerly but little under- stood, and those who were wounded on the ﬁeld of battle were left to the care of those around them, without any selection of ﬁt or unﬁt persons for the duties of surgery. The wounded soldier had to implore the aid of friends or strangers, as the case might be, or go unheeded because no one could attend to him. Still it often happened that from habit aud_ necessity, some persons became more or less skilful in dressing wounds on the ﬁeld; and, as in former times, before the invention of gun- powder, the common run of wounds were made by swords, daggers, and sharp instruments, or by dull weapons causing contusions, no great skill was necessary to dress such wounds, and hence little attention was paid to the medical or surgical requirements of the army. But after the invention of gunpowder and the change in military tactics which followed, gun- shot wounds were often very serious and com- plicated, requiring more surgical skill to manage them, and prompt attention to prevent them from endangering the life of the soldier. For want of means and surgeons, the wounded were abandoned often to the casual sympathies and succor of the inhabitants of the country where the battle had been fought. Nor do we ﬁnd any trace of a regularly organized system of military hospitals, moving with the army, until the time of Henry IV. of France; and even then the great military surgeon, Ambroise Paré, held no rank in the army. The authority which he acquired amongst his countrymen was due entirely to his own merit and their acknowledgment of his superior genius, in the functions he had undertaken. In the time of Louis XIII., however, a chief surgeon (chirurgien major), holding military rank, was attached to each regiment of the French army, and perma- nent as ' well as temporary military hospitals Were established. ~ The movable ambulances were at ﬁrst but rudely organized, consisting of a cumbrous depot of surgical and medical appliances, kept with the baggage at a distance from the ﬁeld of battle, and almost useless in regard to any prompt assistance that would alone be eﬂicacious. More recently, however, great improvements have been made in this department, and a more efficient system is organized in all the more advanced nations of the civilized world. It is now well understood that an army entering on a distant or hazard- ous campaign, should be able to provide for all its wants with ease, or have within its own immediate resources all that it requires for its health and safety. In accordance with these views, two kinds of ambulances have been organized; one called ﬁxed or general, where every thing is on a larger scale, as m a reserved centre of supplies; the other movable and light, easily displaced and taken to what- ever spot may call for special aid. The larger and reserved ambulances remain with the heavy baggage at some distance from the ﬁeld of battle; the lighter and more strictly movable 452 ambulance accompanies the soldiers on the ﬁeld, and contains all that is immediately neces- sary for rendering medical and surgical assist- ance to the wounded men. Each of these ambulances consists of 7 surgeons with an oblong case on wheels drawn by 4 horses, and easily moved to any point required. A surgeon on horseback leads the group, and 6 assistant- surgeons seated on the oblong box or case drive wherever their assistance is required. Baron Larrey, surgeon-in-chief of the French army, has proposed a better plan than this, which will perhaps be soon adopted. All the surgeons are to be on horseback, having in their saddle- bags and valise abundant means for dressing wounds, such as lint and plaster, bandages, ap- pliances, &c., and, in a special pocket by their side, the necessary instruments for amputation and other surgical operations. Behind them, and at their command, follow small carriages, each drawn by two horses, and containing such materials as they require, as well as beds and proper apparatus for transporting one or two wounded men from the battle-ﬁeld to more convenient places of repose. These small di- visions of the ambulance can easily separate and form again into important groups as occa- sion may suggest, and thus add the advantages of rapid motion to those of minute division, which are often very precious in cases of emer- gency. In hilly countries these advantages are very great, for heavy carriages are often useless in such positions. AMZEILHON, Hunmrr Pasou, a French scholar, born in Paris, Aug. 5, 1730, died there Nov. 25, 1811. In 1793, being a devoted partisan of the revolution, he was appointed by the con- vention amember of the commission for national monuments. For 52 years he was librarian of the arsenal. He put the library in order, and saved from destruction 800,000 volumes con- ﬁscated in monasteries and from private individ- uals. The ancients, their geography, archaeol- ogy, and scientiﬁc notions, formed the principal subjects of his studies and of his writings. AMELAND, an island in the North sea, 4 miles from the mainland, forming a part of the Dutch province of Friesland. It is in 53° 27 ' N. lat. and 5° 40’ E. long., 12 miles in length, and 2 in width. It has about 3,300 inhabitants. LIA, a county in S. E. Virginia, was or- ganized in 1734. It is drained by the branches of the Appomattox river, which almost encircles it, and interscted by the Richmond and Danville railroad. Its area is 300 square miles. The surface is somewhat diversiﬁed. The produc- tions in 1850 were, 250,251 bushels of corn, 109,960 of wheat, 70,075 of cats, 1,786,788 lbs. of tobacco, and 56,790 lbs. of butter. There were a number of factories and mills, 14 churches, and 145 pupils attending public schools. Value of real estate in 1856, $2,189,064. Population in 1850, 9,770, of whom 2,951 were free, and 6,819 slaves. Capital, Amelia Court House. AMELIA, a town of the Papal states. It is a bishop’s see, having a cathedral, 3 churches, AMEILHON AMEN DE HONORABLE and some convents. The city is the ancient Ameria, one of the oldest of Umbria, and con- tains a population of 5,500. Roscius, the cele- brated Roman actor, was born here. AMELIA ISLAND, is situated opposite Nas- sau county, off the N. E. coast of Florida. A channel from 2 to 4 miles wide, separates it from the mainland. It has an area of 64 square miles; its soil is generally very fertile. AMELOT DE LA HOUSSAYE, ABRAHAM Nroonas, a French author, born at Orleans in 1634, died at Paris in 1706. After his return from Venice, whither he went in 1669 as see- retary of an embassy, he devoted himself to history, politics, and philosophy, and won some reputation as an author. His principal work was a “ History of the Government of Venice,” beside which he wrote several volumes of mis- cellaneous memoirs, and translated 4 books of . Tacitus, Macchiavelli’s “ Prince,” in the notes to which he spoke of his author as a great satirist, and Father Paul’s “History of the Council of Trent,” &c. The translation of Father Paul was attacked by the partisans of the pope‘s un- limited authority, who presented 3 memorials for its suppression, while it was defended and eulogized by those who were in favor of the liberty of the Gallican church. The “History of Venice” raised a great outcry in that city, and through the intervention of the Venetian senate, Amelot was thrown into the bastile. AMELOTTE, Dsnrs, a French writer, born in Saintes, in 1606. His life of Charles of Gondren, second superior of the fathers of the oratory, a congregation of priests founded by Philip of Neri, contained some strictures on the abbot of St. Cyran, which brought him into colli- sion with the Port Royalists. His inﬂuence with the chancellor prevented the publication of their translation of the New Testament, and in the years 1666, 1667, and 1668, a translation of his own in four volumes, octavo, with annotations, was published, which has been charged with gross inaccuracy by F. Simon. He died in 1678 in the congregation of the oratory, into which he had been admitted in 1650. AMEN, a Hebrew word signifying true, verily, or more commonly, perhaps, so be it, of frequent occurrence in the Scriptures. Like alleluia or hosannah, it has_ been used in the service of the church from remote times, and usually forms the conclusion of hymns or an- thems. AMENDE HONORABLE, in modern par- lance, implies a public apology, or recantation for an offence given either in word or deed. Anciently it was a penalty not of a pecuniary character, and signifying degradation or dishon- or in the party suffering it. An offender was in some cases obliged to make public confession of his crime, and to appear publicly in a shirt with a rope round his neck. Analogous to this was the public renunciation of heresies; or the public penance directed as an expiation for irregular life, or in case of scandalous defama- tion of private character. AMENDMENT AMENDMENT, in law, is the alteration of the record, or of any pleadings in a civil or crimi- nal matter. ‘In ancient‘ times, all proceedings in English common law were oral. Subsequent- ly they were put upon parchment and were re- corded, and previous to Edward I., questions having arisen as to the right to amend, a stat- ute was passed authorizing them to make certain amendments. The ingenuity of lawyers and the conservatism of judges in favor of techni- calities have always made the question of amendments a great annoyance to suitors. For if after a verdict any error, technical 'or es- sential, was discovered on the record, a writ of error might be brought, and the whole set aside. Various statutes of amendments and jeofails (from the French j’ai failli) were passed, to remedy these defects. But the rights of parties were always in danger, from the excessive adherence to form in English law proceedings. In 1852’-3 new rules were made, with the sanction of parliament, remodel- ling the law of amendments in civil actions, and permitting amendments at the discretion of the court, and upon such terms, as to costs, as a judge thinks ﬁt, in all cases where sub- stantial justice is likely to be disturbed by the error. In criminal law, some failures of justice in cases -of a particularly ﬂagrant character hav- ing taken place by reason of the inability of the court to correct indictments and records in technical matters, an act has been passed during the reign of the present queen, authorizing amendments both before and after verdict.— AMENDMENT, when used in legislation, means any change which may be moved or proposed to a motion or to the original draught of a bill. According to the existing parliamentary prac- tice, either house of a legislature has the right to make amendments to bills under consideration; but they must receive the sanction of both houses before they can become laws. No bill, however, can be amended before it has been read twice, and when such an amendment is passed in a branch of the legislature in which the bill itself did not originate, the whole must be transmitted to the other house for approval. In the case of a disagreement between the two houses, a committee of conference is appointed, to reconcile their differences. An amendment may apply to the entire contents of a bill, in which case it is common to move that all the words after the enacting clause be stricken out, and the following (repeating what is desired) substituted. A person who has spoken upon the original bill may speak upon any amendment. When an amendment has been proposed to any question, it is customary to put the vote on the amendment ﬁrst, and then on the main question. But a motion to amend cannot be put after the previous question has been moved, unless the motion for the latter is withdrawn. AMENI, one of the Laccadive Islands in the Indian ocean, in lat. 10° 6’ N. long. 72° 41' E. It is circular in form, and measures about 4 miles in circumference. AMERGIN 453 AMENOPHIS (Amenothph), a name borne by 3 Egyptian kings, belonging to the 19th dynasty, which commenced about 13. O. 1525. I. The 17th dynasty, according to Manetho, consisted of the Hyksos or Shepherds, who had overrun and subjugated Egypt about B. G. 2100. They proba- bly came from Assyria. These shepherd kings destroyed most of the monuments and other public works of Egypt, and must therefore have greatly interrupted the Arabian carrying trade of the country, and so deranged its ﬁnancial prosperity. They reigned about 511 years, ac- cording to Josephus. The accession of Ameno- phis I. to the throne was the era of the overthrow of the shepherd kings, and the complete estab- lishment of the Diospolitan line, which had begun to recover its power under his father Amasis or Aahmes. The reign of Amenophis is signalized in Egyptian history for his vigorous and successful efforts to restore the ﬁnancial prosperity and monumental renown of the kingdom, wantonly destroyed by the shepherd kings. He reigned about 30 years. II. The successor of Thothmes H., of whom little is , known. His reign was short. III. A grandson of Amenophis II., and the most important of the Amenophs. He devoted himself, during a reign of more than 40 years, to the improvement of his kingdom. Ancient Egypt was never so prosperous, nor so extensive, as under his admin- istration. It extended into Syria as far as the western bank of the Euphrates, and south, em- bracing a greater part of Ethiopia. Monuments of the greatness of Amenophis III. exist all over Egypt AMENTA, NIooLo, an Italian lawyer, born in Naples in 1659, died July 21, 1719. For 14 years of his childhood he was blind, and re- mained shut up in a dark room. Having recovered his sight, he devoted himself to the study of the law, and became prominent in that profession. He is considered as an elegant and correct writer, and left various literary productions, such as comedies, satires, biographies, &c., beside his professional publica- tions. AMERBAGH, J onamr, a native of Swabia, a learned man and a printer. The Gothic and Italic letter was used in printing until his day, 1500. He urged the use of the Roman text. He published the works of St. Ambrose, 1492, and St. Augustine, 1506. His edition of St. Augustine was attended with great labor and expense, and owing to the imperfections of the collated MSS., is of little critical value. He had an intense desire to publish the works of Jerome, also, and to this end, had his three sons thoroughly educated in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin. Amerbach never lived to complete the work, but dying in 1515, left it in charge of his sons. It was, 10 years afterward, issued by Froben. AMERGIN. I. MAO-AMALGAID or AMALGAIDH, an Irish poet, who is said to have lived in the 6th century after Christ, at the court of Der- mod. Amergin has left Dean Seanchas (His- 454 tory of the remarkable places of Ireland). II. An Irish writer of the latter half of the 7 th century. He lived in the time of O’Finnegan, king of Munster, who reigned, says O’Reilly, in the 7 th century of the Christian era. He wrote a treatise upon the privileges and punishments of the different classes that made up Irish social economy. A copy of this work is among the manu- scripts of Trinity College, Dublin. IH. A per- sonage of Hiberno-Celtic mythology, who came to Ireland many centuries before Christ. He and his brothers were the sons of Mileagh, answering to the Greek Hellen, from whom came the term Milesian. Like Hellen, Mileagh had 3 sons, Heber, Heremon, and Amergin, the .d£olus,' Ion, and Xuthus of Ireland. He be- came arch-druid, while his brothers partitioned Ireland between themselves. AMERICA, one of the great natural divisions of the globe, the discovery of which, at a late period in the history of the world, imparted novel features to civilization, offered fresh ﬁelds for arms, and was felt in its inﬂuence alike upon the politics, the religion, and the philosophy of the race, extends from Point Barrow, in lat. 71° 24' N. to Cape Froward, on the straits of Magellan, in lat. 53° 53’ 7" S. In this compu- tation we do not include those regions at the north which the intrepidity of the Arctic ex- plorer has noted upon charts, but which serve rather to attest the inability of human will than to add to the economy of mankind; nor is the barren archipelago of Terra del Fuego consider- ed, extending at the southern extremity of the continent from 2° to 3° further. This immense tract, 10,500 English miles in length, embracing every variety of climate, soil, race, natural his- tory, and geological formation, and exhibiting all the phenomena known to physical science, is estimated by intelligent writers to contain from 14,622,000 to 17,303,000 square miles, the latter being the estimate of Hassel, and the for- mer that of Balbi, while Berghaus, excluding the surface of insular territory which he reckons at about 98,660 square miles, makes the continent- al area to be about 14,219,967 square miles. In considering this statement, however, it must be remembered that Greenland, which is con-' nected by geographers with America, and which has been traced to the 78th degree of north latitude, is probably prolonged much further into the polar circle, while it is reasonably sup- posed that a great archipelago of islands occu- pies the space between the northern coast of the continent and the 80th parallel. This tract, known as America, is naturally divided into two peninsulas, connected by the isthmus of Darien, which at its narrowest part is 28 miles in breadth, its general width being about 40 miles. These divisions are respectively called North and South America, while the title of Central America has been assigned to a strip of land between about 7° and 18° of north latitude. These divisions being con- sidered, the extent of the continent is stated by an able geographer as follows: AMERICA English square miles North America, . . , , South America, . 6,500,000 Islands ’ 150,000 Greenland and the islands connected with it, lying north of Hudson’s straits, may be estimated at 900,000 14,950,000 This estimate is larger than several of those al- ready cited, including, as it do es, the conjectured area of the islands connected with Greenland. Credited as it must mainly be, it shows that the American continent is fully 4 times as large as Europe, about {,7 larger than Africa, and almost -,1, less than Asia, including Australia and Poly- nesia. It thus constitutes about T3,, of the dry land upon the surface of the globe. Its greatest breadth, south of the equator, is between Cape St. Roque in Brazil, and Cape Parina in Peru, between lat. 4° and 7° S., where it is 3,250 miles wide. Its greatest breadth north of the equator is between Cape Canso in Nova Scotia, near the parallel of 45°, and Cape Lookout in Ore- gon, where it is 3,100 miles in breadth.-The physical features of this continent are remarka- ble and interesting. Of its capacity for cultivation it may be stated that a space, in the northern extremity above the latitude of 61°, extending from the head of Cook’s Inlet on the west side, to the straits of Bellisle on the east, including over 1,500,000 of square miles, is condemned to perpetual sterility. At the southern extremity, about 200 miles north of the straits of Magellan are in the same condition. These, with the summits of the Andes, are the only parts of the continent incapable‘ of cultivation. ~ The great chain of the Andes, connected by mod- ern geographers with the Mexican Cordilleras and the Rocky Mountains, runs nearly north and south, extending in an unbroken line from the straits of Magellan to Point Barrow, on the shores of the Arctic, in the latitude of 70°, over aspace equal to 10,000 miles in length, being % of the circumference of the globe. The maxi- mum of its height is attained between the tropics, although its higher summits reach the maximum of perpetual snow throughout its entire line. In the science of geography, as systematized by modern savants, the Andes, with their great length, their mineral wealth, their numerous and immense volcanoes, are con- sidered as a link, connecting into one continent the two great peninsulas which constitute America. For the sake of convenience, it is our intention to consider North, Central, and South America separately.-—NoR'rH Armnroa, exclusive of Central America, is contained be- tween the 16th degree of N. latitude and the Arctic ocean, being bounded on the north by the Arctic ocean, on the east by the Atlantic and the gulf of Mexico, on the south by the gulf of Mexico and Central America, and on the west by the Paciﬁc ocean. Its length is, from Hudson’s straits to the Florida channel, about 4,800 miles, and from thence to the Panama coast about 4,500 miles. Upon the Paciﬁc side, including the coasts of California, AMERICA the whole length has been computed at 10,500 miles. If the length of the north and north- east shores be estimated at 3,000 miles, the en- tire coast-line of the continent will be about 22,800 miles. The area is differently stated. We have already given it upon responsible au- thority at 7,400,000 square miles, including that portion now called Central America, while the superintendent of the last United States census, Mr. J . D. B. A. De Bow, makes the fol- lowing estimate: Square miles. British America, . 3,050,398 United States, 3,306,865 Mexico, . 1,038,834 Russian America, . 394,000 Danish America, . 884,000 Central America, 203,551 8,373,648 North America, with its isles, may be divided politically as follows :—The independent states are, I. The United States; II. Mexico; III. The island of Hayti. The colonies are, I. Green- land, a dependency of Denmark; II. Russian America, comprising the north-west angle of the continent, as far as the 141st meridian west from London, with a narrow strip of coast reaching as far south as lat. 55° 30’ N., and cov- ering a surface of about 500,000 square miles. III. The British dependencies, which, upon the continent, are bounded upon the south by the territories of the United States, on the north by the Polar sea, on the west by the Russian territories, containing an area of 2,600,000 square miles. Those districts in which alone civilization has commenced or has advanced, may be stated as follows :—- Area in sq. miles. Population. '0 000 904 000 Lower Canada, . . 20 , , Upper Canada, 105,000 952,000 §ew lgrunswick, 27,000 211,473 ova cotia, Cape Breton, 18,742 276,117 Prince Edward’s island, . 2,134 62,348 Newfoundland, . . 85,913 100,000 Vancouver’s island, 16,000 11,463 To these must be added the insular colonies of Jamaica, Antigua, Barbadoes, Dominica, Gren- ada, Montserrat, Nevis, St. Kitts, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Tobago, Tortola, Trinidad, Bahamas, and Bermuda, and (for convenience) the conti- nental colonies of Demerara, Berbice, and Belize; containing in 1851 a population of 972,000, four-ﬁfths of whom were probably per- sons of color. IV. The Danish West Indian colonies of Santa Cruz, St. Thomas, and St. John, containing in 1855 a population of 39,- 614, of which ﬁve-sixths are colored. V. The Swedish colony of St. Bartholomew, another of the lesser Antilles, containing a population of 18,000. VI. The French West Indian colonies of Martinique, Guadeloupe, and other smaller islands, and the continental colony of Guiana, in South America, with a popu- lation of 277,000. VII. The Dutch colonies upon the continent of Surinam and the islands of Curaqoa, St. Eustatius, and St. Martin, with a population in 1853 of 90,581, of which up to 1857 three-fourths were slaves. Spain alone of 455 the 7 great European powers distinguished for colonial enterprise, and herself the pioneer in extending civilization, retains no footing upon the continent of which she was one of the earliest discoverers. Of her vast western pos- sessions the islands of Cuba and Porto Rico alone remain. The population of the ﬁrst is 898,752; of the latter, 288,000, of which 42 per cent. are whites.--Of the independent states and provinces above indicated, this may be considered the proper place for whatever it may be necessary to say within the limits of this article.--The Danish province of Green- land is inhabited principally by savages, con- taining in 1851 only 250 Europeans. In that part of America held by Russia only a few trad- ing ports have been established, of which New Archangel, or Sitka, in lat. 57° 30’ N. and long. 135° 18’ W., is the principal. Of the British con- tinental possessions we shall speak in other ar- ticles.-—The United States of America, which are already the dominant power upon the con- tinent, and whose inﬂuence will not soon be diminished, although colonized a century later than Spanish America, have far outstripped it in progress. This republic is bounded on the N. by British America, Lakes Superior, Huron, St. Clair, Ontario, and Eric intervening, with the river St. Lawrence; on the E. and N. E. by New Brunswick, and the Atlantic ocean; on the S. by the gulf of Mexico, being partly separated by the Rio Grande del Norte from the Republic of Mexico; and on the W. by the Paciﬁc ocean. It consists of 31 sovereign states united by a federal compact, of 8 territories, and of the district of Columbia, embracing an area of 2,936,166 square miles. Their vast ex- tent furnishes a ﬁeld for every description of agriculture, whether temperate or tropical, and for almost every branch of human industry. It produces not only maize, wheat, and other cereals in abundance, but also sugar, cotton, and tobacco, while in the useful arts, in manu- factures, railroads, canals, and shipping, the re- public is already upon terms of equality with the oldest European states. The population of the United States in 1850 was, by census, 23,191,- 876, showing an increase in 50 years of 17,- 885,951. The government is a pure repre- sentative democracy. The annexation of California in 1847 was the most important of the many territorial acquisitions made by the republic, the discovery of gold in that state having nearly doubled the annual supply of pre- cious metals from America.—Mexico, a country of vast and yet undeveloped capabilities, em- braced, previous to the war with the United States, an area of 1,600,000 square miles, which has been reduced by cession to about 1,000,- 000. Rich in precious metals, capable of pro- ducing every great article of tropical and of temperate production, and with a climate re- markable for salubrity, its prosperity has been retarded and its power diminished by the unfaith- fulness of its rulers, and the ignorance of its peo- ple. Under more auspicious circumstances, and 456 with a more energetic population, it is easy to believe that certain physical disadvantages, the smallness of her rivers, the lack of ports upon the Atlantic side, and the mountainous charac- ter of the country, would have been overcome. The population of Mexico in 1827 estimated at 8,000,000, was officially stated in 1854 at 7,853,394. The government is professedly republican, but continual revolutions, which still continue, have more or less modiﬁed its character.—The mountains of North America may next claim our attention. The Rocky mountains, the most important and interest- ing, are properly considered as a continua- tion of the great Andes chain. The branch of this, which divides the seas at the isthmus of Panama, is, at the highest point only 300 feet above the sea. On the S. W. side of the isthmus are found the most considerable elevations, and here too within a limited space are 27 volcanoes. The Mexican mountains, from Puebla to Durango, spread into table- land, from 5,000 to 9,000 feet in height, and from 100 to 300 miles in breadth, upon which, at the 19th parallel in a line run- ning E. and W., 5 volcanoes are distributed. Near the tropic, the Mexican Cordilleras divide into 3 parts, the ﬁrst running parallel to the eastern coast for a distance of 30 or 40 leagues, and terminating in New Leon; the second, proceeding in a north-western direction, and sinking gradually as it approaches the Califor- nian gulf and terminating at Sonora; and the third or central Cordillera traversing Durango and New Mexico, forming the main branch of the Rocky mountains, terminating at the Arc- tic ocean, in about 140° W. long. A lower chain, from the southern point of California, skirts the coast to the volcano of Mt. St. Elias, in lat. 60°, forming with several intermediate chains a plateau from 200 to 800 miles in breadth. The elevation of many of the Rocky mountains is very great, several of the sum_mits being within the regions of perpetual snow. The highest peaks are those of Popocatapetl and Orizaba, in Mex- ico, the former being 17 ,380 ft. and the latter 17,380 ft. Fremont’s peak, in the U. States, is 13,570 ft., Pike’s peak 11,497 ft., and Mt. Brown and Mt. Hooker, in British America, 15,990 and 15,700 ft. respectively. The Appalachian chain on the Atlantic side of the continent, rising in the extreme north-eastern section of the United, States, extends nearly parallel with the coast at a distance of from 100 to nearly 300 miles, to Alabama, the greatest height being at Mt. Clingman, in North Carolina, which is 6,941 ft.; the next highest being Mount Mitchell, in the same state, which is 6,732 ft. The mean elevation is about 2,400 ft., the chain comprising several ranges nearly parallel. Be- tween these and the Rocky mountains stretches a vast plain, including the great lakes, the mighty rivers, and the most fertile regions of the continent.—The geological and mineralogi- cal features of North America may here be brieﬂy alluded to. The geological forma- AMERICA tions develop themselves, upon a line run westward from Delaware bay (80°) across the continent in the following order :—1. Tertiary and cretaceous strata on the shore of the At- lantic. 2. Gneiss underlying these strata, ex- hibited on the eastern slope of the Alleghanies, covered at points by new red sand-stone. 3. Palaeozoic rocks, upon which rest three great coal ﬁelds. Silurian, carboniferous, and secondary rocks, extend to the base of the Rocky moun- tains, where the crystalline schists again pre- sent themselves, disturbed in Oregon by eruptive rocks of many varieties, including traps, porphyries, serpentines, and cellular lavas. It is observed that where the crystal- line and palaeozoic strata have been penetrat- ed by masses of igneous rock, the precious metals are usually found. The most important minerals of North America are gold, silver, cop- per, iron, lead, and coal. The ﬁrst two are found inthe greatest abundance in California, Mexico, and New Mexico, although gold in considerable quantities is found in the Alleghany mountains from Maryland to Alabama. The amount of gold and silver annually obtained in Mexico from 1810 to 1825 was computed at about 10,- 000,000 of dollars, but it is now very much less, the political agitations of the country being es- pecially unfavorable to this branch of industry. The whole amount of gold and silver coined from 1835 to 1845 inclusive, is stated at $2,- 465,275,943. The amount of gold received at the United States mint from California up to 1856, was $596,162,061. The Alleghany mines from 1828 to 1854, had sent to the United States mint about $17,000,000. Copper in large quantities is found in Mexico, and upon the shores of Lake Superior, where great masses of pure ore are taken from the native bed. Quicksilver is found in Mexico and Cal- ifornia, and lead in great abundance on the banks of the Mississippi, in lat. 41° and 44°, as 54,000,000 lbs. have been obtained in a single year from this point. The coal mines of North America are immense and inexhaustible, af- fording an evident source of national wealth and of social comfort. In the United States alone they cover an area of 133,000 square miles, and collectively they embrace an area greater than the surface of Great Britain. - Ex- tensive beds are found in New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Vancouver’s Island. Both bituminous and anthracite coals are obtained, the former, however, being the most abundant. The North American continent is extremely rich in iron and zinc; cobalt, arsenic, antimony, and other metals, are also found.—The facili- ties for inland and coastwise navigation of North America are conspicuous. Of its rivers, the Mississippi with its tributaries is the most important. This is navigable from the sea, for boats, to the falls of its principal branch, the Missouri, 1,253 miles from the Mexican gulf, in a direct line, or 3,900 by the stream, the entire course being 4,350 miles. Its tributaries, the Arkansas and Red rivers from the west, AMERICA and the Ohio from the east, have courses of from 1,000 to 2,500 miles each, these in turn having many tributary streams. The area of the basin of the Mississippi to the source of the Mis- souri has been stated at 1,350,000 square miles. The river St. Lawrence from the head of the St. Louis, an important‘ affluent of Lake Supe- rior, is 2,200 miles in length, with an area of basin of 600,000 square miles. The Columbia, or Oregon river, emptying into the Paciﬁc, is about 1,200 miles in length; the Colorado, emptying into the gulf of California, is about 1,200; and the Rio Grande, 1,800. These immense streams, the cheap highways of the continent, wonderful as has been their inﬂuence already, are destined incalculably to increase the power, wealth, and greatness of the western world. Upon the eastern coast of North America we have also Baﬁin’s bay, which separates Brit- ish America from Greenland; Hudson’s bay, a great inland sea, opening by three channels into the Atlantic; the gulf of St. Lawrence; the bays of Massachusetts and Fundy, Dela- ware and Chesapeake; the gulf of Mexico and the bay of Honduras. Upon the west are the gulf of California, Queen Charlotte’s sound, and other indentations of less impor- tance. The great fresh water lakes of North America are Superior, covering 32,000 square miles; Michigan, 20,000; Huron, 20,400; Erie, 8,520; and Ontario, 5,400. These are between lat. 40° and 49° N. and long. 76° and 93° W., all connected by straits or channels, and all, through the St. Lawrence, connecting with the Atlantic ocean.—-The islands which are geographically connected with the North Amer- ican continent are exceedingly numerous, and can receive but cursory notice. We have al- ready mentioned the West Indian islands in our notice of the political divisions of the conti- nent. These, however, may be more succinctly divided into: I. the Great Antilles, including Cuba, Hayti, Jamaica, and Porto Rico; II. the Small Antilles, extending in a semicircle, from Porto Rico to the coast of Guiana, including Barbadoes, and 30 other islands; III. the Bahama Isles, about 500 in number, and most of them uninhabited. The entire area of all these is estimated at 95,000 square miles. Near the mouth of the St. Lawrence 'are the islands of Newfoundland, Cape Breton, and Prince Ed- ward, the ﬁrst being the largest and most important. Upon the Paciﬁc coast, the largest islands west of British America, are Queen Charlotte’s, King George III.’s, and Vancou- ver’s, and on the coast of Russian America, the Aleutian islands.-—The climate of North America has afforded a curious and interesting subject for scientiﬁc research and speculation. Without entering at length into these, we may brieﬂy state such results as have been arrived at. The well-marked varieties of climate in the region lying between ﬁre parallels of 30° and 50°, are three—that of the east coast, that of the west coast, and that of the basin of the Mississippi. From Georgia to Lower Canada, 457 the mean temperature of the year is lower than in Europe by 9° at the latitude of 40°, and by 12%° at the latitude of 50°. The summer is hotter and the winter is cold;-,1‘ than in Europe. The changes are more rapid as we proceed from south to north, a degree of latitude in the mid- dle of the temperate zone producing a decrease of annual temperature of 1.13° in Europe, and of 1.57 ° in America. But according to modern theories, the advantage of the old world is apparent only, since it is the west coast of the new continent which ought to, and which does exhibit the climate of Europe, and since at Pe- kin the winters are colder and the summers are warmer than at Philadelphia, which is in the same latitude. There are good reasons for be- lieving that the west coast of North America has a climate nearly as mild and equable as the west coast of Europe. The climate of the ba- sin of the Mississippi has considerable aﬁinity to that of the east coast, exhibiting, however, in still greater excess those extremes of temper- ature which distinguish the eastern coast of North America from the western coast of Eu- rope. In the region extending from the 50th parallel to the polar seas, the intensity of cold is scarcely equalled by any thing known under the same parallels in northern Asia. Although vegetation, under modiﬁed forms, and favora- ble circumstances, is found in latitude 65°, it will nbt probably be found practicable to extend civilization beyond the 60th parallel, and hard- ly beyond the 50th. In southern Mexico the usual characteristics of the torrid zone prevail, while the table-lands, though subject to drought, are temperate and delightful in their climates.——The zoology of North America af- fords numerous specimens, lacking, however, the larger kinds of vertebrated animals, and most of those animals distinguished by ferocity, of which the polar and grizzly bears are the most remarkable found upon this continent. The guadramana (apes) are entirely conﬁned to the southern extremity of this continent. Of the carnicora, we ﬁnd among the most promi- nent the grizzly, white, black, Cordillera, and barren-ground bears, the common dog, gray, maned, and Mexican wolves, the Arctic, black, Virginia, silvery, gray, bald, and perhaps other varieties of foxes, the panther, lynx, and wild cat, with the hedge-hog, shrew, shrew-mole, raccoon, badger, wolverine, weasel, skunk, otter, seal, and walrus. Of the marsupialia, we ﬁnd every variety of the opossum. Of the rodcntia, we note the squirrel, marmot, mouse, beaver, porcupine, and hare. Of the pachydermata, the boar, and horse (both imported). Of the ruminantia, many varie- ties of deer, of which the most noteworthy are the moose, or elk deer, and the reindeer, the mountain sheep, and goat, the bison, musk ox, and common ox (the last of which is im- ported), with the antelope, and the goat. Among the cetacea, we notice the northern manati, the broad-nosed manati, the several varieties of the dolphin, the sperm and blunt- 458 headed cachelot, and the several varieties of the Arctic whale. Many families of birds are represented in North America, those already described amounting to between 560 and .600, including some genera wholly peculiar to the continent, such as the humming-bird, toucan, and wild turkey. A more extensive enumeration of these would be inappropriate to the present article. Of serpents, America affords an unusual variety, although most of -them are innocuous, both peninsulas contain- ing 80 harmless to 12 or 13 varieties of venomous snakes. Of these, the most danger- ous is the rattlesnake, the bite of which is fatal unless immediate remedies are resorted to. Of the testudinata we have almost every va- riety; of the sauﬁcms, the cayman, and of the mmldw, the frog and toad. The varieties of ﬁsh in the North American waters are very nu- merous, including the salmon, sturgeon, white- ﬁsh, mackerel, shad, bass, cod, herring, hali- but, trout, perch, pike, and many others. It may be worthy of notice, that 7 European animals have been domesticated in America. These are the cow, horse, ass, hog, sheep, goat, and dog, all of them exhibiting an increase which has far outstripped that of native quadrupeds. Of these, the hog, the cow, and the horse, have become wild, while the ass, the sheep, the goat, and the dog, show little if any tendency to withdraw from the protection of man. The climate, however, has produced remarkable changes in most of these species. —-The vegetable productions of North America are very numerous. Maize or Indian corn is the only farinaceous plant peculiar to the new world. Tobacco and the potato are also indigenous. In many regions, wheat, barley, oats, peas, .and rice are cultivated, as well as oranges, peaches, lemons, and apples. Sugar and cotton are among the most important staples. The cultivation of the vine has recently received much attention in the western part of the United States, and the experiment has been not only encouraging but proﬁtable. The indigenous vine is found to yield a wine of a quality by no means contemptible.—-The population of North America has never been computed with accu- racy. Of the aboriginal race, 8,000,000 are supposed still to remain in North and Central America, including the Mestizoes (or white and Indian), while in the West Indies, and the United States, about 5,000,000 of the African race are found, most of them in a condition of slavery. The entire population of North America in 1854 was estimated at above 40,000,000. The whites in the United States in 1850 were about 19,500,000, and in British America 2,500,000. As they are supposed to increase at the rate of 3 per cent._ annually, it is estimated that in the year 1900, the white pop- ulation of the continent, of pure European descent, will be 88,000,000, and in the year 1925, not less than 176,000,000. Further computa- tions,which may, to a certain degree, he consider- ed fanciful, have ﬁxed this population at 200,000,- AMERICA 000 in the year 2095. But there can be but little doubt that, a century hence, the European race will be as entirely predominant in num- bers as it is in political power.--Of the races of men inhabiting America previous to its discov- ery, much has been written, and but little ac- curately determined. Various systems have been advanced. One writer has placed all the aboriginal inhabitants of the continent under one class, excepting only the Esquimaux. An- other divides them into 4 races or into 5, including the Esquimaux, viz., I. the Columbian, comprehending the tribes formerly inhabiting the Alleghany mountains, Canada, Florida, the eastern coast of Mexico, and Central America, with the Caribs of the West India islands and Guiana; II. the American, embracing the tribes occupying the other parts of South America, east of the Andes, excluding the Pa- tagonians; III. the Patagonian race, inhabit- ing the southern extremity of the continent; IV. the Neptunean, inhabiting the western coasts of both divisions of the continent, from California to Cape Horn, including the Mexi- cans and Peruvians. The best authorities, however, agree upon a mutual resemblance and family character among American nations. Humboldt declares that the Indians of New Spain bear a general resemblance to those of Canada, Florida, Peru, and Brazil. He thinks them all to be descended from the same stock, in spite of the great diversity of language. The form of the skull, bearing a strong resemblance to the Mongol type, distinguishes the American race. A receding forehead, prominent cheek- bones, a ﬁat occiput, and large and deep orbits, are among its characteristics. To these may be added the aquiline and ﬁat nose, a thin and light skull, and teeth less prominent than those of the African race. The color is of a brownish yellow, or copper, although upon the north- west coast, from latitude 43° to 60°, tribes were found with the white and red of the Caucasian race. Within the tropics, several tribes have a complexion almost fair, with blue eyes, and auburn hair. Those nations whose color most nearly approaches to black, are found within the temperate zone. But of all the American tribes, it has been observed that the ex- tremes of color, the white of northern Eu- rope, and the black of Ethiopia, are unknown among them, and that their color inclines less to yellow, and more to reddish brown. Long black hair is common to all. The heard is deﬁcient. ' The languages of the various races were exceedingly numerous, 423 hav- ing been ascertained which were spoken in America at a day not very distant, of which 211 belonged to North, 44 to Central, and 168 to South America. Vater places the number of languages spoken in America at 500. All these have an analogy of structure, into the peculiari- ties of which it is inpossible to enter in this ar- ticle.——Of the most remarkable nations of In- dians formerly or at present inhabiting America, we may ﬁrst notice the Esquimaux, a stunted AMERICA - race, occupying all the northern Archipelago, the shores of Hudson’s and Baﬁin’s bay, of Labrador, and of Russian America. Of these it has been asserted that they are the only Amer- ican race whose Asiatic origin is indisputable. The Indians of the east coast, who occupied both sides of the Allegheny mountains, from the gulf of Mexico to Canada and New Brunswick, con- sisted of the Delaware tribes, including the Otto- gamies, Shawnees, Narragansets, Chippewas, Knisteneaux, and Delawares, with other nations, about 30 or 40 in number, between the Missis- sippi and the Atlantic, and as far north as Hud- son’s bay, all speaking dialects of the same lan- guage. Among these tribes a tradition was pre- served that many centuries before they had mi- grated from the west, and had expelled the Al- leghanies, the former occupants of the eastern shores. Upon the south side of the great lakes were the Mohawks, Oneidas, Hurons, and Sene- cas, called sometimes the “Five Nations,” and sometimes the “Six Nations,” but embracing 15 tribes, all speaking dialects of a common language. The Florida Indians included the Creeks, Seminoles, Choctaws, Chickasaws, N atches, and Mobiles. To the Iroquois, in con- sequence of a similarity of language, have been referred the Osages, Missouris, Kansas, and oth- er tribes beyond the Mississippi. Much has been written of the North American Indian, and while his lofty and deﬁant character and his un- happy fate have inspired the poet, his habits, tastes, and sentiments, have had a charm for the philosopher. Of all savages, the North Ameri- can aborigineshave been supposed to exhibitthe nearest approximation to the arts and amenities of civilization. It is impossible to yield implic- itly to the exaggerations of romance, and those traits which the license of song has assumed, will in many instances disappear before the colder scrutiny of scientiﬁc investigation. In that great characteristic of all ancient and modern reﬁne- ment, in which indeed other barbarians have not been found deﬁcient, in the kindly, decorous, and considerate treatment of women, the Indian was signally wanting. Brave as he might be in battle, skilful as he might be in the chase, stoical as he might be under the most cruel torture, he yet imposed upon the wife of his bosom and the mother of his children services the most menial, and bestowed censure and blows upon her often- er than acts of assistance and words of affection. Tried by this test, which the experience of the world has established as a just one, the Ameri- can Indian sinks below the level of many races heretofore and still regarded with indifference. On the other hand, his gloomy and stoical na- ture, his contempt of the avocations of peace, his bravery in battle, his patient biding of re- venge, his freedom from idolatry, his trust in the Great and Good Spirit, the touching fact that, once master of the continent, he has been driven within a comparatively short period of time from his hunting-grounds, and from ﬁelds made illustrious in his simple annals,—have all -awakened for him an unusual sympathy, and 459 secured for him a place, perhaps undeserved, among the races. He whose eye moistens at legends the barbarity of which is softened in elegiac verse, might ﬁnd an unexpected conso- lation could he behold the squalid wigwam, the brutal and hideous war dance, the pregnant wo- man toiling in the cornﬁeld, or digging for shell- ﬁsh upon the inhospitable shore, or compelled with the weight of her maternity to travel leagues of wilderness, or even after an hour of agony to follow the tribe with a new burthen upon her shoulders. Who can wonder that a sex thus dishonored and disregarded often found in suicide a repose which its master and the world denied it? Of the habits, manners, and customs of the North American Indians this is not the place to speak in detail. All these have been so often made the subject of research, and have been so fully elucidated, that the reader can be at no loss for authorities should his curi- osity tempt him to pursue the inquiry, and fur- ther information may be found in the separate. articles on the various tribes in this work. It may be suﬁicient to say, that of all the aborigi- nes of the northern continent those of Mexico were the most civilized. They founded towns, established a regular monarchial dynasty, wove cloth, cultivated the earth, erected ediﬁces of considerable architectural importance and bean- ty, and, although without iron, were not with- out skill in the manufacture of gold, silver, and copper. They were also adepts in the art of hie- roglyphics. Their spoken language was copious and polished. This race, or more probably one which preceded it, has left behind memorials that are still visible. Among these are the tumuli or barrows of the valley of the Mississippi, which were evidently erected for the purposes of ‘defence, and the teocallis, or four-sided pyramids of Mexico. Of the ﬁrst there are said to be 10,000 in the state of Ohio alone. In Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan, the remains of 44 towns have been discovered, and the researches of the late Mr. Stephens have shown that they must have been extensive and imposing. Here are found the ruins of temples and of palaces, of pyramids and of obelisks, statuary, sculpture in relief, stucco, and hiero- glyphical tablets. The learned world still hesi- tate to assign these stupendous works to the race found by Cortes in Mexico, and conjecture ascribes them to the people who are supposed to have inhabited the table-lands of Mexico be- fore the Aztec invasion. (See Amnmoan An- '.rIouI'r1Es).—At this point we may say what- ever the limits of this article ,will permit, concerning the discovery of the American continent. It is believed that it was known to the barbarous tribes of Asia from a very early period. The Norwegians planted colo- nies in Greenland about 974 A. D., or per- haps earlier. A Runic inscription found upon a stone four miles beyond Upernavik, at the 73d parallel, shows a visit to that point of the Norwegians either in 1135 or 1170, the mark- ing of the date being indistinct. Another tra- 460 dition records the planting of an Icelandic col- ony upon Rhode Island about the year 1001. The Canary Islands, the Azores, and Madeira, were discovered in the beginning of the 15th century, imparting a fresh spirit to maritime ad- venture. Christopher Columbus, whose name is inseparably connected with the discovery of the New World, sailed, under the patronage of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, from Palos, Aug. 3, 1492, in search of eastern Asia by a western route. The details of his voyage will be found in another article. (See Cownnus.) On Oct. 12 he landed at Guanahani, or San Salvador, one of the Bahama islands. In the course of the ensuing three months, and previous to his return from Spain, he visited Cuba, Hispaniola, and other islands. Upon his second voyage, he coasted along a part of South America, which he accurately be- lieved to be a continent. He made still another voyage, and died in the full belief that the lands which he had discovered were a portion of Eastern Asia. In 1497, John Cabot, with his son Sebastian, discovered New- foundland, and coasted along the shores of North America to Florida. The mouth of the Amazon was discovered by Pincon, a Span- iard, in 1500. Florida was distinctly discov- ered by Ponce de Leon, in 1512, in which year Sebastian Cabot ﬁrst discovered Hudson’s bay. California was discovered by Cortes in 1537. Further than this it is unnecessary in this place to trace the progress of geographical research.——- CENTRAL AMERICA is that portion of the conti- nent which unites North and South America. It is an irregular and narrow neck of land be- tween about 7° and 18° north latitude, its entire length being between 800 and 900 miles, and its breadth varying from 20 to 30 miles in the nar- rowest part to between 300 and 400 miles in the widest part, the area being about 200,000 square miles. It includes the isthmus of Panama, Gua- temala, British Honduras, parts of Mexico and Yucatan; being bounded on the N. by Mexico and the Caribbean sea, on the E. by the Carib- bean sea, and on the S. W. and W. by the Paciﬁc ocean. Those political states, which are gen- erally known as Central America, include Gua- temala, St. Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. These lie between about 8° and 17° N. lat. The population of these states as estimated in 1850 was as follows, viz. :— Guatemala, . . . . 1,000,000 St. Salvador, . . . 280,000 Honduras, . . 350,000 Nicaragua, . . . 235,000 Costa Rica, . . . . 150,000 2,015,000 Of these the proportion of the different races is stated at that time to have been as follows: Whites and creoles, 1-12 Mixed classes, 4-12 Indians, . . 7-12 The general surface of the country is in most parts mountainous. It is traversed throughout its Paciﬁc border by the Rocky mountain AMERICA chain, the great range being divided into the Honduras and Nicaraguan group, the Costa Rican group, and the group of Guatemala. The whole chain is marked by volcanoes, of which those in Guatemala are the most remarkable. Parts of the Costa Rican group attain a great height, the volcano of Irasu being 11,478 feet above sea-level. The country is not very rich in the precious metals, although gold, silver, lead, and mercury, are found. Iron is furnished in abundance. The geological substratum of the country is formed of granite, gneiss, and mica slate, with limited lines of granite and schist formation. The climate is warm and moist, and the soil very rich. There are prop- erly but two seasons—the winter, when the sun is nearly vertical, and the summer, in which hot and dry weather prevails, with a healthy atmosphere. During the winter the rain is almost constant; and in the low dis- tricts, in consequence of vegetable decomposi- tion, fevers, agues, and other diseases prevail, to which foreigners are especially subject. The vegetable productions of Central America are various, including, upon the table-lands, all the fruits and grains of temperate regions, and in the lower and warmer parts, those of the tropics. Sugar-cane, tobacco, and indigo, are cultivated. The forests furnish some of the most valuable woods in the world, including mahogany, logwood, and lignum vitae. The coﬁ'ee crop of Costa Rica is considerable, amounting in 1852 to 90,000 quintals.—-The zoology of Central America presents no pecu- liar features. Of the cetacca, we notice the manati, found at the mouth of Rio Juan; of the rodcntia, the winged squirrel; and of the guadruma-na there is a large variety. The country abounds in ﬁne ornithological speci- mens, comprehending humming-birds, quezals, and macaws. Serpents are numerous, and in some parts dangerous.——The position of Cen- tral America has been rendered, by the discov- ery of California, in the highest degree impor- tant; most of the travel from the eastern coast to that state being across the isthmus, by rail- road from Aspinwall to Panama. The projects of a ship canal, uniting the two oceans, which has long occupied the attention of the commer- cial world, are still numerous; but the re- searches of modern explorers have justiﬁed a belief in its possibility. Four different routes have been proposed. The ﬁrst is across the isthmus of Tehuantepec, where the distance from sea to sea is 140 English miles. Many disadvantages are connected with this plan, its principal merit ‘being that it would render available the shortest maritime route to Cali- fornia. The second is the Nicaraguan route, by the river San Juan, across Lake Nicaragua, and thence to the Paciﬁc by different routes. The third is across the isthmus from Chagres to Panama; and the fourth from the bay of Choco, along the Atrato and Naipi, and thence by canal to Cupica bay on the Paciﬁc.-—-The political condition of the Central American AMERICA states is extremely unsettled. When the au- thority of Spainwas thrown off in 1823, the 5 states above mentioned formed a federal repub- lic, resembling in some particulars that of the United States. This confederation was aban- doned in 1839. The government of the states is only nominally republican, the military rule of adventurers being despotic. The recent attempt of a citizen of the United States to subjugate Nicaragua, while it has resulted in failure, has left the affairs of Central America in a condition on which nothing can be safely pre- dicated.—Sorrrrr Amnmoa, the southern penin- sula of the American continent, extends from Point Gallinas, in lat. 12° 30’ N., to Cape Horn, in lat. 55° 59’ S. It_s greatest length from N. to S. is 4,550 miles; its greatest breadth, 3,250 miles; and it covers an area of 6,500,000 square English miles. It is naturally divided into 5 distinct physical regions, viz.: I. the low country bordering on the shores of the Paciﬁc ocean, from 50 to 100 miles in breadth, the extremities of which are fertile, while the middle is a sandy desert; II. the extensive plains or steppes in the basin of the Orinoco, which, though destitute of wood, are covered with a high herbage during a part of the year, and upon which, during the dry season, the heat is intense ; III. the rich basin of the Amazon, spread- ing over a surface of more than 2,000,000 square miles, and covered with dense forests thinly in- habited; IV. the southern plain, watered by the Rio de la Plata, and abounding in steppes, which sustain innumerable herds of horses and cattle; V. the country of Brazil, eastward of the Parana and Araguay, covered with wood on the At- lantic side, and opening into steppes in the in- terior. About three-quarters of South Ameri- ca are within the lines of the tropic, and the remainder in the southern temperate zone. At its southern extremity is the archipelago of Terra del Fuego.-—The political divisions of South America are as follows: the republics of New Granada, Ecuador, and Venezuela, the French, English, and Dutch colonies of Gui- ana, the republics of Peru, Chili, Bolivia, the Argentine republic, the republics of Paraguay and Uruguay, the empire of Brazil, Patagonia, Terra del Fuego, and the Falkland islands. Of these, Brazil is the largest, embracing an area of 3,004,460 miles, and being.nearly as large as Europe. Its natural advantages are very great. Its climate is cooler and healthier than that of any other great tropical country; its soil is extremely fertile, and its commercial facilities unrivalled. It is rich in mines of gold and diamonds, and it yields also iron and copper. Its exportsare cotton, sugar, hides, tobacco, dye- woods, &c. Its government, although imperial in form, is unusually liberal. Excellent schools are established, and the newspapers are numer- ous and untrammelled, while in its legislature perfect freedom of debate prevails. Its popu- lation is about 6,065,000, including 3,500,000 slaves, and 500,000 free persons of color, ex- cluding the savage tribes.—-The states of Vene- 461 zuela, New Granada, and Ecuador, formerly composing the confederation of Colombia, em- brace an area of 1,020,000 square miles, being bounded on the S. by Peru, on the S. and E. by Brazil and Guiana, and on the other sides by the sea. The soil is very fruitful, and the climate generally salubrious. Upon the west- ern side, the table-lands afford all the produc- tions of temperate climes. The tropical vege- tation extends to the height of 4,000 feet; and at an elevation of from 4,000 to 9,000 feet wheat and barley thrive. The commercial facilities, particularly those of New Granada, are excel- lent. The population of these states is esti- mated at 4,282,343, of which Venezuela con- tains 1,419,289, New Granada, 2,363,054, and Ecuador, 500,000.—The Argentine republic is the second state in importance in South Ameri- ca. It is bounded on the W. by Chili; on the N. by Bolivia; on the E. by Paraguay and Uruguay; on the S. E. by the sea; embracing an area of 780,000 square miles. It produces gold, silver, and iron. Its chief coinmercial city is Buenos Ayres.—Chili extends along the coast of the Paciﬁc, from 25° to 44° of S. lat., and is 1,150 miles in length, containing a popu- lation of about 1,080,000, and covering an area of 170,000 square miles. It produces gold, sil- ver, and copper. Only a portion of it, which has been estimated at one ﬁftieth, is ﬁt for cul- tivation.—Peru, consisting of the western de- clivities of the Andes, from 3° to 21° of S. lat., is a remarkably barren country, it having been computed that only one acre in 100 is ﬁt for cultivation. Its mines of precious metals are rich; but it is without the facilities of in- ternal communication. The population is esti- mated at 2,279,085. Its area is about 400,000 square miles.-—-Bolivia lies eastward of Peru, and is bounded on the S. by the Argentine republic, and on the N. and E. by Brazil, comprehending a space of 374,480 square miles. Its agricultural resources are limit- ed, but its mines are among the richest in the world. Its population is 1,030,000.--The grand distinguishing physical feature of South America, is the wonderful succession of moun- tainous ranges to which the general name of the Andes has been applied, extending from the southern extremity, and connecting through the Cordilleras with the Rocky mountains, a distance of over 4,500 miles. These mountains skirt the coast of the Paciﬁc ocean, “like a vast rampart opposed to its encroachments.” Their name is derived from anta, a. Peruvian word signifying copper. Although these moun- tains are usually spoken of as forming a contin- uous chain, they are a succession of ridges, with high and narrow valleys intervening, not running in parallel lines, but ramifying from central points in all directions, and presenting a confused assemblage of small chains. They spread between the latitude of 6° and 33° S., to an extent of 300 miles; and in the intervals of the ridges are found many lakes, some of them of great magnitude. From the latitude of 6° S. to 462 2° N ., their breadth is contracted, and they form an elevated plateau, a part of which con- sists of the desert of Asuay, 13,000 feet above sea level, and covering 50 square miles—-an in- hospitable and unproductive region. Upon the range of table-land to the north, about 9,500 feet in height, the town of Quito is situated. Hence a single chain extends to Popayan, and here 3 parallel chains commence, the most westerly of which, rising to an elevation of 5,000 feet, divides the valley of the river Ca- uca from the Paciﬁc ocean. The second ridge separates the valley of the Cauca from that of Magdalena. The third separates the valley of the Magdalena from the plains of the Rio Meta, and terminates at Cape Vela, in long. 72°. In Peru, the mean height of the Andes is estima- ted at 11,000 or 12,000 feet; in Chili, at 8,000; while in Patagonia it is as yet unmeasured and unestimated. The loftiest summits are found in Peru, in which the eastern chain presents, be- tween the 14th and 17 th parallels, peaks of an elevation exceeding 20,000 feet, among which are Sorata, 25,300, and Illimani, 24,450 feet in height. Chimborazo is 21,300 feet, and the vol- canic cones of Antisana and Cotopaxi are 19,150 and 18,890 feet respectively. A summit of the western chain presents an altitude of 18,800 feet. Three transverse chains of the Andes pass eastward, nearly at right angles with the principal chain, across the continent, in the parallels of 18° S. and 4° and 9° N. lat. The Cordilleras of the coast,parting from the main trunk near Lake Maracaybo, and reaching the sea near Porto Cabello, passes through Caracas to the gulf of Paria, being 7 00 miles in length, its medium elevation being from 4,000 to 5,000 feet, the Silla de Caracas being an elevation of 8,400 feet, and the Sierra of Merida in its western part of 15,000 feet in height. The trans- verse chain connects with the Andes at the parallels of 3° and 4° N., terminating in French Guiana, near the mouth of the Amazon, its mean height being estimated at 4,000 feet, although in certain points it rises to 10,000. Its length is about 1,500 miles. A third chain crosses the continent between the parallels of 12° and 18°, and connects the Andes with the mountains of Brazil, dividing the waters of the Amazon from those of La Plata. It is a broad plateau, the average height of which does not exceed 2,000 to 3,000 feet. In Brazil, are mountains of moderate height, extending from 5° to 25° of south latitude, their extreme breadth being about 1,000 miles. The most elevated summit is that of Itacolumi, rising to 5,710 feet. The mountains of South America are singularly vol- canic in character, it being supposed that not less than 30 volcanoes, all belonging to the An- des, are in a condition of continual activity. The highest of these is Gualateiri, which rises 22,000 feet. The others vary in height from 13,000 to 18,000 feet. * Nearly one-ﬁfth of all the volcanoes known in the world are found in South America.—-The geology of South America is of a highly interesting character. The funda- AMERICA mental rock of the Andes is granite of a peculiar character, termed Anderite, being a compound of albite and hornblende, frequently united with mica and rarely with quartz. This com- bination passes on the one hand into granite, and on the other into felspar porphyry. Vast masses of felspar or claystone porphyry cover the fundamental rock. Mingled with these are mica slates and clay slates, with silurians, and above these sandstones, gypsum, and chalk. The chain of the Andes, as already stated, is rich in precious metals. Crystalline schists are found in the greater part of Brazil, Venezuela, and Guiana; and in the mud of the banks of the Parana, the fossil remains of mammalia are dis- covered in great numbers. The transverse chain of the coast of the Caracas consists partly of primary and partly of secondary formations. The Cordillera of Parimé is composed of granite, gneiss, mica slate, and hornblende; the pre- vailing rock of the Cordillera of Chiquito is quartzose mica slate, mixed with granite, gneiss, and quartz rock, granite abounding in those nearest the Atlantic. The northern Llanos of Caracas are of old red sandstone.—-In rivers, the southern extremity of the continent rivals the northern. Among these, the most im- portant are the Amazon, which, from its source in the Andes, is 4,000 miles in length, with an area of basin of 2,100,000 square miles, and 50,- 000 miles of navigable waters; the La Plata, including the Uruguay, 2,400 miles in length, with an area of basin of 1,200,000 square miles, and 20,000 miles of navigable waters; and the Orinoco, which is 1,800 miles in length, with an area of basin of 400,000 square miles, and 8,000 miles of navigable waters. It is stated that by the Amazon, a person living at the eastern foot of the Andes, 2,000 miles of direct distance from the Atlantic, may convey himself to the shores of that ocean in 45 days, simply by com-_ mitting his bark to the current, while an eastern breeze, which is almost constant, will facilitate his return, the navigation being uninterrupted by a single cataract or rapid. Branches of the La Plata and the Amazon stretch into almost every part of South America. This continent is, however, scantily provided with great lakes and bays. Among the most important of these are the gulfs of Darien, Maracaybo, and Paria; the bays of Bahia, Rio J aneiro, St. Matthias, St. George, and Choco; and the gulfs of Peiias, Guaytecas, and Guayaquil. Lake Titicaca is the largest in South America. It is situated upon the borders of Peru and Bolivia, covers an area of about 4,000 square miles, is 120 fathoms deep, and 12,800 feet above sea- level.——The zoology of South America is rich and varied in its character. It embraces 59 species of the quadrumana. Of the carnivore, we have the jaguar, the black jaguar, the ocelot, the tiger-cat, the Cordillera bear, and the vampyre; of the edcntata, the sloth, ar- madillo, and ant-eater; of the pachydermata, the tapir; and of the ruminantia, the llama, alpaca, and vicuﬁa. The serpents are large and AMERICA numerous, the greatest being the boa-con- strictor. The ornithology is exceedingly bril- liant and interesting. It includes among birds of prey, the condor, eagle, vulture, and falcon, with the macaw, parrot, humming-bird, water- hen, tiger-bittern, duck, thrush, oriole, toucan, and curassow. The country abounds in trouble- some and dangerous insects, including ants, ter- mites, musquitoes, and chegres. The waters contain alligators, and a great variety of ﬁsh. —The vegetable productions of South America have already been to a certain extent indicated. A very large proportion of its surface is uncul- tivated, and must remain forever incapable of cultivation. Immense forests cover two-thirds of the whole continent, some of the trees being the largest and most magniﬁcent in the world. Vegetation almost entirely disappears at 10,800 feet above the sea-level, no trees with large trunks growing beyond the level of 9,000 feet. Asingle variety of the palm is found at 8,700 feet above the sea-level. At 3,000 feet, are found the ﬁnest palms, lilies, balsams, and jessamines. The continent produces almost every variety of tropical fruit, together with the sugar-cane, coffee, wheat, maize, barley, and potatoes. It is also rich in some of the most valuable woods of commerce.-—Notwithstanding its geo- graphical position, the climate is more tem- perate than might be supposed. In the western and warmest regions of Caracas the tempera- ture is only 98° F. in the shade. At Calabozo, further east in the Llano, the common tempera- ture of the day is only from 88° to 90°, the thermometer sinking at sunrise to 80°. The basin of the Amazon, shaded by forests, and cooled by a breeze from the east, ascending the channel of the stream, is neither excessively hot nor unhealthy. At Rio J aneiro, the mean tem- perature is only 74°, and in Paraguay it falls below 650 or 67°. The plants of Italy, France, and Germany, mature upon the declivities of the Andes and the plains of Peru. At Lima, the mean temperature is only 72°, and at Buenos Ayres, 68°. At the straits of Magellan, the temperature of the warmest month does not ex- ceed 46°, snow falling almost daily in the middle of summer.--Among the aborigines of South America, the Peruvians held the ﬁrst rank in civilization. The empire of Peru em- braced the whole seacoast from Pastos to the river Maule, a line of 2,500 miles in length, and its entire surface probably exceeded 500,000 square miles. The immense hordes inhabiting these regions were governed by an aristocracy of priests and nobles. The Peruvians, though lacking in military spirit, and destitute of a hi- eroglyphical language, were skilful in agricul- ture, in architecture, and in the working of metals and stone. The remains of their tem- ples and cities attest their extraordinary advance in the arts of civilization. The Chilians pos- sessed nearly all the arts known to the Peruvians, with a ﬁner physical organiza- tion and a more unconquerable spirit. Of these, the Araucanians were the bravest and AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES 463 most warlike, and have been pronounced the ﬁnest native race in the world. The other Chilian tribes were much behind the Arau- canians in civilization, but some, as the Puelches and Tehuels, surpassed them in stature. The Patagonians were also connected with the Chilian tribes. Their great stature, the narra- tion of which has heretofore been received with incredulity, is now well established, many of them attaining a height of 7 feet. The Guaranis were the most important tribes of Brazil. They were widely diffused through the country, and were deﬁcient both in civilization and a warlike spirit. The Paraguay Indians were converted by the Jesuits and settled into communities. These were commenced about 1610, and gradually extended over the country watered by the Parana and Uruguay, between the 27th and 30th degrees of south latitude. Upon the suppression of the Jesuits in 1767, the Paraguay Indians returned to their idolatry and savage habits. The population of South America is estimated at 16,000,000 of all races. In no other country, perhaps, has there been such an admixture of blood. The Spanish, In-. dian, and African races, have become so inter- woven, that with the materials at hand, an ac- curate classiﬁcation seems almost impossible. Large numbers of the aboriginal tribes still re- main, it being computed that in Peru alone, there are not less than 1,000,000 of Indians, while in all the states they are found sometimes main- taining their habits and their independence, but oftenest sunk to the most menial and abject con- dition. The Araucanians are the most advanced in civilization, associating in communities, and being very skilful in the working of wool and metals. The Indians of the pampas are expert horsemen, but do not cultivate the earth, and are cruel and ferocious. The Indians of Brazil are very numerous, there being no fewer than 200 distinct tribes. Of these, the principal are the Tapuyas, the Tupis, the Cafusos, and the Puris. The Patagonians are nomadic ; but little is known of their customs and character. AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES. A large part of what are called the antiquities of America, consist only of the architectural and other re- mains of the aboriginal tribes and nations, which have been displaced or subjugated by European conquest and settlement. Such are many of the ruined temples and other ediﬁces of Peru, Central America, and Mexico, as well as most of the ruder monuments of New Mexico, and probably all of those still ruder earthworks and rock-sculptures which are found eastward of the Alleghanies. Cartier in Canada, and Smith in Virginia, as well as the Pilgrims in New England and the French in western New York, all found the Indians constructing de- fences, consisting of ditches, embankments, and palisades, the remains of which are still numer- ous, and which have been variously ascribed to Celtic, Hebrew, and Tartar origins, according to the bias of writers, or the nature of foregone conclusions which they were desirous of sup- 464 porting. So too Coronado, who marched into New Mexico as early as 1540, found there in perfect condition and actual use, those singular ediﬁces of fort-like dimensions, and numerous stories, which since, abandoned and ruined, under the name of casas granules, have been claimed, by superﬁcial investigators, as monu- ments of an entirely supposititious migration of the Aztecs, from some undeﬁned north ern region, or from the frozen wastes of Kamtchatka, be- yond the straits of Behring. Cortes in Mexico, Grijalva and Montejo in Yucatan, Alvarado in Guatemala, and Pizarro and his captains in Pe- ru, all found vast and imposing structures, the work of the actual inhabitants, the ruins of which are almost universally confounded with those of more ancient monuments, the earlier works of the same hands, or of unknown or ex- tinct peoples. It is certain that Cholula, Uxmal, and Chichen, Quiché, and Pachacamac, were all perfect and occupied at the time of the conquest, 50 years subsequent to the period when the foundations of the, as yet, unﬁnished Duomo of Milan were laid. Hence their remains, how- ever interesting and valuable as illustrating American aboriginal art, and as giving intel- ligibility to the descriptions of the conquerors, can hardly be considered as falling within the denomination of American antiquities. Under this head, in a strict sense, we can only include such monuments as were really regarded as an- tiquities by the aborigines themselves, concern- ing the origin of which they were wholly igno- rant, or only possessed a traditionary knowl- edge. Of this character are most of those earthworks and mounds, traced in gigantic out- lines, and with geometrical precision, on the broad terraces of the Mississippi valley, and which rise, in grand proportions, in the silent ‘ forests bordering on the Mexican gulf. Such, I also, are the ruined pyramids of Teotihuacan and the crumbling ediﬁces of Mitla, mysterious city of the dead, in Mexico; the still more imposing and elaborate structures and strangely sculptured monoliths of Palenque and Copan; and the vast Cyclopean monuments on the isl- ands and shores of Lake Titicaca, raised, ac- cording to tradition, by giants, in a single night. —Commencing with our own country, we ﬁnd in the Mississippi valley a succession of earth- works, manifestly defensive in character, ex- tending from the Lakes southward to the Gulf. They generally crown the summits of steep hills, and consist of an embankment and exterior ditch, of varying dimensions, with approaches often artfully covered, with a clear appreciation, of the elements at least, of the science of forti- ﬁcation. Some of these works are of vast size. Fort Hill, on the banks of the Little Miami river in Ohio, has a line of circumvallation nearly 4 miles in extent, and varying in height, ac- cording to the greater or less natural strength of the point protected, from 10 to 20 feet, and embracing an area of several hundreds of acres. When not erected in proximity to streams, and in cases where springs are not in- AMERICAN AN TIQUITIES cluded within their lines, we always ﬁnd artiﬁcial reservoirs for holding water, and other unmis-~ t takable provisions for withstanding siege as well as sudden attack. A large class of these defen- sive works consist of a line of ditch and em- bankment, or several lines one within another, \_carried across the necks of peninsulas, or bluff headlands, formed within the bends of streams ‘, —an easy and obvious mode of fortiﬁcation, com- mon to all rude peoples. Associated with these defensive works, and often included within them, is another and more interesting class o/f/' remains, namely, structures demonstrably tr sacred origin, and in some way connected with the religious ideas and ceremonies of their build- ers. They consist of earthworks with their ditches, when such exist, interior and not exte- rior to the walls, of regular outline, squares, circles, octagons, and other geometrical ﬁgures, x___often combined, and sometimes of great extent, as for instance at Newark in Ohio, where they cover an area of more than 2 miles square, and probably comprise upwards of 12 miles of embankment from 2 to -20 feet in height. It is impossible here to present the evidences upon which the conclusion, as to the religious charac- ter of these structures, is based. The curious freader, upon this, as all other points connected with the aboriginal monuments of the Mississippi valley, is referred to the elaborate work of Squier and Davis, forming the ﬁrst volume of the “ Smithsonian Contributions to Knowl- edge.” Other works, of’ a sacred or religious origin, consisting of mounds of earth and stone, of various sizes, but always regular shapes, are found in connection with those above described, and are very numerous. They are oftenest square, terraced, and ascended by graded ways; sometimes hexagonal, octagonal, or trunca- ted, and ascended by spiral paths, in most respects coinciding with the teocallis of Mex- ico, and the tapes of India—the high altars, symbolical in form, on which the priests of the primitive religions offered up their sacriﬁces, and paid their adoration to the solar god, in the presence of its assembled worshippers. Some of these arrest our attention by their geomet- rical accuracy of form, and others by their great size, covering, as they sometimes do, several acres of ground, and rising to imposing alti- tudes. A mound of this description, on the plain of Cahokia in Illinois, opposite the city of St. Louis, is 700 feet long, by 500 feet broad at the base, and is 90 feet high, covering upward of 8 acres of ground, and having 20,000,000 cubic feet of contents. The pri- mary purpose assigned to these mounds is in no way invalidated by the circumstance that they frequently contain the skeletons of those who built them, and who entertained the same prejudices, in favor of sepulture in sacred places, which is still common, and which looks to a burial-place beneath or in the neighborhood of a church. The most common monuments in the Mississippi valley, however, are these, which are incontestably-simple places of sepul- I_-ed AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES ture—memorials raised over the dead, and in their size, probably, bearing a certain propor- tion to the importance, when living, of the per- sonages over whom they were raised. Some of these, like-that for instance at Grave Creek near Parkersburg in western Virginia, and that at 1 'Miamisburg in Ohio,_ the one 70, and the other 68 feet in vertical height, no doubt mark the graves of personages of high conse- quence amongst the builders of these monu- ments. It sometimes happens that one of those sepulchral moimds contains two or more skele- tons, but they rarely cover more than one, except in cases where the later Indian tribes, with a vague notion of their sanctity, have buried their dead in them. The notion, so long prevalent, and still common, that they contain vast heaps of slain, and are the memorials of great battles, is wholly unsupported by facts. A still more remarkable variety of earthworks are those; commonest in Wisconsin and Iowa, but of which a few examples are found in Ohio, and which bear the outlines of men and animals, constituting huge basso-riliecos on the surface of the earth, and challenging our wonder by their number, variety, and extent. One of these, sur- ‘ veyed by Squier and Davis, in 1846, on the banks of Brush Creek, Adams county, Ohio, is in the form of a serpent, upwards of 1,000 feet in length, extended in graceful curves, and termi- nating in a triple coil at the tail. The embank- ment constituting the eﬂigy, is upward of 5 feet in height, by 30 feet base at the centre of the body, diminishing somewhat toward the head and tail. The neck of the ﬁgure is stretched out and slightly curved, and its mouth is opened wide, as if in the act of swallowing or ejecting an oval ﬁgure, which rests partly within the distended jaws. This oval is form- ed by an embankment 4 feet in height, and is perfectly regular in outline, its transverse and conjugate diameters being 160 and 80 feet re- spectively. The combined ﬁgure has been re- garded as a symbolical illustration of the Ori- ental cosmological idea of the serpent and the egg; but however that may be, little doubt can exist of the symbolical character of the monument. With the remains of the dead in the sepulchral mounds, as also within those which are believed to have been connected with the religion of their builders, many relics of art have been discovered, displaying greater skill and advancement in the arts than was known to exist amongst the tribes found in oc- cupation of the country at the time of the dis- covery. Elaborate carvings in stone, pottery, of- ten of elegant design, articles of use and orna- ment in metal, silver, and native copper from Lake Superior, mica from the Alleghanies, shells from the gulf of Mexico, and obsidian, probably also'porphyr y, from Mexico, are found side by side in the same mound. Articles of comparative- ly recent date, some of them of undoubted Euro- pean origin, have also been found amongst the later and secondary deposits in the mounds, which curiosity-hunters and ignorant specula- voL. I.—30 465 tors have seized upon, in support of their va- rious idle hypotheses. Forged inscriptions, stones bearing mysterious characters, “ Erse, an- ,cient Greek, Phoenician, Celtiberic, and Runic,” as evidences of every possible and impossible theory of American origin, have each found people credulous.enough to accept and defend their authenticity, even after the authors of the various impostures have abandoned them ‘to their fate. The tenacity with which minds of credulous tendencies cling to the marvellous and absurd, against all the illustrations of positive science, is shown in nothing more clearly than in the fact, that to this day, the old wind- mill at Newport, the rude Indian pic- tures on Dighton Rock, and the scratches on a pebble, alleged to have been found at Grave Creek, are still adduced as evidence of Scandi- navian, Phoenician, and even Hebrew discovery and occupation of the American continent! The facts connected with the monuments of the Mississippi valley, “indicate that the ancient-" population was numerous and widely spread, as shown from the number and magnitude of_ their works, and the extensive range of their occurrence; that it was essentially homogeneous in customs, habits, religion, and government, as appears from the great uniformity which the works display, not only in respect of position and form, but in all minor particulars; and that the features common to all the remains, identify them as appertaining to a single grand system, owing its origin to a family of men moving in the same general direction, acting under com- mon impulses, and inﬂuenced by similar causes.” Whatever differences the monuments display, are such as might result from the progressive efforts of a people in a state of development, or from the weaker efforts of colonies, or what might be called provincial communities. It is impossible that a population for whose protec- tion such extensive military works were neces- sary, and .which was able to defend them, should not have been eminently agricultural; and such monuments as the mounds at Grave Creek and Cahokia, indicate, not only a dense agricultural population, but a state of society essentially dif- ferent from that of the modern race _of Indians north of the tropics. There is not, and there was not, at the period of the discovery, a single tribe of Indians, north of the semi-civilized nations of Mexico and Central America, which had the means of subsistence to enable them to supply, for such purposes, the unproductive labor necessary for the work; nor werethey in such a social state as to compel the labor of the people to be thus applied. As regards the an- tiquity of these monuments, apart from such facts as a total absence of any reasonable tra- ditions as to their origin, amongst the Indians themselves, and the existence of the largest and most ancient forest trees on the embankments and in the ditches of the various works, there are other facts which enable us to arrive at approximate conclusions upon this point. None of these works occur on the lowest formed of 466 the river terraces which mark the subsidence of the western -streams; and as there is no good reason why their builders should have avoided erecting them on that terrace, while they raised them promiscuously upon all the others, it fol- lows, not unreasonably, that this terrace has been formed since these works were erected—- a conclusion supported by the important fact, that some of them have been in part destroyed by streams which have since receded for half a mile and upward, and which, under no present possible rise, from rains or other natural cause, could reach the works again. Upon these premises, the time since the streams have ﬂowed in their present courses may be divided into four periods, corresponding to the four terraces which mark the eras of their subsidence, of which periods the last and longest (since the excavating power of the streams diminishes as the square of their depth increases) has elapsed since the race of the mounds ﬂourished. An- other fact bearing upon the question of the age of these works, is the extremely decayed condi- tion of the human remains found in the mounds. Considering that the earth around the skele- tons is for the most part wonderfully compact and dry, and that the conditions for their pres- ervation are exceedingly favorable, while they are in fact usually in the last stage of decompo- sition, we may form some approximate estimate of their remote antiquity. In the barrows of the ancient Britons, in a moist climate, and under unfavorable conditions as regards preser- vation, entire and well-preserved skeletons are often found, although possessing an undoubted antiquity of at least 1,800 years. From these and other facts and circumstances equally con- clusive, we may deduce an age for most of the monuments of the Mississippi valley of not less than 2,000 years. By whom built, and whether their authors migrated to remote lands under the combined attractions of a more fertile soil and more genial climate, or whether they dis- appeared beneath the victorious arms of an alien race, or were swept out of existence by .s0me direful epidemic or universal famine, are questions probably beyond the power of human investigations to answer. History is silent --concerning them, and their very name is lost to tradition itselfl—-The principal remains of an- .tiquity in Mexico are the ruins of temples and »of structures dedicated to defensive purposes. Those of undoubtedly high antiquity are most massive in character, and display remarkable evidences of taste and skill. It would seem, that during the aboriginal rule, the inhabit- ants, as a whole, dwelt in rude dwellings of thatch and cane, which, after a few years of abandonment, woulddecay and leave no trace of their existence, except perhaps in the frag- ments of broken pottery which might sur- round them. Whatever of architectural skill they possessed was dedicated to the con- struction of their temples and the residences of their chiefs, which were often included the one within the other, since the ruler fre- AMERICAN ANTIQ UITIES quently combined, in his own person, the double oﬁice of priest and king. These tem- ples were, in nearly all cases, pyramidal in form, terraced and truncated, and as- cended by ﬂights of steps usually built on an inclined plane running up the centre of one of the sides, generally that opposed to the rising sun. These structures perhaps better deserve the name of altars, or the Scriptural name of “ high places,” than of temples; an ediﬁce, built on the level summit, in reality, constitut- ing the naos, or temple proper. The great tem- ple of. Mexico, which is described by all the early writers as nearly identical in form and structure with all the temples of Anahuac, con- sisted of an immense square area, F‘ surrounded by a wall of stone and lime, 8 feet thick, with battlements, ornamented with many stone ﬁg- ures in the form of serpents.” The extent of this inclosure, which occupied the centre of the ancient city, may be inferred from the assertion of Cortes, that it might contain a town of 500 houses. It was paved with polished stones, so smooth, says Bernal Diaz, that “the horses of the Spaniards could not move over them with- out slipping.” The 4 walls of this inclosure corresponded with .the cardinal points, and gateways opened midway upon each side, from which, according to Gomera, led oﬂ‘ broad and elevated avenues or roads. In the centre of this grand area arose the great temple, an im- mense pyramidal structure of 5 stages, faced with stone, 300 feet square at the base, and 120 feet in height, truncated, with a level summit, upon which were situated 2 towers, the shrines of the divinities to whom it was consecrated. It was here the sacriﬁces were performed, and the eternal ﬁre; maintained. One of these shrines was dedicated to Tezcatlipoca, the other to Huitzlipochtli; which divinities sustained the same relation to each other, in the Mexican mythology, as Brahma and Siva in that of the Hindoos. Beside this great pyramid, according to Olavigero, there were 40 other similar struc- tures, of smaller size, consecrated to separate divinities; one was called Tezcacalli, “House of the Shining Mirrors,” which was covered with brilliant materials, and sacred to Tezcatli- poca, the God of Light, the Soul of the World, the Viviﬁer, the Spiritual Sun; another to Tlaloc, the God of Water, the Fertilizer; an- other to Quetzalcoatl, said to have been the God of the Air, whose shrine was distinguished by being circular, “ even,” says Gomera, “as the winds go round about the heavens, for that consideration made they his temple round.” Beside these, there were the dwellings of the priests (amounting, according to Zarate, to 5,000), and of the attendants in the temples, and seminaries for the instruction of youth; and, if we are to credit some accounts, houses of reception for strangers who came to visit the temple, and see the grandeur of the court. Ponds and fountains, groves and gardens, in which ﬂowers and “sweet smelling herbs” were cultivated for use in certain sacred rites, AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES and for the decoration of the altars. “And all this,” says Solis, “without retracting so much from that vast square but that 8,000 or 10,000 persons had sufﬁcient room to dance in it, upon their solemn festivals.” The area of this tem- ple was consecrated ground; and it is related of Montezuma, that he only ventured to intro- duce‘ Cortes within its sacred limits, after having consulted with the priests, and received their permission, and then only on the condition, in the words of Solis, that the conquerors “ should behave themselves with respect.” The Span- iards having exhibited, in the estimation of Montezuma, a want of due reverence and cere- mony, he hastily withdrew them from the tem- ple, while he himself remained to ask the par- don of his gods for having permitted the impious intrusion. There is a general concur- rence in the accounts of this great temple given by the early authorities, among whom are Cortes, Diaz, and others, who witnessed what they described. They all unite in presenting it as a type of the multitude of similar structures which existed in Anahuac. Their glowing de- scriptions, making due allowance for the cir- cumstances under which they wrote, are sus- tained by the imposing ruins of Cholula, Pa- pantla, Mitla, Xoxaohalco, Misantla, Quemada, and the thousand other monuments which are yet unrecorded by the antiquary, and which invest every sierra and valley of Mexico with an interest hardly less absorbing than that which lingers around the temples of Egypt. From the number of these religious structures, we gather some idea of the predominance of Mexican superstitions. Solis speaks of 8 tem- ples in the city of Mexico, of nearly equal grandeur with that above described, and esti- mates those of smaller size to amount to 2,000 in number, “dedicated to as many idols of dif- ferent names, forms, and attributes.” Torque- mada estimates the number of temples in the Mexican empire at 40,000, and Clavigero places the number far higher. “The architecture,” he adds, “of the great temples was for the most part the same with that of the great temple of Mexico; but there were many likewise of a diﬁ'erent structure, composed of a single body in the form of a pyramid, with a staircase, etc.” Gomera says, “they were almost all of the same form: so that what we shall say of the principal temple, will suffice to explain all the others.” Cortes, in a letter to Charles V., states that he counted 400 of these pyramidal temples at Cholula. From all sources we gather that the principal temples, or rather sacred places of Mexico, consisted of large square areas, surrounded by walls, with pas- sages midway at their sides, from which ave- nues or roads sometimes led oﬁ; and that within these inclosures were pyramidal structures of various sizes, dedicated to different divinities, as also the residences of the priests, with groves, walks, and fountains. It has already been said that the pyramids of Teotihuacan, which are found within 8 leagues of the city of ' more stories. 467" Mexico, on the plain of Otumba, are probably amongst the most ancient monuments of Mexico. There are 2 principal ones, dedicated, accord- ing to tradition, to the sun and moon respect- ively; each built of cut stone, square, with four stages and a level area at its summit. Humboldt states that the larger is 150 feet, and the smaller 145 feet in height. Mr. Brantz Mayer, however, aﬂirms that the larger is 171 feet high; Mr. Glennie, 221 feet. It is 680 feet square at the base, covering an area of 11 acres, or nearly equal to that of the great pyr- amid of Cheops in Egypt. The pyramid of Cholula also has four stages, and, when meas- ured by Humboldt, was 160 feet high, by 1,400 feet square at the -base, covering an area of 45 acres !----The temples of Central America, of which so many ruins still exist to attest the religious zeal of their builders, although pos- ses_sing a general correspondence with those of Mexico, had, nevertheless, many features pecu- liar to themselves. The artiﬁcial terraces or pyramidal elevations seem to have been usually less in size, but crowned with more extensive buildings, upon which aboriginal art exhausted its utmost capabilities. These structures were marked by broad stairways, leading directly to their principal entrances. Upon some of these terraces a single building was erected, but upon the larger ones, several (usually 4) were arranged so as to form a court or area. They were massively built, the walls being, in all cases, of great thickness. The larger number were 1 story in height; but there were many of 2, and some of 3 or In these cases, each succes- sive story was usually smaller than that be- low it; giving the structure the appearance of a pyramid of several stages. The fronts of these buildings, though sometimes stuccoed, were usually of stone, and covered with elabo- rately carved ﬁgures and ornaments, many of them, without doubt, symbolical. The interiors of some corresponded with the imposing charac- ter of their exteriors. They were divided into narrow corridors and dark chambers. These were arched, or rather the roofs were support- ed by overlapping courses of stones—consti- tuting a pointed arch, corresponding in type with the earliest monuments of the old world. The walls of these corridors were often stuccoed, and covered with paintings of ﬁgures in bass-re- lief. Within some of the chambers, as at Pa- lenque, have been discovered tablets clearly of a mythological character, covered with sculp- tures and hieroglyphics, of elaborate design and artistic execution. In these chambers are still found the remains of idols, altars, and the evidences of ancient sacriﬁces. The easily ac- cessible works of Messrs. Stephens, Cather- wood, and Squier, contain such full accounts of these monuments that it is unnecessary to point out their features in further detail.-In Hondu- ras, at Copan, the remains of ediﬁces are found, corresponding generally with the above de- scription, but associated with grand monoliths, 468 intricately carved, such as have been discover- ed nowhere else except at Quirigua, in the vi- cinity of Copan, and on the islands of Lake Nicaragua. They seem to have been planted in the areas, perhaps also on the steps and summits of the ancient structures. Whether designed as statues of the gods of ancient wor- ship, or to commemorate distinguished priests, warriors, or statesmen, can probably only be determined, when the hieroglyphical inscrip- tions, which some of them bear, shall have been deciphered. To Copan we may safely assign an antiquity higher than to any of the other monuments of Central America with which we are acquainted, except those rude works of earth and uncut stone which also exist there, and which seem to have been the early types, after which, as civilization and the arts ad- vanced, the more imposing monuments of which we have spoken were modelled. It is certain that Copan was a ruin—concerning which existed only the vaguest traditions, at the period of the Spanish conquest.—ln New Granada, among many minor relics of antiqui- ty, such as ﬁgures of divinities and objects worked in gold and stone, are found a few con- siderable monuments, consisting of structures which seem to have been supported by columns of large size and just proportions. In Peru, however, we ﬁnd a very large number of abo- riginal monuments, consisting not alone of ruined temples, but of great works of public utility—aqueducts, bridges, and paved roads, of hundreds of miles in length. The remains of the great temple of the sun at Cuzco are still im- posing. In describing it, as it existed at the time of the conquest, the early Spaniards ex- pended every superlative of their language. It consisted of a principal building and several chapels and inferior ediﬁces, covering a large extent of ground, in the heart of the city. It was completely encompassed by a circular wall, which, with -the ediﬁces, was constructed of stone. Aqueducts opened within this sacred inclosure; and within it were gardens, and walks among shrubs and ﬂowers of gold and silver, made in imitation of the productions of nature. It was attended by 4,000 priests. “ The ground,” says La Vega, “for 200 paces around the temple, was considered holy, and no one was allowed to pass within this boundary but with naked feet.” Nor even under these re- strictions were any permitted to enter, except of the blood of the Incas, in whom were cen- tred the priestly and civil functions of the gov- ernment. Beside the great temple of the sun, there was a large number of inferior temples in Cuzco, estimated by Herrara at 300. Nu- merous others are scattered over the empire, all of which seem to have corresponded very nearly in structure with that already described. The one most celebrated, next to that of Cuzco, was that-of Pachacamac, which is described as having been inclosed by walls, and to have “ more resembled a fortress than atemple.” According to Roman, “ the temples of Peru were built upon AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES high grounds or the tops of hills, and were sur- rounded by 4 circular embankments of earth, one within the other. The temple stood in the centre of the inclosed area, and was quadran- gular in form.” A structure, corresponding very nearly with this description, is noticed by Humboldt, who denominates it, in accordance with local traditions, Ingapilca, “House of the Incas,” and supposes it to have been a sort of fortiﬁed lodging-place of the Incas, in their journeys from one part of the empire to the other. It is situated at Cannar, and occupies the summit of a hill. The “citadel” is a very regular oval, the greatest axis of which is 125 feet, and consists of a wall, built of large blocks of stone, rising to the height of 16 feet. With- in this oval is a square ediﬁce, containing but 2 rooms, which resembles the ordinary stone dwellings of the present day. Surrounding these is a much larger circular inclosure, which, from the description and plate, we infer is not far from 500 feet in diameter. This series of works possesses few military features, and it seems most likely that it was a temple of the sun. This opinion is conﬁrmed by the fact that, at the base of the hill of Cannar, was for- merly a famous shrine of the sun, consist- ing of the universal symbol of that lumi- nary formed by nature upon the face of a great rock. ruvian temple, situated on a hill near the town of Cayambe, perfectly circular in form, and open at the top. It was built of un- burnt bricks, cemented together with clay.--*- The most wonderful monuments of Peru, how- ever, are those at Tia Huanaco, on the shores and on the islands of Lake Titicaca. Their origin is lost in obscurity, and they are supposed, by M. d’Orbigny, who has carefully investigated, and given the world drawings of them, to have been the work of a race anterior to the Incas, denoting, perhaps, a more advanced civilization than the monuments of Palenque. They have been de- scribed by a number of the early writers, com- mencing with Pedro de Ceioa, one of the fol- lowers of Pizarro. M. d’Orbigny speaks of them as follows: “These monuments consist of a mound raised nearly a hundred feet, surround- ed with pillars-—of temples from 600 to 1,200 feet in length, opening precisely toward the east, and adorned with colossal angular columns-—of por- ticoes of a single stone, covered with reliefs of skilful execution, though of rude design, dis- playing symbolical representations of the sun, - and the condor his messenger--of basaltic statues loaded with bass-reliefs, in which the design of the carved head is half Egyptian—and lastly, of the interior of a palace formed of enormous blocks of rock completely hewn, whose dimensions are often 21 feet in length, 12 in breadth, and 6 in thickness. In the temples and palaces, the portals are not inclined as among those of the Incas, but perpendicular; and their vast dimensions, ,. and I the imposing masses of which they are composed, surpass in beauty and grandeur all that were afterward Ulloa describes “an ancient Pe- ' AMERICAN ANTIQUITIES built by the sovereigns of Cuzco.”--As already observed, most of the monuments of antiquity in America, seem to be the ruins of temples, places of worship, or ediﬁces in some way con- nected with the religion and superstitions of their builders. Throughout they sustain many and obvious resemblances, consisting of elevated platforms, or truncated pyramids, ascended di- rectly by broad ﬂights of steps, or circuitously by winding paths; they scarcely differ except in the materials of which they are constructed, or the greater labor and skill displayed upon them. The builders of the temple-mounds of the Mississippi valley seem to have been gov- erned by the same principles which controlled the architects of the majestic teocallis of Mexi- co; their ruder structures being only the evidences of their ruder or earlier state. Instead of being faced with stone, elaborately carved with the symbols of their religion, the green turf covered the high places of the mound- builders; they ascended them by graded avenues or winding paths, not by broad and imposing stairways, and the wooden temple roofed with bark, supplied the place of the massive ediﬁces which still rear their crumbling, spectral fronts ‘amidst the forests of Central America... The features of resemblance between a large part of the monuments of America and many of the most ancient of those of the old world, early attracted the attention of the philosophical Humboldt, who seems to have been completely impressed with their identity, yet with charac- teristic caution, unwilling to follow the con- nections to their ultimate results. In contem- plating this he exclaims, “ What striking analo- gies exist between the monuments of the old continents and these of the Toltecs, who, arriving on Mexican soil, built several of these colossal structures, truncated pyramids, divided by layers, like the temple of Belus at Babylon. Where did they take the model of these ediﬁces? Were they of the Mongol race? Did they de- scend from a common stock with the Chinese, the Hiong-nu, and the Japanese?” That the practice of erecting these colossal, montiform temples was necessarily derivative, cannot be admitted. Such a deduction does not logically follow from the fact of resemblances, however striking. The primitive temples of every people on the globe seem to have been con- structed much upon the same plan, and con- sisted of great enclosures of earth or upright stones, often, if not always, symbolizing in their forms the leading conceptions connected with the worship to which they were dedicated. The primitive altars, or shrines of the heathen gods, corresponded in rudeness and size with their vast open temples, and, like them, sus- tained everywhere a general resemblance. This resemblance, to a certain degree, may be regard- ed as accidental, inasmuch as an eminence or high place would naturally suggest itself as the most ﬁtting spot whereon to render up homage to those superior powers which were supposed to dwell above, in the skies, or amongst the -pyramid of seven stages. 469 stars. It may also have resulted, in no small degree, from the very general primitive super- stition that mountains and hills were the abiding places of the gods. The deities of the Hindoo Pantheon dwelt on the sacred mount Meru; the gods of Persia ruled from Albordj; the Greek Jove thundered from Olympus; and the Scandinavian divinities made Asgard awful with their presence. Ararat and Horeb, Sinai, Zion, and Olivet, are interwoven with the holiest traditions of both Jew and Christian. The sacriﬁces of Balak, king of Moab, were made on hill-altars. Solomon sacriﬁced on the “ high places” around Jerusalem; and when the 10 tribes seceded from the government of Rehoboam, they resumed the ancient practice. Profane history is full of examples. attesting the attachment of the ancients to high places- for purposes of worship and sacriﬁce. Jupiter, viewing the ﬂight of Hector before the furious Achilles, is represented by Homer as alluding thus to the piety of the fugitive: The thigh of many an ox to me he burned, On heig ts of pointed Ida; often too, On highest place within the city's walls. Iliad, b. xii, v. 170. Impressed with this veneration for mountains and hills, we can easily understand how the primitive nations came to construct the altars within their cities and sacred enclosures in imitation of them. “Whenever the early idol- aters,” says Faber, “in the course of their mi- grations, happened to occupy a ﬁat country, they would be precluded, from the nature of the place, from solemnizing their rites on the top of ahill; therefore if they wished to retain them, art must supply the deﬁciency. This would be done either by throwing up a large tumulus of earth, or building a temple in the form of amountain, which should rise conspicuously above the sur- rounding plain; and, when this practice became established, it would not unfrequently be car- ried into countries where it would really be superﬂuous.” That these conclusions are not merely speculative is established by abundant direct evidence. The pyramidal sacred struc- tures of Hindustan are expressly declared to be studied transcripts of the sacred Meru. The diversity of their forms results only from a diversity of opinion as to the shape of the holy mountain. It is represented as a cone, trun- cated or otherwise, but usually as a square Mounds of conical and other forms are scattered through India, upon which images and altars were erected, and on which the gods were invoked‘ to dwell. These are called Mara-sringas, or peaks of Meru. Within them are often deposited various relics, which are supposed to invest them with the literal presence of the god. In this view they are regarded as mythological tombs; for, as it was a universal belief that the spirit of a per- son interred in a tomb or barrow, made it a chief place of abode after death, so it was sup- posed theactual presence of a god was secured by depositing in his shrine, whether a temple 470 AMERICAN AN TIQUITIES or montiform altar, some relic, a tooth or bone, or even a hair, “like that which grew on the forehead of Buddha.” The antiquity and con- ﬁdence of this belief may be seen in the Helena of Euripides, in which Menelaus thus addresses Theonoé, daughter of Proteus: Thus will I at thy father’s barrow speak, 0! sire, who dwellest within this stony mound. Electra, in the tragedy of Sophocles, bear- ing her name, speaks in one of the choruses as follows: Niobe, thee I honor as a goddess, That in this stony taphos, Ah! ah! still weepest! That the sacred ediﬁces of America, or at least of Mexico, were built with reference to these ideas, is supported by facts as well as by anal- ogy. Nezahualcoyotl and Nezahualpilli, kings of Tezcuco, reared a temple in honor of the Su- preme Unity, in which no sacriﬁces were per- mitted except the burning of incense. This temple was of nine stages, the number symbol- izing the nine heavens which the Mexicans sup- posed to intervene between earth and the abode of the Supreme God. “Upon its summit,” says Boturini, “was erected a dark chapel, or shrine, painted within of the ﬁnest blue, with cornices of gold, dedicated to Tléquc Nahudgue, the One who has his seat above the heavens.” “In China,” says Humboldt, “ two thousand years before our era, sacriﬁces were oifered to the Supreme Being, Oham-ty, or 4 great mountains, called the 4 Yo. The sovereigns ﬁnding it inconvenient to go there in person, caused eminences to be erected, by the hands of men, near their habitations, whereon to prac- tise their devotions.” In memory of the mighty dead, long before there were such ediﬁces as temples, the simple sepulchral heap was raised, upon which sacriﬁces were made, and libations poured.‘ Hence, and not unnaturally, many of the early heathenstructures for offerings to the gods were erected upon tombs of this descrip- tion. The sanctity of the Acropolis of Athens was due, in its origin, to the sepulchre of Cecrops; and probably, without this leading cause of veneration, the numerous temples by which it was afterward covered would never have been built. authors make use of such words in designating the temples -of the gods, as in their original meaning imply nothing more than a tomb or sepulchre. That artiﬁcial high-places, de- signed for sacred uses, were constructed on the principles here laid down cannot be disputed. In respect to their form, however, there is con- siderable difference of opinion. While it cannot be denied that those of Hindostan, for instance, Were built to conform in shape to the fabled Meru, it is contended by some that the type of all is to be found in the tower of Babel, and that the Babylonian temples, as well as the pyramidal ediﬁces of India and America, were but tra- ditional transcripts of the great structure on the plain of Shinar, the central point whence radiated all the ' families of -the earth, and the for small steamers. On this account it happens that ancient ~ AMIERICANISM nations of every continent. The discussion of these questions is, however, foreign to our pur- pose. It is enough to know that the practice of erecting such structures is of high antiquity, originating at a period when man had made the ﬁrst reﬁnements in the accessories of his worship. “Immense pyramidal piles,” observes Sir R. C. Porter, “ seem to be the peculiar marks by which we may discover at least the sites of the earliest settlements of mankind.” But we are not compelled, therefore, to accept resem- blances, nor even identities in respect to their form or adornment, as involving connections, recent or remote, between the people by whom they were erected; since, in the language of the philosophical Warburton, “it is an old, in- veterate error, that a similitude of customs and manners, among the various tribes of mankind most remote from each other, must need arise from some communication ; whereas, human na- ture, without any help, will in the same circum- stances exhibit the same appearances.” The forms in which men’s ideas and conceptions are manifested, must always be much the same. AMERICAN RIVER, in N. central California is formed by the union of its N. and S. forks near the W. boundary of the county of El D09 rado, whence it ﬂows S. W. between the coun- ties of Placer and Sacramento falls into Sacra- mento river near the city of Sacramento. For about 6 miles it has been rendered navigable The north fork, considered by some as the true American river, rises among the hills at the base of the Sierra Ne- vada, ﬂows W. S. W. forming the boundaries between Placer and El Dorado counties for 100 miles, and unites with the S. fork 30 miles above the city of Sacramento. The S. fork ﬂows from Bonpland lake through El Dorado county, and forms part of the division between the counties of Sacramento and El Dorado. These streams pass through one of the principal gold mining districts. AMERICANISM, a peculiar form of the English language, used in the United States. In all parts of the world, it has been observed that where a great number of people, inhabiting a large territory, speak a common language, they do not all use it in the same manner; but the inhabitants of different districts use differ- ent dialects. In accordance with this rule it might reasonably have been expected that there would be variations in the English language, as used in the United States, from the standard of the mother country. There were peculiarly strong inﬂuences in America to cause variations; such as the thinness of population, the novelty of numerous objects, of the mode of life, and of the system of government, the vast 1n- ﬂux of persons speaking the languages of con- tinental Europe and Africa, intimate intercourse along the frontiers with the red men, the want of a metropolis,a court, and permanently wealthy families which might serve as authorities, and the adoption by newspaper editors of the slang and low words of the multitude. But there AMEBICANISM have also been very strong inﬂuences at work to protect the English language in America from variations. These inﬂuences have been a more extensive and thorough popular education than that of any other country, the almost universal habit of reading newspapers and books, an in- tercourse between distant districts by travelling, unequalled in any other part of the world, and the extensive use of dictionaries as books of reference in regard to the proper use of words. The consequence is, that there is more uniform- ity in the English language as spoken in the United States than in the tongue of any other people equally numerous; every American can with ease understand every other one; and it may safely be said that as a people the Amer- icans speak English better than the English themselves. But the standard of the correct language still remains in the use of the learned and educated people of England, whose noble literature and polished society possess an au- thority which the Americans have not yet been able to equal.——Americanisms are of various kinds, viz.: First, new words, such as sparse, township, caucus. Secondly, old English words in new meanings, as block, meaning the land or houses inclosed between four streets in a town or city; realize, meaning to conceive as actual; and section, meaning a square mile of land. Thirdly, words which were provincial in England adopted in general American use, as wilt for wither. Fourthly, words which have retained in America the meaning they had in England several hundred years ago, while in the latter country the meaning has been changed. The word sick is an ex- ample of this. Fifthly, words preserved in American use, which have become obsolete in England; such as tarry, freshet. Sixthly, new methods of pronunciation, such as ew and a like 00 in constitution, newspaper. Seventhly, new methods of accentuation, as epimirean instead of the English epicuréan. Subj oined we give a list of some of the most noteworthy Americanisms, all of which are occasionally and most of them frequently used in American books and news- papers, and in the conversation of intelligent and educated men. It deserves to be remarked that many Americanisms current in the‘ Southern, Western, and Middle States, are not used in New England, where the language, at least as written, approximates more closely to that of the moth- er country. In Canada the usage is stillnearer to the England standard. Advantage, used as a verb instead of proﬁt. Ambition, used as a verb instead of aspire. Approbate, used instead of approve. . Aatwmn, meaning the months of September, October, and November, whereas, in England, that word comprises Au- gust, September, and October. Bad, used in the sense ‘of ill. Baggage used to signify the trunks, boxes, valises, cloth- ing, &c., of a traveller. The English say luggage, and consider baggage pretentious. Balance, meaning remainder; for example, “Two of €,l,,1ie1cp(;:.<,),fessors were dismissed, but the balance were re- Board, always used to signify all kinds of boards. In Emrland pine and ﬁr boards are ordinaril called “ deals." Bogus, meaning counterfeit, false, frau ulent. 471 Border, in the sense of a greensward, bordering on a walk in a garden or yard. Boss, meaning an employer or superintendent of laborers. Brash for brittle. I Bread’-stwﬁs, much objected to by English writers, 20 years 9-go, but now admitted to be a good word. T Buggy, in the Western States, means a li ht four-wheeled wagon; in England it means a two-wheele carriage. wncombe, used in the phrase to “s eak to Buncombe," melaning to speak only to catch the app ause or favor of the vu gar. Bureau, universally used to the exclusion of the English “ chest of drawers.” Calico, in America, means printed muslin goods; in Eng- land it means muslin goods generally. Cannot is one word in America: in England it is two. Caption, used in the United States to mean the heading of a chapter, section, or 1page, is not used in England. Captwate, as given y Webster and Worcester, in the sense of “take captive,” is not recognized by English lexi- cographers. Clever usually means good-natured, obliging,‘ln America, and quick-witted or intelligent in England. Concliwle is usedb Americans in the sense of determined, as, “ I have conclude to go." Oonclude, in Great Britain, is used to signify the formation of an opinion, not of an inten- tion. Conduct is used as a verb in New England, in the sense of conduct oneself; and that use is recognized as correct by Webster. In this con/nect/ion is a 1phrase much used in the Uni- ted States, and appears to ave been ﬁrst brought into our- rency about 40 years ago, chieﬂy in. New England periodical literature. English writers would prefer to say, “in con- nection with this subject.” Corn nfeans only maize in the United States, in England it means grain generally. Cownty, in America, is ordinarily used after the proper noun used to designate articular counties, as “ Pike coun- ty,” &c. The English ways say “county of,” as “county of Lancaster.” Creek, in the most of the American states, means a small river; in England it means a small arm of the sea. Creole, properly means a person descended from European parents, born in some portion of America which belongs or did once belong to Spain; but the Americans often use the word to designate a native of Louisiana tinctured with ne 0 blood. cad-heaol, a person who gets something of commercial value without special payment or charge. Declination, the refusal to accept a nomination to oﬁice. Dry-goods, a general term used by Americans to signify such articles as are sold by linen drapers, haberdashers, mer- cers, drapers, hosiers, &c. The word “ haberdashery,” is almost unknown in the United States. Dress, the word almost universally used by American women to designate their gowns. Vegetable-egg, and sometimes egg-plant, is the American name for the fruit known in England as the garden egg. Elect, in the sense of choose; as, “ he elected to go to En- ro e.” Endorse, a word adqgted from commercial usage to signify sanction, approve, con m. Eve/ntwate, meaning to result in. F/'.r,pect, misused in application to past events; as “ I ex- pect it was.” Fall, meaning autumn. Fall, used instead of “fell ;” as “ to fall a tree.” Fancy, used as an adjective to signif fantastic, various. It is frequently used on signs of shops w ere assorted goods are sold, thus, “Fancy Store." Whatever is ornamental ra- . ther than useful, fantastic, adapted to gratify luxurious tastes rather than necessary wants, more elegant than substantial, ﬁ redas opposed to plain, may be described as “fancy.” T us there are “ fancy silks," “fancy horses,” “ fancy wo- men,” “fancy men ” &c. Fishdealer, the American name for a ﬁshmonger. Fiw, in England means to fasten or make ﬁrm ; in America it means almost any thing in the way of putting in order, adyzusting, mending, setting to rights, or making. o hare the jloor is the American term for the English “ to have possession of the house.” . is iFore/oer is one word in the United States; in England it we. Freshet, meaning a ﬂood, is not recognized in Englandas a good English word; but it was used several centuries ago by ood English writers. ‘ rock is the name ordinarily given by American women to their gown, when they wish to be explicit. Ogilvie says frock is now used in England, “ for a loose garment or shirt worn by men over their other clothes, and for a kind of gown, open behind, worn by females.” Fruit-dealer, the name generally given, in the United 472 States, to fruiterers, and green-grocers. Persons who hawk ﬁsh and vegetables about the streets are known as costar- mongers in England, but in America they have no such dis- tinctwe name. Gallowees, meaning braces to support the ti-owsers.' Gerrymmzder, a method of arranging election districts so that the political party making the arrangement will be ena- bled to elect a greater number of representatives than they could on a fair system of districting, and more than they should have in proportion to their numerical strength. The word was derived from the name of Elbridge Gerry, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, who was accused of being the ﬁrst to ractise this s ecies of fraud on the rights of the people, whi e governor 0 Massachusetts. Go-ahead is of American origin, and is used by Americans in cases where the British would say “all right.” Hack usually means a hackney-coach in America; in England it means a livery-stable horse. ard/wa/re merchant, or hardware dealer, is the Ameri- can name for an ironmonger. Hebp is frequently used, in the United States, to signify servant, servants, or service. Hold on is a common American vulgarism for “atop.” Itis probably derived from the German “ halt a/12.” Homeby means plain-featured, -or ugly, in the United States ; in England, it means pertaining to home, plain, sim- ple unadorne mp-rave. is an Americanism for o ening a farm on wild land, by cutting away the wood and rush, erecting build- ings and fences, ploughing the ground, and putting it in or- der. tsThe buildings and fences erected are styled improve- men . K001-ela, an American word, of Dutch origin, to signify cabbage salad. Leoee, in the United States, is often applied to ceremo- nious reception parties givenb oﬂicial personages, whether in the morning or evening. 11 England, the word is re- stricted to morning receptions. Loafer, Americanism for lounger. Lou/n, frequently used in the United States as a verb, but seldom in England, where lend is the usual word. Lobby, a verb, in America, means to attempt to exercise an inﬂuence on members of a legislative body by persons not members. Lobby-members are non-members, who attend the ses- sions of a legislative body, for the purpose of inﬂuencing their conduct. To lobby through is to get a bill adopted by such inﬂu- ence. Locate, an Americanism, meaning to determine and de- signate the place of, to settle in. Log—roll 1s an Americanism, to designate a system of management by which a member of a deliberative or legis- lative body attempts to secure the adoption of a favorite ‘measure, by inducing other members to vote for it, by as- sisting or promising to assist them in carrying their several pet measures. Lot is the American term to designate a small tract of land, such as the subdivisions in towns. The English usual- ly say “ allotment.” Y I/u/mber means trash, in England. In the United States it means sawn wood such as is intended for building and other mechanical purposes. Lumbering means making lumber ' lumberman is the person engaged in making it; and lumber-merchant is he who sells it. Mad is frequently used by Americans to signify angry; it is not so used by the English. Mail is the word ordinarily used in the United States to express the ideas conveyed by “ ost ” in England. Ameri- cans say “ mail a letter,” “ sen it by mail.” In such ex- pressions the English say “ ost.” Molasses is used in the nited States to signify treacle as well asmolasses. Properly, the former is the drainage from sugar in the process of reﬁning; the latter from sugar in the process of making. Molasses comes from the sugar plan- tations, treacle from sugar reﬁneries. Na/rratc has been objected to as a bad Americanism, by English authors, but it 1s used by English authors, is found in English dictionaries, and is of English origin. - Neceuitate is an Americanism much objected to by Eng- lish writers. Night-fall, and Aﬂer-night, are expressions common in the United States, but not used in England. Notcﬁ/, in the United States means to give notice to; in England it means to make known. The American says, “ you must notify the drawer of the protest.” The Eng- lishman says, “ the protest must be notiﬁed to the drawer." Obhlgate, sometimes used by American writers, is ob- jected to by English lexicographers as a low word. Obnowious is used much more frequently in the United 1Stat_l<;.i; than in England,.where offensive is considered pre- era e. Older, and oldest, are frequently applied to persons by AMERICANISM Americans; elder and oldest are used by the English when speaking of ersons. On is often use by Americans in such phrases as, “he lives on a street,” “ he took passage on a steamboat,” &c. The Englishman would use, “in," ‘ instead of “ on.” Pa/ntaloons is the common American name for trow- sers. Pipe-lag/ing is an Anhericanism, meaning fraudulent voting, and schemes or means to obtain fraudulent votes. The word had its ori ‘n in New York, at the time of the construction of the roton waterworks. Some leaders of the whig party were char d, with having made arrange- ments to bring a large num er of men from Philadelphia, ostensibly to lay ipes for the water, but really to vote at an a preaching e ection. P nk is frequentl used by Americans to signify board. Aplank is a piece 0 sawn lumber an inch and a half or more in thickness, and 9 inches or more in width. Plead, Scotticism for pleaded, Tqgeterite of to plead, is used in the United States, to the a ost entire exclusion of the English word. Politician, in the United States, means a person who busies himself with the management and contests of a po- litical party. In En land, it means a statesman. There is a similar distinction etween the meanings of the word pol- itics in the two countries. Pond is used by the Americans to signify a pool or body of water smaller thana lake, with either natural or artiﬁ- cial banks. In En land “ ond ” implies that the wateris conﬁned by an arti cial an . Posted-up is an Americanism for wel1-informed,thor- ou hly conversant with. uzte, in the sense of “ very,” is in universal use by Americans, in such phrases as, ‘ it is quite cold.” Ra/ilroad, railroa track, railroad depot, and railroad car, are the American names for the English railway, rail- way line, railway station, and railway carriage. The Amer- ican travels “in the cars;” the Englishman “by the rail.” In the United States the iron horse Is ordinarily a “locomo- tive; ” in Britain he is an “engine.” Raise, in the sense of rear, cultivate, cause to grow, has been objected to as a bad Americanism by some English writers; but it is adopted without objection in Ogilvie’s Dictionary. Ra/pids is an Americanism to signify that portion of a river where the current is so swift that the surface of the water is broken by short waves or by low falls. Rehiable is an Americanism for trustworthy. It has been adopted in the common use of England, but is not employed by careful writers. Ride, in the United States, means riding either in a wagon or on horseback. The English restrict ride to horseback. In America, “ to drive a carriage ” means to hold the reins; in England it does not. Ride was formerly used by the Enodis as it is now used by the Americans. ﬁieer is always placed by the English before the proper name when speaking of a particular stream, as “the river Thames.” The Americans generally place “ river ” after the proper name; thus, “ the Ohio river.” Rail, to render turbid, a provincial word in England, is in general use throughout the United States. f Rlooster is an Americanism for “ cook,” a male barn-door ow . School, in the United States, means a place where element- ary instruction is given; in England it is often a plied to establishments which would be called colleges in erica. Sick is the ordinary American word for ill, but is used by the English chieﬂy to express sickness at the stomach. Sleigh is the American name for the English “sled e." The English go “ sledge-driving ;” the Americans go “ sleigh- ridin .” 817%!/It is an Americanism for pair, applied only to horses or mules. It is derived from the German gespa/n/n. Stage is the American name for s e-coach; and it is sometimes but rarely used in that sense y the English. Stall is used in the United States to signify stick fast; as “ the horses are stalled ;" “ the wagon is stalled,” &c. Stoop is an Americanism, derived from the Dutch, mean- ing the steps at the entrance of a house, door-steps, a porch, a piazza, a platform of stone or wood before a door. Store is the usual American name for a shop; and shop is rarely used except to designate a place where mechanical labor is done. Such signs as “ boot store,” “book store,” “grocery store,” “liquor store,” “drug store,” are always used by Americans to the exclusion of “ book shop,” &c. Suspenders is the genteel, as gallowses is the vulgar, American name for the articles known in England as braces. Suspicion is sometimes used in American books and newspapers as a verb instead of suspect. ' Talented has been objected to by many English authors as an unauthorized word, _but it has been used by many classic authors. It is in umversal use in the United States. Tavern, in Amenca, means a place where travellers are AMEBIGO VESPUCGI entertained and lodged; in England it means a place where liquors are sold, and entertainment (but not lodging) pro- vided for parties. Tenement-house is a word used in New York city to sig- nify a house occupied, or built to be occupied, by a number of cor families or tenants. ~'cIcet is used by Americans in many ways unknown to the English. Politically it means a list of candidates at an election. “ Straight tickets,” “split tickets,” and “mixed tickets,” are unknown in the fast-anchored isle. When an American engages a passage on a railroad, he ur- chases a ticket; the Englishman is booked at the box-o ‘ce. The American purchases a “throu h-ticket” or a “ way- ticket;” the Englishman is booke for a portion or the whole distance of his intended journey. Tra/nse'ent, often used by Americans in such phrases as a “ transient person,” meaning a erson staying at a place for a short time, a stranger, a trave lcr, is not used in that sense in England. Trans,-pire, in the sense of “ happen," or “be done,” is a very common Americanism. Venison, in the United States, means deer meat; in Eng- lan% it is applied to wild meat generally. aggon, or wagon, according to the usual American s ell- ing, is frequently used in the United States as a verb. T us, “ the goods were wagoned across the mountains.” Waiter is a very common American name for servants, particularly in hotels, boarding-houses, and eating-houses. What for a is frequently used by Pennsylvanians instead of “What kind of a,” in asking questions. It is a literal translation of the German idiom, “ Wasfitr einf’ W720/roes is the American, as wharfs is the English, plural of wharf. Will is generally used by the natives of the Southern, Western, and Middle States, in the ﬁrst person, instead of shall, when they merely wish to express an expectation. Woods is the common American name for what the Eng- lish term “ a wood.” Ad/vacate, notice, and progress, used as verbs were once considered as Americanisms, but have lost that character by adoption in England Two vocabularies of Americanisms have been published; one at Boston by John Pickering in 1816, and the other at New York by John Russell Bartlett in 1848. Pickering’s book was small, and contained only the Americanisms current in New England at the time he wrote, since which time many new ones have been adopted. Bartlett’s work is more extensive and better, but is far from containing a com- plete list of Americanisms. Indeed, such mul- titudes of slang words are made every year, and circulated by careless or ﬂippant writers, that if they were all collected they might before long equal in number the 60,000 provincialisms of England. Fortunately they are generally used with a knowledge of their vulgarity, and many of them are forgotten almost as easily as they are coined. AMERIGO VESPUCOI. See Vnsruoor. ' AMERSFOORT, a town of the Netherlands, in the province of Utrecht, with a port on the river Eem, about 10 miles from its mouth. It has mannfactories of cotton and woollen stuffs; an industrial school, Latin school, and court of primary jurisdiction. Corn and tobacco are cultivated very extensively in its vicinity, in which and dried herrings a brisk trade is car- ried on. The population numbers 13,000. AMES, EDWARD, a bishop of the Methodist Episcopal church in the United States, born at Athens, Ohio, in 1806. After receiving his ed- ucation in the Ohio university, he was for 3 years instructor in a college in Illinois. He was licensed to preach in 1830, was soon after as- signed to the Indiana conference, and ordained successively a deacon and an elder. He took AMES 473 part in the general conference of the Methodists held in Baltimore in 1840, and in 1842 oﬂiciated as chaplain to a council of Ohoctaws, being the ﬁrst . chaplain ever elected by an assembly of Indians. From 1844 until 1852, when he was made a bishop, he travelled as presiding-elder through various districts of Indiana. AMES, Frsnnn, an American orator, states- man, and political writer, was born in Ded- ham, Mass, April 9, 1758, died in the same place July 4, 1808. His father, who was a physician, and a man of skill in his profession, and of wit and spirit in his conversation, died in 17 64, when his celebrated son was but 6 years old. But his loss was in some degree. supplied by the energy and good sense of his widow, who, discerning the early promise of her youthful son, would permit no adverseness of circumstances to prevent his receiving the best education the country then afforded. He entered Harvard college at the early age of 12, and after passing creditably through its course, took his degree in 17 7 4. His youth, and the disturbed state of public affairs, and the nar- rowness of the family means, delayed for sev- eral years his entrance into the profession of the law. During this interval, however, he was busily educating himself for his future emi- nence by the assiduous study of the Latin and English classics, with the spirit of which his mind was thoroughly imbued. In 1781 he was admitted to the bar, and began practice in his native town, and soon began to attract at».- tention as a forensic orator of unusual elo- quence. But it was his political essays, which appeared in the Boston newspapers, under the signatures of Brutus and Oamillus, that ﬁrst made his great abilities generally known. They were lessons of practical wisdom, such as the unsettled state of public opinion and feeling at that period of transition demanded, conveyed with all the charms of a pure, energetic, and lively style. When he was known to be the author of these essays, he entered at once into relations of private and political intimacy with the leading men of his own state, and else- where, who were afterward the prominent federalists of the Washington schooL He was a member of the convention for ratifying the federal constitution in 17 88, and made himself conspicuous by the zeal and eloquence with which he recommended its adoption. When the federal government went into operation, Mr. Ames was elected the ﬁrst representative of his district, which then included Boston, in congress. He remained in congress dur- ing the 8 years of Washington’s administra- tion, and fully maintained the reputation he carried thither with him. His readiness in de- bate and the splendor of his set speeches placed him in the very ﬁrst rank of parliamentary orators. At the close of his great speech on the appropriation required for the execution of J ay’s treaty with Great Britain, a member of the opposite party moved an adjournment, on the ground that the house was not in a state of a political friend of many years. 474 mind to dwell calmly on the question when fresh from the excitement of its eloquence. His parliamentary labors were sometime mter- rupted, and always made more arduous, y the ill state of his health-the seeds of pulmonary disease having early developed themselves in his constitution. At the close of his fourth term, Mr. Ames left, congress and returned with delight to the labors of his profession and to the pleasures of domestic life. His inter- est in public affairs, at that most excited period, was manifested by fresh essays in the news- papers of the day; but he took no immediate part in politics and accepted no oﬂice, except- ing that of executive councillor under the ad- ministration of Governor Sumner. ' On the death of Washington he pronounced his eulogy before the legislature of Massachusetts, by their appointment. The gradual failure of his health compelled Mr. Ames soon to withdraw from the active practice of his profession, and he spent the last years of his life in a truly philo- sophic retirement, such as might well round the days of a great orator ‘and statesman. He was most happily married in 1792, to Frances, daughter of John Worthington, of Springﬁeld, and in the occupations of domestic life, the su- perintendence of his farm and orchards, the study of good literature, and the society of a brilliant circle of admiring and loving friends, his life wore away peacefully and happily. The chief drawback of his satisfaction was found in the gloomy forebodings as to the fu- ture of his country and the success of the ex- periment of republican government, which he felt in common with most of his school of pol- itics. He met his death, which encountered him in the prime of his life, with calmness and dignity. The inroads of his disease were of the most gradual description, and he died on the morning of the 4th of July, at the age of 50. A public meeting was called‘ in Boston, as soon as the news of his death arrived, and arrangements made for giving him the mourn- ful compliment of a public funeral. The fu- neral ceremonies took place in Boston, and a dis- course was pronounced over his remains by Samuel Dexter, his personal, professional, and He lies buried in the churchyard of the town of Dedham, where he was born and died. The works of Fisher Ames were collected and published in one volume soon after his death, with a memoir written by the Rev. John Thornton Kirkland. An enlarged edition, in 2 volumes, appeared in 1854, edited by his son Mr. Seth Ames, of Cambridge, Mass. The ﬁrst volume of this edition is composed of his letters, and they add to his former reputation that of one of the liveliest, wittiest, and most graceful of letter- writers. His reputation as an orator and writer is ﬁrmly established, and will extend itself with the growth of our literature and the extension of the‘ English language. His orations, his essays, and his letters, are of the highest excellence in their several departments, and AMES must ever remain a component part of Amer- ican and of English literature. The exuber- ance of his imagination, displayed in the mul- titude and ‘splendor of his metaphors and illustrations, is sometimes, perhaps, a little ex- cessive, and almost oppresses the mind, not- withstanding their felicity and appositeness. But if this be a fault, it is one which only a man of genius can commit, and one that we readily forgive. In private life, Mr. Ames is described by those'that knew him best, as one of the most charming and fascinating of com- panions. His appearance was attractive, his manners gentle and prepossessing, the play of his wit and imagination brilliant and incessant. Many of his bo'ns mots have passed into proverbs, and are inthe mouths of multitudes who know not whence came the terse epigrams they use. His private character was absolutely without spot or blemish. None such was ever whis- pered of him by his bitterest political enemies in the heat of the most furious partisan excite- ment. It might be said of him, as Lord Ches- terﬁeld-wrote of the elder Pitt, “ his private life was stained by no vice, and sullied by no meanness.” He was an example to all time of a man of rare genius and wit, who never perverted his great faculties to purposes of self- ishness or sensuality, but dedicated them en- tirely to the promotion of public prosperity and of private happiness. AMES, J osnrn, born at Yarmouth, England, Jan. 23, 1689, and died Oct. 7, 1759. He wrote a work entitled “ Typographical Anti- quities,” being a historical account of printing in England, with some memoirs of our ancient printers, a valuable compilation, and made more so by the subsequent additions of Herbert and Dr. Dibdin. _ AMES, NATHAN P., a skilful machinist, born in 1803, died in 1847, for many years engaged in the manufacture of cannon, swords, edge tools, and various machines, at Chicopee Falls and Cabotville, Mass. He was less remarkable as an inventor than as a man of great practical ability, and possessed of singular insight into the capabilities of any subject within the range of the industrial arts that came under his notice. Many of the inventions of merely ingenious minds, which seem at ﬁrst sight to be very wonderful, prove on trial to be nearly useless, because their scope is so limited. Mr. Ames possessed a clear judgment that enabled him, on proper examination, to decide with unerring skill on the practical working results of a ma- chine. No matter how much any thing might be commended, if he saw that it was prac- tically of little value, he boldly expressed his opinion. His studies in the mechanic arts chieﬂy led him to the examination of the chemical properties of metals in all their com- binations, and his researches led him to im- prove many branches of art which at the time of his entering business were, in this country, but in their infancy. This was the case in a great degree with edge tools and cutlery. In AMES 1829, he commenced the cutlery business at Chicopee Falls with 9 workmen, and in the following year contracts were commenced with the United States government for furnishing swords. In 1834 the Ames Manufacturing Company was incorporated, and N. P. Ames appointed agent. In 1840, he went to Eu- rope in company with aboard of ofﬁcers of the United States ordnance department, to visit foreign armories, and acquire informa- tion in regard to tools, cutlery, and improve- ment in arms. During the last 2 years of N. P. Ames’ life, his brother assumed the active duties of the establishment. Under his care the Ames Manufacturing Company has grown into one of the most important corporations in the United States. The number of hands now em- ployed is about 300, and the works from small be- ginnings have grown in magnitude until they now cover_a vast extent of ground. The manu- facture of gilt and plated ware, established in 1851, alone occupies 100 hands. In the ma- chine shops all kinds of massive castings may be seen being put together for cotton manufac- tures, &c.; heavy tools are also made, as well as numbers of the horizontal turbine wheels which are now coming into extensive use in large factories and workshops in place of the old-fashioned wooden overshot wheels, particu- larly where the water power is not heavy. The sword department occupies about 40 hands, and the Ameses have supplied the United States government with swords since the year 1830. In 1836 the bronze foundery was erected, which has become the most famous in the United States. Since its erection nearly all the brass guns made for the American army have been cast at this establishment. now engaged in manufacturing 12-pounder and 32-pounder guns, to throw either solid shot or shells, and so arranged as to ﬁt the same gun carriage. They also make light howitzers, which can be carried on the back of a horse or mule, and are intended for mountain service. But this foundery has become far more widely known from its connection with the ﬁne arts. Three colossal statues bear witness to the capa- bilities of the establishment; one of these is of De Witt Clinton, and erected to his memory in Greenwood cemetery, Brooklyn; it was modelled by Brown, the American sculptor. Another, also by Brown, is the equestrian sta- . tue of Gen. Washington in Union square, New York. The weight of this statue is nearly 5 tons. The head and entire body of the horse was cast in one mould, the legs separate, and the ﬁgure of Washington in three pieces. The third statue, and the one most recently cast, is that of Franklin, erected in School street, Bos- ton, from a design by Richard Greenough. A great tribute to American mechanical skill has been paid through this establishment by the government of Great Britain. It is well kn own that for many years past, the arms in the na- tional armories at Springﬁeld and at Harper’s Ferry, have been made entirely by machinery, The company is , AMESTRIS 475 and constant improvements have been in pro- gress, while in many of the European states, England included, the old system of making muskets by hand was kept up, so that no two were alike. Discovering at length that our arms were far superior to their own, the British government, in 1854, sent out a commission, consisting of three oﬂicers, who engaged the Ames Manufacturing Company to build a com- plete set of the “stocking”machines; that is, all those employed in perfecting the stock of the musket from its rough state, as it is fur- nished by contract, independent of all the other machines, which are very numerous, for the barrels and metal work of the piece. These machines are now at the government armory in Enﬁeld, near Woolwich, England. AMES, WILLIAM, D. D., an English Inde- pendent divine born in 1576, died in Nov. . 1633, was educated at Christ’s college, Cam- bridge. In the reign of James I. he left the- university in order to avoid expulsion for his nonconformity, and retired to the Hague, Hol- land, where he was hospitably invited to accept the chair of divinity of the university of Franeker in Friesland, which he ﬁlled satisfac- _ torily for 12 years. He removed to Rotterdam, where he spent the rest of his days. He left many controversial writings against Cardinal Bellarmine, and against Grevinchovius and the Arminians. His Medulla Theologiw was fa- mous in its day. AMESBURY. I. A post town, in Essex county, Mass., extending from the north bank of the Merrimac to the state of New Hamp- shire, about 40 miles north of Boston, and 6 north-west from Newburyport, has some exten- sive manufactories of ﬂannel and satinet. One company for making ﬁannels has a capital of $200,000; boots, shoes, leather, and carriages, are also extensively made. The total amount of the manufactures yearly, is $500,000. About half the population of the town is engaged in mechanical labor. It is the home of the poet John G. Whittier, who is frequently called the bard of Amesbury. Josiah Bartlett, M. D., one of the signers of the Declaration of Independ- ence, was born here, in 1729. Pop. 3,585. II. A market-town in the county of Wilt- shire, England, formerly Ambrosebury or Ambresebury; it is of high antiquity, and has the remains of an abbey. The beautiful Ames- bury house, built for the duke of Queensbury by Inigo Jones, is situated in it. Addison was born at Milston near it. Tourists who visit Stonehenge generally put up there. Popula- tion in 1851, 1,172. AMESTBIS. I. The wife of Xerxes, king of Persia, notorious for the terrible revenge which she wreaked upon the person of her sister-in- law, Ardaynte, for the adulterous passion with which the latter had inspired her husband. To accomplish this revenge, she availed herself of a time-honored privilege, which on solemn occasions, imposed upon the kings of Persia the duty of granting any request their wives might 476 AMETHY ST choose to make. Amestris requested to have Ar- daynte put in her power, and had her nose, ears, eyebrows, tongue, and bosom (those attributes of her beauty which had captivated the tender heart of the amorous Persian) cut off, and her mangled remains devoured by dogs. Masistes, the husband of this unfortunate lady, yearned, in his turn, for vengeance, but before he could accomplish it, he was assassinated by order of the queen, who, moreover, in order to express her sense of gratitude to the gods for the suc- cess of her atrocious schemes, offered a sacri- ﬁce of 14 young Persian nobles, whom she caused to be buried alive. H. Another royal Persian lady, the supposed founder of the town of Amestris (Amasserah) in Paphlagonia, was a daughter of the king Darius and of Oxathra. AMETHY ST (Gr. apedvsfos, preventing in- toxication, so named because it was supposed by the ancient Persians, that cups made of it would prevent the liquor they contained from intoxicating). It is crystallized quartz of a pur- ple or bluish violet color, probably derived from a very small amount of oxide of man- ganese; or, according to Heintz, from a com- pound of iron and soda. It is employed in jew- elry. The color is not always uniformly dif- fused through it; and like many other stones is less brilliant by candlelight. The name was used by the ancients for several other minerals, which had a similar color to the amethyst. AMGA, a river of Siberia, which rises in the Yablonoi Krebet mountains, ﬂows in a N. E. direction nearly 460 miles, and falls into the Aldan. At its passage through the village of Amginsk, where it is bounded on each side by steep rocks, upwards of 30 feet in height, it at- tains a breadth of 3,000 feet. AMHARIC LANGUAGE. Amhara is a province of Abyssinia, including all that portion which lies between the Blue Nile and the Ta- cazze rivers, and having the Lake Tchad in the centre. The language of this province is spoken with some variations of dialect through- out Abyssinia, and a knowledge of it is there- fore essential to an Abyssinian traveller. It is supposed to be a very ancient language, though the earliest mention of it is thought to be made by a writer about 120 years before Christ. A language called the Geez used to be spoken in Abyssinia, but the Amharic super- seded it on the accession of Icon-Amlak, who removed his court from Axoom to Shea, and surrounded himself by Amharic courtiers. Very little is known of the Amharic language, though the British and foreign Bible society have found means to publish ﬁrst the New Tes- tament (1829), and later, the whole Bible in that tongue. The Amharic is generally con- sidered to be a branch of the Semitic family, and shows its principal afﬁnity with the Arabic. It does not so much resemble the old Ethiopic Geez, which it has displaced, as does the Tigré, the provincial dialect of the northern province of Abyssinia. Annnnsr AMHERST, a county in Virginia, bounded on the S. W. and S. by the James river, and on the N. by the Blue Ridge, was formed from Albemarle county in 1761. The surface is elevated and undulating. It abounds in ﬁne scenery, of which the passage of the James river, through the Blue-Ridge, is specially noted. Its area -is 418 square miles, its soil fertile, and largely covered with forests and plantations; tobacco, corn, wheat, and oats, being its staples. In 1850 its real estate was assessed at $1,889,671, and in 1856 at $2,193,421, showing an increase of 16 per cent. Productions in 1850, 358,183 bushels of corn, 122,088 of wheat, 94,262 of oats, 948,261 pounds of tobacco, and 84,968 of butter. There were 24 churches, 250 pupils in the public schools, and 130 attending academies and other schools. Population in 1850, free whites 6,352, free colored 394, slaves 5,953, total 12,699.‘ AMHERST. I. A town in Hampshire county, Massachusetts, situated on a branch of the Con- necticut, 82 miles W. of Boston; pop. 2,937. The inhabitants are chieﬂy farmers. In the N. part of the town, on Mill river, are several factories, where Kentucky jeans, wickings, sheet- ings, straw pasteboard and straw wrapping paper are made. There are also two tool fac- tories in the place. About 20 years ago Am- herst was celebrated for the beauty of the car- riages at that time manufactured there. Am- herst college was founded in 1821. Its pro- jectors had prominently in view the gratuitous education of pious young men for the ministry, and the charity fund, devoted exclusively to this object, now amounts to about $50,000, and pays the tuition fees of between 40 and 80 students. The managers of the institution had to struggle against many discouragements at the outset, and not a dollar was appropriated in its aid from the state treasury during the ﬁrst 25 years of its existence. The Rev. Zephaniah Swift Moore was the ﬁrst president of the col- lege. He died in 1823, and was succeeded by the Rev. Heman Humphrey, who retained the oﬂice until 1845, and performed the most important services to the institution, having safely carried it through the most perplexing embarrassments. The Rev. Edward Hitch- cock followed him, and resigned in 1854, when the present incumbent, the Rev. William A. Stearns, was inaugurated. Of late years, the college has received many muniﬁcent dona- tions. Samuel Williston of Easthampton (whose name it is contemplated by the trustees to be- stow upon the institution) has given upward of $60,000 toward its support. The state has lately appropriated $25,000, one -half to be de- voted to the payment of its debts, and the re- mainder to the endowment of the “Massachu- setts Professorship of Natural History.” In 1847, the sum of $8,000 was subscribed by40 residents of the state, and a handsome ediﬁce erected to be employed as a cabinet of natural history, and an astronomical observatory. The AMHERST ISLANDS zoological and conchological collections have been spoken of in the highest terms by Prof. Agassiz and other eminent scientiﬁc authorities. The library, a ﬁne building, was constructed in 1853, of Pelham granite, and contains some 11,000 volumes. The whole number of stu- dents who have been educated here is 1,147, of which 479 entered the ministry, At present the number of instructors in all departments is 14. No. of undergraduates, 218.—-The Mount Pleasant classical institution for boys was founded in 1827, occupying a beautiful site about three- quarters of a mile N. of the college ground. It had a great success for a time, but was given up after a few years. An academy was incor- porated in this town in 1816, of which Noah Webster, who then resided in Amherst, was one of the original trustees. II. A fortiﬁed town in the further India at the mouth of the Martaban river, built by the British in 1826, on the ter- mination of the Burmese war. It is 100 miles from Rangoon and 30 from Maulmain. The harbor is spacious and secure with 3 fathoms at low neap tides. There is abundance of lumber and good water. It is principally inhabited by Burmese, who have been invited there by the liberal nature of the British rule. AMHERST ISLANDS, a small group lying W. of the extremity of the Corean peninsula, and distant from it about 60 miles.-—There are other islands of the same name off the S. W. coast of Aracan, between the isle of Cheduba and the mainland; and a dangerous ledge in the Tong Hai or Eastern sea, off the coast of the Chinese province of Kiang, is called the Am- herst Rocks. AMHERST, JEFFERY, lord, a ﬁeld-marshal in the British service, born in Kent in 1717, died Aug. 3, 1797. At the age of 14 he entered the British army, was made colonel in 1756, and soon after major-general. In this capacity, in conjunction with Generals Wolfe and Prideaux, he made the entire conquest of the French strongholds in Canada, a triumph which was completed on Sept. 8, 1760, and for which he received the thanks of the house of commons, and the order of the Bath. He was soon after appointed commander-in-chief of the British forces in America. In 1763 he was. appointed governor of Virginia, and in 1770 governor of the island of Guernsey. In 1776 he was elevated to the peerage, with the title Baron Amherst of Holmesdale. In 1787 he received a patent as Baron Amherst of Montreal, and in 1793 was appointed to the command of the army. In 1795 he was superseded by the duke of York; at the same time he was made a ﬁeld-marshal. AMHERST, WIILIAM PITT, earl of, born Jan. 14, 1773, died Feb. 13, 1857. He was the am- bassador extraordinary of England to China in 1816~—a mission which was in every respect unfortunate. He was permitted after great de- murto travel into the interior. On his arrival at Pekin he was required to conform to the usual ceremonial of an approach to the emperor, and on refusing to submit to ceremonies which AMIOI 477 he considered degrading, he was refused ad- mission to the emperor’s presence. He quitted China in the frigate Alceste, which was wrecked off the island of Pulo Leal, and Lord Amherst escaped to Batavia. From Batavia assistance was sent to the island, and the crew was res- cued. He was afterward appointed governor- general of India, which oﬁice he retained until 1826. He was created an earl on his recall. AMHERSTBURGH, a garrisoned town in the county of Essex, Canada West, on the river Detroit, 5 miles above its entrance to Lake Erie, and 225 W. S. W. from Toronto, in lat. 42° 7 ' N. long. 83° 9’ W. The town has a popula- tion of 1,300, and contains a court-house, 5 churches, a market-place, reading room, 3 in- surance agencies, a newspaper oﬁice, a good ho- tel, several manufactories, and some 15 stores. AMHURST, Nmnorxs, an English political writer and poet of the 18th century, died in 1742. He was born at Marden in Kent, and studied for a time in St. J ohn’s College, Cam- bridge; from which having been expelled on account of disorderly conduct, he immediately directed the shafts of his satire against it, and published two works, one of verse and one of prose, in which he ridiculed its learning, _dis- cipline and professors. ‘He subsequently pub- lished poems both on sacred and profane sub- jects, one of which entitled the “Convocation” was in ridicule of the antagonists of the bishop of Bangor. He is chieﬂy known now for the share which he had in writing the “ Crafts- man,” a violent politicaljournal directed against the administration of Walpole. His party came into power in 1742, but he was entirely overlooked in the distribution of favors, and his death having been hastened by his disappoint-‘ ment, he was buried by the charity of his friends. I AMICE, or Amer (Lat. amictus, girt around), a vestment worn by priests in the Roman Cath- olic church during the celebration of mass. It consists of a square linen cloth, tied over the neck and shoulders, and was originally used as a protection for the throat. After the general adoption of the cravat had rendered the amice unnecessary as a neckcloth, it was re- tained for the signiﬁcance which it had ac- quired as an emblem of the cloth wherewith the Saviour was blindfolded by the Jews the night before his cruciﬁxion. AMICI, Grovxmu Barrsra, an Italian savant, born at Modena in 1786. He studied natural history at Bologna, and mathematics at Mo- dena. He became professor of mathematics at the college of Panaro, and for some time gene- ralinspector of education in Modena, where, in 1831, the grand-duke of Tuscany appointed him director of the Florence observatory, as successor of the celebrated comet discoverer,- Luigi Pons. This oﬂice he holds to this day, publishing every year the result of his astro- ' nomical observations, at the same time contrib- uting important papers on natural history to the Me/mm"ie della Societa I talicma. Science is es- 478 AMICO ' pecially indebted to him for his improvement of the telescope, of several microscopes, and of the camera lucida, invented by Hooke and Wollaston. He seems to have from his earliest life devoted much attention to optical instru- ments, and before he was 20, he made a tele- scope of a mixture composed by himself. In 1827 he made dioptric microscopes, which are sold with his name attached, and notwithstand- ing the improved microscopes of Oberhziuser, are still in great favor. He -is assisted in his labors by his son, Vincenzo Amici, who is pro- fessor of mathematics at the university of Pisa. AMICO, Bnnnanno, a Sicilian Franciscan monk, born at Gallipoli, was in 1596 prior of that religious order in Jerusalem. In 1601, on his return to Italy, he published an account of his observations, principally interesting in an artistic point of view, as he gives drawings of all the sites and monuments in the Holy Land. This curious book is called Tmttato rlellepiante e imrnaginrl dc’ sa-arr? edviﬁzt (Z0 term santa, cle- signate in Gerusalemme, d2c., and was published ﬁrst at Rome, and afterward at Florence in 1620. ‘The book derives additional value from the fact that the engravings are executed by the celebrated Callot. AMICU, a South American lake, in the prov- ince of Cumana, Venezuela, on a plateau be- tween the Rupununy and Tocoto rivers. In the dry season it is scarcely 3 miles long. During the time of Queen Elizabeth, the vicinity of this lake was the El Dorado--“ the great lake with golden banks,” and near it was supposed to stand the wonderful imperial city of Manoa, which Sir Walter Raleigh and his ill-fated fol- lowers set out to discover. AMIDSHIPS, the middle of a ship, either with regard to her length or breadth. To strike amidships is to strike a vessel in the centre, as the American bark Adriatic struck the French steamer Lyonnais in_ the winter of 1856-’57. AMIDAS, PHILIP, was born in Hull, in the year 1550, descended from a family in Brittany, mem- bers of which had been for nearly a generation do- mesticated in England. The precise date of his death has not been ascertained. A sailor by profession, he commanded one of the two ships composing the ﬁrst expedition sent by Queen Elizabeth under command of Arthur Barlow to North America. They touched at the Canaries, the West Indies, and Florida, and then made their way northward along the coast. On July 13, 1584, they entered Ocracoc inlet, and land- ed on Wocoken Island. Barren and desolate as this part of North Carolina now is, the mariners thought it beautiful, and gave gorgeous de- scriptions of it. The people of the country were as kind and gentle as the scenery was lovely and luxuriant. On the return of Amidas and Bar- low to England they reported their discover-- ies to Raleigh, who does not appear ever to have been on the North American continent, and from him the matter was imparted to Queen AMIOT Elizabeth, who called the new land “Virginia.” Amidas was long after in the English maritime service, and went in charge of an expedition to Newfoundland a few years later. He died in England early in the reign of James I., but a few months before the decease of his illustrious patron, Raleigh. AMIENS, an ancient town of France, capital of the department of Somme, 72 miles north of 7 Paris, on the Paris and Bologne railway, and con- nected with the sea by the river Somme, which runs through the town, and beside being naviga- ble to this point for vessels of 50 tons, affords by means of numerous canals water power for the various manufactures which make up the pros- perity of the town. Population in 1852, 52,149. Amiensis supposed to have been in existence an- terior to the invasion of Rome by the Belgians. Its ancient name was Samarabrioa. It was in former times well fortiﬁed, but its fortiﬁcations are in ruins. 'It is noted for a ﬁne cathedral, founded in 1220, ﬁnished in 1288; length 415 feet, breadth 182 feet, and Spire 420 feet high. Among its other noted buildings are the hotel de ville, royal college, the chateau d’eau, and the bibliotheque communale, which contains 40,000 printed and 400 MS. volumes. Four hun- dred looms are employed upon the manufacture of cotton velvet alone,of which(velvet of Utrecht) 7 0,000 to 80,000 pieces are annually made. About 130,000 pieces of ﬁne cassimere, with various quantities of serges, plush, druggett, cambric, tapestry, and divers other goods, are produced, giving employment to over 3,000 looms, and working up of wool alone 100,000,000 pounds per annum. There are also dye, soap, beet-root sugar, and paper works. Amiens was the birth- place of Peter the Hermit, and of Ducange and Delambre, two French authors of note. Here, too, during the struggle to gain possession of the Holy Land, the kings of France, England, Na- varre, Aragon, and Bohemia, met for the pur- pose of arranging the plans for a new crusade. Here, ﬁnally, on March 25, 1802, was signed a treaty of peace between Great Britain and the French republic, known as the treaty of Amiens. AMIOT, FATHER, a French Jesuit and mis- sionary, born at Toulon in 1718, died at Pekin in 1794. In 1750 he sailed for Macao, from whence he proceeded to China, where he remained for the rest of his life. He familiarized himself with the Chinese and Tartar language and litera- ture, and translated into French many Chinese and Tartar works. He also wrote a Mantchoo- Tartar grammar and dictionary, which was -put into type by Didot, and brought out by Lan- gles of Paris. Some of his translations have been issued separately by Deguignes, but the greatest part are contained in the celebrated memoirs on China, which were published at Paris in 1776. His treatise on Confucius is a valuable contribution to the data about the life of that great Chinese legislator, and his work on China is full of information, which forms a very important addition to the existing knowledge AMITE about the celestial empire.--He was furnished with aids to his studies by the emperor of China, and has treated in various works the antiquities, literature, and arts of the Chinese. His researches were, until the recent labors of Staunton and Remusat, the most fruitful source of our knowledge on the affairs of China. AMITE, a county in S. W. Mississippi, on the conﬁnes of Louisiana, having an area of 700 square miles. Its name is derived from the Amite river, which ﬂows through the centre of the country. The river Homochitto runs past its N. W. boundary. The county is mainly oc- cupied by cotton ﬁelds and forests; its surface is somewhat uneven, but the soil is fertile. Cotton, rice, Indian corn, and sweet potatoes, are the chief articles of export. The produc- tions in 1850 were 7,847 bales of cotton, 380,917 bushels _of corn, 111,335 of sweet potatoes, and 151,603 of rice. There were 16 churches, 1 news- paper oﬁice, and 685 pupils attending public schools. Liberty is the capital. It has a population of 9,694, of which 3,644 are free, and 6,050 slaves. -—Amrn, a river rising in the south-west part of Mississippi, passes into the state of Louisiana, and reaches Ascension parish by a southerly course; it then turns and pursues an easterly course until it arrives at Lake Maurepas, into ‘which it empties. It is navigable for small steamboats for a distance of 60 miles. AMLA, an island of the Andreanov group, in the North Paciﬁc ocean. It is about 40 miles in length, and 10-miles in breadth. The inhabitants subsist chieﬂy by hunting and ﬁsh- ing. The principal exports are otter, fox, and other skins. AMLAI, one of the Aleutian islands, of the Fox group, the E. point of which is in lat. 52° 6’ N. long. 172° 50’ W. AMLING, KARL Aueusr, a German engraver, born at Nuremberg in 1651, died in 1701. He studied at Paris under Poilly, at the expense of Maximilian II. of Bavaria, whose attention he had attracted, and on his return to Munich he became the engraver of the court, and acquired a considerable fame throughout Germany, where his engravings were very popular.—WoLFeANG, a German divine, born at Miinerstadt, near Wiirzburg in 1542, studied at Jena, Tiibingen, and Wittenberg, and held various civil and ec- clesiastical positions in different German villages and towns. He took an active part in the re- formation, and belonged to Melancthon’s party. In 1596 he assisted the princes George I. and Christian I. in introducing Protestantism into Anhalt, and was much beloved and respected for his religious fervor and the moral beauty of his life. AMLWCH, a seaport town and parliamentary borough, on the island of Anglesea, N. Wales, which, from an insigniﬁcant little ﬁshing village, has, since the discovery of the famous copper mines of Parys and Mona in 1768, become a place of considerable importance. The popu- lation of the borough is now 3,169. When ﬁrst ' was called by them Philadelphia. AMMIANUS discovered, and for many years, these mines‘ yielded ore of the richest kind in large and pure masses; but of late years they have been on the decline, not more than a third of the people being employed, and in a few years more it is probable that they will be closed up altogether. Amlwch, in conjunction with Beaumaris, Holy- head, and Llangeni, return one member to Parliament. , ‘ AMMAN, a city of Syria, on the Zurka, an aﬂiluent of the Jordan. It was the capital of the Ammonites; but being rebuilt ‘by the Greeks, It is now in ruins, and its ediﬁces serve as a halting place for caravans. ' - AMMAN, J OHANN Kormxn, ‘ a Swiss phy- sician, born at Schaﬁbausen, in Switzerland, in 1669, died in 1724. He practised his profession in Haarlem, in Holland. In 1692 he published an essay, entitled Surclus Loguens (the deaf mute speaking), in which he gave . an account of the results of his efforts in teaching a girl deaf and dumb from birth to articulate. He made no mystery of his process, but invited those who found any thing difficult or indistinct in his ex- planations, to apply to him, “who, according to the light granted him, will refuse nothing to any man.” titled, “Dissertation upon Speech.” These two works were of great value to Heinicke, Braid- wood, and De l’Epee, who, at a late period, or- ganized schools for the instruction of deaf mutes. —-Josr, a Swiss artist, born at Zurich in 1539, died in 1590. In 1560 he left Switzerland, and established himself at Nuremberg, where he ac- quired fame, especially by his wood-cut illustra- tions of Reinecke Fuchs, Luther’s Bible, Schop- pen’s Panoplia, &c. His engravings were also much admired. AMMAR IBN Yxsm, surnamed ABUL-YOKH- DAN, a celebrated Arab, of the tribe of the Ans, one of the companions of the Prophet, lived in the ﬁrst half of the 7 th century, and died at the age of 90, at the battle of Seﬁin, while he com- manded the cavalry of Ali. He was one of the ﬁrst converts to Mohammedanism, and was, according to Abulfera, saved from the mar- tyr’s death to which the fanatics of Mecca wished to consign him, by Mohammed himself, who, on happening to pass by when his friend was already surrounded by the ﬂames, held his hand over the ﬁre and thus miraculously saved Ammar, who from that time never left the prophet, followed him in his ﬂight to Abyssinia, and stood by him until his death, when he took the part of Ali against Moawiyah, and sub- sequently, in 657 and 658, was engaged in the battle of Chameau.--ABDALLAJI IBN Saw, a grandchild of Ammar, settled in Spain, andyhis numerous posterity was known in the province of Granada under the name of Beni-Said. AMMIANUS, MARCELLINUS, a distinguished soldier and historian of the 4th century of the Christian era, was by birth a Syrian. In his youth he embraced the military profession, and served under Ursicinus, one of the most cele- 479 ' In 1700 he published another essay, en-. 480 AMMIRATO brated of the generals of Gonstantius. Am- mianus accompanied the Emperor Julian in his expedition against the Persians. He ultimately settled at Rome, and devoted his latter days to the composition of his history. The period of his death is uncertain. AMMIRATO, SCIPIONE, an Italian writer, born at the Neapolitan town of Lecce in 1531, died at Florence in 1601. He wrote a book on the Neapolitan nobility, and essays on Tacitus, "evi- dently in imitation of Macchiavelli on Livy, and some other books, some of which have been preserved in the library of the hospital of St. Mary, at Florence; but his claim to literary distinction chieﬂy rests on his “History of Flor- ence,” a work of considerable importance, which he undertook in 1570 at the instance of the grand-duke Cosmo I., of Medici, and which he was enabled to execute by the muniﬁcent patronage of Cardinal Ferdinand of Medici, who not only gave him a proﬁtable prebend, but also offered him free board at his palace, of which privilege he shrewdly availed himself for the rest of his life. AMMITOK, an island off the N. E. coast of Labrador, in lat. 59° 28' N. long. 63° W. It is about 75 miles S. E. of the entrance to Hudson’s straits. AMMON, or AMON, a deity extensively wor- shipped in ancient times in many countries of Africa and Europe. The Egyptians called him Amun or Ammun, the Greeks Zeus Ammon, and the Romans Jupiter Ammon. His most celebrated temples were at Thebes in Upper Egypt, in the oasis of Ammonium, and at Do- dona in Greece. He was generally represented in the form of a ram, or as a human being with the head of a ram. This representation was of course symbolical, and meant probably that Ammon stood in the same relation to men as the ram does to the ﬂock; that he was the guide, governor, and protector of the people. The best derivation of the name seems to be from the Egyptian word amoml, which signiﬁes a “shep- herd.” But if we adopt this etymology, we should write the name Amon, and not Ammon. AMJYION, Gnnrsrorn: Fnmnmon vorr, one of the most remarkable Protestant theologians and pulpit orators among the Germans, was .born Jan. 16, 17 66, in Baireuth, and died in Dresden, May 21, 1850. He studied theology in Erlan— gen, in 1789 became professor of philosophy, and in 1792, professor of theology and preacher at that university. From 1794 to 1804 he was professor of the same branches in Gtittingen, then until 1813 again in Erlangen, and from that time until his death, Protestant court preacher (the king of Saxony, though a Oath- olic, maintains at the same time a Protestant court church), vice president of the consistory, and afterward member of the ministry of worship in Dresden. In 1825 he accepted the old title of nobility, which his family had lost in 1640, together with their feudal estates, on account of their ﬁdelity to Protestantism, and which the king of Bavaria had in 1824 restored to them. AMMON Ammon was, together with Bretschneider, Pau-- lus, Rfihr, and other German theologians of mi- nor mark, the father of what in German theology is called “ Rationalism.” In his principal work “ Development of Christianity into the universal Religion,” Fortbildung des Ghristenthunzs zur Weltreligion (4 vols. Leips. 1833-’40), he holds, that the Christian religion is perfectible not only in its external form as a church, but also in its substance and nature, andmust be further developed, if it is to embrace and to bless the whole of humanity. Of course Ammon re- 'gardsJesus as a mere man, not as God the second person of the Trinity, although as a man who attained the highest scope and elevation, and so became intimately united with God. In the practical consequences of this opinion he is less bold and consistent than the other defenders of Rationalism, inclining, as he does, to the doc- trines of hereditary sin, of divine grace, and of salvation by the latter. Striving to reconcile the supernatural origin and efﬁciency of the Ohristian religion with the facts and deductions of natural science, he showed a certain vaci1la- tion in his opinions, while he was consistent only in the one great principle that reason and science are to teach the measure and rule, as well as the matter of religious truth. Though he was among the ﬁrst to introduce the Kantian _ philosophy into theology, and to lay a great stress on the use of reason in matters of re- vealed religion, philosophy was hisweak side; he was no systematic and comprehensive think- er. His real merits consist in his profound and varied knowledge of history, facts, and languages, and in a geniality and liveliness of conception and elaboration, which -are seldom found combined in German scholars. As an expositor of the Bible, he was among the ﬁrst to pronounce against a system of exegesis, which in the earlier period of rationalism, par- ticularly by Semler’s method, had become gen- eral, and which consisted in substituting mod— ern thoughts for the conceptions of the biblical writers, and eliciting a modern sense from their words,--a sin against historical truth which was covered up by the theory expressly invented for that purpose of accommodation, maintaining that those writers knew better than they wrote, but had condescended to and participat- ed in the common errors and opinions of their contemporaries, in order to be understood by them. Nice distinctions being, at that time, drawn among the rationalists between rational super-naturalism and super-natural rationalism, he called himself a follower of the latter school, according to which belief or faith (both are in German expressed by the same words) begins where science ends, and revelation may make up for the deﬁciencies of reason. This po- sition being too much exposed to objections from the side both of believers and unbe- lievers, he was sometimes, as for instance by Schleiermacher in the dispute on “ Harms’s Theses,” charged with duplicity; and his last great work, “ The Life of Jesus” (2 vols. Leips. AMMON 1842—’4-4), was even ridiculed on account of its ' undecided position in regard to the later criti- cal theories of Strauss, Bauer, Feuerbach, and the Tiibingen school. As a pulpit orator he had no superior among his contemporaries, either in artistic polish or in richness of thought. His style was highly reﬁned, his appearance was pre- possessing, if not imposing. Among his other writings we may mention particularly, Wz'ssen- sehaftlicher Entwurf der ehristliehen Sz'tten- , lehre (Scientiﬁc Outlines of Ohristian Ethics, 3 vols. Leips. 1823, 2d edit. 1888), his least oh- jectionable work; Anleitung zur Kamzel- beredtsamkeit, Instruction in Pulpit Oratory (8d edition, Erl. 1826), more naturalistic in the 1st and 3d, more super-naturalist in the 2d edition; Entwwrf einer rein biblisehen Theo- Zogie, Outlines of a purely Biblical Theology (2d ed. 3 vols. Giittingen, 1801—’02), Summer The- 0Z0gi¢e Christiana (4th ed. Leips. 1830), and his last work, Die wahre und falsehe Orthodozmle, True and False Orthodoxy (Leips. 1849). Am- mon took a prominent part in the various theological and church disputes which after 1817 occupied the attention of the great Ger- man literary community in a time of political dulness, and several of his writings belong to this class. He had the misfortune to see the theological system which he had during his long and active life represented entirely desert- ed by the great mass of his contemporaries, either for a consistent inﬁdelity or for athorough- going orthodoxy and pietism. His biography is contained in the work entitled Oh. F. Amman naeh Le ben, Ansiehten and W/driven, Leips. 1850. AMMON,KARLW1LHELM, a German trainer of horses and writer upon veterinary science, born in 1777 at Trakehnen in Prussia. After having studied at Berlin, he was employed in different equestrian establishments, where he gained a practical acquaintance with his art, and since 1813 has lived at Rohrenfeld, near Neuburg, on the Danube. He is the author of numerous works, the most important of which are a “Natural History of the Horse ” and a “ Oom- plete -Treatise on the Training of Horses.” AMMONIA. In its pure state this is a pungent gas of alkaline properties. To dis- tinguish it from the solid or ﬁxed alkalis, it is called the volatile alkali. The name ammo- nia is given to it from the temple of Jupiter Ammon, near which one of its salts, sal-ammo- niac, was originally prepared. Dr. Priestley ﬁrst obtained it in a gaseous state, and called it alkaline air. It is a compound of hydrogen -and nitrogen—3 measures of the former to 1 of the latter, the product condensing in the combination to one-half the bulk of that of the two constituents. In appearance it is not distinguishable from common air; but its pres- ence may be detected by its peculiar pungent smell, and is also-made evident by the white fumes of hydrochlorate of ammonia, which ﬂoat like smoke in the air, when a glass stop- ple or rod wet with muriatic acid is brought in contact with it. Yellow turmeric paper, moist- voL. I.-31 AMMONIA 481 ened, also gives evidence of its presence-— being immediately changed to brown by its alkaline property. The change of color thus produced, however, is not permanent. As the volatile gas ﬁnally escapes, its effect also disap- pears. It turns vegetable blues to green, neutralizes the acids, and forms with them salts of deﬁnite character and crystallized structure. Ammonia is taken up by water with great avidity; and when absorbed is readily expelled from it by heat. At the ordinary temperature and pressure, water dissolves the third of its weight, which is equal to 400 or 500 times its volume; and the mixture diminishes in density according to the proportion of ammonia ab- sorbed. This aqueous solution-—the liquid ammonia of the shops—usually consists of pure alkali in the proportion of from 18 to 20 per cent. of its weight. Exposed to the air it rap- idly loses its strength by evaporation of the gas.-—Ammonia is produced in the juices of various nitrogeneous animal and vegetable sub- stances in their putrefactive fermentation. It is given out in their decay, and passing into the atmosphere, is condensed by the aqueous vapor, and returned to the earth in rain-water, mists, and snow. It furnishes to plants the nitrogen they require, and is thus the principal valuable ingredient of the manures. Guano is a great repository of it. It was obtained in the form of muriate of ammonia (sal-ammoniac) in an- cient Egypt from the dung of the camel. The shavings of horn have been used to prepare it, whence the name, spirits of hartshorn. It is given out in the destructive distillation of all bituminous mineral matters—coming over in an impure state, condensed in the aqueous va- pors, and mixed with the tarry products. This is the source from which it is now principally obtained for commercial purposes,—being an incidental product of all the gas-works for sup- plying illuminating gas. It is also evolved from urine in a state of decomposition; and from this substance, which in our cities has never been utilized, are prepared annually in Paris from 17,000 to 18,000 lbs. of ammoniacal salts. Refuse animal substances, as bones and horns, blood and hair, horse-ﬂesh, rags of wool and silk, are made to yield ammoniacal salts—as the carbonate, hydrosulphate, and ace- tate—by distilling them. The chief product is the subcarbonate of ammonia in solution. From the solid matters, that will not distil over, are obtained animal-black, which is used for clarifying sugars, and a carbonaceous sub- stance used in the manufacture of Prussian blue. Sal-ammoniac is prepared from the crude car- bonate thus obtained in combination with the ammoniacal products of the gas-works and other operations referred to. The liquors are saturated with muriatic acid and evaporated; the salt deposited is dried and then sublimed, by which means it is collected free from impuri- ties. This is a very important salt of ammonia, for beside being directly useful for many pur- poses, particularly in tinning iron, it is the 482 AMMONIAC most convenient form in which the can be kept for sale or transported. For in a dry atmosphere it is not liable topart with 1ts vol- atile ingredient by exposure to ordinary tem- peratures; and yet it is very readily converted into the other salts, or ammoniacal gas is ob- tained from it, and the aqueous solution pre- pared, by mixing it in a retort with slacked lime, and heating. The sal-ammoniac or hy- drochloride of ammonia is decomposed, and chloride of calcium, and water and ammoniacal gas, are the products. The salt contains 31.98 per cent. of ammonia and 68.02 per cent. of hydrochloric acid; it crystallizes in cubes and feathery forms. Its speciﬁc gravity is 1.45 to 1.53. The smelling salts or volatile salts of hartshorn, or sal-volatile, is a sesqui-carbonate of ammonia, prepared by distilling 1% part of carbonate of lime, or chalk, with 4 parts of sal- ammoniac or of sulphate of ammonia. It is used in medicine as a stimulant; as a chemical reagent; and also as a substitute for yeast. The acetate of ammonia is prepared by decom- posing the sesqui-carbonate with acetic acid. It is a useful medicine, whether applied as an external refrigerant, or administered as a dia- phoretic. Its common name is spirit of min- dererus. Sulphate of ammonia is largely pro- duced in Europe for agricultural manures, for the manufacture of alum, and also for the pre- paration of other ammoniacal salts. Crude ammoniacal liquors or the carbonate of ammo- nia are saturated with sulphuric acid, and the dry salt is obtained very much as in the pre- paration of the hydrochloride. AMMONIAC, a gum-resin, used in medicine as an anti-spasmodic and expectorant. Softened with vinegar, and applied as a plaster, it has been in use for 2,000 years. It is the juice of a plant growing in Persia called the dorema ammoniacum. When the stalk and leaves are punctured the gum oozes forth abundantly. Its speciﬁc gravity is 1.207. It contains 70 per cent. of resin, fuses at 130°, and is very soluble in alcohol. AMMONIO, ANDREA, an Italian poet, born at Lucca in 1477, died at London in 1517. He became secretary of Henry VIII. in 1513, through the good oﬂices of his friend Sir Thomas More, and subsequently was appoint- ed by Leo X. nuncio in England, while at the same time he continued in the oﬂice of sec- retary of the king, whom he accompanied in the campaign against France, which resulted in the capture of Tournay and Terouane. This triumph of the English was celebrated by Am- monio in a Latin poem, entitled Panegyricus. Erasmus was much pleased with it. AMMONITE, a genus of fossil shells allied to the recent genus nautilus. They are in the form of a coil or of a ram’s horn, and the name is given to them from their resemblance to the horns upon the statues of Jupiter Ammon. They also resemble a snake in its coil, and are generally supposed by the common people to be petriﬁed snakes. Sir Walter Scott alludes to AMMONIUM them and to their abundance in the neighbor- hood of the monastery of Whitby, where they are still found in the rocks. Of thousand snakes, each one Was changed into a coil of stone When holy Hilda prayed. The animal that inhabited the shell was pro- vided with air chambers, by means of which it could rise or sink in the water; and its shelly covering necessarily very delicate in order to ﬂoat, was made strong to bear the pressure at great depths by its tubular form, and ribs or plates of shell that supported it within. From the lower rocks of the transition period up to the tertiary, the ammonite has been represented by many species. They abound especially in the oolite. The genus of living shells which most nearly represents them is that of the nautilus. They appear to have been very widely distributed over the ancient seas, the same fossil species being found in rocks of the same period in different quarters of the globe. They are common in the green-sand formation of this country, in New Jersey, and far up the Missouri river. In Asia, at an elevation of 16,000 feet, in the Himalaya mountains, some of the same species have been found that are met with in England, and one of the same in the Maritime Alps, 9,000 feet above the sea. They are so abundant in some parts of Burgundy, that the roads are paved with them. In the chalk formation they are occasionally found of gigantic size, 3 feet, and even 4 feet in diameter. This universal distribution of the ammonite during the same geological epochs indicates a greater uniformity of climate than now obtains ; while the perfection of its structure, more complex in the form of the air ’ chambers than in the nautili of the present day, and its extraordinary capability of resist- ing pressure, combined with the greatest pos- sible degree of lightness, show that as high a degree of excellence was attained in the organ- ism of animated bodies at very early stages in the history of the world, as has been reached by their kindred families of modern times. AMMONIUM, the hypothetical base of am- monia, supposed to be metallic. The following experiment will explain the reason for believ- ing in the existence of such a substance. Let a globule of mercury be placed in a moistened cavity in a piece of sal-ammoniac, and then sub- jected to the action of a galvanic battery. The mercury soon acquires the consistence of butter, and swells to nearly 4 times its original bulk. It is in fact converted into an amalgam. A chemi- cal change has taken place, and the mercury is combined with some element in ammonia; for the same result may be obtained with the use of the aqueous solution of ammonia. The amalgam is not permanent in its nature; ex- posed in the air it becomes covered with a crust of carbonate of ammonia; and if thrown into the water, ammonia and hydrogen gas are evolved from it, and the mercury returns to its former condition. As we know of no substance AMMONIUS that amalgamates with mercury, and forms a compound which retains the metallic lustre, ex- cept a metal, it is reasonable to infer that a metal does exist concealed in ammonia, as aluminum lay concealed in its oxide, alumina. This amalgam was ﬁrst obtained by Berzelius and Pontin from the aqueous solution of am- monia. Davy produced it with sal-ammo- niac; and it has since been obtained by simply dropping an amalgam of sodium and mercury into a strong solution of sal-ammoniac. At a temperature of 32° F., it is a ﬁrm crystalline mass; at 70° to 80° it is a soft solid. It is about 3 times the density of water. Gay Lussac and Thénard consider it as a mere combination of mercury and ammonia. But Berzelius regards it as a real amalgam of mercury and ammo- nium--and this a metal composed of 1 volume of nitrogen and 4 volumes of hydrogen. AMMONIUS, surnamed Sacoas or the Saox- OARRIER, because his official employment was that of public porter of Alexandria. By some, he is regarded as the founder of the later Pla- tonic school. He numbered among his pupils, Longinus, Plotinus, and Origen. He died A. D. 243, aged 80. According to his system of theo- logical philosophy, God is primarily essence, and secondarily, knowledge and power, the two last being developments of the ﬁrst,‘ the world is committed to the care of inferior divinities; gnd ascetic life leads to a knowledge of the In- nite. . AMMONOOSUCK, Lownn, a river which rises near Mount Washington, in Coos Co., N. H., pursues a course of 110 miles, and falls into the Connecticut river.—Anuuonoosuox, UPPER, also rises in Coos Co., N. H., and after a course of 75 miles, empties its waters into the Connecticut at N orthumberland. AMMUNITION, comprises the projectiles, . charges, and articles used for priming, required for the use of ﬁre-arms, and, as the word is generally understood, supposes these articles to be made up ready for use. Thus, small-arm ammunition comprises cartridges and percussion caps (the latter, of course, are unnecessary where ﬂint-locks or the needle-gun are in use); ﬁeld-artillery ammunition is composed of shot, loaded shell, case shot, shrapnell, cartridges, priming tubes, matches, portﬁres, &c., with rock- ets for rocket-batteries. In fortresses and for sieges, the powder is generally kept in barrels, and made up in cartridges when required for use; so are the various compositions required during a siege; the hollow shot are also ﬁlled on the spot. The proportion of ammu- nition accompanying an army in the ﬁeld varies according to circumstances. Generally an infantry soldier carries 60 rounds, seldom more; and a similar quantity per man accom- panies the army in wagons, while a further supply follows with the park columns a march or two to the rear. For ﬁeld-artillery, between 150 and 200 rounds per gun are always with the battery, partly in the gun-limber boxes, partly in separate wagons; another 200 rounds are moon 483 generally with the ammunition-reserve of the army, a.nd a third supply follows with the park columns. This is the rule in most civil- ized armies, and applies, of course, to the beginning of a campaign only; after a few months of campaigning, the ammunition-re- serves are generally very severely drawn upon, perhaps lost after a disastrous battle, and their replacing is often difficult and slow. AMMUNITION BREAD, is the bread con- tracted for by government and distributed to private soldiers. AMNESTY (Gr. apz/1)o'1'(.a, non-remembrance), is a term now used to express an act of grace on the part of a sovereign, by which political offenders are relieved of the consequences of their offences against public order. It is usual for sovereigns on coming to the crown, or on the birth of an heir, or sometimes of a great and unexpected victory, to perform this act of grace. Amnesties are either general, extending to all offenders, or partial, excluding a particular class of offenders, or certain individuals named, from its beneﬁts. AMO, Arrrnoxr WILLIAM, a negro born on the Gold Coast, in the earlier part of the 18th century. He came to Holland and became a protégé of the duke of Brunswick, who sent him to the university of Halle. He spoke Hebrew, Greek, Latin, German, Dutch, and French. After his patron’s death he became very melancholy, and returned to his native land, where he lived a solitary life, and died in 1767, in one of the Dutch company’s forts. AMOL, a city of Persia on the river Heraz, in the province of Mazanderan, about 12 miles above its outlet into the Caspian sea. At Amol, a bridge is constructed over the river supported by 12 arches. The population is greatest in winter, when it is estimated at nearly 40,000. AMON TON S, WILHAM, a celebrated French physicist, born 1663, died Oct. 11, 1705. He was deprived of hearing in early life, by dis- ease. It is said that he refused to make any effort to relieve his malady, and devoted him- self diligently to the study of geometry and me- chanics, but whether from a love of the retire- ment his deafness secured him, or because he deemed it incurable, does not appear. He wrote several important treatises upon scientiﬁc sub- jects, and constructed some new instruments in physical science. He ﬁrst conceived, 1684, the idea of communicating between distant points by signals to be observed through magnify- ing glasses, though the use of the signal telegraph was not introduced until about a century after- ward, 1793. He also wrote an elaborate .and able treatise for- the Royal Academy, entitled “A New Theory of Friction.” His various scientiﬁc productions are found in the Memoires dc Z’Academz'a das Sciences, 1698-1705. AMOOD, a territorial division of India, prov- ince of Guzerat, on the gulf of Camboy. The district near the sea is occupied in the manufac- ture of salt, a government monopoly in India. 484 AMOOR AMOOR, Amonn, or AMUR, a river in north- eastern Asia, formed by the conﬂuence of the river Shilka ﬂowing S. W. from the trans-Bai- kal region in central or eastern Siberia, and of the river Argoon, coming from a south-eastern direction. The two rivers unite at the spot called Streletshnata Stanitza (Shooter’s Post), in about lat. 53° N. and long. 1210 30' E. The Amoor runs through a part of Siberia and the northern part of Tartary, or the land of Mantchoo, making an arc, and pen- etrating south into Mantchooria as far as lat. 42° 30', then ﬂowing N. E. it empties into the sea of Okhotsk, abay of the northern Paciﬁc, in nearly the same latitude with its rise, and at long. 142° E. The mouth of the Amoor forms the sea of Kisi, and then the gulf of Amoor op- posite to the island of Saghalien. Its whole length is about 1,600 miles. Its principal north- ern afﬂuents are the Oldo, Tcheekeeree, Bureia or Niaman,- Argoon or Henkoor; its southern,the Soongari, and Oosoori. The Amoor is navigable for its whole length; its estuary, however, is ﬁlled with sand and soft mud, rendering the passage diﬁicult for 30 to 40 miles from the mouth. It freezes for its whole length at the beginning of November, and remains frozen till March, forming a highway for sledges. During winter, the shores are visited by heavy snow-storms called, in Siberia, purga. Va- rious Tungusian tribes, such as the Giliacks, the Mangoons, and others, inhabit or rove on both banks, like the Mantchoo Tartars on the southern. The whole region of the Amoor, as far even as from 200 to 300 miles on the south, is already a Russian possession, whose capital is the fort of Nikolaieif on the right or southern bank of the river, at the point where it begins to be navigable. Both shores are cov- ered with thick forests of pine, oak, lime, ma- ple, and cork trees. There are also fertile prairies, and the vine prospers in the southern districts. The river abounds with ﬁsh, and con- tains some previously unlmown species of stur- geon. In the old legends, and in the still exist- ing popular belief of northern Asia, the country of the Amoor is the land of gold and of promise. A steamer called the America, built at New York for the navigation of this river, ﬁrst ascended it in the beginning of 1857. AMOORANG, or Amounsne, a bay and vil- legs of the island of Celebes. The bay is on the N. W. coast in lat. 1° 11’, long. 124° 36’ E. It is about 14 miles long and 6 broad, having an anchorage for vessels. The village lies at the head of the bay, 25 miles S. W. of Menado. AMOR, the god of love, had no place in the Roman mythology proper. The Greek god, Eros, was called, in the Latin literature, Amor. The attributes of this god will be treated of under the head of Enos. AMORETTI, CARLO, mineralogist, born at Oneglia in 1741, died at Milan in 1816. In 1757 he joined the order of the Augustines, and was appointed a member of the secular clergy AMORTIZATION by the pope. In 1772 he was chosen professor of canon law at Parma, and in 1797 librarian of the Ambrosian library. After the foundation of the Societa Agraria, by Maria Theresa in the Pal- ace Brera, he became secretary of this society, and in 1803 was made member of the comiglio delle miniere. His Nuow scelta d’oposcolz' vlnteressanti sulle science 6 sulle arti, a work in 29 volumes, familiarizes the Italians with the scientiﬁc progress of other nations. He was the ﬁrst to make known the treasures of the Am- brosian library, by causing the publication of Leonardo da Vinci’s manuscripts and descrip- tions of travel.—Manm PELLEGRINA, a learned Italian woman, the niece of Carlo Amoretti, who bestowed great pains upon her education, was born at Oneglia in 1756, died in 1787. At the age of 16, she sustained, in public, arguments on various topics of philosophy. She studied law, and at the age of 21, graduated at Pavia, and received from the university her doctor’s diploma. She wrote a treatise on Roman law, which was published after her death. AMORITES. The Amorites were descend- ants of Ham, and the most powerful tribe of Ca- naan. The name is frequently applied generally to all the Canaanites. They occupied a portion of the territory promised to Abraham and his posterity, and the Israelites had a long and se- vere contest with them, to gain possession. The Amorites were of large stature, and possessed great physical prowess (Amos ii. 9). The bed- stead of Og, the king of Bashan, was 9 cubits in length, and 4 in breadth. The territory of the Amorites lay mainly between Jordan and Ar- non, just north of the Dead sea, a possession given in the division to the tribe of Judah. Although the command to the people was ut- terly to destroy the Amorites, yet, so diﬂicult does this seem to have been of accomplishment, that as late as the time of the Maccabees, they were still extant, and a dangerous enemy to the peace of the country. AMOROS, Fnancrsoo, a Spanish colonel, born at Valencia, 1769, died at Paris in 1843, served with distinction in the campaign of 1792 and 1793, especially on occasion of defending the fort St. Elme against the French general Despi- nois. After the peace of Rasles in 1795, he es- tablished at Madrid a military school after the system of Pestalozzi, and in 1807 he was ap- pointed tutor of the Spanish infant Don Francis- co de Paula. Under King Joseph he became chief intendant of police and royal commissioner of the province of Guipuscoa. Ferdinand VII. banished him from Spain. He went to France, where he was received with open arms. He was the ﬁrst to introduce gymnastics as an ele- ment into the French system of education. He became director of the military normal gymna- sium of Paris, which was furnished and es- tablished, under the auspices of the French government, and published also various essays connected with administrative, military, and educational matters. AMORTIZATION, or Amonrmnunnr (Lat. AMORY amortizare), in old English law the alienation OI‘ conveyance of real estate to corporations, was prohibited by a series of statutes, the earli- est of which, the magna charta of Henry HI., applied only to ecclesiastical, but were subse- quently extended to all corporations. Their inﬂuence is not yet extinct, either in England or America, though the powers of corporations have been much enlarged in both countries, and in some states put upon the same footing in this regard with those of private parties. These statutes were called the statutes of mortmain, as forbidding conveyances into dead hands- hence amortization. AMORY, Tuomas, a celebrated eccentric individual and writer, was born in England, but went with King William to Ireland, where he spent a considerable portion of his life, a com- panion of the famous Dean Swift. He was the author of memoirs of the lives of several ladies, and the life of John Buncle, Esq., which lat- ter is supposed to be a description of its author. He was known as an ardent student, and fre- quently in traversing the most thronged thoroughfares, he was observed to be absorbed in meditation, quite abstracted from what was occurring about him. He died in May, 17 89, in his 97th year. AMOS, one of the lesser prophets, who pro- phesied in the days of Uzziah, king of Judah, and J eroboam II. of Israel, between the revolt and the captivity of the ten tribes, and from about 798 to 784 B. C. He was therefore contempo- rary with Isaiah and Hosea. He was a native of Tekoa in the central part of J udea. He does not appear to have been educated as a prophet, but according to his own account (vii. 14, 15) was taken from his ﬂocks to prophesy. His prophecies were especially addressed to Israel, and were delivered in the time of their greatest prosperity as a separate people. They denounce the kingdom of Israel, and foretell'the captivity. AMOSKEAG, a village in Hillsborough county, N. H., of considerable manufacturing importance. The river Merrimack falls 56 feet in a mile, affording unrivalled water power. Amoskeag has been recently incorpo- rated within the city of Manchester. The Amos- keag manufacturing co. have 4mills, containing 62,846 spindles and 1,665 looms, affording em- ployment to 2,100 females and 400 males. The daily product of their labor is 65,000 yards, or 37 miles of tickings, denims, drillings, sheetings, and other goods. There are also machine shops connected with the above, which employ 500 persons and manufacture 60 locomotives a year, together with a vast amount of machinery. Another large factory, to employ 1,500 persons, has recently been completed. AMOUREUX, PIERRE J osnru, a French physician, born at Beaucaire, about the middle of the 18th century, died in 1824 at Mont- pellier, where he was librarian to the med- ical faculty. He is the author of numerous works on medicine, natural history, botany, and agriculture. Tessier, a very competent authority, AMPERE 485 speaks very highly of Dr. Amoureux’s works on rural economy. AMOY, a seaport town of the province of Fokien, China, situated at the south end of an island of the same name, in lat 24° 10’ N. long. 118° 13’ E., abreast of the centre of the island of Formosa. Amoy is built upon rising ground, facing a ﬁne harbor. It has a population of about 300,000; has many large buildings; had at the time of the British invasion several con- siderable forts, one of them 1,100 yards long; and is reckoned to be nearly 9 miles in circum- ference. Amoy is the port of the large inland city of Chang-choo-foo, with which it has river communication. The inhabitants of Amoy are chieﬂy employed in trade, and its merchants are reckoned among the most enterprising in China. The port was open to the world till 1734, when it was closed. It was captured by the British in 1841, and by the treaty of N anking was thrown open, ﬁrst to Britain, then to all nations alike. The native merchants carry on an ex- tensive trade coastwise, and with Formosa, Manila, Siam, and the Malay islands. They own more than 300 junks, many over 800 tons burden. The chief exports of Amoy are cam- phor, sugar, sugar candy, paper, paper umbrellas, earthenware, joss stick, and silks. The native imports consist of rice, camphor, and sugar; from Formosa, East Indian cotton, cotton yarn and goods, betel-nut, steel, iron, lead, liquid in- digo, rattans, rice, pepper, grain, sharks’ ﬁns, beche de mer, and deer and buffalo horns. AMPELIUS, Luorus, a Roman writer, of whose life we know nothing. His conjectured epoch is the third century of our era, in the reign of Theodosius the Great. As he mentions Trajan in his works, he is evidently later than that emperor, and as he says, “ Sylla is the only man who ever voluntarily abdicated the sover- eignty,” he is supposed to have lived before Diocletian, who did abdicate 305 A. D. He also speaks of the temple of Diana at Ephesus as existing. This temple was destroyed about 260 of our era. His small work is called Liber Memorialis, and contains a meagre summary of natural phenomena and historical events, and is generally printed with Florus. It has been published separately by Beck, Leipsic, 1826.- The earliest edition printed with Florus, was edited by Saumaise, Hanover, 1611. AMPERE, ANDRE Manna, a French philoso- pher and author, born at Lyons, Jan. 20, 17 75, died at Marseilles, June 10, 1836. As a boy he showed a singular passion for math- ematics, in which at 10 years of age he had made remarkable progress, but could not be persuaded to apply himselfwith zeal to other studies. He ﬁnally consented to study Vir- gil, that he might be able to master the works of Euler and Bernoulli, which were then ac- cessible only in Latin. At the age of 18 he - had gone through the whole range of scientiﬁc studies, and had read the great encyclopaedia of Diderot and D’Alembert so thoroughly, that 40 years afterward he could still repeat whole pages 486 AMPERE ‘of the work. The death of his father, who fell a victim to the guillotine in the revolution, affected him with such profo_und_ melancholy that for upward of a year his friends feared that his ﬁne intellect had been permanently im- paired. essay on, botany by Rousseau, which accidentally fell mto his hands, aroused him from this lethargy, and he applied himself with enthusiasm to botamcal studies, read ro- mances, wrote verses, and projected poems, trageidlpls, and tranglagionslf 1'l1.‘h1s l‘OH18(i1t1G moo aving expen e itse e returns to his scientiﬁc pursuits, and in 1799 was appoint- ed professor of mathematics at Lyons, a post which he owed to an able treatise, entitled “ Considerations on the Mathematical Theory of Games of Chance,” --his ﬁrst publication. Advancement rapidly followed, and in 1808 we ﬁnd him mspector general of the university, in the succeeding year professor of mathemati- - cal analysis in the polytechnic school of Paris, a chevalier of the legion of honor, and in 1814 a member of the institute. In 1820 he began to de- vote much attention to the phenomena of elec- tro-magnetism, and in 1824-’26 published the result of his researches in two volumes, under the title of Recueil des observations electro- dynamiguea, a work characterized by profound thought and philosophical sagacity, and on which his reputation as a scientiﬁc man secure- ly rests. His publications are exceedingly nu- merous, and consist of treatises on various scientiﬁc subjects, many of them being contri- butions to Le journal ole Z’ecoZe poly/technique, and the .Memov'res de Z’InstvJtut. Ampere was a man of genial humor and great simplicity of character, and singularly ignorant of the world, from which he lived retired. Beneath a timid and apparently unsympathetic exterior he con- cealed a truly noble spirit, and when the oc- casion demanded—as in the Greek or Polish revolutions—could express himself with an el- oquent enthusiasm that sometimes surprised himself. He was engaged on his last great work, “ The Classiﬁcation of the Sciences,” at the time of his death.—Jnarr Jaoeuns, son of — the preceding, and a French author of some note, born at Lyons, Aug. 12, 1800. His education was completed under the supervision of his father at Paris, where he had access to some of the most reﬁned society, and enjoyed the friendship of Madame Recamier and Chateau- briand. He pursued a course of philosophy with Cousin, and like his father early conceiv- ed a passion for English and German literature, romance, and belles-lettres. After some years devoted to travel and literary pursuits, in 1833 he was called to the chair of a professor in the college of France. In 1842 he was elected a member of the academy of inscriptions and belles-lettres, and ﬁve years afterward of the French academy. He has been connected with the Globe, a newspaper, and the Revue Fran- gavlse, latterly with the Revue des Deua: Mondes, to which he contributed a well-written series of articles on a journey in Egypt and Nubia in AMPHEBIA 1844. The hieroglyphic remains of these coun- tries attracted a large share of his attention, and his success in deciphering them attests his skill and industry. He has travelled much in Europe and the East, and bears the reputation of an unusually accomplished scholar in modern languages and literature. Some years ago he visited the United States, through which he made an extended tour, paying much attention to aboriginal remains and antiquities, and ob- serving carefully the habits of the people. The result of his travels was published in the Revue des Deua: Mondes, but failed to excite much at- tention. His works entitled De la Ohine et des tvavaua: dc Remusat, and La Gvéce, Rome, ct Dante, evince his knowledge of languages and general literature. Ah[PFING, a village of Bavaria. It is about 5 miles W. of Miihldorf, and remarkable as being in 1832 the scene of a terrible conﬂict between the emperor Louis of Bavaria, and Frederic of Austria, in which the latter was entirely de- feated. In the year 1800 the famous retreat of Moreau began here. AMPHIARAUS, a prophet and warrior of antiquity, son of Oicles or Apollo, and Hyperm- nestra. He was married to Eriphyle, daugh- ter of Adrastus, king of Argos, by whom he had numerous sons. Having sworn that he would abide by the decision of Eriphyle on any difference which might arise between himself and Adrastus, that perﬁdious woman took ad- vantage of this oath to force Amphiaraus to join in the enterprise of the 7 against Thebes. Before setting out he made his sons promise to punish the treachery of their mother. At the siege of Thebes he greatly distinguished himself, but being pursued by Periclymenus, he ﬂed toward the river Ismenius, where the earth opened and swallowed him. Zeus, however, made Amphiaraus immortal, and thenceforth he was worshipped as a hero all over Greece. His prophetic powers were commonly ascribed to his descent from Apollo. AMPHIBIA. There is probably no truly amphibious animal, as that would imply the possibility of living and breathing equally well in air and in water. The old naturalists gave the name to beavers, otters, frogs, and other animals from all the orders of vertebrata; Linnaeus restricted the term to reptiles with cold blood and simple circulation; Cuvier called amphibia such mammals as can dwell on land or in the water, like the seal, the walrus, the dugong, occupying a position intermediate be- tween the feline and the marsupial animals. There are, strictly speaking, animals which have both gills and rudimentary lungs, as the proteus, the siren, the menobranchus, but they are decidedly aquatic, and perish sooner or later in the air. The aonphvbia constitute an order of reptiles (the batmehvia of later herpetologists), and may be characterized as vertebrated ani- mals, with cold blood, naked skin, reproducing by means of eggs, and most of them undergoing a metamorphosis or change of condition, having AMPHIBIA relation to a transition from an aquatic respira- tion by gills to an atmospheric respiration by lungs, and a consequent alteration in general structure and mode of life. These characters have led some writers to consider the amphibia as a distinct class, instead of a mere order of reptilia. As a form connecting two others of higher typical importance, the reptiles and the ﬁshes, the amphibia are specially interesting. No arrangement proposed by naturalists pre- sents a perfect division of the different forms; the following by Mr. Thomas Bell, of London, founded on the absence, or presence, and dura- tion of the gills, seems the most natural :——Class AM:PH1BIA. Order 1. Amrmrnnunrx. Body elongated, formed for swimming; feet either _ four, or two anterior only; tail compressed, persistent; respiration aquatic throughout life, by external persistent gills, coexisting with rudimentary lungs ; the eyes with lids. Genera, Proteus, Siren, Siredon, illenobromckus, Pseudo- bramchus.— Order 2. Anouna. Body short and broad; feet during the tadpole state wanting, afterward four, the hinder ones long and formed for leaping; tail before the metamorphosis long and compressed, afterward wanting; ribs want- ing; vertebrae few and anchylosed together ;- respiration at ﬁrst aquatic by gills, afterward atmospheric by lungs; gills at ﬁrst external, but withdrawn into the chest before the meta- morphosis; impregnation effected externally during the passage of the eggs. Genera, Rana, lfg/la, Oemtophrys, Bufo, Rhinella, Otilopha, Duct;/Zetkrd, Bombinator, Brem'ceps.- Order 3. URODELA. Body long and slender; feet always four; tail long and persistent; ribs very short; respiration at ﬁrst aquatic by external gills, afterward atmospheric by cellular lungs; ver- tebrae numerous and movable; impregnation internal. Genera, Salamandrina, Salamandra, ll[0Zge.—— Order 4. Annanoma. Body long and formed for swimming; feet four; cranium solid; tail compressed; respiration by lungs only; gills absent; no metamorphosis known. Gen- era, Menopomd, Amphz'uma.—- Order 5. Arona. Body elongated, slender, and snake-like; feet none; tail very short, almost wanting; lungs, one larger than the other; ribs very short; breast-bone wanting; impregnation unknown, probably internal. The existence of gills at any period of life is unknown. Genus, OwciZz'm——In the adult amphibia the skeleton varies consid- erably in form and composition, according to their habits and the presence or absence of a tail. In the frog, which moves extensively on land, we ﬁnd the hind legs greatly developed to enable them to take the enormous leaps by which they pursue their prey and escape from danger; hence they have no useless tail, their bodies are contracted longitudinally into a short space, and the vertebrae are few, united into a single immovable piece unprovided with ribs. On the contrary, the water-salamanders or newts have a long tail, a slender ﬂexible body, and all their organs ﬁtted for aquatic life. The structure of the bones is more compact and 487 calcareous, and less transparent and ﬂexible, than in ﬁshes. The bones of the skull do not overlap each other, but have their margins in contact and occasionally united; the bones of the face are more closely united to those of the skull than in the ﬁshes; the intermaxillary and jaw-bones are much developed transversely, expanding the general form of the skull without involving any enlargement of the brain cavity, which is very small. The hyoid bone experi- ences most remarkable changes in those genera which undergo metamorphosis. In the highest amphibia, the bones of the spine are very few; in the frog there are 9, in the pipa only 8, un- provided with ribs, but having long transverse processes; the anterior articular surfaces of the bodies are concave, and the posterior convex; in the tadpole, and in the genera which retain their gills through life (siren, menobranchus, &c., hence called perenni-branchiate), the sub- stance between the vertebrae is soft, and con- tained in cup-like hollows formed by the concave articular surfaces of contiguous bones, precisely as in ﬁshes; another proof of the intermediate condition of these lower forms of the class. In the salamanders the vertebrae are more numer- ous, especially those of the tail; in the siren the trunk has as many as 43,and the tail as many more. The limbs are arranged on very different plans in the different groups; in the frogs and toads they are well developed, and suited for active leaping and swimming; in the elongated aquatic species the limbs are small and feeble; in caecilia, there are not even the rudiments of limbs; in these the imperfect de- velopment of the extremities is compensated by the extent of the spine of the body and tail,- by the curves and ﬂexures of which they swim with considerable rapidity. In the ﬁsh-like tadpole, the limbs are at ﬁrst scarcely percepti- ble, and in their gradual development acquire a considerable size and well-deﬁned form while yet imprisoned beneath the skin; the hind legs are ﬁrst seen; the tail is much developed, gradually disappearing by absorption as the limbs acquire their full size. All the amphibia have teeth on the palate; the salamanders have them also in both the upper and lower jaws, the frogs in the upper only, and the toads in neither; the jaw-teeth are always slender, sharp-pointed, and closely set; the frog has about 40 on each side of the upper jaw; the salamander has about 60 above and below; the palatine teeth are generally arranged trans- versely, parallel to the jaw-teeth. In the adult amphibia the gullet is wide and short ; the stomach is a simple sac, elongated in the aquatic species ; the intestine is but slightly convoluted, and terminates in a cloaw, or pouch, which also receives the openings of the gemtal and urinary organs; the vent in the frogs and toads opens on the hinder part of the back; in the other forms it is beneath the commencement of the tail, as in ordinary reptiles. The liver, pancreas, and spleen, are found in all the class. The lymphatic and lacteal systems are extremely 488 developed; in the course of the lymphatics are found pulsating cavities or ventricles which propel their contents toward the veins; their pulsations, however, not coinciding with those of the heart, nor those of one side with those of the other. In the circulating system we- ﬁnd the most convincing proof of the intermediate position of the amphibia; they begin life with the single heart and gills of ﬁshes, but as their metamorphosis goes on, the heart assumes the compound character necessary for the pulmo- nary respiration of the reptiles. The heart in the early stage of these animals consists of a single auricle which receives all the blood after its circulation, and a single ventricle which sends it through a third cavity, the bulbus arteriosus, to the gills or branchiae; in the gills the blood is puriﬁed by the oxygen of the water, and returned by their veins to the aorta; from the last branchial artery a branch is given off on each side, which goes to the rudimentary lungs and afterward becomes the pulmonary artery; between the branchial arteries and veins are small communicating branches, which, as the gills are absorbed, gradually enlarge until they form continuous trunks, and the original branchial artery becomes the root of the two descending aortas, at the base giving off the pulmonary artery; the two veins which return the blood from the rudimentary lungs enlarge as these organs are developed, and become the pulmonary veins, which last, being distended at their point of union with the heart, ulti- mately form the second auricle. The circula- tion, then, of the adult amphibia assumes the character which we ﬁnd in the reptiles gener- ally, being performed by a single ventricle and two auricles; the pure blood in the pulmonic auricle and the impure blood in the systemic auricle are sent together and mixed in the single ventricle, so that a half puriﬁed blood is distributed to the organs. The gills, whether external or internal, are expanded in a leaf-like form, considerably divided, though much less so than in ﬁshes; in the earliest stages they are always external, and remain so permanently in the order am,'0ht'pneurta,' but in the higher orders they become very soon internal; they are supported by cartilaginous or bony arches connected with the hyoid bone, which changes its form in accordance with the development of the respiratory organ. On the leaﬂets of the gills the minute blood-vessels run, bringing the venous blood into contact with oxygen, and sending it back puriﬁed to theheart. While some amphibia retain their gills through life, with coexistent rudimentary lungs, others lose them entirely as the lungs are developed, so that there probably is a brief period in the life of some of these animals in which they may truly be called amphibious. In the caducibmn- chiate genera (or those which lose their gills), the early condition of the lungs is a mere sac with- out any appearance of the cells or pulmonary structure afterward developed ; it becomes, therefore, an interesting question whether the AMPHIBIA similar rudimentary lungs of the perenm'bmn- chiate genera can serve any of the purposes of respiration. From the mechanism of respira- tion in the higher genera, and the anatomical deﬁciencies in the accompanying apparatus in the lower, it would be at once seen that these simple sacs could hardly aid the gills, and much less could perform their ofﬁce in aérating the blood. Rusconi concludes that in the proteus, at least, these sacs do not assist in respiration-; and experiments alluded to in the “Proceed- ings of the Boston Society of Natural History,” vol. vi., p. 153, show that the menobranchus perishes in about 4 hours when removed from the water. In the higher orders, the reception of air into the lungs is eifected by a simple act of swallowing; the air enters the mouth through the nostrils, and, the gullet being ‘ closed, is forced into the lungs by the action of the muscles of the hyoid bone; the ﬁsh-like structure of the nostrils in the lower genera, and the imperfect condition of their glottis and windpipe, with the perfect development of the gills, show that, like the air-bag of ﬁshes, these simple sacs, though they represent rudimentary lungs, are not for the purposes of respiration proper. The brain offers the same gradations from the ﬁsh-like simplicity of that of the tad- pole and lower genera to that of the reptile, in which the hemispheres become enlarged lat- erally, and the spinal cord shorter and thicker at the origins of the nerves of the limbs. In the frogs the eyes are large and prominent, in the salamanders comparatively small, and in the caecilia scarcely visible; in all they resem- ble those of ﬁshes in the ﬂattened anterior sur- face, the small quantity of the aqueous humor, and the depth of the crystalline lens; the eyes of the frog are fully developed, and provided with lids. In the lower genera and in the tad- pole state, the organ of hearing is quite imper- fect, consisting of a hollow in the temporal bone, at the bottom of which is the sac con- taining the cretaceous body on which the nerve is spread; there is no drum nor tympanic cavi- ty; the organ is covered by the skin, without any communication externally. In the frog the ear is more complicated, having the drum with its cavity and bones, and communicating with the month by a Eustachian tube. The sense of smell must be imperfect hi the am- phibia; in the lower forms the nostrils are mere cavities in the front of the head, with no communication with the mouth, as in ﬁshes; in the higher orders the nose communicates with the mouth, but in them the apparatus for smell- ing is probably less sensitive than in the lower forms, the nose being more connected with the act of breathing. The sense of taste is proba- bly also very obtuse; in the frogs and toads the tongue is developed to an extraordinary de- gree, being long, with the anterior half free, doubled back on itself, and capable of being thrown forward and retracted with great quick- ness, serving for the seizure of the insects on which they feed, and for conveying them in- AMPHIBIA stantly to the back part of the mouth. The amphibia are distinguished from reptiles by the absence of all scaly covering; a naked skin characterizes all, from the snake-like cascilia to the ﬁsh-like axolotl. The skin of the aquatic -genera is soft, smooth, and kept constantly moist by the cutanedus secretions; in the land genera, as frogs and toads, the glands of the skin secrete a thick whitish ﬂuid, which may become acrid and irritating, giving rise to the opinion that these secretions are poisonous; in the salamander, the ﬁuid thus poured out is so abundant, and so suddenly secreted when the animal is irritated, that it is quite probable that even the effects of ﬁre may be for a short time arrested by it,—doubtless the ori- gin of the well-known fable in regard to this animal. The cuticle is frequently shed; that of the aquatic genera being washed away in shreds, while that of the toads is divided along the median line, removed by the contortions of the animal, and ﬁnally swallowed at a sin- gle gulp. The amphibia breathe by the skin as well as by the lungs and gills; a frog will live from ﬁve to six weeks in a state of complete strangulation, and even after total excision of the lungs; indeed, the pulmonary respiration is insuﬂicient to support life in these animals with- out the assistance of the skin. The medium through which the blood is oxygenated, wheth- er lungs, gills, or skin, whether in air or in water, is always a modiﬁcation of the cutane- ous surface; and, as in frogs the same surface is capable of performing both aquatic and at- mospheric respiration, it is natural to infer that lungs and gills are identical in structure. The amphibia, like many of the invertebrate ani- mals, have the power of reproducing parts lost by accident or design; the common water sala- mander will invariably restore the limbs which have been cut off for experiment, and even re- peatedly; the common land salamander also reproduces its tail, which it so easily separates in case of need. Impregnation is effected with- out sexual congress, except in the land salaman- der; in the order cmoum, the male embraces the female with great tenacity, and impregnates the eggs, several hundred in number, as they are ejected under his pressure; in the tailed aquatic species, impregnation takes place dur- ing the instantaneous apposition of the cloacal openings of the two sexes. The testes and ovaries are double, and symmetrically arranged; they are much enlarged at the breeding season. When the young are ready for aquatic life, they burst the thin membrane of the egg, and come out in the ﬁsh-like form. In the terrestrial salamander, whose habits do not permit this mode of development, the young undergo their metamorphosis in the oviduct, in which they pass their tadpole state, and appear without gills when they are ready for terrestrial exist- ence. Like the viper, the salamander is ovo- mmparous. In the pipa, or Surinam toad, the eggs, instead of being dropped into the water, are placed by the male on the back of the AMPHIOTYONS 489 female; here they are attached by a thick mu- cus, and the skin gradually thickens in the in- tervals so as to form a cell around each egg; in these cells the young undergo their metamor- phosis, and come from them perfect animals. After the young are hatched out, the cells of the female disappear. Like many of the sau- rian and chelonian reptiles, some of the am- phibia are used as food. The delicacy of the frog’s thigh is well known to the epicure. The Mexicans consider the siredon or axolotl very good eating; and it is quite probable that, like the reptile iguana, many of the hideous am.- phibia are nutritious and wholesome articles of food. Most of the amphibia are objects of popular abhorrence; even the harmless and useful toad is trodden under foot by the igno- rant schoolboy. Formerly they were more de- tested than now, and were looked upon as the special favorites of witches. Shakspeiare men- tions among the contents of the witches’ caul- dron, not only the toad, but “eye of newt and toe of frog.” The entrails of the toad, and the whole animal roasted dry and reduced to pow- der, formed in old times an article of materia medica, and entered into the composition of many wonderful nostrums. AMPHIBOLOGY, a term employed by rhet- oricians and grammarians to denote an ambigu- ous arrangement of words, by which the phrase may become susceptible of more than one meaning. AMPHIBRAOHY S, the name of a foot in Greek and Latin poetry, consisting of a short, a long, and a short syllable, as in the words cibiré, dmdré. AMPHIOTYON S, members of an Amphic- tyony, a term used by the ancient Greeks to designate an association of neighboring tribes or cities for the observance of the law of na- tions toward each other, and the protection and worship of some deity, whose temple was sup- posed to be the common property of all. The word is sometimes derived from the mythical hero, A.mphictyone, son of Deucalion and Pyr- rha, but is properly a compound from a,a¢:. and m-¢§w or Krzco, signifying “ dwellers around” or “neighbors.” The origin of these associations is enveloped in much obscurity, and beyond the fact that several of them existed in Greece at a very remote period, forming, as it were, the germ of one of the strongest bonds of union by which the Greek tribes were held together, we know nothing of the circumstances of their formation. The most celebrated of these con- federations was that known as the Amphicty- onic council, which from small beginnings rose to great importance, on account of the wealth and magniﬁcence of the temple of Apollo at Delphi, of which it was the special guardian. It was composed of 12 tribes, variously de- scribed by the authorities, but generally sup- posed to comprise the Ionians, Dolopians, Thes- salians, CEtz§eans, Magnetes, Malians, Phthian Achaeans, Dorians, Phocians (including the Del- phians), Locrians, Boeotians, and Perrhaebians, iv 490 AMPHICTYONS all of whom originally dwelt in and around Thessaly and were of equal importance, although subsequently we ﬁnd them distributed over all parts of Greece. Some became utterly insig- niﬁcant or extinct, and the fact of the Dorians standing on an equality with the Dolopians or Malians shows that the council must have ex- isted before the Dorian conquest of the Pelo- ponnesus. The council met twice a year, in the spring at the temple of Apollo at Delphi, and in the autumn at that of Demeter (Ceres) at Anthela, near Thermopylae, and was repre- sented by two classes of deputies from each tribe, the Hieromnemons, and the Pylagorae, whence it has been supposed that two Amphic- tyonys, organized for the worship of two dis- tinct deities, were subsequently merged in one. The 12 tribes had equal rights at the meetings of the council, and each was entitled to 2 votes, to be given by its deputies. The objects of the confederation are best described in the following oath which each of its members was obliged to take: “ We will not destroy any Amphictyonic town, nor cut it off from running water in war or peace; if any one shall do so wewill march against him and destroy his city. If any one shall plunder the property of the god, or shall be cognizant thereof, or shall take treacherous counsel against the things in his temple at Del- phi, we will punish him with foot and hand and voice, and by every means in our power.” It will be seen from this that the chief care of the council was to uphold the dignity of the god and watch his temple, and to restrain acts of aggression against its members; and it would be a mistake to suppose that it claimed, or was permitted to act as a national congress for the protection of the common interests of Greece.- Notwithstanding the humane and wise objects of the council, it engaged in 2 sanguinary wars against some of its own members, called the 1st and 2d sacred wars, and ﬁnally lent itself to the ambitious purposes of Philip of Macedon, who, in the name of the league, excited a 3d war in 338 B. C., in which the liberties of Greece were extinguished at the battle of Chee- ronea. The ﬁrst of these wars, which began in 594 B. C. and lasted till 585 B. C., was de- clared against the Phocian city of Crissa, on account of injuries inﬂicted upon persons visit- ing the oracle of Apollo at Delphi, and resulted in the total destruction of the city. The 2d sacred war, from 355 to 346 B. C., originating in a_charge against the Phocians of taking into cultivation a tract of land belonging to the Delphic temple, was carried on with such vin- dictiveness that nearly every Phocian town was destroyed. Philip of Macedon having entered the struggle at the solicitations of the Thessali- ans, decided the war in their favor, and thus gained his fatal ascendency in the affairs of Greece. The Phocians were ejected from the league at the close of the war, but were sub- sequently readmitted. The duration of the Amphictyonic council is not precisely known, and its decay and extinction are enveloped in Q AMPHISBZENA the same obscurity that attended its forma- tion. AMPHILA, a bay in the Red sea on the coast of Abyssinia, containing 13 small unin- habited islands, lat. 14° 30’, long. 4°, E. AMPHILOCHUS, a son of Amphiaraus and Eriphyle, and brother of Alcmaeon, is said to have been one of the suitors of Helen, and to have taken part in the Trojan war. He was celebrated for his prophetical gifts, and had an oracle at Mallos, which was esteemed the least fallacious of all oracles; and at Athens, Oropus, and Sparta, he shared in the divine honors paid to Amphiaraus. AMPHIMACER, or Cnnrro, in Greek and Latin poetry, a foot of three syllables, the mid- dle one being short and the two others long, as in c6gi'tdns. AMPHION, a son of Zeus and Antiope. After birth, himself and his brother Zethus were exposed on Mount Cithaeron, but were found and brought up by shepherds. Mercury or Apollo is said to have given a lyre to Am- phion, who from that moment devoted himself altogether to song and music. To avenge the wrongs of their mother, the brothers undertook an expedition against Thebes, which they cap- tured and fortiﬁed. This work is said to have been accomplished in a very extraordinary manner. When Amphion played on his lyre, the stones moved whither they were wanted, and continued to assume their proper position in the wall till the whole was ﬁnished. He married Niobe, by whom he had many sons and daughters; all of them were, however, killed by Apollo. AMPHIPOLIS, a city of Thrace, at the mouth of the Strymon, founded by an Athenian colony in the 5th century B. C. It was be- sieged by the Lacedaemonians under Brasidas, during the Peloponnesian war, and compelled to surrender to them. At a subsequent period it fell into the hands of Philip of Macedon. When that country was conquered by the R0- mans, it was constituted the capital of one of the districts into which the Macedonian terri- tory was divided. There is now no trace of Amphipolis, and the place where it once stood is called J enikeui. AJlLl]?HISBZENA (Gr. ap.(1)w'Bawa, an animal that can move or walk in both directions), the name of a genus of serpents. The head of the amphisbaena is so small and the tail so thick and short that it is diﬁicult to distinguish one from the other, at ﬁrst sight; and this peculi- arity of form, in addition to the animal’s habit of proceeding with equal facility either back- ward or forward, has given rise to the popular belief in Brazil and other parts of South Amer- ica where the amphisbaena most abounds, that it possesses two heads, one at each extremity. These serpents are distinguished from others by their nearly uniform thickness of body, from the head to the extremity of the tail, by their small mouths and extremely diminutive eyes, remarkably short tails, and numerous rings of ' J AMPHITHEATRE small square scales, completely surrounding the body and the tail. The jaws are furnished with a single row of small conical teeth; the palate being toothless, those of the jaws are few in number and distant from each other; these serpents are also destitute of fangs, and are therefore harmless and inoffensive. They live mostly on ants and other small insects; and in- habit ant-hills and burrows which they make -for themselves under ground. The genus am- phisbaena contains only a few species conﬁned to Brazil, Surinam, and other tropical parts of the American continent. The amphisbwna fu- Ziginosa is the best known species. It is found in the hotter regions of South America, and does not inhabit Ceylon, or any part of the East Indies, as Linnaeus and Lacepede were led to believe, on the authority of Seba. The gen- eral color of this serpent is a deep brown, varied with shades of white, more or less clear, ac- cording to the season of casting the old and acquiring the new external coat, or “ skin.” The animal grows to the length of 18 inches or 2 feet, the tail measuring only one inch or thereabouts. The body, about as thick as the wrist of a child of 10 years of age, is surrounded by upward of 200 rings, and the tail by 25 or 30. The eyes, exceedingly diminutive, are covered by a membrane which almost conceals them; and this has given rise to the popular opinion that the amphisbaena has no eyes, and is entirely blind. The same opinion prevails in other countries with regard to the “ blind- worm” or angwis fragilis ; which is not blind, although its eyes are very small. AMPHITHEATRE, an open elliptical build- ing with an elliptical space in the centre called the arena; from the low wall surrounding which rose tiers of seats, supported on arches, receding to near the summit of the outer wall. These buildings were used for public games or combats between men or beasts. The arena was so called from the Latin for sand, that material being usually employed to give a ﬁrm footing and to dry up the blood. The wall around the arena varied in height from 8 to 18 feet. On a level with its top spread the ﬁrst platform where the chairs of the more honored spectators were placed. From the top of the wall that formed the back of this space rose the ﬁrst tier of seats, reaching , to another platform -"with another wall at its back, and so on to the top. The box (suggestus ' or cubiculum) of the emperor or chief magistrate was on a- conspicuous part of the ﬁrst platform (podium), as was that of the vestal virgins. raised seat on the same was also assigned to the giver (editor) of the games. At each end of the arena was a large door for the entrance and exit of men and beasts. The latter were ' kept in dens under the platforms and seats, and sometimes forced upon the arena through small doors-in the side of the wall surrounding the arena. Sometimes also, if not always, there were vast substructions beneath the ﬂoor of the arena containing dens from which the 491 animals might be suddenly sent up through trap-doors on the arena. The more recent excavations in the amphitheatre at Pozzu- oli have shown most clearly these arrange- ments. On the top of the wall of the arena was a railing of bronze or iron to protect those who sat on the ﬁrst platform from any sudden spring of the wild beasts. As a further defence, ditches called cur/ipi sometimes surrounded the arena. An awning (oelarimn), supported by ropes and pulleys from strong masts set in stone sockets around the top of the building, appears to have been sometimes extended over the spectators. When the weather did not permit the oelartum to be spread, broad-brimmed hats or a sort of parasol were used. The ﬁrst am- phitheatre seems to have been that of M. Curio, described by Pliny. It consisted of two wooden theatres made to revolve on pivots, in such a manner that they could, by means of windlasses and machinery, be turned round face to face, so as to form. one building. Gladiatorial shows were ﬁrst exhibited in the forum, and combats of wild beasts in the circus; and it appears that the ancient custom was still preserved till the dictatorship of Julius Caesar, who built a wooden theatre in the Campus Martius for the purpose of exhibiting hunts of wild beasts. Most of the early amphitheatres were merely temporary and made of wood; such as the one built by Nero at Rome, and that erected by Atilius at Fidenae during the reign of Tiberius, which gave way during the games and killed or injured 50,000 persons. The ﬁrst stone am- phitheatre was built by Statilius Taurus, at the desire of Augustus. This building, which stood in the Campus Martius near the Circus Agonale, was destroyed by ﬁre in the reign of Nero, and it has therefore been supposed that only the external walls were of stone, and that the seats and other parts of the interior were of timber. A second amphitheatre was commenced by Caligula; but -by far the most celebrated of all was the Flavian amphitheatre, usually called the Colosseum, which was begun by Vespasian and ﬁnished by his son Titus, who dedicated it A. D. 80, on which occasion, according to Eutropius, 5,000, and according to Dion, 9,000, beasts were destroyed. The following table has been compiled to show the proportions of some of the chief amphitheatres :—- 6 2 I5 G q; 8 5 s -2 Pnaors. _ -6 "6 5. -s s s s .. it s E" .- 3 :5 3 m E Z Rome (Colosseum) £15 510 281 176 164 80-100,000 Verona . . . . 513 410 248-1- 147 100 Vienne . . . 508 436 Pozzuoli . . . 480 382 336 138 Arles . . . . . 459 888 316 180 55% 25,000 Limoges. . . . 450 ' 878 N ismes . . . . 437 332 » 70 17__23,000 Pompeii , , , _ 480 335 198 107 10—20,000 Poitiers . . . . 426 875 264 210 Pola . . . . . 336 292 75 492 AMIPHITRITE During the middle ages, the amphitheatres were used as castles or as quarries,_ accordmg to the exigencies of the times; but, in spite of all assaults of man or time, their rums are among our most stupendous monuments. AMPHITRITE, the wife of Neptune and goddess of the sea, the mother of Triton, Rhodes, and Benthesicyme. She became so jealous of Scylla, that she threw some magic herbs into the well in which her rival was ac- customed to bathe, and thus transformed her into a monster with six heads and twelve feet. In ancient works of art Amphitrite is always distinguished from Aphrodite by a net which keeps her hair in order, and by the claws of a crab on her forehead. AMPHITRITE ISLANDS are in the China sea, near 16° N. lat. and 112° E. long. They are included in the group known by the name of the Paracels, and are divided into two groups, lying to the N. N. W. and S. S. E. of each other by a deep water channel between them. ALMPHITRYON, a son of Alcaeus and Hip- ponome. Having accidentally killed his uncle Electryon, he was expelled from Mycenae, and forced to take refuge in Thebes. In order to win the hand of Alcmena, he undertook an ex- pedition against Pterelaus and the Taphians, whose lands he seized and divided among his friends. He was subsequently married to Alc- mena, and became the father of Iphicles by that princess. He was killed in a war which himself and Hercules were carrying on against Erginus, king of the Minyans. His tomb was standing at Thebes in the time of Pausanias. AMPHORA, a large two-handled vase, com- monly made of earthenware, and used by the ancients to hold wine, oil, the ashes of the dead, and even dead bodies.—-The amphora was also a liquid measure among the Greeks and Romans, equivalent to about eight gallons with the for- mer and six with the latter. AMPLIFICATION, in rhetoric, properly sig- niﬁes the expansion or development of a sub- ject in writing or speaking. It is sometimes confounded with exaggeration or diﬂ'useness. Voltaire, for example, observes that a man does not amplify in saying all that ought to be said, and that he therefore says too much when he ampliﬁes. But a man may have said all that ought to be said to convey his meaning to one class of people, but not to another class, for whom it may be necessary to amplify. Repe- tition is said by Archbishop Whately to be the secret of successful ampliﬁcation: many quick blows of the axe, not several slow ones. The fault of our times is that the axe is apt to be used long after the wood is split; but an ampliﬁed commonplace is as useless as it is fatiguing. AMPLITUDE, the angle which a line drawn from the observer to the centre of a heavenly body, at the moment of its rising or setting, makes with an east and west line. If the east and west line is determined by a compass, the amplitude is -called magnetical amplitude, and AMPULLA its difference from the calculated true amplitude 7 gives the variation of the needle from North. AMPUDIA, a town in Spain, with a popu- lation numbering about 1,836. It is 18 miles from the old city of Palencia. On June 6, 1813, Wellington’s army made it their head-quarters. AMPUDIA, Pnnno DE, a Mexican general, promoted to this rank by Santa Anna, in 1840, after having previously been connected for many years with the Mexican army. In 1842, under command of Gen. Well, he led on a Mexican foray in its attacks upon the frontiers of Texas; and in the conﬂicts which this produced at Loredo and Mier with the Texan forces under Summerville, he took a prominent part. In December of the same year he commanded the army at the siege of Campeachy, in Yucatan, while the same port was blockaded by the Mexican navy, under Admiral Lopez. When on the night of June 26, 1843, the Mexicans were compelled to retreat by Commodore Moore, Ampudia proceeded to Tobasco. Here-he became the object of great indignation in the summer of 1844, for his savage treatment of Gen. Sentmanat, who, in his exasperation against Santa. Anna, by_ whom he had been sent into exile, had made an attack upon the town of Tobasco. Here, with 14 of his companions, he was shot by order of Am- pudia, who caused their heads to be boiled in oil and hung in iron cages to the walls of the town. Ampudia was at once removed from Tobasco, and we do not hear of him again until 1846, when on April 11, he made his ap- pearance before Matamoras as general in the Mexican army, of which Arista was commander- in-chief, and by whom he was subsequently in- trusted with the command at the siege of Mon- terey. After a spirited defence of that city he was compelled to surrender it to the United States forces, under Gen. Taylor, and signed the treaty of capitulation on behalf of his gov- ernment, Sept. 24, 1846. Since then Ampudia has ceased to occupy a prominent position in the Mexican army, his conduct having caused much dissatisfaction, as he was held responsi- ble for the unwillingness to ﬁght of some of the Mexican troops under his command. For some time he was even placed under arrest, but was subsequently released. AMPULLA, a Roman vessel, like a bottle. The Romans took an ampulla of oil with them into the bath-room to anoint themselves after bathing. It was also used for holding wine and water at meals. It was generally made of glass or earthenware. The dealer in bottles was called ampullarius. Many of these ampullae are pre- served in collections that are now extant. They have all narrow mouths, and are more or less globular. The ampulla chrismaﬁs in the R0- man church is the vessel wherein the oil for anointing catechumens and dying persons, and also wine and water for the Lord’s supper, are preserved. The ampulla Rhemensis (la saints a/mpoule) was a glass ﬂask ﬁlled with holy oil, which, according to tradition, was brought down from heaven by a dove, at the time of the cor- ed surgeon. AMPURDAN onation of Clovis I., at Rheims, A. D. 49 6. The sceptical account says that the story was fabri- cated in the 9th century. From that time, if not before, down to Louis XVI., all the kings of France were anointed by the oil contained in the sacred ampulla. During the revolution, in 1794, the ampulla was wilfully broken in pieces, and its fragments thrown away. A pious person preserved one of the pieces, in which was a little of the oil, and after the restoration of the Bourbons it was delivered up to the Archbishop of Rheims. Charles K. was anointed from it, and the oil then gave out. AMPURDAN, a district of Spain, in the prov- ince of Catalonia, between the river Ter and the town of Rosas. For richness of soil and high cultivation it is unequalled by any of the districts in the province. AMPURIAS, Casrnnro DE SAN MARHN DE, a little hamlet and castle of Spain, in Catalonia, occupying the site of a large and ﬂourishing city. It has a small harbor in the gulf of Rosas, and is about 24 miles from the city of Gerona. AMPUTATION (Lat. amputare, to cut off), a technical term in surgery, applied to ~the operation of cutting off an injured or dis- eased portion of the body, to prevent disease from spreading to the more vital parts of the economy and causing death. Amputations of the leg or the arm, the foot or the hand, the breast or the tongue, or any organ which, being hopelessly mutilated or diseased, is useless in it- self, and threatens to become dangerous to the health of the whole body," are frequent and suc- cessful operations in our time. The human or- ganism is so constituted that whatever seriously aifects any one part for a certain period, gradu- ally affects the whole; and if the general organ- ism be affected for a time, some local organ is ' eventually more particularly affected than the rest. Local diseases, therefore, if neglected, may affect the constitution, and constitutional disease result in local affections of a serious na- ture. Hence a correct diagnosis of the nature of a local disease is an interesting point of medical science, in order to decide upon the propriety or impropriety of amputation; for where the local disease is caused by certain kinds of constitutional affections resulting in fungus hwmatodes, or in cancerous degenera- tion, it is generally deemed useless and some- times even worse than useless, to remove the diseased part, as the life of the patient cannot be prolonged by the operation; but where the disease is purely local, or the constitution gen- erally good, though affected by a local disease of a schirrous -nature, the life may generally be preserved by the removal of the diseased part. In such cases the loss of a limb by amputation is deemed preferable to the almost certain loss a of life, by the progress of the disease from less -vital to more vital portions of the organism. The art of surgery is now so perfect, that al- most any kind of operation may be safely, easily, and rapidly performed by an accomplish- This was not so formerly. In AMPUTATION 493 ancient times, amputation was a dangerous ex- periment for want of means to prevent ex- cessive hemorrhage. The anatomy of every part and the circulation of the blood are now familiar to educated surgeons and physicians. The circulation can be easily controlled by compression, and the largest vessels tied almost as soon as they have been divided; so that hemorrhage can be prevented and a limb re- moved without the loss of a large quantity of blood; often with the loss of a few drops only, and never more than a few ounces.——The an- cients cut through the ﬂesh with a red-hot knife, to check the ﬂow of blood, and after re- moving the limb, dressed the wound with scald- ing oil to sear the parts completely; hoping by these means to prevent hemorrhage. For a time the operation seemed successful, as the surface of the wound was converted into an eschar which stopped the bleeding; but the eschar being merely charred dead matter, was at length thrown oﬁ' by the living parts beneath; and then the blood-vessels being opened, hem- orrhage took place and the patient died from loss of blood.-—Celsus gives directions for stop- ping hemorrhage, by taking hold of the blood- vessels to tie them in 2 places, and then divide the intermediate portion; but this does not apply to amputation properly so called, for the practice of the ancients was to amputate only such parts as were already mortiﬁed or dead; and in such cases the needle and ligature are useless. The present method of preventing hemorrhage in cases of amputation by taking up the divided artery, and placing a ligature around it, is a modern and a most important improve- ment in the art of surgery.——N or is it less im- portant to prevent the loss of blood during the operation than immediately after; for so large are the trunks of the main blood-vessels that supply the limbs, so great the quantity of blood that ﬂows from them in a short space of time, that life would be endangered if this ﬂow of blood were not controlled during the opera- tion. This is easily effected by the application of the tourniquet, an instrument invented in the 17th century; and where this instrument is not in use, or easily procured, the same result can be obtained by the gm-ot. This is made by placing a suitable compress on the main ar- tery, and another on the opposite side, with a bandage over them surrounding the limb, and then applying the handle of a knife or a small cylindrical piece of wood between the bandage and one of the compresses, which handle, by being turned, will tighten the bandage and compress the artery, so as to check the ﬂow of blood, as much as is required. A strip of card-board, curved to suit the form of the limb, and placed under the handle, will prevent the skin from being caught in folds and pinched by twisting the bandage. The tourniquet, how- ever, is preferable and now generally used. The invention of chloroform has rendered am- putation a comparatively painless operation, and when properly administered it is perfectly 494 ALLPUTATION safe and simple. Accidents, however, may oc- cur where chloroform is not administered by competent persons, and the patient is exceed- ingly susceptible to the inﬂuence of narcotics. This renders prudence and experience necessary in the use of chloroform, with persons of peculiar constitution.—-Amputations are very properly divided into two orders, technically termed “primary” and “secondary.” These denote the state of the health of the patient, and the length of time elapsed since the acci- dent occurred. When the patient is of robust health and full of blood, the accident being re- cent and of a serious nature, the operation is termed “ primary;” when the patient’s health _ f has been reduced from long suffering and con— ' ﬁnement in consequence of the disease or in- jury which calls for amputation of a limb, the operation is called “ secondary; ” and, strange as it may seem to the uninitiated, primary amputa- tions are more dangerous to life than secondary, other things being equal; that is to say, that am- putation of the thigh, for instance, is more , dangerous where a very strong, muscular man has had his leg suddenly crushed and injured so hope- lessly as to require amputation above the knee, than where a man of weaker constitution has met with a similar, but less violent injury, which may have given hopes for weeks or months that it could be saved, but ﬁnally takes a bad turn and is condemned to amputation. The man, though weak, will bear the operation well, and almost certainly recover, while sta- tistics show that only three out of ﬁve recover in what are called “ primary” aniputations of the thigh. After the limb‘ has been removed, the wound may heal naturally, either by what is technically termed “ﬁrst intention,” with- out suppuration, or by “ second intention,” after a certain process of suppuration, granulation, and cicatrization; or the healing process may be retarded by complications which require the constant care and supervision of the surgeon. When the wound is thoroughly healed, the general constitution often undergoes a change. The temperament becomes more vigorous and active, especially where one of ‘the lower limbs has been removed almost entirely; and this results from the fact of the digestive organs and the more important viscera of the organism remaining equally active in their functions, while the parts to be supplied with blood and innervation are diminished, perhaps one-fourth or little less. The same amount of blood travels over a less amount of surface, the pulse be- comes more rapid, and the respiration also. A -person of phlegmatic temperament may thus become apparently sanguineous, and one who was previously sanguineous may be troubled with an excess of blood and consequent vital- ity, requiring careful diet and abstemious habits to prevent excitability, congestion, and a ten- dency to apoplexy. Where the body had been previously weak the health is very much im- proved; and persons habitually spare and thin, before the operation, become stout and strong. ALERU In many,cases, therefore, amputation not only saves the life of the patient, but improves the general health surprisingly; but where im- provement is not produced by this natural in- crease of energy and more rapid circulation of the blood, abstemiousness and moderation are essential to the health of the mutilated organism and the modiﬁed equilibrium of its functions. AMRAN, a town and fort in Hindostan, in the dominions of Guicowar, about 18 miles N. E. from J ooria, on the gulf of Gutch.—-Also a mountain range in S. E. Afghanistan, some of the summits of which reach to a height of 9,000 eet. AMRITSEER, or Amnrsm, known by several other names, an ancient town of the Sikh coun- try, in the valley of the Indus. There is in the town an extensive tank, built by Ram Das, a Gooroo or holy man of the Sikhs. In the course of time, the name of Amritseer, the pool of im- mortality, was transferred to the whole town. In the centre of the pool is a temple, sacred to Govind Singh, the last of the Gooroos. It is a place of considerable trade; one of the com- mercial depots of north-western India. It is an open town, but Runjeet Singh built a fort, and made a canal from the Ravi. The presence of the tank and the temple, with probably tra- dition of past greatness, have made it the holy city of the Sikhs._ Pop. 115,000. AMRU BEN EL As, one of Mohammed’s early proselytes, and a distinguished Moslem warrior, died A. D. 663. He belonged to the Koreishites, and in early life was furiously opposed to Moham- med, whom he ridiculed in epigrams and satirical verses, and even attacked those of the new faith who had settled in Abyssinia. At last, howev- er, he was converted, and his zeal in behalf of his _new faith, was as uncompromising as his opposition had been. He carried his conquering arms into Egypt, and at the head of only 4,000 men, took Pelusium, and founded old Cairo. He soon laid siege to Alexandria, and distin- guished himself as much by his personal valor, as by his skill and conduct as a general. He was present in the assault, and in an attack on the citadel was taken prisoner with a faithful slave. Being brought before, the commander of the fortress, he was interrogated, and his daring carriage created an impression that he was a person of consequence. But his slave, striking him in the face, ordered him to be si- lent in the presence of his betters, and this as- tute device saved his life. He was sent back to the Mohammedan camp, with a proposition for a truce. This was refused, and the city was taken with a loss to the Arabs of 23,000 men. Amru’s mind was suiﬁciently civilized, and his inﬂuence with his troops great enough, to spare the city. But the orders of Omar subse- quently caused the conﬂagration of the library, although the extent of injury done by the bar- barous act is matter of doubt. Amru became emir of Egypt, and his ﬁrm government con- ciliated the inhabitants. He projected a canal, AMRU for uniting the waters of the Nile with the head of the Red sea. Amru was recalled by Caliph Othman. In his absence, the Alexandrians re- volted, and surrendered the city to the Greeks; Amru returned, and once more reduced the city, and spared the inhabitants. The Caliph Moawyiah owed his accession to Amru, who declared for him in preference to his rival Ali. Amru is justly accounted not merely an able general, but an accomplished politician. AMRU EL Kare, an Arabian poet, author of one of the seven Moallaeah, poems of the Pagan pre-Mohammedan era, which were suspended to the Caaba, whence their name Moallaeah (Arabic for auwended). He was an opponent of Mohammed, and wrote satirical verses against him. Lette published the Moallaeak at Leyden in 1748, in Arabic, and Sir William Jones, the English translation, London, 1782. The poem is purely imaginative. The latest edition is that of the Baron Mac Guckin Slane, Paris, 1837. AMRU BEN LEITH, second and last Suifaride sultan of Persia, A. D. 879. For a time he rendered the customary homage to the reigning caliph, who held him in esteem. But in a few years, having given dissatisfaction at Bagdad, his name was ordered to be omitted from the public prayers, of which a civil war was the consequence. He was beaten by the caliph’s generals, and took refuge in Kerman. Having succeeded in conquering the rebel Befyi, he made his peace with the caliph by giving him up. Ismaél, the Samanide, now raised an ar- my in Persia, revolted against Amru, fought a battle on the river Gihon, and having routed his army, took Amru himself prisoner, who was thrown into prison, and with him, after a reign of 23 years, terminated the short dynasty of the Suffarides. AMRUM, Amaom, or Axmomon, an island in the North sea, 2% miles west of Schleswig, to Which it belongs; pop. 600, principally oyster- men. Only its interior and eastern part can be cultivated. The strait between Amrum and Foehr is often dry at low tide. AMSBERG, Aueusr PIIILIPP Cnnrsrmn Tmaonoa vorr, a German functionary, and president of the Brunswick railway and post- ofﬁce departments, born at Rostock, July 17, 1789. He was ﬁrst a merchant, but in 1813 entered the army, and took part in the cam- paigns against Napoleon. After his return, he was made secretary to the board of ﬁnances of the duchy, and councillor of the exchequer, and from his thorough acquaintance with the laws of trade and commerce, rendered valuable assistance in the negotiations with reference to the Hanoverian custom-house. He was one of the origmators of the system of railroads in Ger- many, and even in 1826 proposed a plan for a railway between the Hanse towns and Hanover and Brunswick. In 1833, he was appointed di- rector_of the exchequer, a position from which he retired in 1850, to take the direction of the railroadsgand post-ofﬁces of the duchy. - ' AMSDOBF, N rooms von, bishop of Naum- AMSTERDAM 495 burg, a German reformer, contemporary with Luther, and an opponent of Melancthon, born Dec. 3, 1483, died May 14, 1565. He was educated for the church, and early acquired dis- tinction in theology. He seems to have been the conﬁdant of Luther, and attended him in some of his early trials as a reformer. He was a sort of apostle of the reformation, going (1524) to Magdeburg, (1528 and 1531) to Gos- lar, and to the principality of Grubenhagen (1534), as the expounder and defender of the principles of the reformation. He was fond of controversy, and this peculiarity more than once involved him in personal diﬁiculties with his friends. He contended that good works were not only not necessary, but prejudicial to salva- tion. In the attempt to secure concord between the Lutherans and the Zwinglians (1536), Ams- dorf violently opposed the movement, probably full as much on account of his personal hostility to Melancthon, who was the author of theWitten- berg Uoncordium, as from any scruple of con- science. In 1542 he was appointed bishop of Naumburg, and was consecrated by Luther, who boasted of the uncanonical manner in which the service had been performed, as he himself says, “without suet, lard, tar, grease, or coals.” But Amsdorf was never at ease in his bishopric. The novel procedure of his conse- cration involved him in a contest with Von Pﬂugk, who had been regularly appointed by the chapter to the same oﬁice. Amsdorf was a violent opponent of the ‘Augsburg interim, and was one of the leaders in the adiaphoristic controversy. A violent Lutheran, and a vehe- ment opponent of compromises, he is entitled to a prominent place in the history of the re- formation. ' . AMSLER, SAMUEL, one of the ﬁrst German engravers, born Dec. 17 , 1791, at Schinznach in Switzerland, died May 18, 1849, at Munich in Germany. He was professor of the ﬁne arts at the academy of Munich, and made a great number of ﬁne engravings from Michel Angelo, Raphael, and Thorwaldsen. AMSTEL RIVER, a small river of the Netherlands, N. Holland, formed by the union of the Drecht and Mydrecht. It passes through the city of Amsterdam, entering it on the S. E., and after a winding course, leaving it on the'N. side, and about 10 miles further N. unites with- the Y. AMSTERDAM, otherwise .AMSTELDAMME, a noted commercial city and port of Holland, capital of that kingdom, and situated on the south bank of the Y, an inlet or arm of the Zuyder-Zee, where that is joined by the river Amstel. Lat. 52° 22’ N. long.‘ 4° 53' E. As a city Amsterdam does not date very far back. So late as the beginning of the 13th century it was but a small ﬁshing village, subjectto the lords of Amstel, who had a castle near. It was constituted a town in the middle of the 13th century; was taken possession of by William III., count of Holland, in 1296; for- tiﬁed in 1482; was for a long time strongly 496 Catholic (the Protestant citizens having been driven out by the duke of Alva), and joined the confederation of the United Provinces in 1578. Free toleration was now granted to all sects and religious beliefs, and with additional privi- leges granted to its city in 1581, by the prince of Orange, and the ruin of its rival city, Ant- werp, in 1648, it soon reached a highly pros- perous state, and has since advanced with but few and short-lived interruptions, till it is at present one of the wealthiest cities in the world. The form of the city is that of a crescent, the arms projecting into the Y, and thus forming the port. The principal mouth of the Amstel divides the city into the old and new sides. The docks, which are extensive, are built along the inner side of the arms which form the port. The land side of the city is surrounded by walls which have become dilapidated, and by a ditch, 30 yards _wide, lined with trees, which make a pleasant promenade. The ram- parts have been pulled down. The 28 bastions ave been converted into windmills; and the city relies for defence against attacks chieﬂy upon the facility with which the surrounding ﬂat country can be ﬂooded from the sea. Am- sterdam stands upon ﬂat, soft, marshy ground. The houses are built upon piles, driven through this surface soil to the depth of 40 to 50 feet, into a subsoil of clay and sand. The canals by which it is intersected, and on which all heavy freights are transported, divide the city into 95 islands, and are crossed by 290 bridges. The city is from 8 to 9 miles in circumference, and covers about 900 acres of ground. The walls have 8 stone gates, each named after the town toward which it opens. The lower and older por- tion of the city is irregularly built. The streets are narrow and the houses poor. The upper and central portions are handsomely built. The streets run in parallels along the walls, and are consequently semicircular. In the centre of each is a canal, lined with clean paved quays, which are planted with trees. Three streets in this portion of the city are especially noteworthy for their length and breadth, and the elegance of the buildings which line them. These are the Heeren, Keysers, and Prinzen Graacht. Each is about 2 miles long, and 220 feet broad. As with other streets, through the centre of each of these runs a canal. The principal shops of Amsterdam are in the Kalvers straat, the Nieuwendyk, and the Warmois straat. The Jews, of whom there are 20,000 in the city, live in the dirtiest part. The houses of Am- sterdam are built of brick, are 4, 5, and 6 stories high, stand with their gables to the street, are mostly entered by ﬂights of steps in front, and are surmounted by a forked chimney stack. Many of the poorer people live in the basements or cellars of the houses of the more opulent. Others live constantly upon the water, in apart- ments built upon the upper decks of their trading vessels. Amsterdam has many splendid public buildings. The most magniﬁcent of these is the stadt house (town hall), once the palace. AMSTERDAM It is built of stone, was begun in 1648, and com- pleted in 7 years; rests upon 13,659 piles, driven 70 feet into the ground; is 262 feet long, 206 feet broad, and 108 feet high; and is cele- brated for its great hall, or ball room, 111 feet long, 52 feet wide, 90 feet high, and lined throughout with white Italian marble. The next most remarkable building is the Nieuwe Kerk (new church), founded in 1408, 350 feet long, 210 wide, and lighted by 75 windows, many of which are magniﬁcently painted. It is noted for containing the tombs of Vondel, the famous Dutch poet, and of Admiral de Ruyter, the Dutch admiral who sailed up the Medway to Chatham, and there burned the English ﬂeet. The justiciary hall, opened in 1836, of the Grecian order of architecture, is the ﬁnest building in the city. Other buildings are, the exchange, founded in 1608, the arsenal, built on the island of Kattenburg, and the old church, which, founded in the 14th century, contains the tombs of many of the Dutch admirals, and an organ said to be second only to that of Haarlem. Churches are nu- merous. The Calvinists (state church) have 10; the Catholics 16; the evangelical Luther- ans 2; and various other denominations sev- eral. Amsterdam has also a great number of excellent charitable institutions, there being 40 under the charge of particular denominations, others belonging to the city. They include hospitals for the inﬁrm, the aged of both sexes, widows, orphans, foundlings, the insane, the poor, &c. There are also various excellent educational institutions, some de- nominational in their character, others general, but most excellently conducted. The Athe- nceum illustre has professorships of art, law, medicine, and theology, a school of anatomy, a botanic garden, and free library. The city Latin school is a ﬁne institution. There are besides, medical schools, and schools for edu- cating young men for the ministry, in the various denominations which have existence in Holland. The royal academy of ﬁne arts, founded in 1820, has 450 pupils. There is a music school, a naval school, a royal Dutch in- stitution for science, literature, and ﬁne arts; and another called the Felix meritis, which has 400 members, and is in a very ﬂourishing con- dition. Finally, there is a museum of pictures, founded in 1798, containing a ﬁne collection of the works of Dutch masters, and a remarkable collection of prints, contained in upward of 200 portfolios. The city is governed by a sen- ate or council of 36 members, and 12 burge- masters. The members of the council sit dur- ing life, and themselves ﬁll the vacancies which occur in their own body. Amsterdam is more noted as a trading than as a manufactur- ing town. ,Its. chief manufactures are in to- bacco, soap, oil, cordage, and canvas. There are various reﬁneries of sugar and salt; glass works, breweries, and distilleries. Also manu- factories of steam-engines, and machipery, and ship-building. The exports from the port '10‘: AMSTERDAM ISLAND amounted in 1840 to $31,125,000. Imports to $39,720,000. The chief articles of export are butter and cheese; of the former, the amount of $2,115,000 being exported; of the latter, $2,540,000; other exports consist of reﬁned and raw sugar, coffee, spices, thread, oil, dyes, colors, corn, and meal. The exports to Ger- many and the Rhine countries amount to nearly one-third of the whole; but the imports thence are very limited. By the Amstel river, the Zuyder-Zee, and various canals, Amsterdam has water communication with all parts of Holland. By rail, it is placed in connection with Haarlem, the Hague, and Rotterdam on the one hand, and Utrecht, Arnheim, and Prus- sia generally, on the other. A canal called the Nieuwe Diep connects Amsterdam with the North sea, at the Helder. This canal, - completed in 1825, is 50 miles long, 125 feet broad at the surface, 30 feet broad at the bottom, and 21 feet deep. Through it large ships enter the port of Amsterdam. In 1840, 4,177 vessels, tonnage 437,695, entered the port, and 3,981, tonnage 423,060, cleared. Pop. 1857, 259,87 3.—Among the distinguished men born in Amsterdam may be mentioned Spinoza, Swammerdam, and De Ruyter. AMSTERDAM ISLAND, a small island in the S. Indian Ocean, in lat. 38° 53' S. long. 77° 37 ’ E., 60 miles N. of St. Paul’s Island, discov- ered by Van Vlaming, 1696, 45,- miles long, 21,- broad, 2,760 feet high. It contains the extinct crater of a volcano, and numerous hot springs. The waters abound in ﬁsh. It is occasionally visited by whale ships, and serves as a new point of departure for outward bound India- men. AMSTERDAM, NEW, a town and harbor of British Guiana, situated in lat. 6° 14’ N. and long. 57° 31’ W., at the junction of the Berbice and Oange rivers, and near the mouth of the former. It was founded by the Dutch, is built up in Dutch style, the streets intersected by canals, which being emptied at each turn of tide, aid materially in preserving the health-of the place. Defended by 3 forts. Population, 1,600. AMTOHITKA, one of the most westerly of the Aleutian Islands, about 60 miles in length. It is mountainous, generally unproductive, and closely surrounded by numerous islets and rocks. AMUOHTA, one of the Fox group of the Aleutian Islands. It contains an extinct volca- no. AMUOK (Javanese, a/mock, to kill). -The running amuck is a Malay custom. The natives by a long-continued and excessive use of opium at length have their features sharpened, their skin drawn over their bones like parchment, and become entirely and ferociously mad. Armed with their formidable dirk-knife, they rush in frenzy from their houses, sometimes naked, and leaping along the crowded streets, stab, bite, and curse every one who chances to be in their path. As soon as a person is seen in this state everybody in terror proclaims the news, and voL. I.--32 AMURATH 497 the cry of “ amuck” rouses the population like the cry of “ﬁre” or “mad dog” in western cities. Every man snatches the ﬁrst weapon that comes to hand, and follows the path of the common enemy. Long spears are, however, the favor- ite and more common weapon, and with these they pen the wretched maniac into a corner, and lance him to death as they would a tiger. More than 40 persons are sometimes killed by one of these madmen before he can be checked. AMULET, a preservative against occult and mischievous inﬂuences. Amulets are made of various substances, as stone, metal, &c., and were ﬁrst known, it is believed, among the Arabs and the Jews. The latter carry about them bits of parchment with passages from the Bible as amulets, to drive away diseases, and the Moorish priests wore similar amulets with inscriptions from the Koran. The early Ohris- tians made amulets of the wood of the cross, or of ribbons with a text of Scripture written on them, and, to this day, the Roman Catholics call their various little relics, &c., amulets. The idea that an amulet carried about the person has the power both of repelling and healing dis- eases still prevails in the mind of many persons. Even the celebrated Robert Boyle (who ﬂourish- ed in the latter half of the 17 th century) does not hesitate to declare that he once experienced the eﬁicacy of such an amulet in his own case. The anodyne necklace, made of beads from the roots of white briony, which is sometimes hung around the neck of infants for teething-purposes, is an instance of the still surviving conﬁdence in the medical virtue of amulets. Many other exam- ples might be quoted. The faith of the ancients in amulets is to some extent revived in our days by some professors of animal magnetism, such as the inventors of galvanic rings, &c. AMURATH, or MURAD, the name of several Turkish sultans. I. Born in 726 of the Hegira, A. D. 1326, died A. D. 1389. He succeeded his father Orchan in 1360 in the government of the Turkish dominions in Asia. The ﬁrst act of his government was to put down an insurrection in Galatia, after which he turned his attention and his arms to Europe. Here he overran the coun- try as far as the Balkan, and took Adrianople, where he ﬁxed his residence for a time, beauti- fying the city by the construction of a mosque and other public buildings. In 1365 the ﬁrst treaty of peace was concluded between the Ot- tomans and the republic of Ragusa, which put itself under the protection of Amurath. On the occasion of ratifying this treaty, Amurath, ignorant of the art of writing, stamped it with his 3 ﬁngers which he had dipped in ink for the purpose. This subsequently became a sign manual, and was called toughm. Pope Urban V., alarmed by the progress of the Ottoman army, preached a crusade against them, but Amurath surprised the Christian forces by. night and cut them to pieces. The peace which he had concluded with the Greeks, and which had been observed by him, being thus broken, he continued the war for several campaigns 498 without any decided results, and then returned to Asia in 1371. ~ He returned again to Europe, and having subdued Servia, Wallachia, and Bul- garia, he settled at Adrianople, and during an interval of 6 years, permitted the Greek em- pire to taste the blessings of peace. He em- ployed himself in organizing his army; and formed the corps of spahis, instituting a system of military ﬁef as the reward of their services. In this there was considerable analogy with the feudal system, and possibly he was assisted by renegade Christians in his plans. The spahis were lords of the ﬁef on tenure of military service, furnishing men at arms in proportion to the revenue of their possessions; the soil was the property of the cultivator (rayah) and descended to his heirs, but was alienable only by consent of the lord. The spahis were bound to reside on their property in time of peace, and had the collection of the revenues arising from a tax laid on the produce of the soil. The ﬁefs were hereditary in a right line, and in default of heirs escheated to the sovereign, and were then conferred by the pasha of the province on another spahi. This system, well adapted to the intelligence and simplicity of a nation of warriors, was more liberal than the feudal sys- tem of western Europe, as it gave the rayahs decided rights, elevating them above the con- dition of serfs. In after years, as the empire fell into decay, the local proprietors avoided their burthens of military service, and the ra- yahs were reduced to an inferior position. In 1776 the military tenure was commuted for a small quit rent. The Greek emperor John Pa- laeologus, seeing himself unable to cope with the new power arrayed against him, entered into friendly alliance with Amurath, and sent his son Theodore to his court to learn the art of war. The sons of the 2 emperors entered into a conspiracy against their fathers, and levied an army. Amurath advanced alone to the ranks of his rebellious son and ordered the soldiers to return to their duty. Unable-to resist the man- date of their terrible ruler the men obeyed, and Amurath put his son Saoudji to death. In Asia Minor his power was not so ﬁrmly settled but that he had to contend with several in- surrections, which, however, he suppressed. Lazarus, prince of Servia, in conjunction with S1sman, prince of Bulgaria, Amurath’s father- in-law, renewed the effort for independence, and during Amurath’s_ absence in Asia gained several advantages over his generals in Europe. The arrival of Amurath, however, turned the tide of victory, and at length he took Sisman prisoner, whom he deposed and conﬁned. Laz- arus, however, continued his resistance, and the armies met on the plains of Kossova. Am- urath, under the inﬂuence of a dream that he had been assassinated, was -at ﬁrst unwilling to hazard an engagement, especially as his troops were far inferior in numbers to the Servians. But the counsels of his son, the ﬁery Bajazet, prevailed, and the signal for the engagement was given. After a bloody contest, the Servians AMURATH were totally defeated at all points, and Lazarus himself was taken prisoner. Amurath examin- ed the ﬁeld after the battle, and while congratu- lating his attendants upon the victory was struck by the hand of the assassin. The wound was mortal, and Amurath’s dream was accomplish- ed. The assassin fell under the blows of the janizaries, but sold his life dearly. He proved to be Milosh Kobilowitch, son-in-law of Lazarus. II. Born A. D. 1404, died Feb. 9, 1451. He was the son of Mohammed I., and in 1422 suc- ceeded his father on the throne. He at once concluded an armistice for 5 years with Sigis- mund, king of Hungary. Manuel, the Greek em- peror, refused to conclude a peace, unless Amu- rath gave his two brothers as hostages, failing which he threatened to set at liberty Mustapha, son of Bajazet-Ilderim, the legitimate successor to the throne. Amurath refused, and the Greek admiral, Demetrius Lascaris, was at once sent to land Mustapha near Gallipoli, to which De- metrius laid siege. Mustapha himself advanced toward Adrianople with a constantly increasing army, and encountered the forces of Bajazet Pasha, whom Amurath had sent against him. Mustapha advanced toward the sultan’s troops, and, stating who he was, ordered them to lay down their arms. The sultan’s troops did so, and Bajazet Pasha was taken prisoner and put to death. When Amurath received the intelli- gence of this disaster he accepted it as a stroke of affliction sent by Providence, and went to visit the great sheik Bokhari, whose prayers he besought. The sheik accordingly prayed, and at the end of 3 days’ incessant prayer he saw Mohammed, who announced that Amurath should be victorious. The sheik bore the welcome message to the sultan, and him- self girded on the royal sabre. Amurath now assured of victory, went forth against Mustapha, who when in sight of the enemy was suddenly seized with a bleeding at the nose, which lasted for 3 days, and so weakened him that he was incapable of action. At last, deserted by his followers and betrayed by his servants, Musta- pha was taken prisoner and put to death. The emperor Manuel, now alarmed for himself, sent an embassy to the sultan to settle terms of peace. Amurath, however, was not to be ap- peased. He appeared with a powerful force before Constantinople, and increased his army by a proclamation of his intention to abandon the city and all the booty to the assailants. The assault was at length made, in an auspicious hour ﬁxed by the sheik Bokhari, whose pres- ence with an immense crowd of dervishes in the army, inﬂamed the Mohammedans to the highest pitch of ardor. The city was in deadly peril, when, according to Greek writers, a bean- tiful virgin dressed in a white robe appeared in mid air, and threw the Mohammedan army and their redoubtable sheik into such a panic that Amurath was obliged to retire. The sudden appearance of another Mustapha in the ﬁeld, brother of the dead pretender, and whose career promised at the outset to be equally successful, AMURATH also had its inﬂuence on the mind of Amurath. This new pretender was, however, speedily put down and executed. On the death of the empe- ror Manuel a treaty was concluded with John Palaeologus, his successor, by which the Greeks consented to pay tribute to Amurath, and sur- rendered several towns on the Black sea and on the Strymon. Wallachia, Styria, and the Emperor Sigismund were also renewed. In 1429 Amurath made himself master of Thessalonica, and in 1431, of Yanina. Notwithstanding the armistice be- tween Amurath and Sigismund their friendship was only superﬁcial; and Amurath, who had suppressed the revolts of Caramania and Servia, and made satisfactory arrangements with other provinces of his growing empire, turned his at- tention to the politics of central Europe, in which, with the view of repaying Sigismund and his successor Albert for their insidious dealings with his Turkish subjects and allies, he interested himself, and endeavored to in- ﬂuence the election of Casimir, king of Bohe- mia. Failing in this he laid siege to Belgrade, which was defended by the Hungarian war- rior, John Hunnyades. Amurath was repulsed, and the Ottoman arms now sustained a long series of reverses from the invincible Hun- nyades, known in Turkish history by the name of Yanko. Amurath at last purchased a 10 years’ truce of the Hungarians by great sa- criﬁces, and the treaty of Szegedin was solemn- ly sworn to by the high contracting parties on the Gospel and on the Koran. The death of his son Aladdin, to whom Amurath was tenderly attached, now plunged him into such distress of mind that the great monarch determined to ab- dicate in favor of his son Mohammed, who was only 14 years of age. Amurath retired to Magnesia, where be surrounded himself with all the voluptuous luxuries which could charm the leisure of aTurkish gentleman. The Chris- tians, in the belief that the moment of their opportunity had now arrived, broke the solemn peace, for which the papal legate gave them ab- solution, and poured into the Turkish dominions under the command of Ladislaus and Hunny- ades. Amurath was recalled from Magnesia, and forced to take the command of the army. Hoisting the treaty at the end of a lance he encountered the Christians. In apersonal con- test he dismounted the Hungarian king Ladis- laus, whose head was cut off and displayed on a lance to his soldiers. Aifrighted at the sight they ﬂed, notwithstanding the efforts of Hun- nyades to restore the battle. Again Amurath sought retirement, and was again called out to put down a revolt of the janizaries. Hope- less of gratifying his wish for ease he marched against Greece. After subduing the Morea, and putting it to tribute, he encountered stubborn resistance in Albania from the hero George Castriote (Scanderbeg), who, with the assistance of the Venetians, was able to postpone for a time the fall of his native country. A new irruption of Hunnyades into Servia compelled The treaties of peace with - 499 Amurath to retire from Greece, and a battle was again fought on the plains of Kossova, in which the Hungarian army, after a desperate defence of their intrenched camp for 3 days, was entirely routed with prodigious loss. Amu- rath died suddenly; according to Turkish mor- alists he was warned by a dervis of the short time allowed to man to prepare himself for the next world, and to escape the consequences of his sins in this. Orientals are open to sudden impressions. The words sank into his soul, and had such power over his genius that his spirit faded away before the prophetic words. III. Born 1545, died J an. 1595, succeeded his father, Selim II., in 1574. His ﬁrst act was to put his 5 brothers to the bowstring. His reign is signalized in Turkish history by the ar- rogance, with which the Turks treated the rep- resentatives of the European powers. The ambassadors were compelled to observances of etiquette degrading to their sovereigns, and the agents of the embassies were subjected to per- sonal indignity, the dragoman of France having been compelled to embrace Islamism. In the reign of Amurath III. the plague ravaged Turkey and Italy. The war with Austria was continued, and a war which had commenced with Turkey was terminated in 1590 by a treaty which sur- rendered Koordistan, Georgia, Shirvan, Tabreez, and part of Azerbaijan. A depreciation of the coinage resulted in a revolt of the janizaries, who demanded the heads of 2 oﬂicers of state, whom they charged with having been the authors of the depreciation. This revolt extended itself throughout the whole Turkish empire, and laid the foundation for the disorder and insubor- dination which rendered the janizaries so cele- brated. The war with Austria continued with varying success until the end of his reign. IV. Born 1611, died Feb. 8, 1640, succeeded his un- cle, Mustapha X., Sept. 1, 1623, at the age of 12. At the commencement of his reign, the empire was in a state of the most deplorable disorder. The provinces were rent by insurrections and revolts; the capital convulsed by the constant mutinies of the janizaries, who were not to be paciﬁed, save by an increase of pay or by the abandonment of some unfortunate vizier to their brutality; war was desolating the fron- tiers of the empire. Assuming the sceptre at so early an age, Amurath had little power to amend the state of his kingdom, but with ex- perience came a vigor which was destined to make the hardiest tremble. In 1638, Amurath commenced the siege of Bagdad, which had long resisted the efforts of the ablest Turkish generals. On Dec. 24, 1638, a breach having been made, the assault was made and the city of the ca- liphs passed into the power of the Turks. The garrison of the citadel capitul ted, but not evacuating the city at the hour pzomised, Amu- rath would not abridge his soldiers the custom- ary right of massacre, and 30,000 Persians perished after the capitulation. Amurath abandoned himself to the most outrageous. drunkenness, his wrath was of the most terrible 500 character, and his ﬁts of delirious rage were so increased by his passion for drink that his peo- ple, his soldiers, and ministers, all dreaded to en- ter his presence. Such was the terror inspired by his fury that persons on the mere apprehen- sion of his displeasure became senseless with fear. His love of the bottle has been attributed to a nocturnal adventure. He had, in the early part of his reign, promulgated strict laws against the use of wine; one night when making his rounds, he met a drunken fellow who ordered the sultan to give place to him, and when Amurath, astonished, said he was the padishah, the drunkard only professed his indifference to padishahs in his ability to buy up Constantino- ple and all that was in it. The monarch or- dered that he should be taken to the palace, and the next morning interrogated him as to his meaning. With returning sobriety Bikri Mus- tapha had not lost his courage, for pulling a bottle from beneath his coat, he vaunted its quality, and told the sultan that here was that which could give him more than all the world. The sultan was persuaded to try the liquor, and was so much charmed with its effects, that he made Bikri Mustapha his boon companion, and ever after evinced the deepest devotion to the wine cup. AMUSETTE, a small light cannon carrying a ball of one pound weight, and formerly used for service in mountainous countries. This gun was highly esteemed by Marshal Saxe, but has now gone entirely out of use. AMUSSAT, J EAN-ZULEMA, a distinguished French surgeon, born at St. Maixent, in the department of Deux-Sevres, Nov. 21, 1796. He commenced his career as a sub-assistant sur- geon in the French army, and afterward became assistant surgeon at the hospital of La Salpétriere, under Dr. Esquirol, and demonstrator of anatomy at the faculty of medicine of Paris. Dr. Amus- sat has invented and improved as many as 30 different surgical instruments of great impor- tance, and was the ﬁrst to show the importance of twisting a bleeding artery to arrest the hem- orrhage; and also to point out the danger of phlebitis, or inﬂammation of the veins, from the admission of air into them during an opera- tion. His most important works are, “ Re- searches relating to the Nervous System,” pub- lished in 1825; “ Synoptical Tables on Litho- tripsy, and on Hypogastric Cystotomy,” 1832; “ Researches with regard to the Introduction of Air into the Veins,” 1839. This and other works by the same author have received the highest prize from the institute of France. AMY GDALOID, a rock containing almond- shaped cavities. The term is for the most part limited to rocks of the trap variety. The vesicular cavities in these, as in the lavas, are the result of the escape of gases, as the rocks cooled down from a melted state. Subsequent- ly to their formation the cavities have gene- rally become ﬁlled with some mineral, as calca- reous spar, quartz, agate, chlorite, or a zeolite. AMY LENE, a colorless and thin liquid, of AMUSETTE ~ AMYRAUT speciﬁc gravity 0.659, boiling at 102° F.; the speciﬁc gravity of its vapor, 2.45. The sub- stance described by Dr. Thompson under this name, is derived by distillation from oil of po- tatoes or grain with phosphoric acid, is said to boil at 320°, and the speciﬁc gravity of its va- por is 5.061. Amylene was discovered in 1844 by Prof. Balard of Paris, by distilling fusel oil with chloride of zinc. It is a compound of 10 atoms of carbon and 10 of hydrogen. It is very volatile, burns with a white ﬂame, mixes with alcohol and ether, and has an odor like that of naphtha, less pungent than that of ether or chloroform. It is recommended as a substi- tute for these anaesthetic agents, its use being attended with much more pleasant effects, and unaccompanied with any of the disagreeable or dangerous properties of chloroform. It is sug- gested that the extreme cold produced by its evaporation might cause local anaesthetic eﬁ°ects. A description of the article and its properties was given in a paper read before the medical society of London, Jan. 10, 1857, by Dr. Snow, and published in the London “Lancet,” Jan. 17, and also in the “Medical Times and Ga- zette.” Dr. Snow believes amylene to be the same substance described by Von Reichenbach under the name of eupion, and obtained by him from coal-tar; but other chemists have not succeeded in making it. The mode of pre- paring amylene is thus given: “On adding the fusel oil to a concentrated solution of chlo- ride of zinc while they are cold, solution or ad- mixture does not take place; but on applying heat, they mix and form a homogeneous liquid, which begins to distil at a temperature of about 266° F. On redistilling the product thus ob- tained, the ebullition which commences at 140° F., rises during the process to about 570° F. The most volatile parts of this distillation are to be separated, and agitated with concentrated sulphuric acid, when the amylene in a pure state will rise to the surface.” AMYOT, Jaoouns, bishop of Auxerre, born at Mélun in 1513, died in 1593. After many arduous struggles with poverty and obscurity, he succeeded in acquiring some reputation as a teacher; and through the patronage of the sis- ter of Francis I., Margaret of Berry, he ob- tained a professorship at Bourges. Subsequent- ly he visited Venice and Rome, with a view of gathering materials for his intended translation of Plutarch and other Greek writers; and on his return to France, he became tutor of King Charles’s two younger sons, and was raised to the bishopric of Auxerre, and to the high oﬂice of great almoner and curator of the Paris uni- versity. The most celebrated of his works, which chieﬂy consist of translations,is the version of Plutarch. His pure and classic mode of writ- ing exerted a decidedly favorable inﬂuence upon the French prose literature of the 16th century. AMY RAUT, Moisn, a French Calvinist the- ologian, born in 1596 at Bourgueil, in the province of Anjou; was educated at Saumur, where he was himself afterward a professor of ANA divinity. By his talents and moderation he soon acquired reputation and inﬂuence. In 1631, he attended the synod of Clarendon, and was commissioned to present to the king the remonstrances of his brethren against the in- fraction of the edicts of paciﬁcation. In his mission he acted with such judgment and dig- nity, that he succeeded in relieving the Pro- testant deputies from the disgraceful obligation of addressing the king on their knees. Al- though he was a Protestant, his amiable tem- per and courteous manners commanded the re- gard of the Catholics, and he was held in par- ticular esteem by Cardinal Richelieu. He endeavored to bring about a complete union between the various Protestant churches; this object he had in view in nearly all his writings, especially in a Latin tract, Dc scccssionc ab eccle- aia Romans, dcguc pace inter Evangclicos ne- gotio rcligionis institucndcq. Moreover, acting in concert with Richelieu, he aimed at a reconcili- ation between the Protestants and the Catholic church. The favor and respect with which he was treated by the heads of the French gov- ernment, Richelieu and Mazarin, are to be ascribed to his opinions concerning the power of the princes. He publicly maintained on sev- eral occasions the doctrine of implicit obedi- ence to the sovereign authority, which, indeed, ~ had also been held by the great founders of the reformation. Amyraut was a ﬁnished scholar, and wrote Latin and French with equal ease. His numerous writings, which were received with marked favor in his time, are now nearly forgotten, and not easy to be procured. Among the number we may mention, “A Treatise on Religions, against those who esteem them to be indifferent ;” “ Christian Morals;” “A Treatise on Dreams; ” “ Against the Millenarists; ” “ Con- siderations on the Laws of Nature regulating Marriage.” ANA, as a preﬁx, a Greek word signifying over again, the contrary, and the like. Its use is exempliﬁed in anabaptist, anachronism, and analysis. As a suﬁix, it is the Latin termina- tion of the neuter plural of the adjective of three terminations; thus Jzwtiniana would be the matters of any sort appertaining to Jus- tinian. In the literature of the modern Euro- pean nations, it alludes to the collections of the sayings or anecdotes of celebrated wits. The ﬁrst collection of this kind was the Scaligcri- ana, published at the Hague, 1666, by Vossius, in Latin. The next of the ana was the Perron- iana, in French, being notes of the conversa- tions of Cardinal du Perron. It appeared in 1669. Mcnagiana and Thuana are also celebrated col- lections in French. French literature of the 17 th century is particularly rich in this species of literature. The ana mania lasted about half a century. In England, the “ Walpoliana” is the best. German literature is not rich in per- sonal memoirs. The Taubmaniana is the most famous. We have also the Melancthoniana. In England, the records of the prize ring are called “Fistiana” and “Boxiana.” American ANABAPTIST 501 litprature does not much affect this species of tit e. AN ABAPTIST, _a term derived from the Greek avaBa1r1"La'r17g, signiﬁes literally, re-bap- tizer, and hence is sometimes applied to all those sects of modern times of which this prac- tice has been a distinguishing mark. The jus- tice of the appellation has never been acknowl- edged by those to whom it has been applied. In receiving converts to their communion, they administered baptism, not as repeating the sacred rite, but as a valid baptism in place of one which was null and void. Thus, the Bap- tists repel the name Anabaptists, not, as some suppose, for the mere purpose of repudiating an alleged connection with the fanatics of the reformation, but because it does not represent correctly their practice. They baptize, as they allege, according to the original institution of the rite, and therefore claim to be Baptists ,' they never repeat baptism in the case of any who, in their judgment, have been so baptized; and they therefore deny that they are Anabap- tists. It may be doubted whether the word as now applied to Baptists, is not always intended as a reproach; certainly it should be excluded, in that application, from respectable modern literature, as giving an unnecessary offence.-— The title belongs historically to large classes of people who sprung up in various countries of Europe during the period of the reformation. Though applied to them against their remon- strances, it has become ﬁxed in literature as a historical term, and is too convenient for prac- tical purposes, to be expelled by any considera- tions of critical justice. Whether these various classes agreed or not in things more essential; whether they were furious and fanatical, or gentle and pious; whether setting up mock kingdoms by force of arms, or conscientiously abstaining from the use of arms altogether, they were alike in the visible thing of repeat- ing baptism, and hence were designated by a common name, and, also, too often visited with common penalties and maledictions. It is the business of the historian to discriminate be- tween these classes, to look beyond names for historical facts, and to redeem from the re- proach of many generations, great numbers of people whose faith was in essential harmony with the faith of Protestantism, whose lives were pure, and whose deaths were a rare and honorable martyrdom. In this historical dis- crimination something has been already effect- ed. Illustrations generally accessible may be found in Burnet’s “History of the Reformation in England,” Brandt’s “History of the Refor- mation in the Netherlands,” Mosheim’s “ Insti- tutes of Ecclesiastical History,” and especially in the “ Dutch Martyrology,” lately published by the Hanserd Knollys Society, London, un- der the editorial care of Edward B. Underhill. —Precisely when or where the Anabaptists of the reformation ﬁrst appeared, whether in Germany or Switzerland, it is difﬁcult, if not- impossible to determine. They sprung up like 502 rank‘ vegetation,-history, which has placed them under ban, would say, like weeds,—under sudden and refreshing rains, after drought and sterility. The solution of the problem is found in the fact that the seeds were in the soil. The better classes of them claimed a descent from the Waldenses, the Wickliﬁites, and the Huss- ites, who had struggled for a church separated from the world, and distinguished by the holi- ness of its members. Consciously or uncon- sciously, ideas like these must have been work- ing in the minds of multitudes in various countries. When, therefore, the reformation came, opening the Bible to the people, announc- ing its revelations as the highest law, and in- viting the human mind to freedom of thought, these principles acquired sudden and prodigious force. Ardent minds, bent in the direction of a primitive Christianity, and of a social order corresponding thereto, were dissatisﬁed with the partial reformation which contented Luther and Zwingli, and demanded more. This de- mand, sharpened by discussion, became a pop- ular movement, and, pushed to its last develop- ment, took the opposite directions of a wild, ungovernable, and licentious fanaticism, sub- versive of all social order, on the one hand, and on the other of a mystical, though sincere and genuine piety, characterized by some harmless eccentricities of faith, and by separation from the world. These parties, so diverse in charac- ter and tendencies, went under the common name of Anabaptists, because, as we, have already said, they were distinguished by the common, visible badge of re-baptism.—The usual references in illustration of the character of the furious Anabaptists, are the following: In 1521 they made their appearance at Zwickau, and accepting as their leader Thomas Miinzer, took part in the peasants’ war, and shared its sanguinary results. Miinzer and his associates are represented as having claimed a divine commission not only to establish a community of holy persons, but also to extirpate magis- trates by the sword.‘ He excited his followers to revolt against the civil authorities, and as- sured them of the immediate deliverance of Christendom from the grievous oppressions of its rulers. They were totally defeated, May 15, 1525, near Miilhausen, and the leaders were put to death. Itinerant prophets still, how- ever, spread the principles of the sect. They declaimed against the wickedness of the times, and demanded a community of saints, without distinction of rank or ofﬁce. They claimed an internal light, which was of more value than learning in interpreting divine revelation. No Christian might exercise the functions of a magistrate or take an oath. Property was to be shared in common among the faithful. In 1533 they began to concentrate their operations at Miinster. John Matthias of Haarlem, and John Boccold of Leyden, were leaders. They had gained over to their cause Rothmann, the preacher who introduced the reformation into that city, and Knipperdolling, a principal citi- ANABAPTIST zen. Seizing the arsenal and the senate house, they placed Matthias at the head of affairs, and his authority became arbitrary and complete. a The inhabitants were trained to military duty, the fortiﬁcations were strengthened, the faith- ful were invited to come from every quarter to aid the struggles and share the triumphs of Mount Zion, from which they were to proceed to the conquest of the world. Count Waldeck, prince and bishop of Miinster, surrounded the city with an army. Matthias sallied out and gained signal advantages. His fanaticism rose with his success, and issuing forth again with only 30 followers, relying on their spiritual pretensions, they were all put to death. John Boccold was now raised to the throne of David, in obedience to divine commands made known in visions. He wore a crown, clothed himself in purple, coined money, and appointed judges. But the fanaticism, when it had reached the height of spiritual folly, passed by an easy tran- sition to license and sensuality. The obliga- tions of matrimony were declared invasive of spiritual liberty, and freedom of divorce and licentiousness followed. King John himself multiplied his wives, honoring, however, one of them only as his queen. The example of the monarch was not lost upon the people, and the name of Miinster, during the reign of the Ana- baptists, has passed to history as the synonyme of unbridled and indecent lust. The city was taken June 24, 1535, after a brave defence, in which Rothmann was slain. John Boccold, and Knipperdollingg and Krechting, leading associ- ates, were tortured with red-hot pincers, and then hung up in iron cages, which are still pre- served in Miinster. Thus in 15 months per- ished the kingdom of the Anabaptists.-—-Even now, however, the delusion had not ceased. It subsided, indeed, into its more spiritual char- acter, and its excesses were chieﬂy individual and local. But the fanaticism of this class of Anabaptists remained the reproach of the re- formation, and the terror of civil society.—- There was another class of Anabaptists, widely different from those who have been described. In some instances, undoubtedly, when the for- mer class fell back upon their purely spiritual views, the two parties coalesced. Brandt re- fers to an instance in which the moderate were brought into difﬁculty by being found in such association with the fanatical. The distinction, however, is real, and may be traced. It is a mistake to suppose that the rejection of ‘infant baptism during the reformation, was found among the unlearned only. Melanc- thon, Zwingli, and (Ecolampadius, were all troubled by the questions which arose respect- ing the adjustment of this rite to the personal faith required by Protestantism. Some of those who became leaders of the Anabaptists were the associates and equals of these reformers. Mantz, Grebre, and Hubmeyer, were men of learning,-the last of great genius and elo- quence. Mantz had been the friend and fel- low-student of Zwingli, and was an early mar- ANABAPTIST tyr in the cause of the Anabaptists, Zwingli himself pronouncing his sentence in the words, “ Qui rzlterum mergit, mergatur.” The persecu- tion of such men and their followers in Swit- zerland, shocked the moderate of all parties. In expressing his views of this persecution, Erasmus pays a tribute to the character of the sufferers in these words: “A people against whom there is very little to be said, and con- cerning whom we are assured there are many who have been reformed from the worst to the best lives; and though, perhaps, they may foolishly err in certain opinions, yet have they never stormed towns nor churches, nor entered into any combinations against the authority of the magistrate, nor driven anybody from his government or estate.” These people, so per- secuted, demanded a church composed of spir- itual persons, introduced into it by a voluntary baptism. They demanded likewise the separa- tion of the church from the state, and the non- interference of the magistrate in matters of re- ligion. Anabaptists of the same class were -found in the Netherlands in large numbers. The record of their sufferings, their martyrs multiplied by thousands, furnishes a melancholy and affecting chapter in human history. Wil- liam of Orange, founder of the Dutch republic, was sustained in the gloomiest hours of his struggles by their sympathy and aid, and has left his testimony to their loyalty, industry, and virtue. That great prince, however impor- tuned, steadfastly refused to persecute them. The same class were found in England during the reign of Edward VI., and Burnet declares that books, not ﬂames, were used in reply to their arguments.—-One of the doctrinal peculi- arities of the Anabaptists, which seems to have been almost universal among them, related to the origin of the human nature of Christ. They denied that he took his ﬂesh of Mary, ex- plaining his incarnation by a higher miracle. Doubts have arisen as to whether, on the one hand, they believed in the reality of his human nature, and on the other as to whether they believed him to be a divine person. The records of the examination of some of them before the courts, ought to remove all questions of this kind. They believed fully in his com- plete humanity, and their answers show that their questionings in regard to the origin of his human nature did not necessarily imply any departure from the common views of his divin- ity.—Simon Menno, born at the close of the 15th, or, as some say, at the commencement of the 16th century,educated for the priesthood of the Roman Catholic church, and converted in the prime of manhood to the faith of the Anabap- tists, became their chief leader, and the instru- ment of their organization into a recognized body of Protestant Christians. Menno dis- avowed for himself and his brethren any con- nection whatever with the fanatics of Miinster, though it is not impossible that some of the more rational of the furious party were won by him to greater sobriety of views, and to peace- ANABAS 503 ful lives. A man of sincere piety, prudent, in- defatigable in his labors, and gentle in manner, he travelled for 25 years in various countries of Europe, propagating his doctrines, gathering and conﬁrming churches, adjusting differences among his brethren, and conciliating the favor of civil rulers. Always exposed to great peril, he lived nevertheless to accomplish a great work, and died peacefully in old age. Men- nonists and Anabaptists have from his time been interchangeable terms, and the communi- ties so called have descended to the present age. Even while he lived, however, they became separated into two great divisions, the “ Fine ” and the “Gross,” the former claiming a more strict adherence to the austerity of the older Anabaptists, and the latter relaxing into closer resemblance to Protestants generally. “All the opinions,” says Mosheim, “ which are com- mon to the whole body, are founded on this one principle as their basis, viz., that the king- dom which Christ has established on the earth, or the church,. is a visible society or company in which is no place for any but pious and holy persons, and which, therefore, has none of those institutions and provisions which human saga- city has devised for the ungodly.” They nei- ther permitted coercion in religion, nor exer- cised the functions of magistrates. They were obedient subjects and citizens, and many of them attained wealth by their industry and en- terprise. In the progress of time they attached a higher value to human learning, and both established schools among themselves, and sent their sons to the universities. They remain to the present time a somewhat numerous body, in the several countries in which they had their origin. AN ABARA, a river of Siberia in the gov- ernment of Tobolsk, which rises in lat. 66° 30’ N. long. 107° E., and after a course of about 400 miles, falls into the Arctic ocean in lat. 72° 40’ N. long. 112° 30/ E. The river Olia, which runs parallel with it for nearly 300 miles, joins it at its mouth. ANABAS Soarmsns (Cuv.), an acanthop- terous ﬁsh, of the family of Zabyryntha'bran- chides, and the only species of the genus. This family, which has been known from remote antiquity, is remarkable for the peculiar struc- ture of some of the pharyngeal bones and for the serrations of the gill-covers. The palate is toothless; the jaw teeth are villiform, the outer ones the strongest; the lower is tooth- less in front, but far back among the 3 superior pharyngeals the teeth are crowded, conical, and large. The head is round and wide, and its scales, as well as those of the body, are large, hard, and strong; the dorsal and anal ﬁns are of nearly equal height; the branchiostegal rays are 6. The inferior and 3 posterior upper pharyngeals are of the usual form, andprovided with teeth; but the 2 other upper pharyngeals on each side are dilated into thin and convo- luted laminae, capable of retaining a considera- ble amount of water; this labyrinth communi- 504 cates with the gills by a small opening which may be entirely closed. The water enters this cavity every time the ﬁsh opens its mouth, and may be retained for a considerable period. A ﬁsh dies out of water not from immediate want of oxygen, but because the gills become dry and improper for its transmission. The anabas can live many hours, and perhaps days, on the land, as the water contained in its pharyngeal receptacle trickles slowly over the gills and keeps them moist at the will of the animal, which leaves the rivers and pools, and crawls by means of its ﬁns and tail considerable dis- tances. Another peculiarity of this ﬁsh is the number of sharp'spines which project from the edge of the operculum and suboperculum, the latter being uncommonly movable. The speciﬁc name is derived from its alleged habit of climb- ing trees, which it is said to do by ﬁxing its opercular spinesin the bark, ﬂexing its tail, and fastening the spines of the anal ﬁn ; then detach- ing the head, it throws itself forward, to recom- mence the planting of the anal spines. It cer- tainly progresses on land in this way, and doubtless may ascend low trees, though the last is denied by some writers. It inhabits the streams and pools of India and the Indian islands, living principally on aquatic insects; it is used as food, though small and full of bones; it grows from 6 to 10 inches long. It is brought alive to the Calcutta markets from a distance of over 150 miles; from their being found at a great distance from water, the natives believe that they fall from the heavens. AN ABASIS, a Greek word signifying origi- nally ascension, then a campaign or march from a lower into a superior region; for exam- ple, from the shores of a sea into the interior of a country. In this signiﬁcation the word has a twofold application, namely, to the anabasis or campaign of Cyrus the Younger against his brother Artaxerxes, of which the history was written by Xenophon, containing the relation of the celebrated retreat of the 10,000 Greeks; and to the anabasis or campaigns of Alexander the Great, described by Arrian, the historian. AN ACHARSIS, a Scythian philosopher who made his appearance at Athens in the '6th cen- tury B. C. He became very intimate with Solon, and was so esteemed for his virtue, learning, and sagacity, that some have ranked him among the 7 wise men. He was made a citizen of Athens, and is said to have been even initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries. Ac- cording to Herodotus he was killed by his bro- ther after his return to his native country. Many of the sayings of Anacharsis have been preserved by Diogenes, Athenaeus, and other ancient writers. ANACHRONISM (Gr. am and Xpovos‘, a 0011- founding of times), in matters of literature an error with respect to chronology whereby an event is placed earlier or later than its real occurrence.‘ Shakspeare has designedly intro- duced a number of anachronisms‘ in his King Lear; for instance, King Lear is supposed to ANABASIS Annoonnx be an ancient British prince in the time of the Roman empire. Yet we have dukes of Kent and of Cornwall introduced. N ow the ﬁrst title of duke conferred in England was by Ed- ward Plantagenet in the 14th century. Here, therefore, we see an anachronism of nearly a thousand years. ANACLACHE, a peak of the Bolivian An- des, situated in lat. 18° 12' S. long. 69° 20' W. It is supposed to be more than 22,000 feet in height, and its summit is covered with per- petual snow. ANACLETUS. I. A disciple of St. Peter, and afterward a pope. Some writers place him between Linus and Clemens, making him 3d from Peter; others place him after Clemens. He per- ished by martyrdom, A. D. 109. II. An antipope, whose original name was Pierre de Leon. But according to the practice introduced (956) by Octavianus (John XH.), he assumed the title Anacletus II. on his elevation to the papal chair (1130). He was educated at the universi- ty of Paris, and entered the convent of Cluny, and was afterward cardinal and legate of Pope Calixtus II., both in England and France. He was elected to the see of Rome by Rome, Mi- lan, and Sicily, in opposition to Innocent II., but his title was called in question by the clergy, and he was excommunicated by the council of Pisa in 1134. He died 4 years after, having contested his oﬂice for 8 years. ANACOLUTHON, in rhetoric and grammar, a want of coherency or of sequence in a sen- tence. It occurs generally in the midst of a long sentence when the writer or speaker fears that the reader or auditor will forget the be- ginning, and breaks the sequence of his speech to catch the beginning of it again. It is used much more frequently in conversation than in written composition. It arises oftener from carelessness and want of art than design. ANACONDA (eunectes marinas, Wagler), a large serpent of the boa family, found in most parts of intertropical America. The genus boa, which contains the large American serpents, has been made to include many spe- cies which do not belong to it, among others the anaconda; and we ﬁnd accordingly this species named boa sag/tale, boa marina, boa gigas, and boa aquatica by various authors. The genus eunectes may be distinguished from all others of the boa family by the nostrils open- ing at the upper part of the end of the muz- zle, and looking directly upward—this pecu- liarity, added to their very small size, the little space between them, and their crescentic form, which allows them to be completely shut, indi- cates the aquatic habits which we know char- acterize the anaconda. Other generic charac- ters are the three plates which surround the nostrils, the plates which cover the anterior half of the top of the head, and the scales which cover it posteriorly, the ﬂat and smooth scales of the body, and the undivided plates on the under surface of the tail. The head is com- paratively small, conical, very ﬂat below, and ~ AN AOONDA truncated in front; the body is considerably larger in the middle than at either extremity; the tail, less prehensile than in the boas, forms about one-sixth of the total length. The eyes, Which are small, are so placed that the animal can see at the same time objects above and be- fore it, a provision common to all water ser- pents—-the mouth is perfectly straight, and armed with strong teeth gradually diminishing in size in the four series; the number is 16 on each side in each jaw, 5 on the palate, and 10 on the pterygoid bones. The scales of the body are lozenge-shaped,‘ and nearly of the same size, except those of the sides, which are 2 or 3 times larger than the rest; on the trunk there are about 60 longitudinal and 375 trans- verse rows; on the tail there are over 80 transverse and about 36 longitudinal rows—- the plates or scutellae of the abdominal region are very narrow, and about 250 in number, and of the tail from 60 to 73. The colors are simpler than in the boas, being blackish green above in the adults, and olive brown in the young——on the temples, between 2 lines of pure black, is a wide yellow band extending obliquely from the eye to behind the angle of the mouth—the back and tail present large oval discs of deep black, disposed in 2 series alternating with each other, and occasionally coalescing; along each side is a single or double row of black rings contrasting ﬁnely with the yellow ground color; the color be- neath is ochre yellow with black quadrangular spots, isolated or conﬂuent. The anaconda is the largest serpent of America, and is only equalled in size by some of the pythons of the old world; they are occasionally seen in mu- seums 20 feet long, and they probably attain a considerably larger size, though the accounts of travellers are generally much exaggerated in this respect. The Guianas and Brazil are the favorite and perhaps the exclusive resorts of the anaconda. It lives mostly in the water, and is fond of shallow places, where it remains with all but the head submerged watching for its prey; it swims rapidly, in an eel-like man- ner, and can pass a long time beneath the sur- face; it is occasionally seen ﬂoating lazily with the current; it is also in the habit of stretching itself on the sand or on the rocks, on a river’s bank, or along the trunk of a fallen tree, where it lies in wait for animals which come to drink; its ordinary food consists of agoutis, small ro- dents, iguanas, ﬁsh, and occasionally a monkey, sloth, and ant-eater; it crushes its prey in its strong folds, and seizing it with its teeth, swal- lows it very slowly head ﬁrst. The time of impregnation is the winter months, at which time the natives attack it with guns, arrows, and even clubs; it is sluggish in its motions on . land, and timid, and not at all feared; it is very tenacious of life. The natives use the skin for shoes and bags, the fat for the purposes of oil, and the ﬂesh for food. It is ovo-vivipa- rous. There is only one species of the genus de- scribed. AN ESTHETIOS 505 AN AGREON, one of the great lyric poets of Greece, was born at Teos in Asia Minor. When that city was taken by the Persians, he emigrated to Abdera in Thrace, whence he af- terward went to Samos, and spent several years at the court of Polycrates. On the death of Polycrates, he was invited to Athens by the tyrant Hipparchus, who sent a vessel for him. Here he formed an intimacy with Simonides and the other poets then revolving round the Pisistratidae. He ultimately returned to Teos, his native city, where he died in the 85th year of his age, 47 6 B. O. He is said to have been choked by a grape stone. The Athenians and Teians vied with each other in doing honor to the departed poet. The former placed his statue in their acropolis; the latter stamped his image on their coins. We possess only a few genuine fragments of the poems of Anac- reon, but these enable us to form a not very imperfect idea of the whole. His favorite themes were love and wine; his distinguishing characteristics licentiousness, gracefulness, and fervor. The best edition of the extant poems of Anacreon is that of Bergk, Leipsic, 1834. ANADYOMENE (Gr. avadvo;/.e1/1), OI‘ emer- gent), is a surname given to a picture of Aph- rodite rising from the ocean. Apelles was the ﬁrst who painted her in this posture as she rose from the sea, and was drying her hair with her hands. This picture was bought by the inhab- itants of the island of Oos, and set in their temple of ﬂilsculapius. The emperor Augustus bought it of them for the remission of 100 talents tribute, took it to Rome, and placed it in the temple of the Venus Genitrix. In N ero’s time, it was well-nigh washed out, and was repaired by one Dorotheus. According to some, Pancaste, the mistress of Alexander, was the model of this picture; according to others, the celebrated courtesan Phryne. ANADYR, ANADIR, ANADEER, or ANADIR- sxar. I. An extensive gulf or sea of Asia, at the N. E. extremity of Siberia, bordering the government of Irkootsk, and lying between Cape St. Thaddee and Oape Tchukotskoi, of late years much resorted to for whales. II. A river of Siberia, having its source in Lake Yoanko in the Stanovoi mountains, about lat. 67° 40" N. long. 167° 10’ E., or as some geog- raphers say in Lake Ivakno in the same range, lat. 66° 30’ N. long. 173° E. It traverses the central portions of the Tchooktchee country in N. E. Siberia, ﬂows ﬁrst W., then E., and after a course of about 500 miles, falls into the sea of Anadyr above described. The country through which it passes is rocky and barren, and covered with snow about 9 months in the year.-—Anadyrsk or Anadirskai, the only station on it, is a mere hamlet, in lat. 65° 10’ N. long. 167° 10’ E. ANZESTHETIOS (Gr. a privative, and aur- Savonat, to feel), substances which can produce a general or partial suspension of nervous power, by most considered as restricted to the sense of touch. In the common acceptation of the 506 term should be included all drugs which have the faculty of so acting upon the brain, that this effect can be caused; for instance, all the forms of narcotics and diﬁ"usible stimulants. But by general consent, during the past few years, this title has been conﬁned to the most volatile forms of chemical agents which can produce the eﬁ'ect when inhaled, or applied ex- ternally, and the effects of which are transitory; the terms narcotization and coma being applied, where a long-continued eifect is caused by other agents. The action of all anaesthetic agents is through the medium of the blood, into which they are taken either from the lungs, the stom- ach, or by the skin, and carried by the circulation to the brain,where they produce a very profound but transient state of intoxication. Anaesthesis is said to be either general or local; general,when all power over the body or mind is lost; local, when only a particular part of the body is af- fected, the brain and rest of the system remain- ing as ordinarily. Loss of sensation, in re- stricted portions of the body, has been attempted in various ways, by long pressure upon the nervous trunks leading to the part, ﬁrst put in operation by Ambroise Paré, afterward adopted by Dr. Moore, about 1784; the application of carbonic acid gas, recommended by Dr. Hickman in 1828, a procedure which has again been lately revived by Dr. Simpson; the application of the various ethers, especially chloroform; and by a true freezing of the part, as recommended by Dr. James Arnott, of Lon- don, who employs for the purpose a mixture of pounded ice and common salt enclosed in a muslin bag. But thus far, the results of all have been but meagre, as it has been found almost impossible to reduce the sensation of the part to a low enough degree, to prevent some amount of pain without danger of destroying its vitality. Various anaesthetic agents have been employed at different times--the several kinds of ethers, nitric, acetic, sulphuric, &c., protoxide of nitro- gen(“ laughing gas”), aldehyde,oleﬁant gas, naph- tha, carburetted hydrogen, Dutch liquid,benzoin, chloroform, amylene, a substance introduced during the past year by Dr. Snow of London; but none of them have proved so successful, or are now so generally used, as sulphuric ether and chloroform. This latter substance was discov- ered nearly at the same time, in the year 1831, by Mr. Samuel Guthrie of Sackett’s Harbor, New York, M. Soubeiran in France, and Prof. Liebig in Germany, but its chemical composition was not accurately known, until ascertained by Du-' mas and Peligot, in France, in the years 1834-’5. Correctly speaking, it consists of 3 atoms of chlorine to 1 atom of formyle, hence the origin of its name and synonymes, chloroformyle, formy- chloride. Its true chemical deﬁnition, however, is a “ terchloride of formyle, which is the hypo- thetical radical of formic acid.” Its use for the same purpose as sulphuric ether was ﬁrst pro- posed by Dr. J. Y. Simpson, of Edinburgh, in 1847. The advantages claimed for it over ether, are the smallness of the dose required, a more AN ESTHETICS perfect action, less depression when the heart or lungs are diseased, a more rapid effect, less disgust to the patient during inhalation, absence of persistent odor, and lastly, that it is cheaper. But as unfortunately it has happened that several deaths have occurred ﬁ'om its use, a list of near- ly 100 having been collected, it cannot be looked upon as so safe an agent as ether, from the use of which, no matter in how large quantities, or how carelessly, not one death has yet been re- ported. The benumbing of the nerves of sensa- tion by the administration of narcotic drugs, has been practised for many years, and as re- cord shows was known to the ancients, but with the exception of certain traditions as re- gards the use in the east of the mandrake (atropa mandragom), and the hashish (cannabis sativa), in the form of vapor for this purpose, we have no proofs that anaesthetic inhalation was ever employed. Richard Pearson recom- mended the inhalation of sulphuric ether for asthma, &c., in 1795, and in 1816 Nysten de- scribed an instrument for its use. In Sir Hum- phrey Davy’s “Researches concerning Nitrous Oxide,” published the ﬁrst year of this century, is this remark: “ As nitrous oxide in its exten- sive operation seems capable of destroying physical pain, it will probably be used with advantage during surgical operations, in which no great effusion of blood takes place.” It is stated by recent French journals, that a manu- script has been discovered, written by the cele- brated engineer Papin, in 1681, in which he pro- posed to deaden sensibility in the human body when undergoing surgical operations in the same manner as is now done by chloroform. The want of encouragement made him give up all attempts to introduce it into general practice. Dr. J. C. Wa1'ren, of Boston, prescribed etheral inhala- tion for the relief of pulmonary inﬂammation in 1805, and Mr. Wesley Smead, of Cincinnati, published an article on this treatment in 1822. The power of the ethers to produce insensibility was mentioned by Godman in 1822, Mitchell 1832, Prof. Samuel Jackson 1833, Wood and Bache 1833. But its application as an agent for the relief of pain during surgical opera- tions was ﬁrst publicly made at the Massa- chusetts general hospital in Boston, Oct. 16, 1846, when, at the request of Dr. W. T. G. Morton, of that city, it was administered for that purpose. He had, however, previously employed it for several dental operations. On Nov. 12, he secured a patent for the use of the article in the United States, and gave it the name of “Le- theon.” On Jan. 2, of the next year, a new claimant for the discovery came before the pub- lie, in the person of Dr. Charles T. Jackson, of the same city, who declared that he had ﬁrst sug- gested its employment to Dr. Morton. The re- spective claims of each led to much bitter discus- sion and doubt; the medical profession through- out the United States were divided in opinion ; while the academy of sciences at Paris awarded the Monthyon prize of 2,500 francs to Dr. Jack- son, “ for his observations and experiments on the ANZESTHETIGS anaesthetic effects of ether,” and a prize of equal amount to Dr. Morton, for “ introducing it into practice, after the indications of Dr. Jackson.” The diversity of opinion found full vent at the time of the famous “ Ether Controversy,” when ' on August 28, 1852, a bill was introduced into the United States senate by Mr. Borland, to urchase of Dr. Morton his patent for the sum of $100,000. The claims of each were ably argued, as well as those of a third contestant, the widow of Dr. Horace Wells, of Hartford, Ot., who claimed in the name of her husband. Neither of the petitioners, however, succeed- ed in obtaining a grant from congress for the discovery; nor, after a protracted and able discussion of the subject before the public on various occasions, has the respective share of the different claimants of the discovery been decided. The testimony on each side is con- tained in a volume of “Statements of Evidence” by Dr. Morton (Washington, 1853), Littell’s “Living Age,” vol. xvi., p. 529, vol. xvii., pp. 491, 565, and a variety of pamphlets by M. Gay, M. D., N. I. Bowditch, E. Warren, H. G. Bigelow, M. D., and others.—-The objects gained by the ad- ministration of anaesthetics are various, according as we have to do with surgery, midwifery, or medicine. In surgery: 1. A protracted and care- ful examination, aud consequently more accurate diagnosis, can be made in many cases of disease and injury, where the intense pain caused by the examination prevents the manipulation of the sur- geon, as in fractures, dislocations, stone, &c., &c. 2. From the total relaxation which the mus- cles receive under a full dose, the reduction of many forms of dislocation, hernias, &c., is facilitated. 3. In military service, under its inﬂuence, men can be removed to a distance where the operation can be conveniently per- formed, instead of as heretofore being obliged to operate upon the ﬁeld of battle or in places otherwise unfavorable. 4. The general use of many forms of remedial operation is ex- tended, which otherwise are attended with such exquisite agony that they were rarely resorted to unless from most extreme necessity, as for instance the application of the actual cautery, moxas, &c. 5. Many operations can now be performed for the relief of long-continued disease, or after injury which before would have been hazardous, owing to the depressed or feeble state of the patient. 6. Many deli- cate operations can now be easily performed where perfect quiet is demanded of the patient, and which can hardly be afforded by any amount of exercise of the will, as in operations upon the eye, dissections of nerves, or the taking up of arteries. 7. Patients will now apply earlier than heretofore for relief in surgi- cal diseases, the dread of the surgeon’s knife often having induced them to postpone until the case became almost hopeless. 8. The mortality from operations has materially de- creased, for it is well known that pain has a serious tendency to depress the nervous system and produce death from exhaustion.—In mid- 507 wifery : 1. In addition to preserving the mother from the pain always incident to partu- rition, we have the power of preserving her strength unimpaired when the labor is long continued or especially severe. 2. In all cases of instrumental labor or those requiring man- ual assistance, the aid can be afforded with greater ease to the accoucheur and more safety and less accompanying suffering to the mother. 3. Many cases of doubt in diagnosis can be more correctly solved. 4. From the relax- ation of the muscular ﬁbres, the exit of the child through the uterine neck or the vaginal passage when they are rigid, is facilitated. 5. Anaesthetics have the power of keeping in abeyance and reducing the violence of one of the worst complications of labor, puerpe- ral convulsions. 6. The recovery of the pa- tient after labor is assisted, and the chances of subsequent dangers lessened.-—In medicine: 1. As a relief in severe or exhausting pain in disease as from toothache, passage of calculi, neuralgia, &c. 2. As a narcotic in mania, delirium tremens, excitement or wakefulness from any cause. 3. As an anti-spasmodic for chorea, hysteria, asthma, convulsions, &c. They have also been employed in many inﬂam- matory diseases, fevers, &c., and in cholera. They are found ver useful in the detection of feigned diseases, as a ected paralysis, dumbness, contraction of limbs, &c. Within the last few years they have also been employed for nefarious purposes in cases of violence where a struggle or noise was feared, for murder, robbery, rape, &c. The ﬁrst effect of all anaesthetics, or when they are taken in small quantities, is ex- hilarating and intoxicating as from any diffusible stimulant, evidenced by bursts of laughter, hysterical weeping, or loud unmeaning talking. When long continued or in large doses, there ensues a general feeling of warmth, extra power, and excitement generally ﬁrst felt in the ex- tremities, soon followed by a prickling, be- numbed sensation, with confusion of ideas, noises in the ears, usually compared to the vibration of an engine from one side of the head to the other, and ﬂashes of light before the eyes. This is soon followed by loss of sensa- tion and voluntary motion, and total coma. The patient is generally observed to become a little ﬂushed in the face, the veins of the fore- head turgid, the eyes suﬁ'used and staring open, and the pupils dilated. The pulse is generally increased at the commencement of inhalation, but becomes decreased often lower than natural when the system is fully under the inﬂuence, which is the time chosen for the performance of all great surgical operations. The respira- tion, which is slightly quickened at ﬁrst, be- comes slower and deeper in the somniﬁc state. The temperature of the body remains generally of the ordinary standard, but becomes slightly reduced when the inﬂuence is long continued. The effects of the anmsthetics generally disap- pear almost immediately after the administra- tion is discontinued, andlthe patient comes to 508 AN AGNI perfect consciousness, or with merely a slight tendency to sleep and dizziness, with no recol- lection of any thing which has happened during the inhalation. Sometimes, however, the re- covery is attended with nausea or vomiting, which most often happens when the drug is taken when the stomach is full; for this reason it should never be given until several hours after a meal has been eaten. No person has yet been found to withstand the inﬂuence, but the effect is seen much sooner and more quietly in some than in others. They should never be used in diseases of the heart or brain, or when there is excessive degeneration of _the ‘lungs. When from an over-dose or the inattention of the giver, the patient seems likely to sink, and the pulsations are suspended, the vapor should be removed from the mouth at once, the patient laid in the reclining position, free access of air allowed, cold water dashed upon the chest and face, and, if necessary, artiﬁcial respiration_ made, sinapisms placed on the feet, and galvan- ism used. Many instruments have been devised for inhalation, but, as often happens, the sim- plest means is usually the best. The most advisable plan for administering is to fold a coarse towel into the form of a small cone, in the bottom of which is to be placed a small sponge, upon which the liguid is to be poured. At the commencement, the sponge should be held at a small distance from the mouth, and the patient be directed to inhale by deep and long-continued inspirations, notwithstanding the cough. As he gets more and more under the inﬂuence, it should be approached to the face, but it is imperatively necessary that there should be a free admission of atmospheric air. Particular attention should be paid to the con- dition of the pulse. If chloroform is used, it should be remembered that its vapor is heavier than the air, and consequently sinks; care should also be taken to guard the skin from its irri- tating properties by smearing slightly with oil or glycerine. The ratio of power of ether and chloroform is considered as about 8 to 1 in favor of the latter, this producing its effect in from 30 to 60 seconds; the former on an average in from 3 to 4 minutes. The dose of chloroform is from 30 drops to 1 oz.; that of ether is of almost any quantity, as much as two quarts having been employed in some long-continued and severe operations. ANAGN I, the ancient Anagnia, once the capital of the Hernicans, a town of about 6,000 inhabitants, in the papal states, 40 miles S. E. from Rome. Anagnia was one of the most an- cient cities of Latium, and an early antagonist of Rome. Virgil speaks of it as “the wealthy Anagnia,” and Cicero had a villa in its neigh- borhood. It continued a city of importance during the middle ages, and is still the see of a bishop. It is the residence of some of the noblest and most powerful families of Italy, twelve of whom are called the 12 stars of Anagni, and has given birth to several Roman pontiffs, among others to Innocent AN AGRAM III., Gregory IX., Alexander IV., and Boni- face VIII. ANAGNOSTA, J orm, a Byzantine historian of the 15th century. His work, De Rebus Gon- stantelnopolitano/rum Macedonius, contains a de- scription of the siege of Thessalonica by Amu- rath in 1430, at which he was present. ANAGOGE, in ecclesiastical writers, means the elevation of the mind toward things celes- tial. It is applied more particularly to the veriﬁcation of the types of the Old Testament by the antitypes of the New; thus called be- cause the veil which before concealed the eso- teric meaning of the passages, is in the New drawn up. ANAGRAM (Gr. ava, backward, 'ypa,u.p.a, letter). The original anagram was a word formed by spelling another word backward, as live, coil. But the term is now used with greater license, to express any transposition of the letters of a word, as Galen angel, or of the words of a sentence, as the question of Pilate put in Latin, Quid est eewltas ? Est air gut adest. At ﬁrst the letters of the word or sentence transposed must be strictly retained in the anagram; but by degrees license crept ~ in, and many letters were interchanged; as c, and k, s and z, v, u, and w. An example of such changes is the anagrammatic name as- sumed by Calvin in his Institutes, Alcuinus, that being the anagram of Calvinus, inter- changing v for u. Anagrams are sometimes made by the reversion of the words of a sen- tence, and not of the letters of the words, as in the verse found in the margin of an old Bible opposite the passage (Gen. iv. 3, 4) describing the sacriﬁces of Cain and Abel, which some- body puts in the mouth of Abel: Sacrum pingue dabo, nee macrum sacriﬁcabo, to which Cain is represented as responding, Sacrtﬁcabo macrum, nee dabo pingue sacrum. Anagrams were but little used by the ancients. They were most in vogue in the 16th and 17th centu- ries, and seem to have been specially delectable to the theologians of that day, who were as much delighted to hurl an anagram at their op- ponents, as an argument. Thus the Calvinistic opponents of Arminius made of his name the Latin anagram, Vani orbis amicus, while his friends, taking advantage of the Dutch mode of writing it, Harminius, hurled back the equally conclusive argument, Ha-but cumm Siomls. Perhaps the best anagram ever made is that by Dr. Burney on Horatio Nelson, so happily transformed into the Latin sentence so truthful of the great admiral, Honor est a Nilo. Read- ing this, one is almost persuaded that it is not altogether a superstition that the hit contained in the anagram has a meaning provided by providence or fate. This is also amusingly illustrated in the case of the Frenchman Andre Pujom, who, using j as i, found in his name the anagram, Panda 6? Riom. Riom, being the seat of justice for the province of Auvergne, the poor fellow, impelled by a sort of infatua- tion, actually committed a capital offence in ANAH 1! that province, and was hung at Riom, that the anagram might be fulﬁlled. AN AH, or ANNA, a town of Asiatic Turkey, on the Euphrates, in the pashalic of Bagdad, and 160 miles W. N. W. from the city of Bag- dad. It is pleasantly situated in a fertile val- ley, enclosed by rocks and date-trees. Anah is a resting-place for the caravans which traverse the great Mesopotamian desert, but is itself ex- posed to the furious desert winds. On an island in the river are the ruins of a castle which was built in place of that destroyed by the Emperor Julian; and on the opposite bank is the site of the ancient city of Anatti. The population of Anah is between 3,000 and 4,000. ANAHUAC, an aboriginal name, signifying, in the Nahuatl, or ancient Mexican language, by or near the water; from att, water, and nahuac, near. The name has come to be ap- plied speciﬁcally to the valley, or rather the plateau of the city of Mexico; although, in the early writers, we ﬁnd r.eferences to several Anahuacs; as, for instance, Anahuac-Ayotlan, and Anahuac-Xicalanco,--the latter applied to the district around the lake or lagoon of Xica- lanco, in Tobasco. From the circumstance of their having established themselves originally around the lakes of Chalco and Tezcuco, the traditional tribes of Mexico have been called Anahualtecas, people living by the water. It is alleged that these tribes came from some northern region, supposed by some to have been from Asia, by way of Behring’s strait, and that the ruins of ancient ediﬁces, known as cascs grandee, in New Mexico, and Chihuahua, mark the path of their migration. It is, however, known to critical students, that their original seats, ﬁguratively represented as 7 caves, were somewhere in the vicinity, probably on some of the islands, of Lake Michoacan; and that when they reached the region of Anahuac, they were simple barbarians, clothed in skins, and living by the chase. Around the lakes of Mexico, however, they found the feeble remnants of a people far advanced in civilization, agricultur- ists, and architects-the Tulhuatecas, a name corrupted by uncritical writers into Toltecs. These Tulhuatecas were unable to resist the irruption of the 7 warlike tribes, but gradu- ally taught them agriculture and the arts, and thus laid the foundation of the Tezcucan and Mexican empires, in which civilization and bar- barism, lofty religious precepts, and the most cruel rites, were incongruously mingled. The Anahualtecas were precisely the people better known as Aztecs (see Azcrnos); and the name of Anahuac is now only understood as applying to the plateau of the city of Mexico.-—This great table-land comprises three-ﬁfths of the territory belonging to the Mexican republic. It lies be- tween lat. 15° and 30° N. and long. 95° and 110° W. This plain has an elevation of 6,000 to 9,000 feet above the level of the sea. E. and W. it is bounded by the two great chains of moun- tains into which the Cordilleras of Central America is subdivided in its northward pro- ANALOGY 509 gress. Out of this plateau rise many lofty mountains, including the stupendous volcanoes of J orullo and Popocatepetl (17,720 feet high); but it is generally level. AN ALECTA, fragments, things collected; a term originally applied to the crumbs scattered from the tables upon the ﬂoor, which were col- lected by servants, because the ﬁne inlaying of the ﬂoor prevented their being swept away. The term is now generally applied to collections of fragments from the writings of any one per- son, or to collections from the writings of dif- ferent persons on the same subject. AN ALOGY, a term in the use of which there is much injurious vagueness. Literally, it signiﬁes a collecting together, or placing side by side (Gr. ava, together, he-ya, to collect). Aristotle, deriving it from ava, 7\o'yos', deﬁned it as the worry: 'rov Aoyov, the parity of reason. It is used to express: 1. A resemblance in one or more attributes, between certain things which are otherwise diﬁerent; as when one ﬂower is said to be analogous to another, from resemblance in color, outline, or habits. When used in this sense, analogy is distinguished in scientiﬁc language from afﬁnity, that being used only where the resemblance is so great as to confer a scientiﬁc relation upon the resembling objects. 2. A similarity of two things, as hav- ing some common relation to a third, as a hat is said to be analogous to a turban, because both are worn on the head. 3. A similarity of two things, as having the same relations to two similar things; as when the bark or leaves of a tree are said to be analogous to the skin or lungs of an animal, from sustaining the same local or physiological relations to the two simi- lar things, tree and animal. 4. In grammar, analogy is used to designate conformity to gen- eral laws of orthographical or syntactical struc- ture, as when we say analogy requires that the terminal c of verbs should be omitted in the formation of the imperfect participle. Simi- larly, the analogies of universal grammar ap- ply to certain structural laws of language as the vehicle of thought. 5. In mathematics, it is the similitude of certain proportions, as A:B :: C:D. 6. In sacred hermeneutics, the phrase “analogy of faith ” expresses “the con- stant and perpetual harmony of Scripture in the fundamental points of faith and prac- tice,” as when some passage of Scripture ap- pears to contradict the doctrine of the divine goodness, it must not be so interpreted, be- cause it is in contradiction to the general tenor of Scripture. In a similar sense, the phrase “analogy of Scripture” expresses the verbal or real parallelism of two or more passages_ of holy writ. 7. But the last and most ph1l0- sophical use of the term analogy_ 1S thus ex- pressed: When two objects lying in one plane of being or action have the same relations to each other as two objects lying in another plane have, then either of the objects the one plane is analogous to the object sustammg the corresponding relation in the other. To 510 recur, for illustration, to our mathematical formula above (A: B : : C:D). Let A and B represent objects of sense, and C and D objects of thought; then the formula represents this last use of the term analogy. Thus when Jesus says, “I am that bread of life,” the claimed analogy which underlies the afﬁrmation, is that he sustains a relation to the human soul on the spiritual plane, similar to that which bread sus- tains to the human body on the physical plane. It will be seen that this use of the word funda- mentally differs from all the preceding; for in all those the objects compared lie in the same plane. The term analogy should be restricted to this latter meaning. The preceding six senses in which it is applied could be as well and bet- ter expressed by some other terms, as resem- blance, relation, or afﬁnity. Much would be gained in conciseness by such restriction. Thus deﬁned, an analogy would always contain a comparison of two ratios or reasons, drawn from different planes, and thus would be truly a collecting together, according to the primitive force of the term. Reasoning from analogy is much practised in all departments of science. In physics, Sir Isaac Newton concluded that because all things near the surface of the earth tended to its centre, the moon, from similarity of situation, would have the same tendency. This assumes the analogy enumerated as 2d above. In medicine, it is reasoned from the observed effects of a drug on an animal, what its effects will be on the human system. This proceeds on the reversion of the 2d form above, and assumes that the animal and the man already resemble each other, and hence the effects of the drug upon them will be similar. In theology, it is concluded from the divine dealings in the physical realm, what they will be in the moral or spiritual. Too much stress has been put upon analogical reasoning. Strict- ly speaking, there is no such thing. To reach a conclusion in the process there must always be an assumption which is a petitio prz'ncz'pii. From one plane of being to another we may not reason. Analogy is not an instrument for arriving at truth, for the assertion of an analo- gy presupposes the arrival. The deﬁnition of analogy by Quintilian cannot therefore be true, that it is a means of discovering the unknown by the known. It is of use only to convey the result attained. It is therefore a convenient form in which to dogmatize, but not to con- clude. Analogy proceeds by abstraction; that is, certain attributes of certain objects are con- sidered separately from all the other attributes of those objects. Analogy, as above deﬁned (7), is the doctrine of correspondences, and must of course be extensively used in all attempts to communicate to the human mind purely spiritual truths. (See Amneonv.) ANALYSIS (Gr. ava, intensive, Ava, 130 1111- loose), the act of separating or decomposing any object into its component elements. Analysis is more than division. A quart of water would be divided into two pints, but it would be ANALYSIS analyzed into its component elements of oxygen and hydrogen. Analysis recognizes and pro- ceeds under the control of law. A man might tear a watch in pieces blindfold; but he only could be said to analyze it when he was con- scious of a certain arrangement and method in its structure, and as he removed each wheel and spring perceived its relation to the whole, so that he could reconstruct it by the same law. This latter process would be synthesis. Hence analysis and synthesis are correlatives. Analy- sis has a place in metaphysical, chemical, and mathematical nomenclature, and in order to a full deﬁnition of it, must be considered under these three l168.dS.——ANALYSIS, in metaphysics, is that act of thinking by which our complex thoughts or perceptions are themselves sepa- rated into their constituent elements. Analysis and abstraction are to be distinguished. While the same mental function and act is involved in both, abstraction represents or signiﬁes this function in its application purely to the element or part taken away, while analysis looks to the decomposing result on the original compound from which the elements are one by one ab- stracted. An abstraction is complete when any one part is taken away, an analysis only when all the parts have been abstracted. Analysis precedes comparison and analogy, for these latter processes are grounded in partial resem- blances, which can only be discovered in an ex- amination of the parts which analysis furnish- es. Analysis is therefore the antecedent of all classiﬁcation, which is grounded also on resem- , blance, and is a synthetic process. Hence the relation of analysis to scientiﬁc knowledge is that it is the initial act of scientiﬁc discovery. Thus analytic procedure is the mode of attaining knowledge, while the synthetic is the mode of communicating lt.——ANALYSIS, in chemistry, is the art of resolving compound substances into their constituent parts. Analysis is qualitative and quantitative. The former determines what substances are present; the latter their relative proportions. The former should always precede the latter; and on its results the plan of con- ducting the latter should be laid out. Analysis is ultimate or proximate. The former resolves compounds into their simple elements, the latter into compounds of known composition, from which, if necessary, the proportions of the sim- ple elements may be calculated. Organic sub- stances are most commonly subjects of ultimate analysis; inorganic of proximate analysis, the latter being simpler combinations of familiar acids and bases. The simplest form of analysis is that called mechanical. In this ingredients merely mixed together are separated by break- ing up the feeble bond which holds them in one mass. A mechanical analysis of a mixture of granite and magnetic iron ore may be made by crushing the compound to powder, and by water or the magnet separating the stony from the metallic portion. By the use of water, one might even distinguish the quartz, felspar, and mica of the granite from each other. The re- ANALYSIS sult would be given in such a percentage of stony matter and such a percentage of pure ore. A proximate analysis would give the percentage of silica, alumina, protoxide and peroxide of iron, oxide of manganese, potassa, hydroﬂuoric acid, soda if present, and water, contained in the minerals of the granite, and in the ore. An ultimate analysis would resolve every one of these compounds into their simple elements, as silica into oxygen and silicium, water into hydrogen and oxygen, &c. Mixtures may be broken up and separated by various means, some of which are the same as those adopted in the higher forms of analysis, for instance, by dissolving a soluble from an insolu- ble substance. _.The object always aimed at in analysis is to bring the material operated upon into such a condition (as in a liquid solution) that one of its ingredients may be separated from the rest, commonly by the addition of a new substance, with which it has a strong af- ﬁnity, and in combination with which it falls down as an insoluble precipitate; or the sub- stance added may, by its stronger affinity for, seize upon and combine with an acid, which united before with an oxide made this soluble. The oxide thus set free falls as a precipitate, and may by ﬁltering and drying be separated and weighed. Instances of both these opera- tions are very common in analysis. Sulphuric acid added to any solution containing a salt of baryta dislodges the acid, which made the baryta soluble, and combines with this in the salt, sulphate of baryta, which being insoluble falls as a precipitate. Again, ammonia added to a solution containing a salt of iron, combines with the acid which holds the iron in solution, and the insoluble oxide falls as a precipitate. A compound is sometimes added to effect a double change of acids and bases, and thus separate one of the ingredients. When a substance is precip- itated in a different condition from that in which it existed in the original material, as the baryta thrown down with sulphuric acid as a sulphate, the principle of deﬁnite proportions, in which substances combine, enables one at once to ascertain the proportion of baryta present by reference to the tables prepared for this purpose. This description and the examples cited give but a very incomplete idea of the great variety of methods adopted in treating the complicated combinations, which are the subjects of chemical analysis. Bodies of all sorts, solid, liquid, and gaseous, require each its peculiar mode of treatment according to the result, of the qualitative examination. The complexity of the mixtures would seem to involve the whole subject in inextricable confu- sion; but, as in all her other operations, so in combining the ingredients of these mixtures, nature has followed a systematic plan of won- derful simplicity and exactness. As the law of deﬁnite proportions is understood and regarded, the taking apart of natural compounds, and de- termining the proportions of their elements, should partake of the accuracy of mathematical ANAM 511 calculations. The chemical formula is the test-" of the correctness of the process. The requisites for attaining proﬁciency in this art are not merely manual dexterity in the use of ap- paratus, and ingenuity in contriving and adapt- ing it to various purposes; but, more than all, a facility in the use of mathematical combinations, and in their application to the modes of combin- ing of material elements.—Armnvsrs, in mathe- matics, had anciently the same meaning as in the above instances. Certain propositions in mathe- matics were assumed to be true, and by a course of reasoning on that assumption, the inquirer was led to some simple result, whose truth or falsity was self-evident; and from this the truth or fal- sity of the original assumption was inferred. In modern mathematics the word analysis has an entirely different signiﬁcation, and is nearly synonymous with the word algebraical. There is, however, this difference, that in algebra quantities are considered as having ﬁxed, though unknown values; while in analysis the unknown quantities are considered as passing gradually through changes of value. This use of the word analysis probably came from the concep- tion of this change taking place by short steps, and the whole being thus divided into parts. See ANALYTICAL Gnomnrar and Camunus. ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY is geometry treated by means of modern analysis. This branch of geometry was called into existence by Des Cartes. In its further development it has led to the differential and integral calculus of Leibnitz and Newton. The term analytical geometry is, however, usually so limited as to exclude the consideration of the rate at which a geometrical magnitude changes, and only to deal with the changing quantities themselves. Thus, although far more powerful than ancient geometry, it constitutes but a small part of the varied resources of the modern geometer. The elementary works of Peirce or Davies will give the student an introduction to this science, and for higher studies works on the differential calculus must be procured. ANAM, or Coonm Cnma, a country of south- eastern Asia, extending from the promontory of Cambodia, in lat. 8° 25' N. to about lat. 23°— being a length of over 875 geographical miles. The sea bounds its entire eastern coast. Its west- ern limits are not certainly known. The empire has an entire area of about 78,695 square miles. It is naturally divided into 4 parts: Tonquin, Cochin China Proper, Tsiampa, and Cambodia. -—Tonounv is the most northerly, and adjacent to the Chinese frontier. It is very little known, having maintained, more thoroughly than even China, an exclusive policy. On the north, it is mountainous. Its southern frontier is divided by a wall from the adjoining province of Cochin China. The rivers of Tonquin ﬂow mostly in a south-easterly direction. The Sang-Koi, the largest, waters and fertilizes a large tract of country, and its lands produce gold in consid- erable quantities. Several other streams ﬂow into the sea, south of the Sang-Koi. The inter- 512‘ vening country is swampy, and is chieﬂy ten- anted by ﬁshermen, who catch ﬁsh and alliga- tors for the interior markets. The product of the ﬁsheries is immense. The interior is supplied, and yet large quantities remain which are exported to China. This portion of Anam is much infested by typhoons, which cause great devastation, sweep down whole towns and ﬁelds, and often destroy a thousand ﬁsher- men in a night. The people, who are poor and coarse, live a merry, careless life, and meet death without fear.—-Coonm Cnnva Pnornn, or Daxcrnone, is a small strip of land from 10 to 20 miles broad, and extending from the southern line of Tonquin to nearly the parallel of 12°, where it borders on Tsiampa. Eight or ten miles inland, this country is a complete desert. The most important river is that on which Hue, the capital, is situated. In the fertile spots, eagle.-wood, grain, sugar, cinnamon, and other useful products, grow well. The mountains which border the west, have not yet been ex- plored by white men.—Tsmmrn, or CHIAMPA, is a narrow strip of land, occupying the south- ern portion of the empire of Anam, inhabited by a peculiar race, more resembling the Malay than the Anamese. This tract is exceedingly sterile; but the coast abounds in good harbors. The chief product of Tsiampa, is the eagle-wood (aloémylum agallochum), which gives out a sweet incense, and is much used for burning before idols, all over India. Since the incorpo- ration of Tsiampa with Anam, the aborigines, once bold ‘navigators of the Indian ocean, have retired to the mountains, a forlorn and perse- cuted race; and a few thousand Cochin Chinese have taken possession of the coast.-—The 4th province is Cnmnoma, or KAMEN. The former is the name given it in the sacred books; the last is the name given to themselves by the na- tives. That part of this province which is un- der the sovereignty of Anam, presents a contin- ual ﬂat, with rich alluvial soil, watered by many navigable rivers. Among these is the Mekong, one of the largest rivers of southern Asia. This river, rising in China, drains the whole of Cambodia, and falls into the sea, by three mouths, in lat. 9° 34’ N. In Laos, many thriving villages are built upon its banks, and in Cambodia, the chief part of the population live along its shores. There are several other important rivers. In agriculture, the people of Cambodia are much behindhand, yet as the soil is exceedingly fertile, this province is considered the granary of all Anam. It produces vast ' quantities of rice, anise seed, betel nuts, and cardamoms. The areca palm, teak, and other building and dyeing woods, grow in the forests. Stick-lac is one of the products of the country. The mulberry tree is also cultivated, and the natives understand the management of silk- worms. The climate of this province is mild and agreeable, except during the rainy months, May and September, when it is very sultry. Typhoons are not so frequent as in Tonquin. Numerous small islands lie off the coast of Cam- ANAM bodia. Here, the natives spear the tripang or sea-slug, with which they carry on a considera- ble trade.—Beside these 4 provinces, the empire of Anam embraces a tract of the interior known as the Moi country, as well as the country occu- pied by the Laos tribes. The Moi mountaineers are a rude people occupying the hill-region from 10° 40’ to 16° N. lat. They live chieﬂy on wild fruits, and roots, some sleep in trees, others in mean huts, but never in large communities to- gether. The Cambodians sell them as slaves. Their forests aboundin eagle-wood. The whole of the interior of the peninsula is inhabited by the Laos tribes. They are a harmless race, and are subject to all the surrounding govern- ments. The territory of those who own alle- giance to Anam, lies to the north of Cambodia and the Mekong river. This country is but little known, but all accounts unite in describing it as in a very ﬂourishing condition, inhabited by thrifty people, who live happily under their patriarchal chiefs. They cultivate the soil, and have some silk and gold manufactories.—The geology of Anam presents but small variety. The prevailing formations are primitive, and consist of granite or sienite, with occasional limestone, marble, quartz, and hornblende. The government of Anam is despotic. It is administered by mandarins, of whom there are 2 classes, civil and military. These form a council for the king, and one of the military mandarins governs each province. Everybody is liable to the bamboo. The government claims military service at the hands of every male inhabitant between 18 and 60; The army amounts to 60,000 men.—The Anamese are a cheerful race of people, of small stature, with great agility of frame, not very dark, and form- ing in their features the link between the Ma- lay and Chinese. The dress of both sexes is alike, consisting of trowsers, and a coat reaching to the ankles. The men do not shave or cut the hair, but tie it in a knot. Their chief food is ﬁsh and rice. They are gross and in- discriminate feeders, but are able to endure much on a very small supply of food. Drunk- enness is not considered a vice. Their dwell- ings resemble the Chinese, but are inferior in point of comfort. The females predominate in number, but do not live secluded. On the con- trary, they are found actively engaged in all branches of labor. The wife is a slave to her hus- band. The doctrines of Buddha are professed by a very few; but the mass do not care for worship, and are sunk in the most abject super- . stitions. The veneration for the departed dead is very general, and the temples containing their tablets are the most sacred spots of wor- ship. Agriculture is more extensively pursued than any other branch of industry. Rice is the staple grain. Sugar-cane, cotton, indigo, and tobacco, are also very generally grown. Mann- factures are comparatively fewl Yet the Anam- ese excel in ship-building. A tolerably extensive trade is carried on with China. This is chieﬂy in the hands of Chinese, who abound throughout ANAMBOE the country, and are the chief merchants. The exports of Anam-—chieﬂy to China--consist of rice, sugar, in considerable quantities, together with raw silk, cinnamon, cardamoms, betel- nuts, dye-woods, stick-lac, and gamboge, ivory, elephants’ hides and bones, rhinoceros bones, &c. The king trades on his own account, and is probably the wealthiest merchant in his realm. The Chinese import into Anam the coarser kinds of teas, coarse china-ware, and various cotton and paper stuffs of Chinese manufacture. The internal trade of Anam is carried on by means of rivers, canals, and roads. Hué is the capital of the empire, situated in Co- chin China, on a river of the same name.—The population of the empire of Anam has been variously reckoned at from 12,000,000 to 15,000,- 000, and Crawfurd says 16,000,000. ANAMBOE, a seaport town on the Gold Coast of Africa, 10 miles E. from Cape Coast Castle. It is the seat of considerable trade, and formerly had a large traﬂic in slaves. The British fort here is the strongest on the coast. The country is fertile, but little cultivated, the natives depending upon the interior for their vegetables, for which they exchange ﬁsh, which are plentiful on the coast. The exports are gold-dust, ivory, palm-oil, and peanuts, and the imports are silks, tobacco, wines, guns, and cutlery. Its population is about 4,000. ANAMIRAPUCU, a river of Brazil, in the province of Para, South America. It is about 200 miles in length, and empties into the river Amazon, near the sea, in lat. 0° 15’ S. long. 50° 55’ W. AN AMORPHOSIS, a term of perspective drawing. It is used to designate a cer- tain kind of pictures, so drawn that when viewed from one point they appear distorted, while from another they appear proportional; or, they are sometimes so constructed that seen with the naked eye they are deformed, but when viewed by means of a convex or concave mirror, the deformities are corrected. Of this latter kind are the pictures constructed for the amusement of children.—There is also a kind of picture called anamorphosis, which when seen from one point of view appears to be for instance a landscape, but, when seen from another, is a portrait, or an architectural struc- ture.—The term is also applied in botany to designate any unusual organic development in a plant, as, for instance, an undue formation of cellular tissue; or the stamens, by excess of cultivation, assuming the appearance of petals. ANANIAS. Scripture history mentions three persons of this name. I. The Ananias who, after having professed Christianity and united with the disciples, pretending to com- ply with either the requirement or the cus- tom to sell their property for the common cause, conspired with his wife Sapphira to give in a part of the price for which he had sold his land, and reserve the rest, rep- resenting that he gave all. Peter is related to have discovered the impious fraud at once, VOL. I.—33 AN ASTASI 513 and the Holy Ghost to have avenged it by striking both the deceivers dead. II. A devout man who dwelt at Damascus, and who is re- corded to have been warned in a vision to go and ﬁnd Paul, and restore him to sight, after he had been struck blind at his conversion. The modern Greek church has a tradition that he was one of the 70 sent out by Jesus, and endowed with miraculous powers. III. A high priest (A. D. 47) before whom Paul was brought for trial at Jerusalem, who commanded Paul to be smitten on the mouth (Acts xxii.). Paul being sent from this tribunal to Felix, Ananias among others went up to accuse him of being “a pestilent fellow and a mover of sedit-ions,” &c. Beside these three, Josephus mentions a fourth. IV. A Sadducee, who was a violent defender of the Jewish rebellion against the Romans, and who seems to have been held in honor by Eleazer, the leader of the rebellion. AN APA, a seacoast town of Russian Circas- sia, on the Black sea. It is an inferior port for small vessels, but the outer roads are safe only in ﬁne seasons. ANAP.£EST, in Greek and Latin verse, a foot consisting of two short syllables and one long; such are the words 1'IpZa';u5, ténér6s. It is the reverse of the dactyl. ANAPHORA (Gr. avactopa, repetition), a ﬁgure in rhetoric, in which several expressions or phrases beginning with the same word are brought into juxtaposition. This form of speech is used for vividness of impression. The following is a good example, as containing a twofold ana- phora, sustained by an alternation of similarly constructed sentences. It also illustrates another point essential to an anaphora, viz., that if long sustained, should be relieved by an unexpected termination, as shown in the italicized sentence: “Are they Hebrews? So am I. Are they Israelites? So am I. Are they the seed of Abraham? So am I. Are they ministers of Christ? I am more.” AN ASTASI Bnarnnowsxr, the one being his monastic, the other his worldly or family name, one of the most eminent preachers in the Greek-Russian church. He was born in 1761, in a village near Kiev, and died at As- trakan, 1816. His parents were free peasants or Cossacks of Little Russia, and he was edu- cated in the seminary of Pereaslaw, and became a teacher of poetry and rhetoric. In 1790 he took holy orders, became an archimandrite of various monasteries of the ﬁrst class, and ﬁnally, in 17 96, in that of N owospask (New Salvation) in Moscow. He earned celebrity by the ani- mation with which he delivered his sermons, and the brilliancy and ﬁnish of their style. He successively rose to the higher degrees of the hierarchy, and as an archbishop was a member of the supreme synod which administers the affairs of the church throughout the empire. He was member of the academy of St. Peters- burg. His sermons are still considered as models of pulpit eloquence. 514 AN ASTASIA ANASTASIA, the name of several women considered by the Roman Catholic church as saints and martyrs. I. Anastasia the elder was a martyr of the time of Nero. II. Ana- stasia the younger, of an eminent Roman family, was brought up in the Christian faith by her mother Flavia, prosecuted for it by her heathen husband Publius, and ﬁnally burnt alive in Aquileia, in 303, during the terrible persecution of the Christians under Diocletian. Some let- ters written by her from prison to Chrysostom, her confessor, are still preserved. III. Ana- stasia, the daughter of an eminent Greek family of Constantinople, attracted by her beauty the attention of the Emperor Justinian. She re- sisted his dishonorable proposals, and, to avoid further attempts, retired to Alexandria. Until her death, in 567, she lived as a friar in a monastery, her sex remaining unknown. Her festival is celebrated on March 10. AN ASTASIUS, the name of several popes in the earliest times of the papacy. 1. Oc- cupied the Roman see 398-401. He was contemporary with Jerome, and is remarkable for having condemned various axioms and writings of Crigen'. II. Was pope from 496 to 498. III. From 911 to 913. IV. From 1153 to 1154. ANASTASIUS, abbot and librarian of the Vatican at Rome, was sent in 869 to Constanti- nople to ask the hand of a Byzantine princess for the Emperor Louis II. He took part in a synod there, and thence got the name of Constantino- politan, having translated into Latin the canons adopted by the synod. He died about 886. He left various literary works, among others an ec- clesiastic history compiled from Nicephorus, Sini- cellus, and Theophanes, and a collection of the biographies of the Roman popes under the title of the Pontiﬁcal Book (Liter Pontqlﬁcalés). ANASTATIO PRINTING (Gr. ax/ao'1'ao'cs, or ﬁrst raising up of copies from a printed sheet of paper, or an engraving). This process consists in moistening the sheet with dilute ni- tric acid, which wets and saturates the parts not inked. It is then pressed smoothly upon a sheet of zinc. The acid etches the metal, but the printed portion remains set off. The plate is then washed with a solution of gum in weak phosphoric acid, which wets only the etched portions. The plate is next inked with a roller, by which the unﬁgured parts are not affected, the ink remaining only on the printed portions. Thus prepared the plate may be used for taking off impressions. The art, however, does not appear to have been successful. ANASTOMOSIS (GI. am, through, 0"ro;1.a, mouth), the communication of blood-vessels by the opening of one into the other. The blood- vessels are the tubes by which all the different parts of the body are supplied with nourish- ment. They are mostly ramiﬁed like the branches of a tree, but with this great difference, that when a branch is severed from a tree, the supply of sap is cut off, and all the leaves and twigs of the severed branch wither and die; AN ATHEMA whereas, in the case of a blood-vessel being plugged or separated from the trunk to which it is attached, the dependent ramiﬁcations are not deprived of blood; they are supplied by numerous anastomotic vessels, which form a sort of web amongst the branches, and are in connection with the main tubes of supply, by many secondary channels in all directions. Anastomosis is of two kinds, that between large trunks and that between small branches. The anastomosing branches are so numerous that if the main trunk of the aorta be tied in the ab- domen, cutting off the direct supply of blood to the main vessels of the lower extremities, these will still receive indirectly a suﬁicient supply of blood to maintain their vitality, through the collateral or anastomosing branches, which are gradually enlarged, so as to supply the place of the large vessels which have been obliterated. The blood-vessels literally form a network of communicating or anastomosing tubes in every portion of the body, although the main trunks and their ramiﬁcations have some- what the appearance of a tree, and the chief impulse of the blood is felt in the heart and larger vessels. ANATA, or ANATHOTH, a town about 4 miles north of Jerusalem, and the reputed birth- place of Jeremiah. It was in the possession of the tribe of Benjamin, and a city of refuge; It was once a considerable place, but is, according to Robinson, now an insigniﬁcant village. A kind of building stone is carried from Anata in large quantities to Jerusalem, on the backs of donkeys and camels. Anata is in the top of the high range of hills running north of Jeru- salem, and commands a prospect of the Dead sea. It was in Anathoth the prophet Jeremiah bought the ﬁeld (witnessed by Baruch), as a symbol of the return from the captivity (J er. xxxii.). ANATHEMA (Gr. avaﬁqpa, from ava'n2n7p.z, to set apart), in the Greek classics any thing set apart as an offering to the gods, applied to the nu- merous votive gifts which were suspended upon the walls of temples or exposed upon public altars. By change of usage it afterward became the name of any thing devoted to the infernal gods, any thing execrated and execrable, causing the abhorrence of men. In this sense it was adopted by the Christian church as the synonyme of the Hebrew cherem, which signiﬁes to destroy, to exterminate, and which was used by the Jews in pronouncing the ban of excommunication. The Old Testament gives many examples of the cherem or anathema, uttered in the strong lan- guage of the theocracy, and devoting the victim both to temporal and spiritual death. Moses pronounced the anathema against those Canaan- itish cities which would not return to the Lord and cease to worship false gods, and Saul de- clared every man under the anathema who in pursuing the Philistines should eat any thing be- fore the going down of the sun. In the New Testament it is used in the sense of “set aside” or “ accursed.” (1 Cor. xvi. 22; Gal. i. AN ATOLIA 8.) In the Roman Catholic church it is a sentence pronounced against heretics and schis- matics, or against those who wilfully and obsti- nately persevere in a course of conduct which the church condemns. It implies exclusion from the communion and society of the faith- ful, who are taught to regard the object of this ecclesiastical penalty as one who by his crimes has cut himself off from the church and merited the ﬂames of hell. The anathema, however, is not supposed to be a sentence of eternal repro- bation; it is a temporal punishment, similar in its effects to excommunication. Most of the dogmatical decrees of the church close with anathemas against all who presume to deny them. Thus the council of Trent employs it against such as deny the existence of purgatory, the doctrine of the real presence, &c.‘ ANATOLIA (Gr. avarohq, the east, 01‘ Levant), the large oblong peninsula which forms - the western extremity of Asia, identical with Asia Minor. The name originated under the Byzantine emperors, and is retained by the modern Turks. Anatolia is bounded on the north by the Black sea, the sea of Marmora, and the Dardanelles, on the west by the Grecian Archipelago, on the south by the Mediterranean sea and Syria, and its ill-deﬁned eastern boun- dary is near the courses of the rivers Euphra- tes and Tchoruk. It lies between lat. 36° and 42° N. and long. 26° and 41° E.; its greatest length is about 700 miles, and its greatest breadth is somewhat more than 400 miles; it has an area of 270,000 square miles, and its population is estimated at 5,000,000. The coasts of Anatolia, excepting a short distance on the Black sea near the Bosphorus, are bold and irregular, the western coast presenting as jagged an outline and as precipitous cliffs as are to be found in the world; and along the southern coast a line of steep and lofty rocks sometimes approach closely the shore, sometimes leave intermediate plains and valleys. A gir- dle of mountains running parallel on 3 sides to the seacoast, and on the south barring the wide isthmus which connects Anatolia with the rest of Asia, completely encloses the inte- rior of the country. On the south the chain of Taurus extends from the shore of the Ar- chipelago to the Euphrates, and was supposed by the ancients to intersect the whole of Asia. The northern or anti-Taurus range stretches westward from the Tchoruk, joins the chain of Mount Olympus, and terminates in Mount Ida, near the gulf of Adramyti. Between these 2 main ranges numerous smaller ones interlock, and everywhere throughout the peninsula may be seen lofty mountain masses with clear snowy peaks, or black with forests of ﬁr and oak. The highest summit is that of Arjish-Dagh, the ancient Argaeus, once a volcano, 13,000 ft. above the sea, and situated 13 miles S. from Kaisareeyeh; beside which there are various others having an elevation of from 7,000 to 10,000 ft. These ranges enclose a vast and ele- vated plateau, into which they pour almost all 515 their waters. It is calculated that there is a space of 250 miles in length and 150 in breadth, covered with saline lakes and marshes, and often inundated during the rainy season, but of whose copious waters no part ﬁnds its way to the sea.—-The large number of lakes impreg- nated with salt and destitute of outlets is also a remarkable geographical feature. The larg- est of these is the Touz-Ghieul, the Tatta of Strabo, about 55 miles in length, with a breadth of from 10 to 15 miles, and situated 70 miles N. E. from Konieh. It is much reduced in summer by evaporations, and the inerustations upon its shores supply the neighboring inhab- itants with salt. The principal lake district is between lat. 37° and 39° N. and long. 30° and 35° E. By far the largest river is the Halys, the modern Kizil Irmak, which rises about 40 miles N. E. from Siwan, has a tortuous and semicircular course, a part of which has been but imperfectly explored, and after a circuit of 600 miles, empties itself into the Black sea about 50 miles E. from Sinope. The Sakareeyah or Sangarius, the second river in magnitude, rises in the high table-land near Angora, ﬂows‘ W. and N., and after a course of 300 miles, enters the Black sea 80 miles E. from the Bos- phorus. The ancient rivers of Oaicus, Hermus, and Maeander, now bearing Turkish names, ﬂow into the ZEgean, and on the south the Eurymedon, Galyeadnus, Sarus, and Pyramus, now called respectively the Kopru, Ghiik, Si- hoon, and J yhoon, ﬁnd their way through the mountain passes into the Mediterranean. The Scamander and the Granicus, notwithstanding their high place in history and song, can scarce- ly be named as geographical features.-The climate of Anatolia has been the theme of praise in all ages, and it was remarked by Hip- pocrates that there was scarcely any variation) of heat and cold known here, the 2 tempera- tures being so delightfully and equally blended together. This description, however, applies only to the western shores, the interior of the country offering great diversities of climate, and by reason of the various elevations of its sur- face, presenting winter and summer within one day’s journey. Yet neither the intense cold in the passes of the Taurus nor the oppressive summer heat of Karamania, is insalubrious.—- The most curious feature in the geology of the country is the volcanic region of Gatacecau- mene, in about 38° N. lat. and 29 E. long., abounding in cones of scoriae, streams of lava, and other traces of former igneous action. There are numerous sulphurous and thermal springs, some of which have a temperature as high as 160°, and bubble with force from the‘ ground as if from under pressure. Little coni- cal hills are in many places formed around the fountains by the gradual deposition of earthy matter held in solution in the water, but solidi. ﬁed by evaporation, and doubtless gave origin to the story told by Strabo of petrifying springs. There are spots where gases, in some instances inﬂammable, issue from the ground, and modern 516 travellers have conﬁrmed the ancient account of a pestilential cave, whose exhalations were destructive to all who came within reach of their inﬂuence. Mining is not carried on to any considerable extent, though Strabo men- tions that the mountain Sandaracurgium, in a branch of the chain of Olympus. had in his time been rendered hollow by the continual mining operations carried on in its interior. We hear no longer of the golden sands of Pactolus which enriched the Lydian kings, and the few mines of lead, iron, copper, and silver, are un- important. Upon the decline of the Roman power, Anatolia passed out of European into Turkish hands, and little has been added to the knowledge of the ancients concerning its min- eral wealth and character.--The coasts of this peninsula furnish nearly the same vegetable productions as southern Greece. Their fertile plains produce in abundance the ﬁnest varieties of fruit, quinces, peaches, ﬁgs, apricots, melons, rice, wheat, the most exquisite wines, the best tobacco in Turkey, and olive and mulberry trees for the manufacture of oil and silk. The mountains are covered with forests of oaks, beeches, planes, ashes, and almost all other building timber, and one of its forests, which has been an inexhaustible source of supply to the Turkish navy, is signiﬁcantly named the “ sea of trees.” The ﬂora of parts of Anatolia is very beautiful, and evergreens, the myrtle, bay, laurel, and holly, are abundant. The high table-lands of the interior with their profuse moisture demand a more industrious people than the Turks to render them productive. They are inhabited by wandering and pastoral tribes of Turkomans, who drive their ﬂocks in summer into the most elevated tracts, and, as winter approaches, lead them into the lower and sheltered valleys. Their breeds of sheep, goats, and horses, are of celebrated excellence. The hair of the goat of Angora resembles silk in ﬁneness and length, and shawls are reported to have been made from it equal in size and qual- ity to the Cashmerian. The cats of Angora are as famous as the goats for their great size and the silken ﬁneness of their hair. The horses are of the ancient Cappadocian breed, renowned of old for their ﬂeetness and strength. The savage and lawless hordes, who tend ﬂocks in this ﬁne country, cause great alarm to cara- vans, which they plunder upon every occasion. The danger of travelling is increased by nu- merous ferocious animals, panthers, bears, wolves, and wild hogs, which abound among the mountains; but it is doubtful if the lion is now to be found in Anatolia as formerly. Swans still, as in Homer’s time, frequent the banks of the Cayster, and red partridges cover the coasts of the Hellespont.-—-Neither registers nor censuses are known in Turkey, and therefore no very certain information is to be had concerning the number of the various classes of its inhabitants. The Ottoman Turks, the original branch of the Turkish family, con- stitute the main body of the population, and ANATOLIA still retain much of the rudeness, simplicity, and hospitality of their ancestors who roamed in the plains of central Asia. About one-twen- tieth part are Greeks, an active, subtle, but dis- honest race, in whose hands is nearly all the trade of the empire; and the remainder com- prise Armenians, Jews, Koords, a few wandering Arabs, and a smaller number of huckstering Zingari or gypsies.-—-For the possession of An- atolia the most powerful nations known in his- tory struggled during over 3,000 years, from the obscure era of Semiramis, B. C. 2000, to the time of Osman, about 1300 of our era. Here was the Trojan kingdom of Priam and the long contest of Greece for its overthrow, in which the gods of Olympus descended and joined bat- tle on diﬂ"erent sides. Even the pencil of ' Ho- mer seems to delineate the Asiatics as a more polished, though less energetic and warlike people, than their invaders. Afterward were the republics of reﬁned and effeminate Ionia, the early nursery of Greece, and marking the ﬁrst developments of the Greek race in civili- zation, poetry, and sculpture. Here Croesus, the wealthy king of the Lydians, ruled over a territory which reached from the 1Egean to the Halys, but the prize of his riches drew upon him the arms of the elder Cyrus, caused the downfall of his dynasty, and served only to swell the pomp of Persian satraps. The phalanx of Macedon, trained by Philip and led by Alexander, rescued Anatolia from the Persian yoke, and it became the seat of two of most conspicuous monarchies, Pergamus and Pontus, which were formed from the wreck of the mighty empire of Alexander. Under the powerful and persistent Mithradates, king of Pontus, the last great stand was made against Roman domination; and no enemy of Rome ever maintained a harder struggle or fell with greater glory. Anatolia became a prosperous Roman province; its agriculture and commerce ﬂourished, new cities were built and embellished; and the ruins discovered by modern travellers still attest its ancient civili- zation and splendor. The mountains and shores of western Anatolia, and the bordering islands, had been associated with the most in- teresting conceptions of the Greek mind. Every rock and island of the sea had its history, its protective gods, and deiﬁed heroes, and had been the theme of history and of song. Here Homer, Thales, and Pythagoras had been born, and the earliest artists and poets had wrought and sung. Hardly less favored was the same region under the Christian dispensation. It was the seat of “the seven churches which are in Asia,” and the theatre of a large part of the events recorded in the “ Acts of the Apostles.” Several general councils were held in its cities, 2 of which, those of Nice and Chalcedon, ex- ercised a decisive inﬂuence on the faith and worship of Christendom. Anatolia continued a part of the Byzantine empire, though fre- quently overrun by the armies of Persia or by hordes of Saracens or Mongols. Though its ANATOLICO picturesque hills and fruitful valleys had seemed destined to serve only as a battle-ﬁeld for the nations, yet it had not been easy to extirpate civilization from them. The Turks only were needed to effect this. They had already ap- peared upon the scene in the 11th century, but it was not till after the mailed warriors of the crusades had swept across the peninsula, and till about the close of the 13th century, that the savage Osman, at the head of a family of tribes from the Caucasus, forced the passes of Mount Olympus, planted the Tartar tents in Bithynia, and prepared the way for the capture of Brusa by his son and successor, and for the farther progress of the Turkish arms against the eastern countries of Europe. The con- quest of Brusa is the beginning of the modern Ottoman empire, and it marks also the com- plete disappearance of the old civilization from Anatolia. The country was soon again molest- ed by a new Mongol invasion under the resist- less Tamerlane, which having ebbed back, the supremacy of the Ottomans was conﬁrmed by the capture of Constantinople and Trebizond. Since that time the provinces of Anatolia have been governed by grasping Turkish pashas, who act nearly as independent princes, and are constantly at feud with each other.-—ANA'roLIA is also the name of the largest of the pashalics of Turkey in Asia, forming the westerly por- tion of the peninsula called Anatolia or Asia Minor. Its extent depends much upon the ca- price of the sultan, or the vigor and cupidity of the reigning pasha, but its indeterminate eastern boundary generally winds from about long. 35° E. on the Black sea to long. 31° E. on the Mediterranean. It is the richest and most populous province in Asiatic Turkey, with a mild climate, fertile soil, and an active com- merce in wool of diﬁ°erent kinds, in silk and cotton fabrics, honey, cheese, wine, fruits, and gall-nuts. Notwithstanding the oppressions of the governors, the people enjoy a degree of comfort and liberty rarely to be met with in the Ottoman empire. ANATOLICO, a town of Greece, in the an- cient province of Attolia, on the gulf of Patras, 8 miles N. W. from Missolonghi. It is built on rocks and piles in the midst of lagoons, and is surrounded by water rarely exceeding 3 feet in depth. Its capture in 1826 by the Egyptian troops caused the downfall of Missolonghi. The ﬁshermen in the lagoons use a peculiar canoe made from the hollow trunks of trees. The population of Anatolico is about 2,000. ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS. The skeleton and other portions of the dead body are preserved from decomposition by various arti- ﬁcial methods, for the use of medical schools, or science, and are thence termed anatomical preparations. The soft parts are usually sepa- rated from the skeleton by steaming or boiling; the bones are bleached, and the articulations held together by means of wires. This is call- ed an artiﬁcial skeleton; and, when properly prepared, may be preserved for a long time. ANATOMICAL PREPARATIONS 517 To preserve the natural articulations of the bones, the soft parts must be removed carefully by dissection, and many delicate sections and me- chanical adaptations are required to display the” internal structure, forms, and relative propor- tions of the skeleton and its component parts. The whole body of an animal, or any soft por- tion of the body, such as the heart or the in- testines, may be preserved for a considerable time in alcohol or in spirits of turpentine; and such preparations are very useful in the study of comparative anatomy. Another method of anatomical preparation, consists of injecting the vessels with some colored substance to distend them, and display their ramiﬁcations in the or- gans, that the shape and course and relative dimensions of the vessels may be seen with case. By means of a large syringe inserted into the main trunks of the arteries, these vessels are ﬁlled with a soft colored mass, which pene- trates into the smallest branches, distends them, and makes them visible. The infused substance usually consists of a mixture of soap, pitch, oil, and turpentine, to which is added a coloring substance: red for the arteries, blue for the veins, and white for the absorbents or lympha- tics. For the latter vessels quicksilver is pre- ferred, on account of its extreme divisibility.—— Dried preparations of the soft parts, such as muscles, nerves, and membranes, are pre- served by covering them with a protecting coat of transparent varnish. The quicker they are dried, the better for this mode of prepa- ration and conservation. Spirits of wine, dis- tilled with pepper or a very strong pimento, and mixed with muriatic acid, is used for pre- serving them. Washing with pyroligneous acid gives ﬁrmness and whiteness to these an- atomical preparations. Those which are pre- served in liquids are usually kept in bottles of transparent glass, hermetically sealed to pre- vent evaporation, and secure them against the destructive inﬂuence of air, moisture, heat, dust, and insects.—Preparations of this kind are very necessary to preserve important spe- cimens of normal and abnormal development in the animal economy, but they are diﬂicult to preserve long in a comparative state of perfec- tion. Other means have therefore been devis- ed as substitutes, for common use. Instead of anatomical preparations properly so called, anatomical imitations are now used for pur- poses of general instruction, and great perfec- tion has of late years been attained in the manufacture of these works of art. Imita- tions of organic form and structure were for- merly made in wood, as those of the Abbé Fon- tana in the museum at Florence; or in wax, as those made by Laumonier and others in France and Italy; card-board, as by Dr. Ameline of Caen; or in lithographic drawings, wood-cuts, colored prints, &c. Drawings, however per- fect, are not sufficient for all purposes; and though the anatomical imitations of organs were sometimes made with rare perfection and beauty in wax, they were too expensive for 518 AN ATOMICAL PREPARATIONS common use, and could neither be taken to pieces for detailed inspection, nor handled -freely without risk of injury. In 1825, Dr. ‘ Auzoux, of Saint-Aubin d’Ecrovi]le in France, conceived the idea of making imitations of all the organs of the human body; not only of -their general external form and appearance, but also of their internal and minute details. For this purpose he composed a pasty mixture of a sort of papier-maché which may be moulded to any form while liquid, and hardened in the form thus given. Models of the organs were then made, in all their different layers and pro- portions, with the vessels and the nerves in each, as they are found in nature; the liquid substance was then poured upon the models and allowed to harden. A complete manikin of the human body and all the internal organs, was thus formed, which could be taken to pieces and put together again at will and with the greatest ease; each part being colored in imitation of nature, and labelled with a num- ber or the real name, by which it could be re- cognized at any time, either in or out of its natural position in the manikin. In 1830, this art was brought to great perfection ; and a comparatively faultless model of the human body, 5 feet 6 inches in height, could be man- ufactured and sold for $600. This was still, however, too expensive for many persons, and complete manikins of a smaller size (3 feet 6 inches, in lieu of 5 feet 6 inches) are now manufactured, and sold for $200 each. This invention has been very successful; and the demand for models has become so universal in the civilized world, that Dr. Auzoux has es- tablished a manufactory at Saint-Aubin, his native village, in the department of the Euro, where he instructs young people in the art, and employs from 60 to 80 persons con- stantly in making manikins and models of this kind. The study of anatomy has thus been greatly facilitated in all countries, and especially in hot climates, where dissection is attended with more inconvenience than in colder regions; not to mention the facility afforded to the pub- lic, who are neither able nor willing to submit to the labor and annoyance of dissection.- These models do not, however, enable the med- ical student to dispense with dissection alto- gether; as many things beside a knowledge of mere form, color, and relative position of the organs of the body, are necessary to the surgeon and physician in the study of anatomy and physiology. Each manikin contains 129 distinct pieces, forming different layers and or- gans or parts of organs, which maybe separated and put together again with ease. In these pieces, 1,100 distinct objects are moulded, col- ored, and labelled. Beside these imitations of the human body, both in miniature, and of the natural size, Dr. Auzoux manufactures models of particular organs, as the eye and ear, brain, heart and lungs, &c., much larger than nature, that the minutest parts may be made visible, without the aid of a microscope. He ANATOMY has also manufactured complete models of the horse and other animals, or portions of animal structure, with a like perfection of proportions and details in every part. Insects and ﬁshes have been likewise imitated in their anatomical structure ; and comparative anatomy will soon be probably as much indebted to this marvel- lous invention as human anatomy and its dif- fusion amongst all classes have already been. As the art of printing was the means of diffus- ing books amongst the people, so this art will become the means of diffusing a knowledge of the animal economy amongst all classes in civil- ized communities. ANATOMY (Gr. avaropn, dissection). The literal meaning of this word gives but a very limited idea of the sciences derived from the common operation of cutting open the dead bodies of animals, to inspect the organs, and thus, by careful examination, to ob- tain accurate views of their peculiar structure, and modes of action. During the primitive ages of the world, anatomy was little cultivated as a science, and thence, the art of surgery was undeveloped. In later ages, when science was appreciated, and medical men felt the want of a correct knowledge of the human organism and its physiological characteristics, religious scruples forbade the opening of the human body to inspect the viscera; and students of ana- tomy were limited to the dissection of animals, to gain a knowledge of internal organs and their functions, which might serve as a guide to un- derstand similar organs and functions in the human subject. The ﬁrst branch of this science, therefore, which was studied from nature, was animal anatomy, now called “comparative ana- tomy,” from the fact of different types of the animal kingdom differing in their internal structure as much as in their external form. Aristotle was the ﬁrst to give accurate descrip- tions of the internal organs of diﬁ'erent species of animals, and for many centuries after him, little was done to advance the science by actual dissection and observation. Hippocrates, the father of medical science, was not the origi- nator of anatomy and surgery. Of the many books ascribed to him, only 5 are believed to be genuine, and none of these expressly treat of anatomy. From his medical and surgical in- structions, and physiological remarks, we learn that he had some accurate views of osteology, but his descriptions of the brain and the heart, and their respective functions, show that ana- tomy was little known to the illustrious phy- sician of Cos. The ﬁrst important development of human anatomy, of which we have any au- thentic record, took place at Alexandria in Egypt, during the reign of the Ptolemies, 300 B. C. Erasistratus of Chios, and Herophilus of Chal- cedon, are mentioned by Galen as eminent anatomists of the Alexandrian school; and Herophilus is said to have obtained permission to open and inspect the bodies of living crimi- nals, to gain a knowledge of internal organs and their modes of action. The writings of Celsus ANATOMY show that he cultivated anatomy, but the next great steps in advance were made by Claudius Galenus, the celebrated physician of Pergamus. Galen was born at Alexandria, A. D. 131. He collected the works of his predecessors and pursued the study of anatomy, as far as he was able, by dissecting animals. He ﬁrst showed that arteries in the living animal contain blood, and not air alone, as had been supposed by Erasistratus; but it did not occur to him to notice the movement of the blood in the vessels. This was reserved for Harvey, many centuries later; before which time, the blood was sup- posed to stagnate inthe veins of the living body as it does in the corpse. During the middle ages, the natural sciences, neglected by the Christians, were mainly cultivated by the Arabs; but, as the Mohammedan religion forbade the dissection of human bodies, their physicians were obliged to rely on the knowledge trans- mitted to them by the school of Alexandria, and chieﬂy on the works of Galen. Their writings add little or nothing to the science of anatomy, unless it be the names of certain or- gans translated from the Greek into the Arabic, and afterward, to some extent, adopted by- Italian and Spanish writers on anatomy. The spirit of religious liberty and commercial enter- prise revived the cultivation of the arts and sciences in Italy during the 14th century ; and Mondini di Luzzi, professor of anatomy at the university of Bologna, ﬁrst publicly dissected 2 human bodies in the presence of medical stu- dents, in 1315; and shortly afterward pub- lished a description of the organs, from direct observation and dissection. This, with the works of Galen, served as a text book for the schools until the 16th century, when the study of human anatomy from actual dissection became general in the medical schools of Italy. Many important organs still bear the names of emi- nent Italians, who ﬁrst described them ac- curately, at this early period of modern develop- ment; and from this time forward, human anatomy has been constantly studied from ac- tual dissection and observation, in those coun- tries of Europe where religious considerations offered least resistance to this mode of proceed- ing. First Italy, then Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Germany, France, England, and Amer- ica, have furnished names of eminence in the cultivation and advancement of the science of anatomy; but popular prejudices have hin- dered the free dissection of human bodies in medical schools, until a very recent date, in many states of Europe, and also in this country. The love of science now prevails suﬂiciently in civilized nations, to allow the study of anatomy free scope for its development as a necessary basis of correct medical and surgical and general knowledge of the human body, and -the intimate structure of organized beings.- Anatomy is now one of the most important branches of natural science, and its various de- partments have become so extensive as to re- quire separate divisions and distinct methods of analysis. We have thus comparative anatomy, including every type of animal organization, not excepting man, as one of the types of the animal kingdom-and human anatomy as a dis- tinct branch of study, in connection with phys- iology, pathology, surgery, and therapeutics. These again are subdivided into distinct branch- es, under the names of relational or surgical anatomy, descriptive or special anatomy, his- tological or general anatomy, and microscop- ical or minute anatomy.—Surgical anatomy treats of the relations of organs to each other, in each region of the body; such as the posi- tions, forms, dimensions, structure, and pecu- liarities of nerves and vessels, muscles, glands, and membranes, in the head, the trunk, and the limbs; a proper knowledge of which is abso- lutely necessary to guide the surgeon in his del- icate and diiﬁcult operations. He must know exactly where to cut and what to avoid in ope- rating on the living body; for the life of the patient might be jeopardized in certain opera- tions, if the surgeon were unskilful or not well acquainted with the relative anatomy of vital organs.—-Descriptive anatomy treats of the dis- tinct systems which pervade the whole frame, or perform a certain class of functions in the organism; such as the bones of the skeleton, the muscles, the skin, and the nerves of the whole body; the digestive system; the blood- vessels; the respiratory organs; the generative and the urinary apparatus; the blood and the secretions; saliva, bile, mucus, gastric juice, perspiration, tears, &c.—General anatomy treats of the different tissues which compose a special organ or class of organs, in different parts of the body; such as the 3 distinct coats of the stomach,i. e. the mucous membrane, the muscular coat, and the serous membrane, or peritoneal covering; irrespective of the nerves and ves- sels, glands, and connective tissue interwoven with these coats in the walls of that important organ. Three sorts of tissue are also foundin the lungs; c’. e. the lining mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes and air-cells; the paren- chymatous substance of the lungs; and the serous membrane covering the lungs and bind- ing them to the walls of the chest, which mem- brane is commonly called the pleura. These tissues of the lungs are quite distinct in_ struc- ture and in function; and either one alone may be diseased without at ﬁrst involving the others; and thus modern science recognizes 3 distinct diseases of the lungs, as one or other of these tissues is affected; 21. e. bronchitis, when the mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes and air-cells, is inﬂamed or irritated; pleuritis or peripneumonia, when the serous. membrane is inﬂamed; and pneumonia when the parenchy- matous substance is alone or chieﬂy affected by inﬂammatory disease. The treatment differs widely for each of these affections of the lungs; and so of other organs; hence it is important to distinguish the peculiar nature of each spe- cial tissue in all the organs of the body.—Mi- nute anatomy dives into the elementary basis of 519 ' ' 520 organic nature; and by the aid of chemistry and the microscope, observes and analyzes the atomic and cell structure of the tissues which compose the organs of the body; the ﬂuids and contents are also subjected to this minute analyses.—-Animal anatomy was scantily and al- most exclusively studied by the ancients; human anatomy was fairly commenced by the Italian schools of the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries; the descriptive branch being chieﬂy cultivated throughout Europe until the end of the 18th; when Bichat instituted and almost originated the systematic study of general anatomy. Micro- scopic observations had been made by Malpighi and other anatomists, but many of the great dis- coveries of comparative anatomy and general an- atomy have been made in the present age; and the systematic study and development of minute an- atomy, date from the improved construction of the compound microscope in 1832 ; before which time it was impossible to make much progress in this most important branch of science.— Descriptive or special anatomy is limited to the study of the parts which form the body of one type or individual, or of the two sexes of one species, as man and woman. It does not, how- ever, exclude reference to age, and difference of race.—The human species contains 3 different races, dark, fair, and tawny; 2 sexes, male and female; aseries of different ages, from infancy to manhood and decline; and numerous varieties of feature, form, and stature, peculiar to race, sex, and age.—-The human body consists of 2 lateral halves, more or less symmetrically joined together in the median line. The symmetry is much more evident in the external frame than in some of the internal organs, but the bilateral unity is found, even where it is least apparent. The nose is twofold internally, though seemingly but one organ, compared with the two eyes.——The organs of the body have been classed in various ways by diiferent anatomists, and mostly according to the nature of their special structure, and peculiarity of use or func- tion. A perfect method is still to be discovered, but the usual classiﬁcations and distinctions are suﬂicient for practical purposes. Bichat’s me- thod, slightly modiﬁed, is most in use, and is, perhaps, the best. By this, the organs are classed as follows: I. Organs pertaining to the animal, voluntary, or relational functions. II. ' Organs pertaining to the nutritive functions. III. Organs pertaining to generation, or the re- productive functions. To the 1st class belong the organs of locomotion, innervation, voice, and sensation: 1st. The skeleton, composed of bones, cartilages, ligaments, and joints, as in- struments of locomotion; and forming the subject of what is termed osteology. 2d. The muscular system, composed of muscles, tendons, sheaths, and their appendages, as agents of lo- comotion; forming the subject of myologg/. 3d. The nervous system, composed of medul- lary white substance, and gray vesicular mat- ter, enclosed in sheaths of serous and ﬁbrous membrane; forming the brain and spinal cord, ANATOMY with 43 pairs of nerves, issuing to all parts of the body, as telegraphic wires of sen- sation and motory reaction. The special study of the structure and functions of the nervous system and appendages is term ed neurology. 4. The vocal organs, as an apparatus of rela- tional use between man and the external world, are the larynx or throat, and the mouth; the one as an organ of the voice, and the other as an organ of articulation, or speech. 5. The special organs of sense are distinguished into proper and common; taste, smell, sight, and hearing belong to the former, and touch, the sense of temperature, and the muscular sense of resistance, weight, lassitude, &c., belong to the latter. The mouth, the nose, the eyes, and the ears, are special organs, but the whole external surface of the body serves for the sense of touch and temperature, while the whole inter- nal muscular structure seems to be affected by the sense of lassitude, and the muscular-parts of the trunk and limbs are affected by the sense of resistance to external weight or force.—To the second class of organs, pertaining to the functions of nutrition and secretion, belong the -organs of digestion, respiration, circulation, urination, defecation. 1. The digestive system consists of the stomach, the duodenum, and small intestines, the large bowels, and the rectum, to which are added the pancreas, and the liver, to pour bile and pancreatic juice into the food, as it leaves the stomach and proceeds to the intestines. Mastication, insalivation, deglutition, chymiﬁcation, chyliﬁcation, ab- sorption of chyle, and extrusion of refuse mat- ter, are the leading functions of ingestion and digestion. The teeth and jaws are the main agents of mastication, which is a most impor- tant step towards good digestion; the salivary glands secrete saliva and pour it into the mouth, when excited by the movement of the jaws in masticating food; the tongue is an im- portant agent in turning the food over in all directions, until well divided by the teeth, and mingled with saliva, of which a volume of 6 or 8 oz. is usually poured out at each meal, when the muscles of the pharynx and the larynx are set in motion to perform the act of swallowing, or deglutition, by which the food is passed from the mouth into the stomach. Here gastric juice is poured upon it-, by the glandulae contained within the walls of that important organ, and a further mingling and churning of the mass goes on, until the whole is transformed into an acid pulp, called chyme. While the muscular walls of the stomach turn the food round in all directions, by spiral movements and contractions, the acid and sa- line secretions are poured in upon it from the numerous minute glandulae contained in the walls; and thus a powerful mechanical and chemical action mingles, dissolves, and trans- forms the food within the stomach to form an acid pulp, and when this is suﬂiciently advanc- ed, the softer parts begin to ﬂow from the stomach, through the pyloric oriﬁce and valve, ANATOMY into the duodenum, or ﬁrst part of the small intestine, where it is met by the bile and pan- creatic juice ﬂowing in from the ducts of the two glands. These ﬂuids being of an alkaline reaction, further modify the acid pulp, and give it a more bland and milky character, transforming it from sour chyme into a bland emulsion, which is then absorbed by the oilli of the small intestines. These villi contain the extremi- ties of the lacteal vessels, which convey the chyle to the thoracic duct, and thence into the veins near the heart, where it mingles with the blood in general circulation. 2. The heart is the centre of the circulatory system, which consists of 2 distinct circles, called pulmona- ry and systemic. From the right ven- tricle of the heart, the dark impure blood is sent through the pulmonary arteries into the lungs, where the minute capillary blood-vessels are exposed to the almost direct contact of the air, from which oxygen is absorbed to vivify the blood, and give it a bright scarlet red. A very thin ﬁlm of membrane intervenes between the air in the lungs and the blood, but this does not impede the absorption of oxygen, and the exhalation of carbonic acid gas, the one to give new life, and the other to rid the blood of poisonous gas and effete matter. When thus puriﬁed and renovated in the lungs, the blood returns to the heart, from whence it came, per- forming a complete circle in the region of the heart and lungs alone, for this sole purpose. It is then propelled from the left ventricle of the heart, through the aorta, and all the arteries of the whole body, into every organ, for the pur- pose of nutrition. The capillary vessels ramify minutely in every organ, and the tissues of the part absorb the nutrient portions of the ﬂuid, and return waste matter to the veins, in ex- change for the nutriment brought to them by the arteries. And thence it is that venous blood is more or less impure, compared with that which circulates within the arteries. There are but two sets of vessels, veins, and ar- teries, belonging to the round of pulmonary circulation, but there are three sets of vessels, lymphatics and lacteals, or absorbents, veins, and arteries, belonging to what is called gene- ral or systemic, or nutritive circulation. The _, lacteals, or absorbents, carry chyle from the digestive system, and lymph from every part of the body, and pour it into the veins to mingle with the impure blood. The general system of arteries carry pure blood to all parts of the body, and the general system of veins return impure blood from all parts of the body back into the heart, to be thence sent into the lungs for puriﬁcation, and thus keep up perpetual circulation and renovation. 3. The respiratory organs are the larynx, the trachea or wind- pipe, the bronchial tubes, and air-cells within the lungs. Their function is to breathe in new supplies of air to vivify the blood, and breathe out carbonic acid gas, to purify it from waste matter which is poisonous when accumulated in too large a quantity. 4. The kidneys secrete 521 urine from the blood, to rid it of another kind‘ of waste matter, which also becomes poisonous to the system if allowed to accumulate too much within the vessels that contain and circu- late the vital ﬂuid. When in the bladder it is not dangerous, because no longer mingled with the blood, although it may cause inconvenience if long retained and much accumulated in that reservoir. 5. Defecation is also necessary to purify the blood from waste matter, and keep it ﬁt for the nutrition of the organs, and hence the importance of daily evacuations.—To the third class of organs belong the reproductive systems, male and female. These are not es- sential to the life of the individual, as they may be extirpated, without danger even to the health of the body, ‘but they are essential to the life of the race, by the continuation of the species. The male and female organs differ in form and appearance, although they correspond infunc- tion and are parallel in their distinctions. The female is the most complete, however, in devel- opment, being invested by nature with the gesta- tion of the embryo, and the nursing of the child. The ovaries, the womb, the organs of im- pregnation, and the breasts, form the reproduc- tive system in the female; the testicles, the rest- eulce seminales, the organs of impregnation,and the rudiments of breasts, distinguish the male. The ovum is formed within the ovary of the female; the semen, in the testicle of the male. By impregnation they meet, and form the em- bryo, which is developed in the womb of the female. After 7, 8, or 9 months of gestation, the child is born, and milk is furnished in the breasts of the mother, to continue the nutri- tion, imtil the teeth appear, and are suﬁiciently developed to perform slight mastication, and enable the child to live on pulpy food.-—The time and successive order of appearance of the teeth are liable to vary in different individuals, but the average times and most common order of succession are thus given by Thomas Bell :-—- “ The ﬁrst set, called milk teeth, are 20 in num- ber, 10 in each jaw; those of the lower jaw usually preceding the corresponding pairs in the upper jaw. From 5 to 8 months, 4 central incisors. “‘ 7 to 10 “ 4 lateral incisors. “ 12 to 16 “ 4 anterior molars. “ 14 to 20 “ 4 canine teeth. “ 18 to 36 “ 4 posterior molars. The two front teeth of the lower jaw usually appear about the 7 th month, and the whole set of milk teeth begin to shed between the 6th and 7th years, and are then gradually replaced by a permanent and more complete set, in the following order: those of the lower jaw pre- ceding their fellows of the upper jaw by 2 or 3 months, and generally being less liable to early decay; 61} years, . . 4 anterior large molars. 7 “ . . 4 central incisors. 8 “ . . 4 lateral incisors. 9 “ . . 4 anterior bicuspids. 10 “ . . 4 posterior biscuspids. 11 to 12 years, . 4 canines or cuspids. 12 to 13 “ . 4 second large molars. 17 to 19 “ . 4 wisdom teeth, or 8d large molars 522 The wisdom teeth are very uncertain in their times of appearance, and may be sometimes as late as the 30th year, before they are devel- oped. There are thus 12 more teeth in the second than in the ﬁrst set; the milk teeth being only 20, and the ﬁnal set, 32.”—General anatomy treats of the diiferent sorts of tissue composing the organs of the body; and Bichat made 21 distinctions of animal texture; but later anatomists have modiﬁed his method of distinction. It will suﬂice here to say, that the sheaths or covering membranes of bones, mus- cles, nerves, and many other organs, are formed of a ﬁbrous kind of membrane, much alike in texture and in its leading properties, whether it be called periosteum, or bone-sheath; myoZem- ma, or sheath of muscles ; nenrilemma, or sheath of nerves; or tunica albuginea, sheath of the ovaries, &c., &c. Serous membrane is also the same kind of tissue in every part of the body, although called arachnoid when it serves as a covering for the brain; pleura, as a covering for the.lungs; and peritoneum, as a covering for the viscera of the abdomen, and a lining for the inner walls of the trunk below the chest.—Fibrous tissue; serous membrane; bony texture; cartilaginous texture; ﬁbro-car- tilage; muscular ﬁbre, of various kinds, stri- ated and non-striated; glandular tissue; mu- cous membrane; dermoid tissue or skin; cuti- ticle or epidermic tissue, on the surface of skin and mucous membrane; horny tissue, as the hair and nails; white nervous or medullary substance; and gray nervous, or ganglionic, or vesicular matter ;—these form the leading ele- ments of structure in the organs of the body; and diseases are characterized in many instances, not so much by the particular organ affected, in any part of the body, as by the partic- ular tissue aifected by disease in any given region.——Minute anatomy goes deeper still into details, and with the microscope and chemical analysis endeavors to ﬁnd out the elementary structure of the tissues and the ﬂuids of the body. Thus chemistry reveals to us that the simple elements found in the tissues, are, oxy- gen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, .sulphur, phos- phorus, magnesium, calcium, sodium, potassi- um, chlorine, ﬁuorine,~silicium, iron, and manga- nese '; the compound elements are of 3 classes: a’. 6. organic substances; substances resulting from waste of the body; and substances of mineral origin; the latter of two kinds-—gases and salts: as oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogren, car- bonic acid gas, and water; the salts being, chloride of sodium, chloride of potassium, ﬂu- oride of calcium, hydrochlorate of ammonia, carbonate of lime, bicarbonate of lime, car- bonate of magnesia, carbonate of potassium, bicarbonate of potassium, carbonate of soda, sulphate of potassa, sulphate of soda, sulphate of lime, basic phosphate of lime or bone-earth, acid phosphate of lime, phosphateof magnesia, phosphate of potassa, neutral phosphate of soda, acid phosphate of soda, ammonia, and magne- sian phosphate, found in the urine and faeces of ANATOMY . persons suffering from disease such as typhus fever. The compound substances resulting from waste of the body, are, lactic acid, lactate of potash,_ of potassa, of lime; oxalate of lime, uric acid, neutral urate of soda, acid urate of soda, urate of potassium, of magnesia, of lime, of ammonia; hypuric acid, hypurate of lime, of soda, of potassa; pneumic acid, pneumate of soda, teurochlorate of soda, hydrochlorate of soda, glycochlorate of soda; lithofellic acid, glucose, sugar of milk, or lactine; fatty sub-_ stances, kreatine, kreatinate, urea, chloroiodate of urea, cystine; fatty and saponaceous com- pounds, as cholesterine, serotine, olic acid, mar- garic acid, stearic acid; oleate of soda, marga- rate of soda, steorate of soda, oleine, marga- rine, stearine, elacerine, stearerine; caproate of soda, of potassa, &c.; proteine compounds hav- ing no deﬁnite chemical constitution, as albu- men, albuminose, ﬁbrine, caseine, pancreatine, mucosin, ptyaline; organic substances, natural- ly solid or demi-solid, as globuline, crystalline, elasticine, keratine, cartilagine, osteine, muscu- line; pigmentary substances, as haematine, be- liverdine, urosacine, melanine.-—By microscopic observation, the elementary structure of ._the tissues is found to_ consist mostly of minute cells. Schwann believed that all the tissues of the body were formed from cells; but subse- quent observation shows, that although many tissues retain their original cellular structure throughout life, and many more are formed from cells which are afterward metamorphosed, there are some in which no other cell-agency is employed than that which occurs in the elaboration of the plastic material; certain structureless lamella, commonly called basement membrane, offers no visible traces of cell-struc- ture, but rather resembles the ﬁlmy tissue of which the walls of minute cells themselves are formed. It is, however, generally believed that minute cells, more or less modiﬁed in form, constitute the elementary organic parts of near- ly every tissue, and that all chemical changes occur in them, as integral elements of struc- ture, without altering their numbers and rela- tive positions; that these minute cells, in fact, are as permanent in form as the tissues and the organs they compose; and that all growth in the individual organism takes place by a rela- tive enlargement of these primordial cells, and not by any increase of their number; so that, as the organs remain the same in form and number in the adult as in the new-born child, the same is true of the tissues that compose the or- gans, and the microscopic cells composing tissues. Each cell is a sort of living microscopic organ- ism, imbibing liquid through its walls, and giving out waste matter by the same means; and con- taining within its hollow sphere fatty sub- stances, and salts, and liquid matter, as an in- dependent globule, cell, or individuality of organic structure. And moreover, all the ﬁbrous ﬁlaments which cannot be traced to cell formation, are not endowed with_vital proper- ties as much as other tissues, but form a mere ANATOMY mechanical link in the system, as earth does in the cellular structure of the bones. " The histo- logical or morphological elements of minute structure now recognized, are : 1, homogeneous substance, as cartilage; 2, simple ﬁbre, or co- agulable lymph; 3, simple membrane such as forms the walls of cells; and 4, cells. A cell consists: .1, of a homogeneous wall, probably formed of - coagulable albuminose; 2, of ﬂuid contents, colored or not; 3, granular contents; 4, a nucleus in the ﬂuid contents, sometimes absent, as in blood corpuscles and cells of fat; 5, nucleoli in the nucleus. The granules con- tained in cells always contain some fat; but all cells contain fat, even where no granules are found. The diameters of what are termed‘ conoidal cells, are about the 300th of an inch in short diameter, to the 100th of an inch in long diameter; the thickness of their walls -vary from the 20,000th to the 24,000th or the 34,000th of an inch. Fat cells are larger, and their walls thicker. The cell wall is never per- forated by any nerve or vessels, but it is ex- tremely active in the physical properties of en- dosmose and exosmose, or absorption and exhalation. This activity of cells, however, is not simple absorption, but selection also; as the contents of the cell differ from the plasma of the blood from which it was absorbed. It is a vital process, therefore, and not a merely physical phenomenon. The cells of each tissue have peculiar properties and functions, as dif- ferent individuals and professions in the same community.—The development of cells, the growth of cells, the functions of cells, and the diseases of cells, have become important branch- es of physiological study, since the microscope revealed this universe of minute corpuscles in all the vital tissues of the body. In “ Bright’s Disease” of the kidneys, the uriniferi epithelial cells become fatty cells; and the disease is nothing but a modiﬁed state of these cells, more or less differing from their normal state, with power to select urine from the blood, but resembling the known healthy states of other cells (fat cells) in different parts of the body. The fatty degeneration of a tissue, therefore, is nothing but the displacement of true tissue cells by fatty cells, or the metamorphosis of one into the other.—The ovum from which the human being is developed physically, is one of these primordial cells, enlarged and detached from the ovary of the mother, in which about 100 may be seen in a rudimental state, by the aid of the microscope, and 15 or 20 (more or less mature) with the naked eye.—A certain number of cells, or red corpuscles, ﬂoat freely in the blood, and perform distinct functions. They are as permanent as any of the tissues, and one of their leading functions seems to be, to carry oxygen into the system, and carbonic acid gas into the lungs for exhalation. More than one-half of the blood is composed of these red corpuscles. The rest is called the liquor sanguinis, and contains the elements required or nutrition. Six hundred and eighty-eight AN AXAGORAS 523 parts in 1,000 of the liquor sanguinis consists of water; 312 of solid matter. Three-fourths of the muscular tissues consist of water, and 13 per cent. of the bony tissues. Four-ﬁfths of the whole weight of matter in the body, in fact, are composed of liquid, and only one of solid substance. A wooden box 16 inches cube, the walls of which were one inch thick, and the interior being ﬁlled with water, would very nearly represent the relative weights and proportions of solid and liquid constituents of the human organism; for the dried mummy of a body weighing 120 lbs. would not weigh more than 25. ANATOMY, Oomrxnarrvn. See Comman- TIVE ANATOMY; ANAVA, a river of Brazil, a tributary of the Branco, 200 miles long, and ﬂowing through Portuguese Guiana. ANAVELHANA, a navigable river of Brazil, in length 220 miles. It ﬂows nearly due south, and empties into the Rio Negro, near Toroma. AN AXAGORAS, the son of Hegesibulus, and reputed pupil of Anaximenes, was born at Olazomenee, in Ionia, about 500 B. O., died about 428 B. O. He rejected wealth and honors that he might indulge _ his love of meditation and philosophy. From Olazomenae he removed to Athens, where he lived in the closest intimacy with Pericles, and also num- bered among his friends or pupils several of the most distinguished Athenians -of that period. Anaxagoras is supposed to have been the ﬁrst among the Greeks who conceived of God as a Divine Mind acting upon matter with conscious intelligence and design. He taught that the sun was no deity, but an inanimate ﬁery mass, and therefore not a proper object of worship, and that the miraculous appearances at sacriﬁces were explicable by natural laws. Mathematics and astronomy claimed a great deal of his at- tention, and in both he made many discoveries. He suggested that the moon shone by reﬂected light, and rightly explained solar and lunar eclipses. His attempt to account for these phenomena, at that time regarded supernatural, on natural principles, brought him into great danger. On one occasion, some Athenian priests having predicted disasters to the state from the appearance of a ram with a single horn, he opened the head of the animal and showed the peculiarity of structure which had prevented the growth of the other horn. He gave moral expositions of the myths of Homer, and ex- plained the names of the gods by allegory. . As a penalty for what was accounted his impiety, he was condemned to die. When informed of his sentence, he said that 11¢ ture had passed that penalty upon him before he was born. Being questioned as to the disposition of his remains, be manifested entire indifference, say- ing that the road to the other side of the grave was as long from one place as another. Ow- ing to the powerful inﬂuence of Pericles his sentence was commuted to banishment. He retired to Lampsacus, and died there soon after, 524 AN AXARCHU S in poverty, at the age of 72. A little before his death, the senate of Lampsacus sent mes- sengers to inquire what commemoration would be most acceptable to him; he answered, “ Let all the boys have a play day on the anniversary of my death!” This festival was called Anax- agoreia, and was observed for many centuries. His writings were not greatly esteemed by Soc- rates. The fragments of his works have been collected by Schorn, Bonn, 1829, and by Shau- bach, Leips. 1827. ANAXAROHUS, a philosopher of Abdera in Thrace, a contemporary with Alexander the Great. He attended that monarch into Asia, and succeeded in winning his friendship by ser- vility and adulation. After the death of Alex- ander, Anaxarchus, while returning to Greece, is said to have been shipwrecked on the coast of Cyprus, and pounded to death in a mortar by order of Nicocreon, one of the princes of that island. .ANAXIMANDER, an eminent philosopher of antiquity, was born, according to Apollo- dorus, at Miletus, in the 42d Olympiad (B. O. 610). Of his personal history not much is known. He is said to have led a colony to Apollonia in Illyricum, and many wonderful deeds and inventions are ascribed to him. Grecian philosophy is indebted to him for the word apxq, signifying origin or principle. He was the ﬁrst to introduce the metaphysical question concerning the one and the many, the constant and the variable, the essence as dis- tinguished from phenomena, the discussion of which, under one form or another, engrossed so much of Grecian philosophy. His theory of nature differed essentially from that of Thales, his reputed friend and teacher,--the hypothesis of the latter being founded entirely upon physical considerations, and therefore encouraging the careful investigation of natural phenomena; and that of the former being susceptible of metaphysical treatment alone, and though some- times looking to nature for illustrations, never resting upon it as a necessary support. The general doctrine of Anaximander, as vaguely stated by ancient writers, concerning the origin of nature, was that the ﬁrst principle of all things is inﬁnity (ro armpov); that the universe, though variable in its parts, as a whole is ﬁxed and unchangeable; that inﬁnity is the begin- ning and end of all things. Under this term “ inﬁnity,” Anaximander probably conceived an original principle undetermined by actual qualities, yet potentially containing all qualities, and from its own independent, self-changing nature, manifesting them all in the variety of creation——a principle entirely unconditioned, except as having the capacity to produce phe- nomena. The doctrine that out of nothing generation is possible, which gave the old philosophers so much trouble, he thus sought to shun; and yet his primal essence or princi- ple, devoid of every -actual attribute but the power to produce phenomena, is simply nothing endowed with this capacity for generation. ANOELOT Whatever may be thought of Anaximander’s system, his service to Grecian philosophy by introducing a method more purely speculative than any which had preceded it, can hardly be over-estimated. But this philosopher had other claims to the gratitude of the Greeks. He was the ﬁrst to commit philosophical doctrines to writing. He wrote a treatise on geometry, and made calculations on the distances and size of the heavenly bodies. He held that the stars are globes of air and ﬁre, animated by divinity, that the earth is a globe ﬁxed in the centre of the universe, and that the sun is 28 times as large as the earth. He was the ﬁrst to compose a treatise on geography, and to prepare a chart of such portions of land and sea as he was ac- quainted with. According to some authorities he was the inventor of the sun-dial. He died at the age of 64. ANAXIMENES. I. Born at Miletus about the 56th Olympiad (B. O. 556), or, according to Apollodorus, in the 63d Olympiad, is commonly reputed to have been the friend, pupil, and suc- cessor of Anaximander ; but Ritter sees a strong resemblance between his doctrines and those of Thales. -He taught that the essence of all things is a subtle ether, which he called air, animated with a divine principle, whence it becomes the origin of beings, that the sun and moon are ﬁery bodies of a ﬂat, circular form, that the stars are also ﬁery substances, fastened like nails in a crystalline sphere, and that the earth is a tablet resting on air. II. A native of Lampsacus, a rhetorician and critic, was one of the preceptors of Alexander the Great. He wrote a history of Alexander’s reign, and that of his father Philip. He was also the author of a history of Greece. AN AZO, a large river of Abyssinia, formed by the union of the Ancoua and Sabalatte rivers, joined to the Melee. It ﬂows nearly due east, till within 10 miles of the ocean, when it disappears from the surface. ANBERTKEND, the Hindoo name of a celebrated book of the Bramins, literally sig- nifying “ the cistern wherein is the water of life.” It contains the Indian philosophy and religion. There is a translation in Arabic, en- titled Marat al Maani, “the marrow of intelli- gence.” ANOAOH, a department of north Peru on the Maraﬁon, divided into 5 provinces; capital, Huaraz. Population in 1850, 219,145. ANOELOT, J accuse Ansnrrn FRA1\TQOIS~P0-' LYOABPE, a French dramatist, born at Havre in 1794, died in Paris, Sept. 7, 1854. He made his débfrt in 1819 by his tragedy “ Louis IX.,‘” which was very successful, and brought him a small pension from Louis Philippe. He adapted Schi1ler’s Fiasco for the French stage, and produced 2 other dramas, Olga, and Eliza- beth d’AngZeterre, when on the breaking out of the revolution of 1848 he lost his pension, and was compelled to support himself by the writing of vaudevilles. In 1841 he became a member of the French academy. In 1849 he ANCESTORS was sent by the French government to Turin, Florence, Brussels, and other capitals, to nego- ciate with the respective governments about the international copyright question, and some treaties since concluded are due to his intelli- gent activity.—-MARGUERITE Vmemm, the wife of the preceding, was M’lle Chardon of Dijon, born in 1792. At the Paris exhibition of pie- tures in 1825 there -was a drawing of hers, Une lecture de M. Aneelot, which attracted much attention, from the fact that almost all the Zittémteurs of Paris ﬁgured in it, and also on account of its intrinsic merits. She has writ- ten some novels, and many plays for the vau- deville theatre, which, for some time, was under the direction of her husband. ANCESTORS (Lat. emeessor, contracted from anteeessor, one who goes before), those from whom a person is descended. Many nations and tribes pay divine honors to their ancestors. The Zares, Zemwres, and penates, or household gods of the Romans, were originally the de- parted souls of their forefathers. The Chinese at this day pay extravagant honors to their ancestors. No calamity is so grievous as the extinction of a family, so that no represent- ative is left to sacriﬁce at the ancestral shrine. The ancestors of the New Zealand chiefs are the Atuas or deities of the tribe. All the long- haired kings of the Teutonic family derived their descent from Woden or Odin, those of Hellas, through various demigods, from Zeus. In the early life of a community the ancestral derivation is a matter of the highest import- ance. In the patriarchal state it generally hap- pens that if one is not the descendant of the real or supposed ancestors of the tribe, he can be nothing but an alien. In Athens before the time of Cleisthenes, to be a citizen and enjoy full civil rights, one must have descended from some of the genealogical founders of the 10 tribes into which the population of Attica was divided. In Germany in the 15th century the practice began of proving the nobility of a person’s ancestry, and this test must be under- gone before the applicant could enter into a knightly order, into any chapter or court ofﬁce, or take part in any tournament. In the French army, before the revolution, and some other continental armies, a certain number of gener- ations of noble ancestors was a condition of holding the rank of oﬁicer in the army. To “ have a grandfather” is a common saying to designate that the individual of whom it is spoken is of at least respectable descent. The wisdom of our ancestors was long a favorite party cry with British conservatives. As soci- eties become older and more democratic, the ancestral tie weakens, until it becomes of as little social and civil importance as at the present day in the United States. ANCHER, PEDER Korocn, a Danish jurist of the last century, was born in the island of Bornholm, June 14, 1710. After studying at the academy of Soroé he ﬁnally graduated at the university of Copenhagen. In 1741 he ANCHIETA 525 was elected to the chair of jurisprudence in the latter institution. He afterward ﬁlled sev- eral important oﬁices in the Danish state, and died in 1788. His most valuable works are a “History of Danish Jurisprudence” in 2 volumes, (Copenhagen, 17 69-’7 6), and an edition of the “Ancient Provincial Laws of Jutland” (Copen- hagen, 1783). AN CHERES, DANIEL, a French poet of the 17th century, born in 1586, in the vicinity of Verdun; died about 1650. Early in life he served in the French army, but soon exchanged the sword for the pen. In 1608, he published a somewhat eccentric tragedy, Les Funestes Amours ele Belcar et de Mélicme, with a collec- tion of love poems, dedicated to James I. Soon after the publication the author went to Eng- land to seek the patronage of the king. He was favorably received, and at once showed his gratitude by a new work; and 2 years later, more especially by the ﬁrst 2 books of an epic poem consecrated to the glory of the illustrious house of Stuart. The Stuaride, as it is called, is a ridiculous compound of odd ﬁction and bad verse. The origin of the Stuart race is traced up to Astraea, who condescended to forget her vow of virginity, that she might, by marrying Banquo, become the ancestress of the royal line of Scotland, and above all of the British Solo- mon. The king was very much pleased with this mythological effusion. Anchéres did not leave England till after the death of his pro- tector when he returned to France. AN CHERSEN , Marrnras, a learned Dane, was born at Colding, March 16, 1682. He grad- uated at the school of Ribe in 1698, and was appointed rector of the academy at Fridericia in 1701. In 1706 he left Denmark on a tour through Europe for the purpose of studying the oriental languages. He returned to Den- mark in 1709, and became in the same year professor of mathematics in the Copenhagen university. In 1731 he was chosen bishop of Bibe, in which oﬁice he died in 1741. His chief works are a bjoieilegium clefeetus lexico- rum Rabbimleorum (Copenhagen, 1704), and Poema Abu-Ismae lie Togmi Arab/ieum (Utrecht, 1707). Of the latter only 50 copies are extant, nearly the entire edition having been lost‘bn its way from Holland to Denmark. ANCHIETA, or Ancnnrrra, J osr’: DE, one of the earliest Christian missionaries to Brazil, born at Teneriife in 1533, died June 9, 1597. He was a scion of an ancient Biscayan family allied to the Loyolas. He received his earliest education in the Canary islands, where his mother was a native, and afterward studied at Coimbra. He joined the Society of Jesus, and was sent in 1553 to the then unexplored Bra- zils. He learned the Indian language, and preached with much success to the Tupinambas and Tamoyos. He spent a lifetime in roving over the trackless solitudes where only primi- tive nature and primitive man were to be found; but he always kept up his ardor for good Latinity. When he died 300 Indians formed 526 his funeral cortege. He left many works which remain for the most part in manuscript; one which was published by the academy of sciences at Madrid, is on the natural produc- tions of Brazil. It shows the author to have been as ardent a naturalist as he was a mis- sionary, a Latinist, and an aboriginal linguist. AN OHISES, the son of Capys and Themis, and father of Eneas. He was related to the family of Priam, and was king of Dardanus in Phrygia. Anchises was so surpassingly beauti- ful that the goddess Aphrodite became enam- ored of him, and‘ visiting him in the disguise of a Phrygian princess, became the mother of zEneas. According to Virgil, Anchises sur- vived the capture of Troy, and was borne from the burning city on the shoulders of his son. The Mantuan bard makes him die in Sicily duging the ﬁrst sojourn of ..ZEneas in that isl- an . - ANCHOR, an iron instrument for holding a ship or other vessel at rest in water. A vessel is provided with at least 2 bower anchors hanging from the catheads, which are horizontal beams projecting from the deck over the bows, and with the same number of stream or kedge an- chors, which are used for towing, for steadying the vessel by mooring from the stern, and for other purposes. These 2 kinds of anchors are similar in shape, and differ only in size, so that a stream anchor from a three-decker, is identi- cal with a bower anchor from a vessel of smaller proportions. Anchors are called solid or or- dinary when the shank and arms are wrought into a body; they are called portable when they can be taken to pieces. Each part of an anchor has a distinct name; the shank or the central part of the instrument is a round bar of iron tapering toward one end, where it becomes square; the arms are 2 curved pieces projecting from the heavy end of the shank at right angles with it, and in opposite directions from each other ; the stock is a transverse beam, of wood or of iron, fastened to the square end of the shank at right angles with it and with the arms; it cants the anchor when the arms fall on the bottom in a horizontal, instead of a vertical position; the square is the square end of the shank ; at the extreme end just beyond the place where the stock is fastened, the square is bored through for attaching the shackle by means of a pin ; the shackle is a ring, by means of which the cable or chain is attached to the anchor; the crown is the extreme end of the shank, or the external part of the arms, on which the anchor falls when let go in a vertical position; the palms or ﬂukes are parts of the arms of a shield- like form, which are near their extremities, and constitute the holding surface of the anchor; the arms extend from the shank in a curve. That part of each arm which sustains the palm is called the blade, and the part which projects beyond the palm,‘and has to open the ground, is named the point, peak, or bill.--In regard to the best proportions and best shape of these various parts, there are as many opinions as there are ANCHOR authorities on the subject; they nevertheless all agree in making the shank shorter, and all parts heavier than was usual 50 years ago. To ena- ble every one to judge for himself, we will now describe the various strains, shocks, &c., to which anchors are subjected, and point out the forms that theory indicates as best to resist to them. Preparatory to casting anchor, every obstruction is removed from around the chain, which is so arranged as to run freely out, and a man is placed near the cathead. At the com- mand of “let go,” a pin is hammered out, and the anchor falls vertically through the water on the ground. On an even bottom the crown will strike ﬁrst, but a hard rock may project, and one of the arms may strike it. To resist such a blow, the cross section of the arm has to be higher than it is wide, and similar sections ought to have decreasing heights from the crown to the bill. After striking the ground the anchor falls sideways, the arms lie ﬂat, and the stock rests on one end. A length of chain proportional to the depth of water, and so cal- culated that the hardest pull of the vessel will not lift it entirely from the ground, is permitted to run out, and is secured to the vessel. Soon after the action of the current or of the wind on the vessel makes her exert a traction on the chain, and this lying on the ground pulls down the shackle, bringing the stock ﬁat on the bot- tom, and the arms perpendicular to it—this is called canting the anchor. The longer the stock, and the shorter the arms, the less force will be required to perform this operation; hence, in all anchors, the stock is longer than the arms. The effect on the stock is one of compression without lateral strain, the proper form of its section is that of a circle, and the stock has to be a bar of round iron, or a tube. After canting, the anchor will be dragged or will hold. Quick holding depends ‘on the sharpness of the bill and the angle of the palm with the ground. As the sharpening of the bills from time to time, as they wear out, may be done at a triﬂing expense, ship owners ought to be very careful to have it done, as it may prove the saving of the ship in many cir- cumstances. A sharp angle of the palm is also favorable to quick holding, and if this property alone was considered, it would be made much more acute than usual. After the bill holds on, the palm and arm enter the ground till, if the soil is not too hard, the shank lies on the bot- tom. In this new position, the angle of the palm with the horizon will be different from what it was when the anchor was just canted, and, for good holding, it has yet to be such as to give the blade a tendency to go deeper into the ground. For this reason, the angle cannot be made as sharp as would be most advan- tageous for quick holding. Practice has taught us to make it from 70 to 80 degrees when the an- chor is canted on the ﬂoor. The angle of the palm with the shank results from the one de- scribed, and from the relative lengths of arms and shank.—For weighing anchor, the chain or ANCHOR cable is taken in till the bow of the vessel is brought over the shackle; here, an increased pull is necessary to trip it, and the anchor is raised to its place. The property of quick tripping depends on the curve of the arm, and on the angle of the palm; they have to be such, that when the shackle is pulled up vertically, the bill cuts open a short curved circular way in which the palm and arm follow. When the palm is out, the ground is torn open by the arm, which is comparatively sharp, and acts with a more advantageous leverage than the palm would. No general principle can guide as to the shape of the arm, experiments alone have to be relied upon. The importance of this subject is evident from the fact that more than two -thirds of the ruptures of anchors happen in the operation of weighing. We have said that the arms ought to be thicker in the dimension parallel to the shank, to resist shocks against rocks. The same is necessary to resist the strain in tripping. The shank is exactly in the same circumstances, and has to be thicker in the direction of the arms, and to decrease in size from the crown to the square. Though theory indicates rectangular sections as best for the arms and shank, they are in practice made round, oval, or at least the angles are much rounded. This has been found necessary for the _preservation of cables, which often take a turn around the anchor when the vessel changes its direction with the tide or wind. In devising a new anchor, the danger of the ship grounding upon it in shallow water, and of a hole being made in her by projecting parts, is an im- portant consideration to keep in sight.——The following proportions of parts is an average of those in use: Length of shank, 100; length of each arm, from the crown to the bill, 40; length of stock, 100; radius for describing the out- side curve of the arms, 35; angle of the face of the palm with the shank, 51°. With such proportions the angle of the shank with the ground is 24°, and that of the blade 75°. Less than 50 years ago, anchors were tried by letting them fall from a height on old guns or heavy pieces of iron, the result of this barbarous pro- cess was, that many good anchors were broken, and many bad ones were considered safe; the manner of falling being necessarily left to chance, it was, in fact, no trial at all. At the present day, the hydraulic press is substituted, and by proper arrangements the strength of each part may be exactly measured, and anchors of dif- ferent makes compared.--No less important improvements have been introduced in the man-. ufacture of anchors. The experience acquired in forging the pieces of large steam-engines and the tools devised for the purpose, has been taken advantage of in anchor making, and for the “Hercules” worked by hand_of former days, Nasmith’s steam-hammer has been generally substituted. The fan-blast has also taken the place of the bellows, and the furnaces have been improved. The several parts of anchors are forged like any other pieces of machinery, 527 either by piecing or by using blooms, and are afterward welded together. The process of annealing anchors after they are ﬁnished was formerly considered as absolutely necessary, and when anchors were very indifferently manufactured it made the defects visible. Several makers are now of opinion that an- chors not annealed are stronger and more elas- tic, and are satisﬁed with roasting the anchors but just enough to take away the polish pro— duced by the hammer, thus giving them a better looking surface. The proof-strains to be applied to anchors by the hydraulic press, are : Anchor. Strain. Anchor. Strain Cwt. _ Tons. Cwt. Tons 100 67 40 85 90 63 so 28 80 58 20 20 70 53 10 12 60 48 5 7 50 42 1 8 We give, from a good authority, the following table of approximate values of the properties considered essential to a good anchor: Essential properties. Approximate values. Strength, . p 45 Holding, . . . . 30 Quick holding. . . . . 15 Canting, . . . . 15 Facility of sweeping . . . 15 “ “ stowing, . . . 10 Exemption from fouling, . . . 10 Fishing, . . . . . 10 Facility of transport in boats, . . 5 Quick tripping, . . . . 5 Total values, 160 The changes effected in the machinery have proved as beneﬁcial in diminishing the cost, as they have in improving the work. Formerly an anchor of ﬁve tons weight would cost $2,000; a much better one of the same weight can now be sold for less than $1,250:-The preceding general remarks, apply to all kinds of anchors, portable or solid; we will close the subject by a description of the parts worth noticing, in the numerous inventions which have been presented to the public. An iron stock is generally a round bar of iron with a collar near the centre. It is put through a hole in the square of the shank, the collar resting against one side, and being kept there by a forelock which passes through the stock on the other side of the square. Another plan to hold the stock is to pass a round pin through the centre of the square and of the stock; a stop is wrought on the stock in place of a collar to ﬁt in a slot in the square. This plan admits of reﬁtting by the process called upsetting, and avoids any hole being made in the stock near the shank, where the stock bears the greatest amount of pressure when the anchor is dragging. In both these arrange- ments, as well as in all other joints of parts which have to be separated occasionally, it is good to tin the pins, keys, and the surfaces in ‘ contact, to avoid rusting. As oxidation by sea water can only be retarded by this process, it is also important to take the anchors to pieces 528 once every three months, and to clean the joints before they have become too hard. A wooden stock has generally a square section tapermg both ways toward the ends; it is encircled with iron hoops, and a square hole is cut in the centre to ﬁt it on the square of the shank. Anim- proved plan is to make it of two pieces by cut- ting it lengthwise, and to forge projections from the square to be enclosed between the two parts of the stock and furnish large bearings; the two halves after being put on are hooped together. The two arms of a portable anchor called ﬁukes are in most of them attached to the shank by means of a pin through the centre of the ﬁukes, and through jaws forged on the end of the shank. The ﬁukes may either be kept ﬁrm by forging lugs on them to embrace a shoulder on the shank, or they may move around the pin. In this case the extent of the motion may be limited by a second pin through the shoulder playing in a long hole in the ﬁukes, or simply by the bills coming in contact with the shank. When the ﬁukes are movable they have to be so shaped that when the upper arm is drawn as near the shank as possible, the other fulﬁls the proper conditions for holding, as above described. To force the arms to as- sume this position, it is necessary to provide each of them with a horn projecting outward just above the palm. This forms a secondary bill, which holds quick, and brings the arm in a position to hold also. The two arms may be forged separately, ‘ with a tenon at the end of each, by means of which they are fastened to the shank, on which mortices are cut to receive the tenons. Sometimes the anchor is divided lengthwise in two portions by a plan perpen- dicular to the arms, and passing through the axis of the shank. Each half of the shank is forged of a pin with one arm, both halves are bound together by hoops, and the stock is placed over the whole or through it, after one of the plans above described.-—Attempts have been made to manufacture anchors of a char- acter totally new. One plan consists in dis- pensing altogether with stock. The arms are movable on the shank around their own axis, and the palms are_ set in the same plan, that is at right angles with their usual position. The arms are provided with a tumbler acting crown which holds fast and makes the arms revolve, thus bringing both palms lower than the shank, in which position they both hold. The proper amount of rotation of the arms is determined by the upper part of the tumbler coming in con- tact with the shank. For this arrangement many advantages are justly claimed. 1. It holds nearly as much as two anchors. 2. It will not foul or cut the cable. 3. It does not re- quire a stock. 4. It does not impede the motion of the vessel in being hove up; will stow without projections; cannot injure the bows in weighing. 5. In the event of the ship grounding upon her anchor she cannot be injured. Another plan without stock is to sub- stitute for the arm a cap or reversed cup, called AN OHOR AN GHORETS parachute, making the anchor represent exactly a mushroom. Large holes have to be left in the cup to prevent it from coming up full of sand or mud. An invention but a few years old consists in using a screw with a small core and a large thin thread, which is inserted deep in the ground by turning. It seems an im- practicable thing in ordinary cases, but may be very good for mooring in exposed situations, buoys, or boats, to which vessels may tie them- selves. The last novelty is an anchor with an elastic shank. The principle of having a spring between the soil and the vessel is undoubtedly excellent. Some kind of spring is even indis- pensable, as it may be safely said that without the natural spring formed by the curve in the chain which unites a ship to her anchor, no practical arm or chain could resist the sudden jerks from a mass of several thousand tons, but the proper place for the spring is on board. The anchor is the worse place for thespring, as every time it plays, the chain harrows the ground, and on hard rocks would soon be de- stroyed. There is no particular place celebrated for anchor making in the United States. Anchors are made principally in Pennsylvania and Maryland, where the rough material is at hand.—The form of the anchor has undergone but slight modiﬁcation since the time of Ana- charsis, the Scythian philosopher, about B. C. 594. Before him anchors with one arm or tooth had been a short time in use, but he ﬁrst added the second. The later Greek anchors were of iron, but originally they consisted of large wooden pipes ﬁlled with melted lead. In the heroic times of Greece, large stones were sunk into the water by ropes to hold the ship-, and a little later bags of sand and baskets ﬁlled with rocks were used. Every ship was sup- plied with from 4. to 8 anchors. The largest of them was termed the sacred one, and hence the phrase, “to drop the sacred anchor,” meant to ﬂy to the last refuge. The Chinese anchors, now as in ancient times, are only crooked pieces of heavy wood. AN (ll-IOR ISLAND, a small island of New Zealand, on the N. side of the entrance into Dusky bay.—Also two islands off the coast of Brazil, province of Rio Janeiro, 3 miles east of Cape Frio. ANGHORETS, Anononrrns, or more properly Annononnrs, a term signifying persons retired from society, and applied to such as have with- drawn themselves with the speciﬁc purpose of attaining a higher degree of spirituality. It is also particularly applied to an order of secluded Christians, who have ﬂourished since the mid- dle of the 3d century. The great problem of the origin of evil, which has perplexed every ethical system of the race, has persistently led, in one direction, to a dualistic theory of the um- verse. The dualistic theory aﬁirms the exist- ence of two antagonistic eternal principles or beings, the evil and the good, and ascribes the creation of the material universe to the evil power. But the worthy end of human effort ANCHORETS was to become harmonic with the good. Life, to all who embraced the dualistic theory, therefore, became simply a struggle to rise above earthly inﬂuences and conditions, as evil. It was thought there was power in a deter- mined effort of the human will, to escape from the thraldom of sense, into a purely spirit- ual existence. This theory appears in its most marked form in Braminism, which taught that men who devoted themselves ear- nestly to the work of penance and privation, would gradually lose their connection with this life, until in the ultimate transition they would be wholly absorbed into the great invisible Bram. The same idea, with slight modiﬁca- tions, was early incorporated into Christian ethics, and developed itself in the order of an- chorets, and later, in monasticism, and still lingers in the ascetic practices of both great branches of the church. It has long been a question of debate, what is the connection of the earlier ascetics with the monastic institu- tions of after time, but it is quite evident, what- ever may be the ﬁnal decision of that question, that they have both the same philosophic ori- gin. Ascetics were not necessarily monks, nor founders of monasteries, but monks and monas- tic institutions were necessarily ascetic. The anchoret is to be distinguished from the monk in several respects. The anchoret precedes the monk in point of time, as a development of the ascetic idea. 'He possessed less of the social character than the monk. His seclusion, though it might be less perfect, from lack of the means, which the monk found in his monas- tery, was more universal. The monk had asso- ciates in his seclusion. He only withdrew wholly from the mass of men to the society of a few; the anchoret withdrew mostly from all men. He was an eremite, a dweller in the desert. He found~ some cave, or mountain fastness, where he shut himself away from his kind. In this isolated condition he lost the polish of social life, and became almost a savage in his appearance and demeanor. This was the early life of the anchoret. Later, when artiﬁcial means multiplied, and the anchorets began to feel the reaction of the social ele- ments of Christianity (340), they built them- selves dwellings, where they congregated to- gether. About the same period monasticism was instituted. Monasticism is only a social- ized and organized eremitism. But the anchor- ets are still to be distinguished from the monks. The distinction is that the monk is at a less re- move from society than the anchoret, while at the same time his seclusion is attended with more organization and detail. This distinction is clearly seen in the fact that 3 centuries after the institution of monasticism, the Trul- lan council (692) ordain that no person shall be admitted an anchoret until he has resided 3 years in a monastery. The anchorets have preserved the distinction to this day. They are still to be found, in the East, unconnected with any convent (although Charlemagne ordered voL. I.—34 529 that they should thus connect themselves, throughout his dominions), and preserve the same ascetic mode of life, scarcely inﬂuenced by the more social type which modern Christiani- ty has assumed in all branches of the church. The extreme penances and mortiﬁcations to which the early anchoret subjected himself, seem almost fabulous. They lived for years in caves or cells scarcely large enough to admit of motion, where they practised the most rigorous and prolonged abstinence; stood in uncomfort- able attitudes until permanently deformed; looked at the sun, without winking, until they were blind; and repeated mystical syllables and sentences, holding the breath, expecting so to secure an inﬂux of divine life, or to be absorb- ed into the Deity. Simon Stylites, a Syrian (420), is a remarkable example of ascetic prac- tice. It is said that for 40 years he lived on the top of a pillar, or tower, near Antioch, ex- posed to all atmospheric changes, and claiming to be a mediator between heaven and earth, preached repentance to the crowd who gather- ed below. His eastern origin will account for the superior rigor of his asceticism. Some writers consider Enoch, Elijah, John the Baptist, and Jesus, to have been anchorets. The Therapeutae of Egypt, who were probably derived from the Jewish Essenes, were anchorets, or at least ascetics. The same is true of the Nazarites of the Old Testament. But so far as Christian anchor- ets are concerned, they must be referred to the time of the Decian persecution, as the era when they ﬁrstattained to any historic consideration. This was the immediate impulse which ﬁlled the forests and deserts of Syria and Mesopota- mia with a race of exiles who preferred the isolation and gloom of a cave to the renuncia- tion of their faith or the horrors of heathen torture. They naturally turned to the East in their exile, as offering more sympathy with the Gnostic and Manichaean philosophy, which lies, though unconsciously, at the foundation of as- ceticism. And for the same reason, all the forms of the ascetic spirit were developed later in the Western church than in the Eastern. ANCHOVY, a small ﬁsh of the genus en- gmulus of Cuvier, the peculiar features of which are the opening of the mouth extending behind the eyes, and the long sharp head and project- ing upper jaw. It is distinguished from the sprat, and other similar ﬁshes, by its very short anal ﬁn, and the dorsal ﬁn being immediately above the ventral. Anchovies enter the Med- iterranean from the sea in enormous shoals in the spring, and‘ deposit their ova along the ANCHOVY shores in May, June, and July. They are caught like the herring, with nets at night with the use of lights. Gorgona, a small island west of Leghorn, is a famous place for the ﬁsheries, and it gives its name to the best qualities of the com- mercial article. Other important ﬁsheries are along the coasts of Provence and Catalonia. As the ﬁsh are taken, the bodies, separated from the heads and entrails, are salted and packedin small barrels, and in this state are ready for 530 ANGHYLOSIS exportation. Sent to other countries they are there repacked in bottles. The brine, in which they are kept, is reddened with ochre and Ve- netian red, which is supposed to be done for the purpose of concealing the other dirt. Not- withstanding their impurities and the substitu- tion of many inferior ﬁsh, anchovies are a fa- vorite relish at the breakfast table with many, being taken out of the bottles and eaten raw. Anchovy sauce has been a favorite condiment from the time of the Romans. They called it garum, and prepared it as it is now made, which is by bruising and boiling the ﬁsh over a slow ﬁre with melted butter. ANCHYLOSIS (Gr. a'yl Y / --/S'u7z6zz/~ £2/e V i ::0n[awL~‘ Q’ J J’ ‘ K C /| . ,/ 9% ” V ; - C/ll,’/fl’, _ '> "‘ ,5" 2ZP¢'7z e_r//"01/'6 . M ' E R S/”/yftﬂ /’ P / /v/rr/4 Tl A/NY 1- ' / / L711 0 I ./ if ME?/H / . (V 1, G W ./ "/ 1"‘, / 9/ ///ya/ﬂy / { .' II‘. I ‘ . / . I K"/////_ , .. 1. .~ é?%~@%%%%%> 1 /4' -I/{ﬂy _ "2. I'_ / A__ -—'- \_/ ’_ ,./i., I //4////// . I l .__ _ __:‘ -. \ 1 ( R . ' ' __ ~ "' - - _ / \ .__ _v___/V5-900/O5": /7/T\ fir . --M 1..x,___n \ v?‘ G E R . . " - C;::§ - / ' -7!‘/"R5./V M 1:_>;\*)) . |~ //- ‘~ (__.= ///////// A // /// -“jig-‘ ‘ .1////I / I W/%%.//////W /.//_//44/i/7//'///"" ' ‘ A JY‘:f"I77'gj’/‘£l'/;::=-2 7&3 )\_,\_ I 4, ll‘! , (_ k H ‘ ’ fi§w%(> E‘ \ M // I L I I I I Q7“/Z C'/ 12/’ 4/ _ / (fl 2, tea \ /1 /////~ @212 p 0 If ‘ ‘ ‘PPER /vou/v 2'»: /N//;’//‘ Cé//J / IV(Z¢‘a/‘Ga L__ /’ A 1‘ VJ \ ‘*0 S l:\ he ‘Q Nd N ,..-_=-_ ¢_ _-/-’ '1 G’-ealof/ist. PE/VNS YL I/A/V/A .’ByJ-R LESIEYN -0 ,4-ZZe7,t0u,7b A.H.JOCELYN 5cn.N.Y. ANTHRAOITE bituminous coal, containing 71.4 per cent of carbon, 10.10 of water from 212°, with one of fuel; and from an English bituminous coal, 9.07 of water. Watt’s trial with Newcastle bitu- minous coal gave 9.63 of water. These experi- ments, harmonious as they appear in their re- sults, have not been sustained by the reputa- tion acquired by the different coals in common practice. Neither do they accord with the conclusion arrived at by the German chemist, Welter, whose investigations, directed to the determination of the quantities of oxygen re- quired to complete the process of combustion, led him to the simple law that the heat disen- gaged is proportional to the quantity of oxygen, which enters into the combination, whatever may be the nature of the combustible. Ber- thier, the French chemist, recognizesthis law; and upon it is based the determination of the heating powers of fuels by the quantity of litharge, or oxide of lead, which a given quan- tity of the fuel will deoxidize. It is admitted by Dr. Muspratt, in his late work; and the values of American coals, as determined by the important experiments of Walter R. Johnson, are for the most part in accordance with it. As hydrogen and the gaseous products of its combination with carbon consume much larger proportions of oxygen than the same weight of solid carbon, the presence of these increases the heating power of the fuel; but the change of structure and of physical properties, which their increased proportion induces, soon im- poses a limit upon the advantage they confer, and each variety of mineral coal is found to be adapted for some particular uses in preference to. the others. (See FUEL.) The density of an- thracite renders it particularly adapted for me- tallurgic uses.~ Its freedom from smoke recom- mends it for the use of war steamers, their movements not being exposed by the products of combustion; its compactness also admits of a larger quantity being stowed in the same place than of other fuel. For the use of locomotives, its density, though favorable for stowage, is dis- advantageous in giving too concentrated a heat, causing the grate-bars, and parts of the furnace next to the ﬁre, to be soon burned out. By want of sufﬁcient ﬁre-room, the gases produced escape before they have been fully consumed, though ingenious expedients have been devised for introducing jets of atmospheric air, that the combustion might be thoroughly effected under the boiler. These objections, and others arising from the forming of clinkers which obstruct the draft, from the longer time it takes to get up steam with anthracite, the greater weight of the locomotive required, and the sifting through the grate-bars caused by the jarring motion, have greatly retarded its general introduction upon our roads. This is much to be regretted; for the great demand along their lines for fuel, has led to the rapid cutting oﬁ‘ of the forests and the breaking up of large interests dependent upon them. Thus the important manufacture of charcoal pig-iron upon the Harlem and other voL. 1.-41 641 railroads is almost or entirely ruined, and the value of the enormous beds of rich ore greatly depreciated. Had the railroads adopted the policy from the beginning, of using mineral coal, which every one sees they must eventually do, these interests would have been fostered, adding greatly to the business of the roads, and the cost of fuel would have been much reduced. For, from the success which has attended its use upon some of the roads, the difficulties to be en- countered are by no means so serious as many have supposed. In Pennsylvania, anthracite was introduced on the Beaver Meadow Road in 1836, and has been in constant use ever since, with most favorable reports of its economy and convenience. On the Hazleton road it was em- ployed in 1838, and for 12 years a single engine run with it during the season of navigation with- out interruption, and with less repair to ﬁre- boxes and ﬂues than is usual with other fuel. Only about 2 sets of grate-bars are burnt out each season of 8 months. On the Hudson river road, the cost of anthracite on a late trial trip from New York to Poughkeepsie was $13.25; of wood it is usually 4 cords, costing $28.--Oom cerning the origin of anthracite, its connection with the vegetable kingdom is too distinctly traced to admit of any reasonable doubt, that the stony fuel once formed parts of growing plants. On examining pieces of anthracite in almost any heap of it, some fragments are sure to be met with in which may be seen bits of charcoal, with the vegetable ﬁbre as distinct as in freshly charred wood. These, in connection with its chemical composition, suggest that it was once woody matter. Additional evidence of this is afforded by the vegetable reticulated structure, which is detected by powerful mi- croscopes, pervading the substance of different kinds of coal; and even the ashes of anthracite still retain distinct traces of the vegetable tissue -—so tenacious is nature of preserving the record complete of her works, for those who take the pains to investigate them. Even the various genera of the plants, which furnished the carbon for the different kinds of coal, are ascertained with precision. For examination under the mi- croscope, the coals are cut in thin plates, polish- ed, and made transparent by an application of oil. Thus prepared, some of them, as those of Newcastle and St. Etienne display the com- pressed cellular tissue peculiar to peat; others the wood of coniferae (of the pine family); others of the palm, and others of the birch, &c., &c. Some beds again appear, when thus closely ex- amined, but a mass of delicate leaves matted to- gether.--The late Prof. Bailey, of West Point, gave particular attention to the microscopic ex-- amination of anthracites. He found that every layer of coal is composed of vegetable matter, which still retains distinct traces of the original organic structure. Beside these proofs, so singu- larly delicate and beautiful, are others, that re- quire no microscope to present them to the incred- ulous eye. The beds of slate, interstratiﬁed with coal, abound in the impressions of leaves and 642 stems of plants, and even trunks of large trees, converted into stone, the last-named coated fre- quently with a bark of anthracite. Single trunks have been found nearly a hundred feet in length—-trees allied to the pines, but of dif- ferent species from any we are now familiar with; and their roots, too, which we have named stigmaria, are rarely absent from the bed of ﬁre-clay, which is the underlying stra- tum to almost every coal bed. These peculiar fossils have been found near Liverpool attached to an upright fossil trunk, and spreading out as roots from its base; and again near Manches- ter they were uncovered in a bed of the ﬁre- clay 1,000 feet below the surface, spreading more than 15 feet from the main trunk. In Cape Breton, 8 such stems with their stigmaria roots, have been uncovered in a slate bed. They were within a space of 80 feet.--Many varieties of coal exhibit a laminated structure, thin layers of pure carbonaceous matter alter- nating with other layers of a more earthy char- acter. This peculiar structure is so frequent, that it indicates a general cause; and none seems so probable, as that each most carbonif- erous lamina represents the accumulation of a certain season of growth, which was succeeded by one of repose, when the clayey sediment increased in proportion. It is this clayey sedi- ment introduced into the coal-bed, that ex- plains the presence in all mineral coals of more ashes than the same quantity of vegetable car- bon should contain.-—The evidences of the vegetable origin of anthracite afforded by its structure, its ashes, and the associated fossil plants, render it needless to trace out, 111 this place, the beautiful series of changes from the original wood or peat, by which it has reached its present condition; or to more than simply refer to the fact, that such changes are still in progress, and may be witnessed in every stage. In the article Conn this subject will be further treated. All the generations of man may not include time enough to detect any individual change; but one generation may nevertheless determine the fact that such are ever going ma- jestically on.—-The last change, however, which is from bituminous coal to anthracite, should not be thus passed over. The bituminous coal- beds of the English mines are sometimes trav- ersed by dikes of basalt or trap, as recent strata are traversed by similar dikes of lava. Near the line of contact with the trap, the bitu- minous coal is converted into anthracite. The bitumen has been expelled by the heat, and the coke thus produced is condensed by the pres- sure around it into the solid form of anthracite. In South Wales, bituminous coal-beds are found growing less and less bituminous, as they ap- proach the district of igneous rocks, till they be- come entirely anthracite. In our country, the same phenomenon is observed in the bituminous coal-ﬁeld of the James river, near Richmond, Va. Beds of coal are converted into coke upon a large scale. But the process is more completely carried out, and upon a most magniﬁcent scale, ‘ ANTHRACITE in the coal-basins of Pennsylvania, which con- sist of similar piles of strata, each basin iso- lated from the rest by lower formations of rock intervening, so that the identical beds cannot be continuously traced out and recognized, from one basin to another. The fact, however, is the same, that the bituminous coal-beds are remote from districts occupied by igneous rocks--that the strata which contain them are comparatively undisturbed, while the contain- ing strata of the anthracite beds (unmistaka- bly identiﬁed as the same) are greatly con- torted, broken up, and metamorphosed by their proximity to the seat of igneous action.- Upon the granites and other primeval rocks as a floor, a series of stratiﬁed rocks have been de- posited in various parts of the world, in an order of succession that admits of many mem- bers of the series being recognized and identi- ﬁed in diiferent continents. The fossils they contain of animals and plants, peculiar to each group of strata, aid and conﬁrm this identiﬁca- tion. This series, from the ﬂoor of unstratiﬁed rocks to the uppermost member of the coal for- mation, is well called the palaeozoic series, or those containing the relics of the most ancient forms of life; as those still older and beneath are called asoic, or exhibiting no evidences of life. Throughout a large portion of the mid- dle states, and extending beyond the Mississippi river, this series spreads over the greater part of the surface. West of the Alleghanies it re- poses in strata nearly horizontal, or gently waving in long swells. All this vast region appears to have risen slowly and grandly to- gether from the bed of the ancient ocean in which its foundations were laid. But east of the mountains this crust has been greatly sha- ken. In the hands of its Maker it has been wrinkled and folded together, its members compressed and distorted; but though even thrown into zigzag forms, the order of their succession is left undisturbed. The series con- sists of sandstones and conglomerates, lime- stones and slates, in distinct and separate groups or formations. A single formation, as that of the lowest limestone, the second great group of the series as seen in Pennsylvania, is found to measure more than a mile in thickness; and all the formations of the series measured across their line, one after another, as they come up to the surface, attain a thickness of not less than seven miles. Subjected as these rocks have been to the denuding action of _ water ex- erted on a scale commensurate with their ex- tent, and with the other inﬂuences that have affected them, the arches of the great ﬁexures and zigzags have been cut off and swept away. The lower groups thus intervene and separate the higher ones into isolated patches. The hard sandstone rocks, withstanding better than the rest the action of the waters that have carried mountains into the sea, project in long ridges, which traverse the states from north to south, and are repeated in nearly parallel lines along the different folds or waves. These sandstones, ANTHIRACITE of which there are four great formations in the series, have each their peculiar topography. Each one retaining throughout its extent its dis- tinctive structure, and the adjoining groups not changing theirs, while the causes that have operated to give them their forms have been universal, it follows that the same outline must deﬁne the same rock formation in all its range. So thorough and exact has been the working of this law, that they who have made these sub- jects their study, recognize by the forms of the mountains the rocks concealed within them as instinctively and unerringly as one recognizes a familiar friend, when only the external dress is seen. The limestones and shales more easily worn away by the denuding forces, now occupy the depressions and valleys along by the sides of their more rugged neighbors. Passing from the region of granitic rocks near the coast, these different formations are crossed as we approach the main Alleghany mountain. On the back of this, sloping down its western side, and spreading over the country in this direc- tion, is the great bituminous coal-ﬁeld. The anthracite basins have been passed in the iso- lated patches above referred to, which are sep- arated from each other by the lower rocks in- tervening. In Pennsylvania, as seen by the accompanying map prepared by Mr. J . P. Les- ley of Philadelphia, there are three of these ba- sins, or rather elongated troughs, all included in a few counties at the head of the Schuyl- kill river, and the north branch of the Susque- hanna, and extending in a general east and west direction. Their areas are deﬁned by the out- crop of the uppermost great sandstone forma- tion, a coarse white pebbly conglomerate, which is the immediate ﬂoor of the group of shales, sandstones, coal-beds, &c., which constitute the coal formation. A similar rock, called the millstone grit, is its ﬂoor in Europe. And in both countries lies -beneath this a group of shales or sandstones of a reddish color, well known as the old red sandstone. A margin of this conglomerate and the red shales outside of it, deﬁne the coal-ﬁelds, as though they were included in a frame. But by the disturbed po- sition of the strata, this framework and the included coal measures are thrown into most irregular forms, and many little detached coal- ﬁelds are found as outliers to the larger basins. Including these in the estimate of the area of each division, the southern or Schuylkill coal- ﬁeld is found to cover about 164 square miles. The middle coal-ﬁeld, including at its eastern extremity some 26 small basins, is computed at 115 square miles; and the northern or Wyo- ming basin, which is not broken up, at 118 643 square miles. It is not the amount of surface covered by the coal measures, however, that indicates the quantity of coal beneath. This depends upon the number and size of the beds, and the position in which they lie. When highly inclined, as they mostly are in the an- thracite region, one after another is brought to the surface, and all are made available. But where the strata are nearly horizontal, the low- est members of the coal formation may cover an extensive region, and yet this may contain hardly a workable coal bed. The anthracite basins present a far greater concentration of beds in the same area than the bituminous coal region. In the former, the interstratiﬁed slates have in many instances thinned out, so that ad- jacent coal-beds are brought nearer together, and a thickness is presented of 50, or even of 70 feet of coal, appearing as one solid mass, though thin parallel seams of slate, the representatives of large beds in other localities, divide it into many layers. By the steep dip of these beds, room is aiforded for others parallel to them; and by their ﬂexures, they are repeatedly brought to the surface, so that the largest quan- tity is exposed within convenient reach. Thus at Mauch Chunk it appeared that the whole mountain was composed of anthracite from one of these enormous accumulations of more than 55 feet in thickness, enfolding the summit. For a long time this has been worked as an open quarry, extending over more than 30 acres; and others of similar character have been opened in the same vicinity; from all of which more than 3,000,000 tons of anthracite had been excavated up to the year 1855. (See Cor.- LIERY.) The following section (Fig. 1) across this coal-ﬁeld will serve to convey a general idea of the position of the coal-beds, and the effect of the hard sandstones (thedotted strata in the section) in withstanding the denuding action, and forming the crests of the moun- tains.- Fig. 2 is a transverse section of the Schuylkill coal basin at Tamaqua, looking toward the west, ﬁrst published in Taylor’s “Statistics of Coal.” Fig. 3 gives a more detailed repre- sentation of the mode of occurrence of the an- thracite beds in the highly inclined slates and sand-stones. It shows also how the coal at its outcrop is bent over and curved down the slope of the hill, presenting in this curved portion the decomposed soft coal, or smut. Fig. 4 is a sec- tion across 4 neighboring basins, showing the manner in which they are separated from each other by the lower rocks rising between them and forming anticlinal axes.—-In the north- eastern coal basin, there occurs in the neighbor- hood of Scranton a remarkable concentration M . .2-i‘o'_¢1 aw.-at MM» .L0cus&MZ3z. %"" Rad. 6'/zdle Cmzy. Mm l?aa.mRZn-.'caxrs /rz-JIﬁ\\\N\-wt’/i 644 .of coal in moderate sized beds, no less than 12 being found in an aggregate thickness of strata of about 7 00 feet. The whole thickness of these coal-beds is about 74 feet, the largest measuring 14 feet; but the amount of workable coal can hardly be rated at more than 40 feet, some of the beds being too thin to be worked at all, and others furnishing of good coal only a portion of their contents. It is found in this basin a fair estimate, in calculating the avail- able contents of a bed of anthracite, to allow 1,600 tons for every foot thickness to the acre, and then deduct one-ﬁfth for mine waste, pil- lars left to support the roof, &c.--For one now visiting the anthracite region of Pennsylvania, and witnessing 'the evidences of permanent prosperity in its numerous thriving towns, its canals and railroads, and the enormous business carried on upon them, it is diﬁicult to realize that this whole region was but half a century back a dense wilderness, rough, and almost im- passable to any but the Indian and the hunter. It is not yet a himdred years since the valley of Wyoming was Indian territory; and their title to the region comprising the two other coal basins, was extinguished only in 1749. The northern coal-ﬁeld was bought of the chiefs of the Six Nations in 1768; and in this the exist- ence of anthracite was ﬁrst noticed about this time. In 1770, it is recorded that some black- smiths discovered its properties as a fuel. In 1773, Wilkesbarre was laid out as a borough by a Connecticut association called the Susquehan- na land company, and in 1775 a boat load of anthracite was sent down the river to the Uni- ted States armory at Carlisle. From this time the coal came gradually into use with black- smiths, gunsmiths, &c. In a pamphlet of Zach- ariah Cist of Wilkesbarre, published in 1815, are numerous certiﬁcates of those who had used it for mechanical purposes previously to this time, and who agree in recommending it as far superior to the Virginia bituminous coal, which they were then accustomed to receive. One gunsmith of Northampton states (Dec. 9, 1814), that he has used the coal for 20 years. Its value at this period was about 90 cts. a bushel. In 1808 it was applied to warming private houses in Wilkesbarre, Judge Fell having con- trived grates for this purpose. Anthracite ap- pears to have been noticed in the middle and southern coal-ﬁelds at as early a date as in the northern, the maps published previously to 1770 indicating some localities of it, as stated by Prof. S. S. Haldeman, in the recent edition of Taylor’s “Statistics of Coal.” According to the same authority, the famous mines of Mauch Chunk, on the lofty ridge, which overlooks the valley of the Lehigh, were discovered in 17 91, presenting bare and enormous masses of an- thracite at the surface. From the commence- ment of organized operations in 1814, when 20 tons were transported at great cost to Philadel- phia, to this day, these mines have been worked as an open- quarry. So slowly, however, did this fuel attract public attention in the abun- ANTHRACITE dance of the wood of the forests, that up to the year 1820, only 365 tons of it had reached Philadelphia. The ﬁrst railroad for its trans- portation was commenced in January, and com- pleted in May, 1827, extending 9l miles from the Mauch Chunk mines to the Lehigh river. In less than 30 years succeeding, over $65,000,000 were expended in the construction of 40 or more railroads -and canals, by companies and by the state, all these improvements having direct reference to the coal trade. They are shown in the following table, to which prop- erly might be added the New Jersey Central Railroad, 63 miles in length, extending across the state from Elizabethtown to Easton; also the Allentown and Port Clinton road, now in construction, at an estimated cost of $2,000,000; and the Scranton and Lanesboro’ road, connect- ing the northern basin, by the way of Carbon- dale, with the Erie railroad, the Lackawanna and Western road. Of some of the canals and roads enumerated, only those portions are giv- en which may fairly be estimated as having been constructed for coal purposes. 6 _ a J Z 5 § -3 3 Names of Railroads and Canals. 5 8 5 2 ‘ii '3 '3 Z '2 5 {IS a B Lehigh Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 $4,455,000 Lehigh 8: Susquehanna Railroad.. .. 20 1,850,000 Mauch Chunk & Summit Railroads. 36 831,684 Delaware Div. of the Penn. Canal... 43 1,784,958 Beaver Meadow R. R. and Branch. . 88 360,000 Hazelton Railroad ................ .. 10 120,000 Buck Mountain Railroad .......... . . 4 40,000 Summit Railroad. ................. .. 2 20,000 Delaware and Hudson Canal . . . . . . . . 108 16 8,250,000 Morris Coal Canal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 102 4,000,000 The Schuylkill Navi ation . . . . . . . . . . 108 5,785,000 Reading and Pottsvi le Railroad. . .. 98 19,004,000 Little Schuylkill and Tamaqua RR. 20 00,0 Mine Hill and Schuylkill Haven RR. 55 550,000 Danville and Pottsville Railroad (441} miles unﬁnished) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29 680,000 Mount Carbon Railroad . . . . . . . . . . .. 7 155,000 Port Carbon Railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 2 120,000 Schuylkill Valley R.R. and Branches 25 300,000 Mill Creek Railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 120,000 L kens‘s Valley Railroad . . . . . . . . . .. 16 200,000 iconisco Canal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 370,000 Swatara Railroad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 20,000 North Branch Canal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 168 3,790,310 Union Canal and Pine Grove Branch 90 1,000,000 Dauphin Company‘s Railroad . . . . . . . 52 1,500,000 Baltimore and Susquehanna Railroad 60 1,000,000 Susquehanna Tidewater Canal . . . . . . 45 1,000,000 York and Cumberland Railroad. . . . . 26 600,000 Mine Hill Railroad ............... . . 14 896,117 Nesquehoning Railroad. . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 50,000 Room Run Railway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 40,000 Delaware, Lackawanna & West. RR. 117 9,955,000 Pennsylvania Coal Co. Railroad. . . . . 52 3,745,500 Railroads by Individuals . . . . . . . . . .. 120 180,000 Underground Railroads ........... .. 200 75,000 Total.. 758 1,030 $67,297,569 The progress of the trade and the production of the different coal districts is exhibited in the following table. In the second column may be observed the extraordinary amount of tonnage brought down the Schuylkill canal and the Reading railroad for shipment from Richmond, 5 miles above Philadelphia; and the magnitude and importance of the trade cannot be more . ANTHRACITE 645 forcibly shown than by the statement of the let alone is greater than the whole foreign ton- fact, that the coastwise tonnage from this out- nage of the port of New'York. Aggregate Av. annual A;l;;_::::l Years. Schuylkill. Lehigh. Lackawanna Pittston. R3223; Aggregate 1:01:22: ' mﬁ::,c:fp;' gihzzg each pa}:-lid . ' ' . ver t years‘ Period‘ 1?:-eceding. 1820 . . . . . . . . . . 365 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1821 . . . . . . . . . . 1,073 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,073 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1822 . . . . . . . . . . 2,240 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2,240 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1823 . . . . . . . . . . 5,823 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,823 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1824 . . . . . . . . . . 9,541 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9,541 . . . . . . . . . . 19,042 3,809 . . . . . . . . . . 1825 6,500 28,393 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34,893 25,352 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1826 16,767 31,280 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48,047 13,154 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1827 31,360 32,074 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63,434 5,837 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1828 47,284 30,232 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77,516 14,082 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1829 79,973 25,110 7 ,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112,083 34,567 ' 335,973 67,194 13,438 1830 89,984 41,750 43,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174,734 62,651 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1831 81,854 40,966 54,000 .................. . . 176,820 2,086 ............................ . . 1832 209,271 70,000 84,600 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363,871 187,051 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1833 252,971 123,000 111,777 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 487,7 123,877 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q 1834 226,692 , ,700 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376,636 decrease 1,579,809 315,961 49,753 1835 339,508 131,250 90,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560,758 184,122 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1836 2, 148,21 103,861 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682,4 121,670 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1837 523,152 223,902 115,387 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881,476 199, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1838 433,87 213,615 78,207 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 39,293 decrease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1839 442,608 221,025 122,300 . . . . . . . . . . 11,930 9,32 80,0 3,683,282 736,646 84,139 1840 452,291 225,318 148,470 . . . . . . . . . . 15,505 865,414 46,087 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1841 584,692 143,037 192,270 . . . . . . . . . . ,463 958,899 3,485 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1842 540,892 272,546 205,253 . . . . . . . . . . 57,346 1,108,001 149,102 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1843 677,295 267,793 227,605 . . . . . . . . . . 68,000 1,263, 55, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1844 839,934 377,002 251,005 . . . . . . . . . . 127,933 1,631,669 368,130 5,827,552 1,165,504 85,769 1845 1,083,796 429, 273,435 . . . . . . . . . . 188,401 2,023,052 391,783 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1846 1,237,002 523,002 320,000 . . . . . . . . . . ,075 2,343,992 320,9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1847 1,583,374 643,973 ,20 . . . . . . . . . . 299,302 2,982,303 638,317 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1848 1,652,835 680,747 437,500 . . . . . . . . . . 256,627 3,089,238 106,929 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1849 1,605,126 01, , . . . . . . . . . . 303,736 3,242,541 153,403 13,681,132 2,736,226 314,144 1850 1,712,007 722,622 432,339 111,014 276,339 3,254,321 11,78 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1851 2,184, 989,296 472,478 316,017 415,099 4,377,130 1,122,809 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1852 2,452,026 1,114,026 497,839 426,164 439,842 925, ,565 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1853 2,470,943 1,080,544 494,327 512,659 556,018 5,114,491 188,796 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1854 2,895,208 1,246,418 438,406 496,648 676,689 5,753,369 638,878 23,425,006 4,685,001 389,755 1855 3,430,768 1,284,114 565,460 504,803 767,156 6,552,301 798,932 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1856 , , 1,351,970 *499,650 'l‘612,500 $953,567 ,751, , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . * Delaware and Hudson Company. I N. Branch Canal, 510,631; Delaware, Laekawanna & Western Railway Company, Kharp ME. y_ 2 .1; an l'5':il”§l‘l] \ _. lg‘? 1' . 4 ll, H9’! r'llllll~lll//lttt “ ,,,,,.,, /WW, 6 . .7 ‘ I I I . /' / , > , ' ,nr' -'1’ - I, I ’/ / The semi-anthracite districts of Lykens val- ley, Short Mountain, Dauphin, Trevorton, and Broad Top, produced, in addition to the above, 218,038 tons, against 118,221 tons in 1855.- The cost of mining and delivering anthracite in cars at the mouth of the mines, varies at the 1' Pennsylvania Coal Compan , I y. 305,530; and Shamokin, 187,406. Lacustllb different localities with the size of the beds, their situation as regards easy drainage, the relative proportion of coarse and ‘ﬁne coal, and the scale upon which the operations are con- ducted. The lowest estimate, including in this the cost of keeping the mine-cars and machin- 646 ery in order, is about 65 cts. per ton. The highest rarely reaches $1. The expenses of delivery in New York harbor, which is the most accessible tide-water outlet, of the Lackawanna coal, being only 123 miles by railroad from it, are estimated at 1% ct.,per ton per mile, making its ac- tual cost at Elizabethport, without including incidental expenses and interest upon the capital of the railroad, only about $2.82 per ton for the coal mined at the ter- minus of the road. Includ- ing all expenses, it may safely be estimated to cost about $4.-. At this price, anthracite has heretofore been sold by the cargo in New York; but by reason of the general ad- Illfaltwazay 'C' .Ba/sins years, this must be regarded as the minimum cost it is likely to reach.—The anthra- cite mines of Rhode Island were discovered at as early a period as those of Penn- sylvania, the ﬁrst notice of them being about the year 1760. No attempts to work them, however, were made previous to the year 1808. The mines upon the island, about 10 miles north of l Newport, were then opened and worked for a few years 1, at two localities about 2 miles : apart, one on the east and the --"’ other on the west side of the island. Diﬁiculties were encountered in disposing of , the coal, and after spending ‘, some thousands of dollars, the enterprises were aban- -s=1 doned. At different times the works have been renewed and abandoned; but for the ‘-, '\ last 7 years they have been '\ steadily prosecuted on the west side of the island, pro- ‘: tducing from 600 to 1,600 tons \ ,-‘of coal per month. Dr. Wil- liam Meade describes the coal _ in Jan. 1820, in Bruce’s . X Mineralogical Journal, as being 14 feet thick, and pro- X ducing with the labor of 15 ‘ men from 10 to 20 chald- , >_5 rons per day. Byalate state- . ment, it appears that the ' yield in 1856 was about 7,000 tons; and the whole quantity taken ﬁom the mines since the company commenced operations, is about 60,000 tons. In 1826, Prof. Silliman called the attention of the pub- lie to these mines, in an elaborate report in the Fly. 4- Jdlnc bill I Broad Mﬁw C’-B C'..Ba/s'nzs sauiib -<-—-——-—- Sacand Mtm .Ea!h.w’lle Una! 6au’m vance in wages the last few, ANTHIBAGITE American Journal of Science. He found the coal ignited without greater difﬁculty than the Pennsylvania anthracites, and burnt with intense and long-continued heat. Dr. Meade the next year made a similar report, comparing the coal very favorably with foreign and do- mestic anthracites; and so conﬁdent was he of its valuable qualities as a fuel, that he attempt- ed to introduce it, with the charcoal, into blast- furnaces for making pig-iron, and actually had a quantity of it carried across the country to Kingston, Mass., where at that time furnaces were in operation, making pig-iron from bog ores. His experiment was one of the ﬁrst ap- plications of anthracite to this purpose. The only other notice we have seen of its being used so early, was at Mauch Chunk. It ap- pears there at this same date to have been suc- cessfully employed, mixed with charcoal. Al- though numerous anthracite mines have been discovered in Rhode Island, as in Bristol, Paw- tucket, &c., and large sums of money have been expended in working them, all have proved un- successful, excepting those of Portsmouth, upon the island. The same may be said of those opened upon the extension of the formation at Mansﬁeld, and other places in Bristol county, Mass. The diﬂiculty does not appear to be in lack of coal, the beds being numerous, and some of them of large size; but by reason of proximi- ty of granite and other igneous rocks, they are greatly shattered and crushed, so that a large proportion of the coal comes out in a ﬁne state, unﬁt for any use. At Portsmouth, the princi- pal of 3 adjacent parallel beds, has been fol- loweddown a slope of from 30° to 35° to a depth of 600 feet, or over 300 feet vertical, and galleries have been driven on different levels more than 1,000 feet from the shaft. The bed is found of irregular thickness, sometimes swelling out to 16 feet of coal, and then con- tracting to as many inches. It aifords some very excellent coal, more or less mixed, how- ever, with ﬁne coal, from which it is separated by screening. It is more dense than the Penn- sylvania anthracite, and produces, when burned, ashes more bulky but lighter. It is some- what intermixed with white quartz, which takes the place of black slate common in the Pennsylvania coals; and this, together with some ferruginous ingredients, produce clinkers, when the coal is burned at a high temperature and strong draft. It is generally found, however, that those who take the pains to un- derstand its peculiarities, soon learn to prefer it to other anthracites for domestic purposes, and for generating steam. It is especially esteemed for engines which are run only during the day, the engineer always ﬁnding in the morning a hot bed of coals beneath the lumps of anthra- cite, which have partially consumed and be- come covered with ashes without changing their form. The coal requires a good draft to kindle it, but a moderate one, with slow combustion, to produce its best effects. When the highly favorable position of the Rhode ANTHRACITE Island coal is considered with reference to con- venience of supplying the demand for fuel, most persons will be ready to concur in the observation of President Hitchcock, who thus expresses -the opinion, which every scientiﬁc man, who has given attention to this subject, appears also to have arrived at, “ that ere long the anthracite of Rhode Island will be consid- ered by posterity, if not by the present genera- tion, as a treasure of great value.” The geo- logical position of the Rhode Island anthracite has long been uncertain, the strata of slates and sandstones being greatly metamorphosed by their proximity to the granitic rocks. The fos- sil plants, however, are similar to those found in the true coal formation, and it is now the generally received opinion of geologists, that the group is identical with it—the intervening formations between it and the granite being all wanting.-In Virginia, anthracite mines have been opened within a few years past in Mont- gomery, Pulaski, and Wythe counties, and also along the same range of mountains in the west- ern part of Augusta county. One, or at the most two beds, are met with, ranging along the southern side of the long parallel ridges called the Brushy mountains, and sometimes distinguished by the names of the Little Clinch, the Little Walker, and the Little Cove moun- tains. In Montgomery county, the coal-beds are met with in Price’s mountain, which ex- tends from New river about 7 miles toward the N. E. This ridge is about 2 miles wide, and the strata lie in it, arranged in anticlinal form, dipping on each side toward the limestone, which forms the two valleys. Against this limestone formation, the strata of slates, sand- stones, and coal abut as against a solid wall, and the coal basin is consequently limited by it on each side. It is rare in the Appalachian range to meet with the strata thus unconformably disposed; but this region is peculiar for the ex- traordinary displacements of the surface, and consequent disarrangement of the order, in which the same groups of rock elsewhere suc- ceed each other. The limestone, which is here in contact with the coal, is the lowest of the great calcareous groups, and on the range of these formations further north, is always sepa- rated from the coal by other strata of many thousand feet aggregate thickness. The coal- beds also are in a very unusual group of rocks, not those which constitute the true coal. forma- tion, but in a series of gray sandstones, which occur below the great conglomerate bed, that has already been spoken of as the ﬂoor of the coal measures. These irregularities are unfa- vorable for the existence of many or large beds, or of any, indeed, in good condition for work- ing. It appears probable, from the researches of Mr. J. P. Lesley, an account of which is published in the 7th annual report of the Vir- ginia and Tennessee railroad company, that not more than one workable bed will ever be met with; and this is liable to be greatly disturbed by faults, and reduced to the condition of ﬁne ANTHROPOLOGY 647 coal by the shaking which the whole moun- tains have experienced. Such is indeed its con- dition along much of its range through Pulaski and Smythe counties, the coal being shovelled out of some of the beds like sand. In Brush mountain, along the north-western line of Mont- gomery county, and in Price’s mountain, 6 or 7 miles south-east of this, some very good coal is mined; that of the former locality being free- burning semi-bituminous coal, and that of the latter a very pure anthracite, of which an analysis is given in the table in the ﬁrst part of this article. The specimen was from mines lately opened on Strouble’s Run, which were visited by the writer in J an. 1857 . From the proximity of these mines to the Virginia and Tennessee railroad, which is only a mile and a . half distant, they are likely to assume some importance. The neighboring region abounds in the best quality of hematite iron ore, which ought to create a large local demand for fuel; and the great salt works near the western cor- ner of Smythe county already consume large quantities of wood at a greater cost, probably, than the mineral coal might be afforded at. ANTHROPOLITES (Gr. a1/Gponros, it man, and M909, a stone), fossil remains of man. The frequently reputed fossils of this character generally prove to have belonged to other ani- mals; but in the rocks of the present geologi- cal period, such as the limestones, which are in process of formation on the coast of the West India islands, it has happened that human skel- etons have become embedded together with the remains of shell-ﬁsh common to that region. A portion of a skeleton embedded in the lime- stone from the coast of Guadeloupe is deposited in the British museum, and the corresponding part of the same skeleton is in the collection of the medical college of Charleston, S. C. ; an- other similar specimen is in the museum of the Ja/rdin ales Plantcs in Paris. ANTHROPOLOGY (Gr. av6pco1ros', man, and 7\0'yos', doctrine), the science of man, or of hu- man nature, in contrast with animal nature and instinct. In a physical point of view, man evidently belongs to the animal kingdom of our globe, and to the vertebrate type of organic conformation. There are several distinct classes of vertebrata; such as birds, reptiles, ﬁshes, and mammalia. Man belongs to the class mam- malia.-—-There are numerous subdivisions of this class into different families, genera, species, and varieties, but no satisfactory method of classiﬁcation has hitherto been devised to form distinctive groups of species in each order, or deﬁne the limitations of variety in each partic- ular species; and as with animals, so with man. It is admitted that the whole human race be- long to one family and one species, but the num- ber of varieties in this one species remains unde- termined; some writers making 3 distinctions, others 5, and others again 15, or more, accord- ing to the point of view of the author, who may wish to notice only very marked distinc- tions, or pursue the separation into more minute , types: 648 analysis of varied feature, form, and character. In most respects, man differs widely from all types of the animal; but one exception ‘breaks the rule unpleasantly; the ape, which evidently forms a link between the monkey and man, is too like the latter to be utterly denied as an approximation to the “human form divine.” This propinquity of outward form excites a feeling of aversion; but that which God has created in the realms of nature must be accord- ant with divine wisdom, and therefore worthy of man’s admiration and the reverence of hu- man reason.—In a natural theory of classiﬁca- tion, broad distinctions are ﬁrst made and then minute divisions. The class mammalia may be subdivided into the following series of generic The porcine, the cervine, the bovine, the equine,the ursine, the canine, the feline, the hand- ed tribes, and certain mammalian tribes inhabit- ing the ocean, such as whales, seals, and the like. These are very broad distinctions, to which may be added the ovine tribes, not very far re- moved from the antelope and deer tribes; the rodent tribes, not far removed in some of their characteristics from the porcine tribes; the marsupialia and hibernating tribes, near the ursine; the weasel and ichneumon tribes, near the feline; the wolverine or glutton, not very distant from the canine. This gives 14 broad distinctions in the mammalian class, and each of these admits of numerous subdivisions, to dis- tinguish genera and species in each order. The elephant, rhinoceros, and hippopotamus we class as genera belonging to the porcine order, for though the pig does not aspire to so much honor as to claim relationship with the majes- tic elephant, he is as much allied to him as the monkey to man. The rodent types we class as a distinct order, between the porcine and the cervine; the guinea-pig being really a rodent, and the elephant himself being monarch of the types in which incisor teeth and the proboscis are supremely characteristic of pecu- liar development. We need not dwell on other types, but come at once to the bimana and the quadrumana. We may, however, state that the hyena, the wolf, the fox, and the dog are classed in the canine order here; and other species usually placed too far apart, are brought by means of remote affinity, or natural oscu- lation, within a common order of limitation in our deﬁnitions. The man, the ape, the mon- key, and the lemur, form a group of types, with many points in common, as compared with other forms of physical organism. In 2 of the quadrumana types, 13. e. monkeys and lemurs, there are numerous species and varieties; in the ape tribe, few; and in the human, or bi- mana, only one. Div'ersities of color, feature, form, and stature, are, however, numerous in this one family or species, and these are so distinct and different in some respects, as to suggest to certain minds the idea of a different origin for each variety. The Chinese and Mongolian tribes differ so widely from the South Sea Isl- anders and the Malays, in form and feature; ANTHROPOLOGY and these again from the Australian races and the beardless red Indians of America; and all these from the negro tribes of western and of southern Africa, that no amount of ingenuity can satisfy the senses of their common origin and subsequent degeneration. The Indo-Ger- manic or Caucasian tribes, again, are not less different from the foregoing types, than these are from each other; and yet, so many points are common to all races of the human family, that much may be advanced in favor of a com- mon origin and subsequent divarication, caused by difference of climate, habits, and religious culture.--Blumenbach divides the human species into 5 varieties, Caucasian, Mongolian, Ethiopian, American, Malay. The Caucasian he describes as having a white skin, either with a fair rosy tint, or inclining to brown; red cheeks, hair dark, or of the various lighter hues, copious, soft, and generally curly or waving; the iris dark in those with brown skin, light in the fair or rosy complexion; large cranium, with small face; the upper and anterior regions of the head well developed, with the face falling perpendicularly under it; the face oval and straight, with dis- tinct features, expanded forehead, narrow and rather aquiline nose; mouth small; front teeth of both jaws perpendicular; lips slightly evert- ed or turned out, the lower lip more than the upper; the chin full and rounded; the moral feelings and intellectual powers most energetic and susceptible of the highest culture and de- velopment. This variety includes all the an- cient and modern Europeans (except the Finns); the former and present inhabitants of Western Asia as far as the river Oby, the Caspian sea, and the Ganges; 71. e. Assyrians, Medes, Chal- deans, Sarmatians, Scythians, and Parthia'ns, the Philistines, Jews, Phoenicians, and the in- habitants of Syria generally; the Tartars prop- erly so called; the tribes now occupying the chain of the Caucasus; Georgians, Circassians, Armenians, Mingrelians, Turks, Arabians, Per- sians, Afghans, and Hindoos of high caste; the Egyptians, Abyssinians, Guanches, and north- ern Africans. The second or Mongolian va- riety are characterized by black eyes and an olive-colored skin, in many cases very light. Black, straight, strong, thinly furnished hair; little or no beard; head of a square form with a small and low forehead; broad and ﬂattened face with the features running to- gether; the glabella ﬂat and very broad; nose small and ﬂat; rounded cheeks, projecting ex- ternally; narrow and linear aperture of the eyelids; eyes placed very obliquely; slight pro- jection of the chin; thick lips; large ears; stat- ure,particularly in the countries near the north pole, inferior to that of Europeans. It includes the tribes of central and northern Asia, as the Mongols, Calmucks, and Buriats; the Mantchoos, Daurians, Tungooses, and Coreans; the Sa- moiedes, Yukagers, Koriaks, Tchooktchees, and Kamtchatdales; the Chinese and the Japanese, the inhabitants of Tibet and Bootan, of Ton- quin, Cochin-China, Ava, Pegu, Cambodia, ANTHROPOLOGY Laos, and Siam; the Finns, the Laplanders, and Esquimaux. The third or Ethiopian variety is thus described: skin and eyes black; hair black and woolly; skull compressed laterally and elongated toward the front; forehead low, narrow, and slanting; cheek-bones prominent; jaws narrow and projecting; upper front teeth oblique; chin receding; the eyes prominent; nose broad, thick, ﬁat, and confused with the external jaw; the lips thick, particularly the upper one. All the natives of Africa belong to this variety, except those of the north, which are classed with the Caucasian races. The fourth or American variety are described as having the skin dark and more or less of a red tint; strong, straight black hair; beard scanty; countenance and form of skull not unlike the Mongolian type. The forehead low, eyes deep, face broad, particularly across the cheeks, but not so ﬂattened as in the Mongolian races; mouth large, and lips rather thick. This va- riety includes all the aboriginal Americans, ex- cept the Esquimaux. The ﬁfth or Malay variety is distinguished by a skin of brown color, from a light tawny to a deep brown; hair black, abundant, and more or less curly; head rather narrow; bones of the face large and prominent; nose full and broad toward the apex; mouth large. In this variety are inclu- ded the inhabitants of Malacca, Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Oelebes, and the adjacent Asiatic isles; of the Molucca, Ladrone, Philippine, Ma- rian, and Caroline groups; of New Holland, New Guinea, New Zealand,Van Diemen’s Land, and of all the South sea islands.——Ouvier makes only 3 principal divisions; 71. c. the Oaucasian, the Mongolian, and the Ethiopian; remaining doubtful in regard to the distinct characteris- tics of the Malay and the American varieties. Dr. Prichard divides the species into 7 princi- pal varieties; 7:. e. the Iranians, who, in the form of the skull and in other physical charac- ters, resemble Europeans, or the Caucasian va- riety; the Turanians, who are nearly the same with the Mongolians of other writers; the aboriginal Americans, except the Esquimaux and some others resembling them; the Hotten- tots and Bushmen; the Negroes; the Papuas or woolly-haired nations of Polynesia; the Al- fourou, and Australian races. These distinc- tions are made with reference to di_ﬁ'erences of form and feature, color, stature, &c. Varieties of form are mainly referable to differences in the structure and proportions of the skeleton, and particularly in the varied forms of the skull. Dr. Prichard, in his “ Researches,” ﬁrst makes 3 principal divisions in regard to the peculiar forms of the skull: the symmetri- cal or oval form; the narrow and elongated or prognathous skull; the broad and square front- ed or pyramidal skull. The symmetrical or oval form includes all the Indo-Atlantic or Iranian nations, comprising the countries from the Himalaya mountains to the Indian ocean, including the whole of Hindostan and the Dec- can, as well as Persia and Arabia; and from 649 the Ganges to the shores of the Atlantic, in- cluding the north of Africa and nearly the whole of Europe. In this variety, the head is rounded and more even than in the others; the forehead more expanded; the upper max- illary bones and zygomatic arches are formed to give the face an oval shape, being also nearly on a plane with the forehead and cheek-bones, and does not project toward the lower part. The cheek-bones neither project outward and laterally nor forward. The alveolar process of the upper jaw is well rounded, and slightly curved vertically, giving the teeth a perpendic- ular direction.—The narrow and elongated or prognathous skull is found in the negroes, the Papuas, Alfourous, Australians, New Zealanders, and other neighboring Oceanic nations; but the most marked specimens occur in the ne- groes of the Gold Coast. These skulls give the idea of lateral compression and elongation. The cheek-bones project forward and not out- ward laterally. The upper jaw is lengthened and projects forward, giving a similar projec- tion to the alveolar ridge and the teeth, and thus diminishing the facial angle.—The broad, square-faced pyramidal skull belongs to the Turanian or northern Asiatic nations, Sa- moiedes, Yukagers, Koriacs, Kamtchatdales, Tchooktchees, Tungusians, Ohinese, Indo-Ohi- nese, Tangutians, and Japanese, part of the Tartar race, the Finnish race in Europe, the Esquimaux, the aboriginal Americans, and the Hottentots. The Mongols form a fair aver- age of this type, and the Esquimaux the most exaggerated specimen. Its most striking char- acteristic is the lateral outward projection of the zygomata, and this is so considerable that lines drawn from each and touching the sides of the frontal bone, will meet a very little way above the apex of the forehead. The check- bones project from under the middle of the orbit, and turn backward in a large arch or curve. The orbits are large and deep; the upper part of the face remarkably ﬁat; the nasal bones and the space between the eye-brows being nearly on the same plane with the cheek- bones.-These varieties are not always very distinctly marked. There are many individual cases of negroes remarkable for the beauty and quasi-European cast of their features, and many specimens of European heads in which the narrowness of the skull, the lowness of the forehead, and the prominence of the jaws, approach the negro type, while others resemble strongly the broad and ﬁat-faced Tartars or Chinese.-—Professor Weber has arranged the various shapes of the human pelvis in4classes; the oval, the round, the square, and the cunei- form or oblong; and observes that, although the oval is the most general form in Europeans, the round in the Americans, the square in the Mongolians, and the oblong in the Africans, yet specimens of each of these forms may be found in all the different races.—Other points of conformation differ as well as the skull and the pelvis, in the principal varieties of the 650 species. The chest of the negro is generally more expanded than that of the European, the sternum more arched, the ribs larger and more roundly curved. The forearm, measured in proportion to the upper arm, and to the height of the body, is longer in the negro race than in the European. The knees appear ill-shapen, the bones -of the leg bend out from beneath them, and turn the feet outward awkwardly, whence they have been called “ splay-footed.” But the tibia and ﬁbula are more convex than inthe Caucasian races; the feet are ﬂat; in- stead of being arched, the os calcis forms near- ly a straight line with the rest of the tarsus; the calves of the leg are short and highly situ- ated, near the hams; the hands generally nar- row and the ﬁngers long.--Some writers have supposed the lowest type of negro to form a sort of intermediate grade between the Euro- pean and the ape; but there is no important feature in which the difference between the most degraded human type and the highest ape is not very much greater than that which sepa- rates the lowest negro from the highest Euro- pean. The characters of form which the low- est class of negroes present are, no doubt, more like those of the ape than those of Euro- peans are; still, the approximation is but slight, and a vast space is left between them.--Consid- erable difference occurs in the average stature of the different races, as well as in feature, form, and color. In the temperate climates of Eu- rope the most prevailing heights vary between 5 and 6 feet for males, and somewhat less for females. Giants and dwarfs, of course, are not included in this average, as they are very rare, and equally exceptional in every race. In north- ern Europe the average height is generally nearer 6 feet than 5, while in southern Europe the opposite prevails. Still greater varieties of stature occur amongst the aboriginal races of America. The Peruvians, the nations of Terra del Fuego and of Nootka Sound, the Esquimaux and the Chaymas, are all described by travellers as very diminutive, while the Pa.r- aguays, Caribbees, Cherokees, and the natives of the regions immediately north of Canada, are said to be much above the average height of Europeans. The Patagonians are also general- ly very tall, commonly 6 feet, and often more. The stature of the African race appears to maintain about the same average as that of En- ropeans. The Hottentots are below the general size, and the Bushmen are still more diminu- tive, 4% feet being the average height of the men, and 4 feet that of the women. The Caf- free, on the other hand, the neighboring tribe to the Hottentots, are remarkable for height and strength. The people of the north of Asia and those of the north of Europe near the pole, Laplanders, and Samoiedes, are generally shorter than those of lower latitudes and more temperate climates, while the Chinese and Japanese, who resemble them in form and feature, are about the same in stature as the Europeans.——The speciﬁc characteristics of the ANTHROPOLOGY human organism, compared with that of ani- mals, are found in the peculiar adaptations of all the parts to station and action in the erect attitude. The position of the face immediately beneath the brain, with its front nearly in the same plane as the forehead, is peculiar to man, for the crania of the chimpanzee and orang- outang, which approach nearest to that of man, are altogether posterior to the face, and not above it. This peculiarity of the human head and face is also adapted specially to the erect attitude, in which position the plane of the orbits is nearly horizontal, the cavities of the nose in the best direction for inhaling odors proceeding from below or from around.--The vertebral column, in man, though not literally straight, has its curves so nicely balanced, that when the body is erect, a vertical line drawn from its summit would fall exactly on the centre of its base. It increases also in size and strength from above downward, and the lumbar portion, beside being very strong, is also of considerable length. The lumbar ver- tebrae in man are 5 in number, while in the apes there are but 4.—-—The base of the human vertebral column is placed on a sacrum of greater proportional breadth than that of any animal. The sacrum is remarkably arched forward, and ﬁxed between two widely ex- panded haunch bones, forming the lateral walls below of a very broad pelvis. The pelvis of every other species is very different from the human, being always longer and narrower, with a smaller space between the iliac bones and lowest ribs, the sacrum lengthened and reduced in width, the alae of the ilia much less expand- ed, and the whole pelvis, instead of forming an angle with the vertebral column, as in man, is almost in the same line with it.-—The lower extremities of man are remarkable for their length, which is proportionally greater than that of any other mammal, except the kangaroo. The human femur is distinguished by its great length, by the obliquity and length of its neck, and by its being directed somewhat obliquely inward toward that of the opposite side, so as to bring the knees more directly under the pelvis. Owing to this great comparative length of the human femur, the arms of a man only extend to the middle of the thigh, while those of the chimpanzee reach to the level of the knees, and those of the orang-outang to the ancles.—-The human foot, in proportion to the size of the whole body, is larger, broader, and stronger than that of any other mammal. In the erect position it is at right angles with the leg, and is in contact with the ground at both ends. The sole of the foot is concave, and the weight of the body falls on the summit of an arch, of which the astragalus, supported below- by a very strong ligament, represents the key- stone, the principal points of support being the large and arched os calcis, and the anterior ex- tremities of the metatarsal bones. The strength and size of the foot enable man alone, of all the mammalia, to stand upon one leg. The natural ANTHROPOLOGY contact of the os calcis with the ground, and its arched form, are also peculiar to man. Apes have the os calcis small, straight, and more or less raised from the ground, which, when stand- ing, they touch only with the outer side. of the rest of the foot, while in animals more remote from man, the angle which the os calcis forms with the tibia is still more acute, and the foot being more narrow and elongated, the extrem- ities of the toes only come in contact with the ground. The foot of the monkey is further dis- tinguished from that of man by the great length of four of its toes, and the separation of the most internal from the rest, in such a man- ner that it can, when necessary, be opposed to them in action, like a thumb. This toe cor- responds to the great toe in position, but in- stead of being the largest of the ﬁve, as in man, it is the smallest of the monkey’s toes, or rather of the ﬁngers of the posterior hands, for monkeys are four-handed, all their extremities being alike adapted for prehension, and for clinging to the branches of trees.—-Man alone is two-handed. “ That which constitutes the hand, properly so called,” says Cuvier (Reyna Animal, i. p. 78), “ is the faculty of opposing the thumb to the other ﬁngers to seize the most Ininute objects; and this faculty is carried to the highest perfection in man, in whom the whole anterior extremity is free, and can be used in prehension.” Hands thus deﬁned occur only in man, and in the ape and monkey tribes, one forming a bimanous order, contain- ing only one genus and one species, man; the other a quadrumanous order, containing three genera, apes, monkeys, lemurs, and each of these again comprising few or many different species.—With one exception (in the fossil genus anoplotherium), man differs from an- imals by the equality of the length of all his teeth, and by their equally close proximity to one another in the jaw. Even the chim- panzee and orang-outang have the canine teeth longer than the others, and an interval in the line of teeth in each side of each jaw, to receive the prolonged canine teeth of the oppo- site jaw.-—The physiological characteristics of the human organism are hardly less remarka- ble than the anatomical structure and propor- tions. Man can live on almost any part of the globe, and thrive in the extremes of climate and of temperature. The Greenlanders and Esqui- maux have reached between 70° and 80° of N. lat., while the red men of America and the negro of Africa live under the equator; and Europeans, even, accustomed to a temperate climate, can habituate their frames to either of the extremes of cold or heat, and have repeat- edly been known to do so with considerable case. In accordance with this adaptation to extremes of climate, man can live on almost every variety of food. In the polar regions he subsists mainly on animal food, and that of a fatty kind; in the torrid zone, almost exclusive- ly on vegetable diet and farinaceous food; while in the temperate zones he is omnivorous, 651- and lives habitually on a mixed diet. He also subsists with equal facility, within given limits, under various degrees of atmospheric pres- sure. The valleys and the elevated plains of table-lands in South America, some of which are 10,000 feet above the level of the sea, are both inhabited by man, the barometer standing in the valleys at 30, and in the elevated plains at only 20 inches. The apes are unlike man in this capacity of living anywhere upon the globe. The chimpanzee and orang-outang are conﬁned to the islands of Borneo and Sumatra, the coasts of Guinea, and some other parts of Africa, and there even they are few in num- ber. It requires immense precaution to pre- serve them on the journey, when removed from their own native climate to a colder re- gion; and with all the care that human art can suggest and bestow, they soon become diseased, linger a few months, and die.-Man is further remarkable for his slow growth, and the length, of time consumed in helpless infancy and ten- der youth. The greatest age to which the ape is known to attain is 30, while man lives fre- quently three times as long, and sometimes more. However wide the physical differences between man and other types of the mammalia may be, the moral and the mental characteristics of his nature place him still more distant from the nature of the animal. Blumenbach de- scribes man, as being “erect, two-handed, un- armed, rational, endowed with speech; a prom- inent chin; 4 incisor teeth above, and 4 below; all the teeth equally approximated ; the canine teeth of the same length as the others; the lower incisors erect.” This is rather zoological in style and character. Dr. Prichard observes that “ the sentiments, feelings, sympathies, in- ternal consciousness, and mind, with‘ the hab- itudes of life and action thence resulting, are the real. characteristics of humanity.” This de- scription is less zoological in color and outline, but still it seems but meagre for the portrait of a man, or an outline of his nature.—And here we come to the main question, of anthropolo- gy, or the science of human nature. What constitutes a man ? and what distinguishes a human creature from any other animal, except the outward form? Religious culture, and the principle of human reason, progressing in de- velopment to perceive and to revere the di- vine. A man is human only in so much as he is conscious of a divine principle within; just and noble in his personality; willing to cooperate with God in elevating man from the idolatry of self, and the slavery of animal fe- rocity, to a consciousness of human duty and divine humility. Self, is the narrow, limited, animal development of nature; unself, the consciousness of inﬁnite existence, the meta- morphosis from animal to human. By this transformation, man awakens from the sleep of death, the grave of dead materiality, into the consciousness of spiritual life and understand- ing. In lieu of being proud of worldly cun- ning, and power to spoliate his fellow-man 652 (as a lion gifted with the energy and means to conquer and appropriate the ﬂesh and blood of weaker animals), the human being, metamor- phosed by religious culture, leaves the world of narrow self, the nature of the brute, and as- sumes the universal self, or the personal .un- self, at one with the divine; lives in a new world of thought and feeling, which is truly human. A knowledge of these transformations and developments constitutes the science of man, as distinguished from that of animal na- ture, anthropology in contradistiction from zool- ogy, ethnology, and ordinary mental philosophy. And here we may observe, that, as the inward feelings give perpetual play to the features and the gestures of the body, so that the physiog- nomy and carriage, the outward bearing and the manners of a man, reveal, to some extent, the education and the culture of the mind, we may easily conceive the possibility of ages of peculiar culture in a race, or of perpetual in- culture and degeneration, in some tribes of the great family of man, producing such eifects of physical deviation from the perfect or ideal “human form divine” that many races now resemble apes as much as men, from the con- stant play of animal propensities alone, within their poor, degraded souls. Not that all races physically ugly and deformed are really more hideous in their moral nature than some other races less distorted from the physical ideal standard; but they are generally weaker in their powers and their instincts, as the mangy dog or the hyena are inferior in form and en- ergy to the ferocious bloodhound; or the half- starved cat to the sleek tiger or the lion. Unable to do justice in a few short pages to the elevated science of human nature, as compared with that of animals, we give a few broad out- lines to suggest to other minds the vast pro- portions of the subject, properly deﬁned as anthropology. The outward form, as we have seen above, differs in its leading features from all types of the animal, although it much resem- bles them in many points, and more especially the apes; but human nature differs widely from the animal, in being able to progress from in- fantine instinctual limitation to adult human consciousness, perceiving inﬁnite wisdom in creation and inﬁnite love in the Greater, and aspiring to commune with higher beings, and advance in love and wisdom to eternity. In human nature there are threeorders of instinct and emotion, capable of inﬁnite development, unknown to animals, and little understood by man himself when undeveloped: -these are the religious instincts and aspirations; the social and political instincts and sentiments; and the natural instincts and feelings, or the love of nature, properly so called. These impel man to cultivate religion, politics, philosophy, and science, in all their various phases and devel- opments. Animals have no impulses of this kind, no instincts of so high an order. True, they have the germs of some of these, as we may see in certain tribes of birds and beasts ANTHR()POL()G'rYw gregariously organized for plunder or for self- protection; as wolves and wild dogs hunt in troops; and certain wary birds, which live in ﬂocks, place sentinels or outposts at a distance to warn them of approaching danger, while the mass is occupied in feeding or in seeking food. These germs, however, of gregarious policy and art, remain forever in the narrow sphere of ‘ simple instinct, and never grow into a science. The principle of reason, like the passions and the instincts of the human soul, is inﬁnite in essence or universal and progressive in develop- ment, while both the reasoning and the in- stinctive powers are limited and stationary in all the lower animals. And yet animals have ﬁnite germs of all, or nearly all the emotions and the instincts of the human soul. They have slight powers of observation and of rea- son, so as to be more or less susceptible of edu- cation or of training. The limits of develop- ment, however, are restricted within narrow bounds, in all the organic beings of our globe, with one exception, and that one is man. He transcends every law of ordinary limitation, and progresses naturally from the ﬁnite toward the inﬁnite, in every sphere of thought and aspiration, will and understanding, intuition, spiritual sympathy, and conscious harmony with nature and with God, the inﬁnite Creator.—- Animals have certain instincts of construction, as the beaver and the bee, but man is a creator, in the sphere of art and mechanism, always generating new conceptions and new forms; creating as it were a world of poetry and art, mechanical contrivances, and social institutions, as instruments of beauty and convenience, order and economy, for the advancement of the race toward higher destiny, in the scale of univer- sally ascending life and consciousness amongst created beings. Anthropology is therefore a progressive science, which can only be devel- oped by those who precede their time and gen- eration in the regular unfolding of the human faculties and powers; for an undeveloped man or woman is unconscious of the latent powers within, as much so as the child of 3 years old, who has no conception of the adult powers of thought and life developed all around him. The physical organism of man is just beginning to be understood in its main functions and mi- nute structure by anatomists and physiologists alone; the public, as yet, have hardly any knowledge of the human body, or of any nat- ural physical organism. The human mind is hardly known at all, in any systematic manner worthy of the name of science, parallel with the anatomy and physiology of the physical organism; although the Germans and other distinguished European thinkers, not to men- tion men of equal eminence in the United States, have spent much time and thought in analyzing the operations of the mind and its constituent faculties of thought. The feelings and the sentiments are hardly better known or scientiﬁcally analyzed than the mental facul- ties; and though innumerable volumes have AN THRCPOMORPHITES been written upon ethics and the moral con- science of mankind, the faculties and powers and progressive evolution of human conscience as a principle or special kind of force in human nature, are less known or scientiﬁcally analyzed than are the mental faculties. This is natural enough in the present age of the world; for, though the mental faculties have been much developed in the race, and exercised in many spheres of thought, the conscience has been lying buried or asleep for ages, hardly waking up to consciousness at all in the vast majority of undeveloped human beings, even in the most advanced parts of Christendom ; and this, not- withstanding the divine humanity of Christ, perpetually held up as a model of unfoldment in the highest sphere of reason, intuition, con- science, will, and understanding. To the great majority of men, little or nothing is known of anthropology or human nature. To a few, the structure and the functions of the body are familiar; those of the mind are less understood; those of the feelings and affections, less still; those of the conscience proper, or the inner and the nobler essence, very little, or to very few, and that but superﬁcially. The impulses and the instincts of human nature, are hardly less developed in the race than conscience, in- tellect, and reason. The instinct and the love of religion are either undeveloped as in heathen nations and ungodly multitudes in Christendom, or they are feeble and irascible, as in fanatical sectarians and superstitious maniacs. Of course there are exceptions to all general statements of this nature; but exceptions always prove the rules to which they form a contrast.-The instincts and ‘the impulses of social and political organization are no doubt rudely exhibited in some nations and some classes, but we need hardly dwell on facts or history, to show how coarsely human nature is developed in this sphere of life; how nearly it approximates to animality in many of the leading features of political antagonism and social degradation. The love of nature, or the impulses and instincts which impel man to cultivate philosophy and science, and otherwise commune with and en- joy the works of the creation, are developed in a few more highly gifted specimens of the race; but, in the vast majority, these innate powers and capacities lie almost dormant, or unfold but in the low degrees of sensuality and ani- mality.—What human nature is, and what it may become, are manifestly two distinct branches of anthropology. The latter will be always more or less imperfectly known; for, as man unfolds his powers, he perceives that more remains yet undeveloped than is actually evolved. The few in every age, who are de- veloped more than their contemporaries, give a glimpse of what the race may next attain to; and this spiral ladder of progression constantly reveals new powers in human nature, as the race advances from the brute or infant state toward inﬁnite perfection. AN THROPOMORPHITES (Gr. avdpam-os-, ANTICHRIST 653 man, p.op¢q, shape), those who believed that God possesses a human form. Anthropomor- phism in Christianity, has its origin in the at- tempt to apply a literal method to the interpre- tation of Scripture. Of this method Crigen, in his early history, is an illustrious and, perhaps, the ﬁrst example. Origen, however, deserted the literal method without arriving at anthro- pomorphitic results. ‘These were reserved for Audius, a Syrian layman (340), who separated from the church, and established congregations in Scythia. He taught that God essentially ex- ists in human form--inculcated the observance of the Jewish passover—and opposed the au- thority of the clergy. For the two latter teachings, in connection with his anthropomor- phism, Audius and his congregations were ex- communicated from the church. They ﬂour- ished only about a century. In the 10th century, anthropomorphism was revived, but did not attain any prominence as a doctrine. most remarkable and consistently developed exhibition of this doctrine is to be found among the Mormons of the present day. Anthropo- morphism consists, philosophically, in subjecting God to the conditions of time and space, and so assigning to him a ﬁnite personality. As such, therefore, it has, more or less, an existence in the infancy of all= religions, and in the earlier religious conceptions of every individual. ANTHROPOPHAGI (Gr. av3pw1ros,II18.I1, gha- yco, to eat), man-eaters, a term which was used until the discovery of America, after which the word cannibals came into general use. ' AN TIBACCHIUS, in ancient poetry, a foot made up of 3 syllables, the ﬁrst two long, and the ﬁnal one short, like dmbiré. AN TIBES, a well-fortiﬁed town of France, department of the Var, situated 10 miles S. E. of Grasse, on the east side of a peninsula in the Mediterranean. It is a very ancient city, having been founded under the name Antipolis by the Greeks in 340 B. C., and was also a Roman mili- tary station. It was invaded, after the fall of the empire, by the barbarians, and was destroyed by the Saracens. In 1746,sit successfully with- stood the attacks of the English, Imperialists, and Piedmontese, and in 1815, it was the only military station of which the garrison refused to join Napoleon on his return from Elba. Pop. 6,500, mostly employed in ﬁshing, curing ﬁsh, and trading in dried fruits and oil. ANTICAGLIA, the name given by the Ital- ians to small remains of Greek and Roman an- tiquity, such as coins, cut stones, household furniture, etc. The term is now used to desig- nate also similar antiques of other nations. AN TICHRIST. From the earliest ages of the Christian church, there has been a belief that some great personage or institution was to arise at some future time, or had arisen in past time, to oppose the kingdom of Christ, and at least temporarily triumph over it. How, or from what source, such an idea originated, it is, perhaps, diﬂicult to tell. Some writers at- tribute to it an anti-Messianic origin, others to The I 654 ANTICLIN AL AXIS the New Testament Scriptures. In respect to this latter opinion, it is to be observed that the epistle of John alone makes any mention of Antichrist, and that John scarcely gives coun- tenance to the notion of a single future incar- nation as an Antichrist, but aﬁirms that there are alreadjr “many Antichrists,” and says that “ every spirit that confesseth not that Jesus Christ is come in the ﬂesh,” is Antichrist, “ and even now it is already in the world.” By some writers Napoleon has been thought to be Anti- christ. At the time of the reformation, the Prot- estant and Roman churches reciprocally crimi- nated each other as Antichrist. Commentators have generally considered the 12th and 13th chapters of the Apocalypse as emblematic de- scrip tions of Antichrist.—The current opinion in the Roman Catholic church, in accordance with the general doctrine of the Fathers, is, that Anti- christ is an individual who will pretend to be the true Messiah, and be generally acknowledged as such throughout the earth, during the last epoch of the existence of this world. It is generally sup- posed that he will be a Jew, of the tribe of Dan, the son of an impure woman, pretending to great sanctity and miraculous gifts, who will give out that she has conceived and given birth to him by a divine afﬂatus. _ Some have main- tained the opinion, that Antichrist will be Satan incarnate, but the more recent theo- logians reject this opinion as absurd, and hold that he will merely be under a high degree of diabolic inﬂuence. The period of the sway of Antichrist, it is supposed, will continue for 3% years from the time when his power has reached its acme, after which he will be de- stroyed by an extraordinary interposition of the Almighty, a short time before the end of the world. Some Catholic writers dissent from the more common opinion, and explain the prophe- cies concerning Antichrist as relating to M0- hammedanism, or some other principle or pow- er, hostile to Christianity.—For a very copious treatise, in which the more common opinion is elucidated, see the “Theology” of Cardinal Gotti, and also then“ Commentaries ” of Cor- nelius a Lapicle, on the relevant passages of Scripture. ANTIGLINAL AXIS (Gr. avn and lchu/co, to bend), a geological term used to express the line from which the strata dip in opposite di- rections, corresponding to the ridge pole of a house, or the crest line of an arch. The corre- sponding line from which the strata rise in both directions, is called the synclinal axis. AN TICCSTI, a barren island of Canada East, in the estuary of the St. Lawrence, between lat. 49° and 50° N. and long. 62° and 65° W. Area, 2,500 square miles. Its surface is mountainous and densely wooded. It has a lighthouse on its S. W. point, 100 feet high, which is lighted from March to December. AN TICYRA. I. Acity of Thessaly, famous for producing the hellebore, which was regarded by the ancients as a cure for madness.-II. A city of Phocis on the Corinthian gulf, also cele- ANTIDOTES brated for the production of hellebore. The Anticyraeans are said to have been expelled from their city by Philip, after the close of the sacred war. It was taken, in a subsequent age, by the Roman general Laavinus, and given up by him to the ./Etolians. It was occupied, during the Macedonian war, by Titus Q. Flamininus, for the sake of its harbor, which afforded a se- cure retreat for the Roman ﬂeet. The site of Anticyra is still discernible on the shore of the Corinthian gulf. It is known by the name of Aspropitia, or “the white houses.” ANTIDOTES (Gr. awn, against, and 813cc/u, to give), a term formerly used to signify a remedy or preservative against sickness, but now applied only to applications to counteract the effect of poisons. Poisoning is produced by so many different causes, that no general spe- ciﬁc can be given for its treatment, but each case must be treated according to its peculiari- ties, and, to some extent, according to the con- stitution of the individual. To get rid at once, however, of the poisoning substance, or to check its effects, are the general results to be sought for. In case of bites from poisonous reptiles, as snakes, the poison may be removed by immediately sucking the wound, the mouth being partially ﬁlled with water, which is ejected from it with the venom. The cupping glass ef- fects the same object, or, what will answer as well, any cup or glass, from which the air has been partially expelled by burning in it a candle or piece of paper, and then applied to the wound. When a poisonous substance has been swallowed, the stomach pump is the most eifectual applica- tion to extract it; but as it -is not often con- venient to procure this, emetics should be given without any delay. Common mustard, mixed in warm water, can always be obtained, and this drank freely produces vomiting more speedily than ipecacuanha or tartar emetic. A little sulphate of zinc (white vitriol), or sul- phate of copper (blue vitriol), dissolved in warm water, acts as speedily as the mustard. Vom- iting should be kept up for some time with co- pious draughts of warm water, followed with milk, barley water, or ﬂour and water. For speciﬁc poisons, a number of antidotes may be selected; and it is well to have these conve- niently arranged for reference. For arsenic, emetics, following large doses of lime water, cold, are recommended, the lime forming with the arsenic an insoluble arsenite of lime, and detaching the poison from the coats of the stomach. Vomiting is to be continued with the use of much milk or gruel, and barley-wa-. ter. For corrosive sublimate, the whites of eggs with water, followed with milk and cream; decoction of cinchona; infusion of galls. For oxalic acid, chalk and water, and emetics. For acetate of lead, emetics with sulphate of soda; ammonia; milk; white of eggs. For prussic acid, smelling salts carefully applied to the nose; sal-volatile, or liquid ammonia in brandy and water repeated in small doses; and also chlorine in solution in water; and chloride of lime in AN TIGONE water; cold water should be dashed upon the face and spine. For laudanum and other opium preparations, emetics; cold water in the face and breast; forced exercise; strong coffee. For sulphate of copper and other copper poisons, sugar and water, and whites of eggs. For sul- phate of zinc, carbonate of soda in water with milk, barley-water, or gruel. For strychnia, in- fusion of gall-nuts, emetics, decoction of cin- chona. For tartrate of antimony, astringent vegetable substances, which contain tannin, oak-bark alone excepted. For any of the com- pounds of barytes, an alkaline or earthy sul- phate, as sulphate of soda, or sulphate of mag- nesia. For poisoning produced by the bite of a mad dog, cauterizing the wound thoroughly with a hot iron is the best application, and then preventing the circulation from the part by ty- ing a cord tightly about it. AN TIGONE, a daughter of (Edipus by his mother J ocasta. When (Edipus, after murder- ing his father, and committing incest with his mother, put out his eyes in despair, and went to Attica, Antigone guided him on the way, and attended on him till his death. She then returned to Thebes, where Haemon, son of the tyrant Creon, became enamored of her. But this love was destined to be unfortunate. The brothers of Antigone having fallen in the war against Thebes, and she having attempted to bury them in deﬁance of an edict of Creon, the tyrant ordered her to be imprisoned in a sub- terraneous cave, where she instantly killed her- self. Haemon, on hearing of her tragic end, rushed wildly to her prison-house, and slew himself on her corpse. was a favorite subject with the great tragic poets of Greece. ANTIGONUS. I. The Cyclops, so called from having lost an eye in battle, one of the oﬂicers of Alexander the Great, slain at the battle of Ipsus, in Phrygia. He was a Macedonian by birth, and at the distribution of Alexander’s empire among his generals, he received as his share the greater Phrygia, Lycia, and Pamphy- lia. Perdiccas was the ﬁrst of these generals who aspired to universal domination, and as An- tigonus was his nearest neighbor and most im- mediate opponent, he was ﬁrst attacked, and took refuge, along with his young son Demetri- us, afterward called Poliorcetes, at the court of Antipater, regent of Macedonia and Greece, and apprised his protector of the dangerous ambition of Perdiccas. A coalition was formed against Perdiccas, Eumenes alone siding with him. On the sudden death of Perdiccas in Egypt, Anti- pater made a new distribution of the Asiatic provinces. Antigonus had Susiana added to his former dominions, and to him was com- mitted the charge of annihilating Eumenes, the ally of Perdiccas. By bribing one of his ofﬁcers, Antigonus gained a victory over the able and honest Eumenes, and shut him up in the strong fortress of Nora. In the mean time, Antipater died, and Antigonus in his turn began to aspire to that universal domin- The story of Antigone. ANTIGONUS 655 ion which Perdiccas had aimed at in vain, and from this time (318 B. C.) to the end of his life, he was involved in an unceasing contest. Eu- menes managed to escape from Nora with great adroitness, and took the part of Polysperchon, the legitimate successor of Antipater, in the of- ﬁce of regent and guardian of Alexander’s chil- dren. On the other hand, Cassander, the eldest son of Antipater, discontented with his subor- dinate position, conspired against Polysper- chon, and sought the assistance of Antigonus. The latter ﬁnally succeeded in destroying Eu- menes, and after that he marched toward the Persian capital, Susa, and took possession of the riches stored up there by Alexander. He now took occasion to quarrel with Seleucu s, governor of Babylonia, who ﬂed to the cautious Ptolemy of Egypt, and warned him of the ambition of Antigonus. A coalition was immediately form- ed against him. Ptolemy and Seleucus readily induced Lysimachus of Thrace, and even Cas- sander, who had now got rid of Polysperchon, to join the league of common defence. Antigo- nus had only his son Demetrius to help him. The coalition demanded that he should restore Babylonia to Seleucus, and resign to Lysimachus Hellespontine Phrygia; to Ptolemy, Syria, and to Cassander, Cappadocia and Lycia, and to throw into a common lot the treasures he had captured at Susa. Antigonus sent his repre- sentative, Aristodemus of Miletus, to aid Poly- sperchon, the enemy of his enemy, Cassander, and with men and money to appeal to the pa- triotic Hellenic and anti-Macedonian feeling in many of the chief cities of ancient Hellas as an- other weapon against Cassander. In both of these objects Aristodemus was successful. The Macedonian garrisons were expelled from the Peloponnesus, Euboea, Thebes, and the greater part of Phocis and Locris. Seleucus, however, regained his satrapy of Babylonia. After a hollow truce of one year, during which Cas- sander murdered Roxana and the young Al- exander, the war broke out again. The re- stored Athenian democracy paid to Antigonus and his son Demetrius Poliorcetes extravagant honors. Gilded statues were erected to them near those of Harmodius and Aristogiton. Golden crowns were voted to them; they were worshipped as the gods protectors, and a priest- hood was constituted in their honor. Two new wards were added to the ten previously existing, and named respectively Antigonis and Deme- trias. This state of things could not last long. After a great victory gained by Antigonus over Ptolemy, he boldly threw off the pretence hith- erto kept up by the generals of Alexander, that they were holding merely for his heirs, and as- sumed, in advance of all his rivals, for himself and his son, the title of king. However much divided against each other in other respects, the generals were united on this point. Ptole- my, Lysimachus, and Seleucus, immediately called themselves kings also. Cassander, gen- eral of Macedonia, and immediately in contact with the national sentiment of Macedonia, held 656 back a little longer, but soon after followed. Cassander was driven out of Greece by Deme- trius (303 B. C.), and, trembling for his Mace- donian throne, he sent embassies to Lysimachus, Seleucus, and Ptolemy, to make a grand diver- sion in his favor in Asia Minor, and to strike a blow against Antigonus at home. Seleucus and Lysimachus made a junction in Phrygia, and Demetrius was recalled hastily from the Peloponnesus to aid his father. In Aug. 301 B. C., the armies met at Ipsus, for the decisive battle which was to determine whether there should be one master or a balance of power over the greater portion of the civilized world. Antigo- nus and his son had about 70,000 foot,10,000 horse, and 75 elephants; the coalition had 64,- 000 foot, 10,500 horse, with 400 elephants, and 120 armed chariots. Before the battle, Antigo- nus “boasted that he could break up the pres- ent league and disperse the united armies with as much ease as a boy does a ﬂock of birds by throwing a stone or raising a shout.” The event of Ipsus did not justify his expecta- tions. Demetrius defeated Antiochus, the son of Seleucus, but pressed him too far in pursuit, so that Seleucus cut him off. The Thracian archers of Lysimachus broke the centre where Antigonus, now at the age of 81, was command- ing. He would not ﬂee, saying Demetrius would come and help him, and died on the ﬁeld of -battle, leaving the victory to those who rep- resented the principle of a balance of power in the world.—The domestic character of Antigo- nus was good. He loved arts and letters, and was attached to Hieronymus of Cardia, and the poet Anagoras. Some of his sayings are report- ed by Plutarch. Hermodorus, a ﬂattering poet, having called him the son of Phoebus Apollo, Antigonus answered, “ My servant knows bet- ter.” Thrasyllus, a cynic philosopher, having demanded of him a drachma, he said, “ The gift is too little for a king.” “ Then give me a talent,” said the begging philosopher. “ That’s too much for a cynic,” said the royal wit. II. Arrrreonns Gorvaras, grandson of the pre- ceding, and son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, king of Macedonia, born about 320, died 240 B. C. He is supposed to have received his surname from his native village of Gonni, in Thessaly, though this is called in question by Niebuhr. When his father was captive in the hands of Seleucus, king of Babylon, Gonatas offered to take his place. The affairs of Macedonia having fallen into confusion after the inva- sion of the Gauls, Ptolemy Ceraunus having been slain, and Sosthenes having died, An- tigonus thought the moment favorable to set up pretensions to the Macedonian throne in right of his father Demetrius, who had occu- pied it for a few years. He entered Macedonia with a small force, drove out Brennus and his Gauls, and was joyfully accepted by the Mace- donian nation as their king, 277 B. C. But Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, expelled him from Macedon in 273, and he ﬂed into the Pelopon- nesus, where he had much inﬂuence. On the ANTIGONUS ANTIGUA death of Pyrrhus, in 271 B. C., he recovered Macedonia, was again expelled by Alexander, son of Pyrrhus, and again reinstated by his own son Demetrius. Thenceforward he held his do- minions in peace, and extended his inﬂuence in the Peloponnesus, where his chief opponent was Aratus and the newly invigorated Achaean league. His son, Demetrius II., succeeded him. III. Arrrreouus, king of Macedon, born 280, died 221 B. C., surnamed Doson, because he was more ready to promise than to perform. He was an illegitimate grandson of Demetrius Poliorcetes, and was named guardian of the young son of Demetrius II. The Macedonian nation preferred his rule on account of his mili- tary talents, and chose him to be their king. He married the widow of Demetrius II. He was successful in his wars against the Dardanian, Thessalian, and Moesian rebels. In the affairs of the Peloponnesus he took the part of Aratus and the Achaean league against Cleomenes and the Spartans. He defeated Cleomenes decisive- ly at Sellasia, 221 B. C., and actually took the city of Sparta, whose only walls for ages had been the valor of her sons, and which had bravely resisted Epaminondas and Alexander the Great. IV. King of the Jews, and the last of the Maccabees, born 80 B. C., died 35 B. C. He was made prisoner and sent to Rome by Poms pey. He escaped, made another revolt in J m daea, and was taken a second time, by Gabinius, who sent him again to Rome. Julius Caesar permitted him to return. He was placed on the throne of J udaea by the Parthians, 40 B. C., and was besieged in Jerusalem by the troops of Mark Antony. He was taken, beaten with rods, and put to death. It was the ﬁrst time that the Romans had treated an independent king so ig- nominiously. V. Of Canrsrus, in Euboea, a writer of Alexandria, who lived while Ptole- my Philadelphus was reigning (285-247 B. C.). He wrote several works, of which one only, “A Collection of Wonderful Histories,” has come down to us. ANTIGUA, a British West India island, of the Leeward group. It is of an oval shape, and contains an area of 7 0,000 acres, of which about 60,000 are highly cultivated. It was ﬁrst set- tled by the British in 1632, who began the cul- tivation of tobacco. It has no rivers, and is re- markable for dryness of climate; yet away from the coast the soil is very rich, and produces abundance of sugar. The legislation is intrusted to a governor, a council of 12, who are nomi- nated by the crown, and a house of assembly of . 24 members, chosen by the freeholders. The governor also acts. as chancellor of the court of equity. It is garrisoned by a military force. This island was discovered by Columbus in 1493, and was the ﬁrst which modiﬁed the British criminal law with regard to slaves, by affording such of them as were accused the beneﬁt of trial by jury. The legislature of this island to- tally abolished slavery in 1834, without im- posing any conditions upon the emancipated, and in 1847 the governor reported that the AN TILEGOMENA material condition of the emancipated race was most prosperous. Antigua is regarded as a re- markably beautiful and healthful island. The temperature is remarkably uniform, seldom varying more than 4° in 24: hours. Its chief towns are St. Johns, which is the capital, Fal- mouth, and Parham. The property annually produced is estimated at £1,000,000. Pop. m 1847, 36,7 90.——AN'rIeUA, a station in the Philip- pine islands, with a fort and a good anchorage. AN TILEGOMENA, an early and now nearly obsolete word in biblical criticism, used as far back as the time of Eusebius, about 325, to designate in the then unsettled state of the scriptural canon, those books claiming to be Scripture, whose claims had been challenged, and were under investigation. The antilego- mena are to be distinguished from the apocry- phal books. The apocryphal books are decided by the church not to be canonical, and are therefore not read in churches as a part of the sacred Scriptures, while the antilegomena were only under examination, and still continued to be read. Some of the antilegomena, in the progress of biblical criticism, have taken their places as canonical, while others have been set aside as apocryphal. ANTI-LIBAN US, or ANTI—LEBANON. From the Taurus range, as it passes the north-eastern point of the Mediterranean, are thrown off two subordinate ranges, which take a southern di- rection parallel to each other, skirting the eastern coast of the Mediterranean, and ex- tending to the peninsula of Sinai. The western and highest of these ranges is the Libanus; the eastern, the Anti-Libanus. They are separated by a valley averaging 20 miles in breadth in the northern part of their course. To the south the Anti-Libanus sends off a spur which unites with the Libanus, and so separates the interlying valley into the northern or Syrian, and the southern or valley of Jordan. Through the northern ﬂows Orontes, or northern river. In the heights of Hermon, the uniting spur, and the highest land of the Anti-Libanus range (9,000 feet), rises the Jordan, which ﬂows to the south; while from the same table-lands the great western river, the Litany, takes its origin, and coursing to the south-west, enters the Medi- terranean. Thus the Libanus and Anti-Libanus form ‘a great water-shed extending from the bay of Iskenderoon on the north to the desert of Arabia. The Anti-Libanus range is lower than the Libanus, and less continuous. Its geological character differs from the Libanus. It is less fossiliferous, as its limestones approach a crystalline character, giving more striking evidences of volcanic agency. It lacks also the far-famed “ cedars of Lebanon,” its foliage being mostly of the light poplar. It abounds in small lakes, enclosed in its high table-lands, a charac- teristic mostly wanting to the Libanus range. (See Stanley’s “ Sinai and Palestine,” and Rob- inson’s “Biblical Researches in Palestine”) ANTILLES. There is a want of uniformity among geographers in the application of this VOL. I.-—-42 ANTILLES 657 term. It seems that the name Antilla was given before the time of Columbus to a conti- nent supposed to exist west of the Azores. Some suppose, therefore, that Columbus gave this name to the lands he ﬁrst discovered. It is not now used by any geographer in this sense. Others suppose the word was derived from ante- qlslas (forward islands). Such apply it only to the Caribbean islands which stand in a semi- circle around the entrance to the sea of that name. Other geographers extend the term Antilles so as to include with the above the four larger islands which appear naturally to belong to the same insular chain, Porto Rico, San Do- mingo, Cuba, and Jamaica. Others still use the term to include all those islands which lie between the northern and southern continents of America, and stretch across the entrances of the Caribbean sea and the Gulf of Mexico. In this most extended sense it is used in Ritter’s and Lippincott’s Gazetteers as synonymous with West Indies. The third is the most general use of the term, as well as the most natural. For if we consider the geological structure of the Bahamas, it is evident at a glance that they belong to an entirely different system from those included in the third deﬁnition.-—The Antilles are usually divided into two groups, the Greater Antilles including the four large islands already enumerated, and the Lesser Antilles or the Caribbean islands, of which there are from 700 to 800, though some are mere rocky and uninhabitable projections from the sea. The Greater Antilles are geologically of primitive formation, showing mostly an axis of granite running east and west, overlaid on the northern and southern coasts with recent limestone. They are also subject to earthquakes, showing that they are to be regarded as the continuation of the volcanic chain of the Andes, connecting it with the Lesser Antilles, which exhibit still more marked evidences of volcanic origin. The cast and west shores of these islands are bluﬁ, and descend so precipitously beneath the sea, that a distance of less than a mile from the coast usually gives a sounding of 200 fathoms. The western shore is usually more precipitous than the eastern, and the mouths of extinct volcanoes are frequent. Hot sulphurous vapor is still discharged from many ﬁssures among the rocks. The same volcanic action has evidently thrown up those rocky projections, which, like a thousand sentinels, stand around and amid the entire group. The rivers of the Antilles are short and the currents precipitous, while the volume of their waters is disproportionately large, on account of the ex- cessive sea evaporation, which it is estimated reaches 33,000,000 tons daily to every square degree. This, with several other mﬁuences connected with the geology_ and topography of the group, causes the excessive humidity of the atmosphere in the Antilles. The average de- scent of the river beds is 250 feet to a mile, while in some instances, as the Cazenavrie, in Martinique, it reaches 1,000 feet. All along the 658 AN TILLON river-beds are huge lava blocks, another evi- dence of the comparatively recent and volcanic origin of the Antilles. The rivers are of course of no commercial importance. The climate of the islands is mild; the fruits are tropical, sugar- cane being the staple production, of which there are several varieties in cultivation. Geographi- cally, the Antilles extend in a broken line from Trinidad, lat. 10° N. long. 60° 54' W., along the southern coast of Florida, nearly to the peninsula of Yucatan (from which-it is separated by the channel of Yucatan), with a general trend of W. 40° N. through a course of more than 1,500 miles. Politically, the Antilles are thus divided: 1. The independent island of Hayti. 2. The English, including Jamaica, Antigua, Barbadoes, Barbuda, Anguilla, Do- minica, Grenada, Grenadines, part of the Virgin islands, Montserrat, Nevis, St. Christopher, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Tobago, and Trinidad. 3. The Spanish, including Cuba and Porto Rico. 4. The Venezuelan, comprising Margarita, Tes- tigos, Tortuga, Blanquilla, Orchilla, and Rocca. 5. The French, Guadaloupe, Martinique, Marie Galante, All Saints, Deseada, and the northern part of St. Martin. 6. Dutch, the southern part of St. Martin, Aves, Buen Ayre, Curacoa, Aruba, Saba, and St. Eustatius. 7. Danish, St. Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix. 8. Swedish, St. Bartholomew. The entire area of the Antilles is about 150,000 square miles, and the population about 3,500,000, made up of Euro- peans, creoles, and negroes. ANTILLON, a Spanish savant, born about 1760 at St. Eulalie, a- village in Aragon, died in 1820. He studied at Saragossa, and was made professor of astronomy, geography, and history to the royal seminary of nobles at Madrid. He opposedthe French invasion as a member of the Aragonese junta, and was a partisan of constitutional ideas. His liberal opinions displeased the restored Ferdinand. He was summoned to Madrid to be tried, but died of disappointment on the journey. ANTILOCHUS, a son of Nestor. He accom- panied his father to Troy, where he was slain y Memnon, the Ethiopian, and interred be- side his friends Achilles and Patroclus, with Whom he was constantly associated in Hades. ANTIMACH US of Claros, a Greek epic and elegiac poet, is said to have been con- temporary with Plato. Cicero tells the fol- lowing story of Antimachus: He was once reading his great epic poem, “Thebais,” to a very numerous audience, who became so weary of it that they all gradually de- camped save Plato, who chanced to be present, on which the poet exclaimed, “I shall, never- theless, continue to read, for one Plato is worth thousands of other hearers.” Antima- chus was ‘so voluminous a writer, that in the 24th book of his epic on the war of the Seven against Thebes, his heroes had not yet arrived before the city. His style had none of the simplicity and grace of Homer, but the Alexan- drine critics thought so highly of his produc- AN TI-MAS ONRY tions that they assigned him the second place among epic poets. The remains of the works of Antimachus were collected and published by C. A. G. Schellenberg, at Halle, in 1786. ANTI-MASONRY. In the autumn of 1826, it became known in the vicinity of Batavia, a thriving village in western New York, that one William Morgan, a mechanic of that village, was about to publish a volume exposing the secrets of the order of freemasons, then a numerous and powerful association, with one or more lodges in every city in the United States. The _ editor of the village newspaper, known as the “ Republican Advocate,” who, as well as Mor- gan, had been a member of the masonic order, was believed to be concerned in the enterprise, and to be engaged in printing the work. While the rumor was spreading through the adjacent country, the community was electriﬁed by ti- dings that Morgan had been seized one evening, forcibly abducted and carried off, noone could say whither. Excitement naturally ensued and diffused itself ; committees of vigilance and safe- ty were formed; and an investigation initiated, which resulted in tracing the abductors and their victim to westward upon the Ridge Road to Fort Niagara, near Lewiston, N. Y., whence it ultimately appeared that Morgan had been taken forcibly out upon Lake Ontario in a boat and sunk in its depths. This was the ﬁnal con- clusion of those who prosecuted the investiga- tion; though many demurred, and reports were repeatedly current that Morgan had been seen alive and at liberty, months after his reported abduction. One of these accounts placed him in Smyrna in Asia. The persons by whose aid he was rapidly and quietly conveyed, in a carriage drawn by relays of horses, from Batavia to Fort Niagara, were said to have been masons, while members of the order on every side were heard to justify the presumed outrage; saying that if Morgan had been treated as was alleged, it was no more than he had richly deserved. Prosecutions were in due time instituted against those whom the investigation showed to have been in any way concerned in the abduction; and repeated trials resulted in the conviction of some of them on minor charges, but no murder was ever judicially established. An important collateral result was attained in establishing, by the testimony of seceding masons, that oaths were administered to and taken by those ad- mitted to the masonic lodges--at least in certain of the higher degrees-—that disqualiﬁed them for serving as jurors in any case where a brother mason of like degree was a party, and his antagonist was not. The judges who so decided were not of the anti-masonic party, which was formed in western New York some time in 1827, and which polled 33,000 votes for its candidate for governor (Solomon South- wick) in 1828. This vote rose ,to 70,000 in 1829, and to 128,000 for Francis Granger for governor in 1830 ; in which aggregate, however, were included the sulfrages of many who were not anti-masons. The excitement gradually ANTIMILO diffused itself into other states, and in 1831 a national anti-masonic convention was held, wherein most of the free states were represent- ed, and William Wirt, of Maryland, was nomi- nated by it for president, with Amos Ellmaker, of Pennsylvania, for vice-president of the United States. -Mr. Granger was again the anti-ma- sonic candidate for governor of New York in 1832, and again received the votes of nearly all opposed to the reélection of Gen. Jackson, but was again defeated this time by some 12,000 majority. In Pennsylvania, Joseph Ritner was this year brought forward as the anti-masonic candidate for governor, and beaten by barely 3,000 votes by Gov. Wolf, who had many enemies in his own party; but, at the subse- quent presidential election that year, Gen. Jackson carried the, state over the combined opposition by some 25,000 majority. Anti- masonic state and electoral tickets were sup- ported in many if not most of the free states, but were successﬁl only in Vermont, which cast her seven electoral votes for Wirt and E11- maker. Vermont remained for two or three years under anti-masonic rule, but this party gradually faded out, and was absorbed by others during the blended political and ﬁnancial struggle that grew out of Gen J ackson’s veto of the U. S. bank charter in 1832, and the removal of the deposits in 1833. Until then western New York, the theatre of the Morgan abduction and the cradle of the anti-masonic excitement, gave large anti-masonic majorities, while western Pennsylvania, northern Ohio, and portions of Massachusetts and Bhode Island, evinced a pre- ponderating sympathy therewith. It became evident toward the last, however, that hostility to freemasonry was a secondary consideration with many, both of those who cherished and those who opposed the new party. Questions of currency, protection, and the like, superseded those growing out of the existence and alleged inherent vices of the masonic order. In 1835, during the struggle which followed the removal of the deposits, Joseph Ritner was chosen gov- ernor of Pennsylvania as an anti-mason, through a division in the democratic ranks; but the anti- masonic party gradually lost its distinctive character, and soon after ceased to exist. Some of the periodicals and books called forth by the masonic controversy during its progress evinced decided intellectual force, and there were seve- ral distinct “Revelations ” of the signs, cere- monies, pass-words, and traditional secrets of the freemasons, agreeing in the main with the book originally put forth as Morgan’s soon after his disappearance. ANTIMILO, or ANTI-MELOS, a small island lying about 5 miles directly W. of Cape Vani, the northernmost point of Melos, one of the principal islands in the group of the Cyclades, in the Grecian Archipelago. ANTIMONY, a metal ﬁrst extracted from the ore in the year 1490, by Basil Valentine, a monk of Erfurt. It is of a silver white color, slightly bluish, of strong lustre, and of a pe- culiar taste and smell. ANTIMONY 659 Its texture is radiated and ﬁbrous, and the metal is so brittle that it may be pounded to powder in a mortar. For .this reason it cannot be used alone for any practical purpose, but combined with other metals it forms valuable alloys. Its speciﬁc gravity is 6.7, its melting point 842° F. At common temperature it does not oxidize, but heated moderately in the open air, it takes ﬁre, and burns with a bright bluish-white ﬂame. The vapor is an oxide, which, in condensing, often forms beautiful crystals. These were formerly known as the argentine ﬂowers of antimony. The metal, also, after being melted in close crucibles, and cooled very slowly, crys- tallizes in octohedral forms. The name is said to be derived from the words anti-monachos or anti-monks, some preparation of the metal having proved fatal to several of the brother- hood,notwithstanding it had been observed, that the same mixture had a fattening eﬁ'ect upon hogs, after purging them. The ancients gave the name stibium to some compound of the ore they were acquainted with, which was, with- out doubt, the common ore of commerce, the sulphuret. This name is adopted in chem- ical nomenclature to represent the metal. Its symbol is Sb. Antimony is sometimes found in a metallic state. It so occurs in the Hartz, in France, and Sweden. The only important natural production of it, however, is the sul- phuret, a combination of 72.86 parts of the metal, and 27.14 of sulphur. This ore is of a lead gray color, crystallized in laminae and needles, which are very brittle and fusible in the ﬂame of a candle. Its speciﬁc gravity is from 4.13 to -I.6,—hardness=2. It is easily ground to a black powder, and in this state forms a pigment, which appears to have been used in ancient times by ladies for coloring the eyebrows and edges of the eyelids. Ocu- Zos ejus posait stibio, says St. Jerome of the paint used by Jezebel. The ore is not of rare occurrence in metalliferous districts, but the great supply of it is through Singapore, from the island of Borneo. There are mines of it in Lower Hungary, France, and Great Britain. A large vein of it has been found in Tulare coun- ty, California, about 80 miles from Los An- geles, in a high granitic range, that borders the Tulare valley on the south. Before the discov- ery of the metal, its ores were used in the pre- paration of its alloys with other metals. Its separation from the sulphuret is now effected by ﬁrst melting the ore in crucibles, perforated at the bottom, and placed in other vessels. As the ore melts, it ﬂows through into the lower vessel, unaltered in composition, but freed from its earthy gangues. This is the crude antimony of commerce. On roasting it to expel the sul- phur, different combinations of oxide of antimo- ny and sulphur are formed--as the glass of an- timony, the liver of antimony, and crocus. The ﬁrst-named consists of 8 parts of oxide and 10f sulphuret. It is a transparent salt, of a reddish yellow color. Crocus contains 2 parts of sul- 660 phuret to 8 of the oxide. It is opaque, and of a yellow-red color. Liver of antimony is opaque and deep brown. It consists of about 4 parts of sulphuret, and 8 parts of oxide. Crude antimo- ny is reduced to a metallic state by ﬁrst care- fully roasting it to obtain the oxide. This is then mixed with crude tartar, or with carbon- ate of soda, and powdered charcoal, placed in melting pots, and heated in awind furnace. An impure metal is thus obtained called the regulus of antimony. This is again melted with a small proportion of oxide of antimony, by which it is freed from its impurities. Antimony combines with oxygen in 3 proportions, the ﬁrst forming the protoxide or sesquioxide, the second the deutoxide, or antimonious acid, and the third the peroxide, or antimonic acid. The second is, however, very probably, a combination of the ﬁrst and last. The acids of anti- mony and their compounds have no especial interest or importance. The protoxide is the base of the medicinal preparations of this metal. Combined with bitartrate of potassa, and water, it forms a compound consisting of 1 atom of tartrate of potassa, 1 atom of bitartrate of anti- mony, and 2 atoms of water, a bitartrate of antimony and potassa, which is the medicine known as tartar emetic. This acts powerfully upon the stomach to produce vomiting, whether taken internally, or injected into a vein, or ap- plied externally as an ointment or plaster. It is in extensive use as a speciﬁc for a great variety of diseases. Antimonial powder, or James’s powder, is said to consist of 43 parts of phosphate of lime, and 57 of oxide of antimo- ny. The most important alloys of antimony are type metal, consisting of 4 parts lead, and 1 of antimony, stereotype metal, 6 of lead, and 1 ANTIN - of antimony; music plates, consisting of lead, tin, and antimony; Britannia metal, consisting of 100 parts tin, 8 antimony, 2 bismuth, and 2 copper. Pewter is sometimes formed of 12 parts tin, and 1 part antimony. A powerful detonating powder is prepared by subjecting to a high heat 100 parts of tartar emetic and 3 parts of lamp black for some hours. The cru- cible should be left to cool under a bell-glass. The powder will explode by being moistened with a drop of water. Great care is requisite, from its liability to explode spontaneously.—To detect the presence of antimony in cases of poisoning, the suspected matter is treated with water, and then with chlorohydric acid, and boiled. One-ﬁfth the weight of the suspected substance employed of chlorate of potash is added in small portions at a time. It is then introduced, after being ﬁltered, and concentra- ted by evaporation, into a Marsh’s apparatus, as in testing for arsenic, when a ring of metal- lic antimony, if this is present, forms in the tube, and may be proved by its characteristic reactions. ANTIN, Lonrs Anronva DE PARDAILLAN DE Gonnnnv DE Monrnsran, marquis d’, the son of the marquis of Montespan (afterward duke), born in 1665, died in 1736. His only claim to AN TIN OMIAN S notice rests upon the notoriety connected with the name of his mother, a mistress of Louis XIV. When Antin became of age, the mar- chioness de Montespan was already superseded in the favor of the ﬁckle old king, by Madame de Maintenon, but she preserved suﬁicient in- ﬁuence to obtain for the only child for whose birth she had no need to blush, the oﬂice of lieutenant-general, and governor of Alsatia. Louis XIV. took a fancy to him, and once went even so far as to pay him a visit in com- pany with Madame de Maintenon. On this occasion Antin displayed great tact, as he had arranged an apartment for Madame "de Maintenon in every particular of furniture, tapestry, carpets, paintings, &c., precisely like her apartment at Versailles. Maintenon felt much pleased with this delicate attention, especially as it came from the son of the woman who had every reason to detest her, and subsequently she manifested her sense of gratitude by causing him to be created duke and peer, and obliging him in many other ways. D’Antin made a very rich match, and after his mother’s death came into posses- sion of an additional fortune, but he was a conﬁrmed gambler, and a man of dissipated habits. He left two children, but the house of Montespan is now extinct, as the last bearer of the name, Louis de Gondrin, great-grandson of the Montespans, died childless in 1757. ANTINOE, a daughter of Cepheus, who, in obedience to an oracle, led the Mantineans from the place where their original city was situated, to that where the modern city was to stand. She is said to have been conducted thither by a serpent. ANTINOMIANS (Gr. avrz, against, vopos‘, law), a term applied by Luther to a class of contemporary theologians and their fol- lowers, who entertained what he deemed ex- treme and unscriptural views of the relations of the law to the gospel. John Agricola, the principal expounder of the Antinomian senti- ments, maintained that his doctrines were sus- tained in the earlier writings of Luther 1111.1- self, and accused Melancthon of a want of logi- cal consistency, in rejecting the Antinomian conclusions. The characteristic doctrines of Agricola were, that the law (by which he meant the moral law) is to be widely distin- guished from the gospel, as a dispensation en- tirely on another plane; that the law was in force over all unbelievers, but that so soon as a person exercises faith in Christ, the gospel re- ceives him under a new moral economy, with which the law has no possible relations; that the law was not in any wise instrumental as introducing men to the beneﬁts of this new and freer dispensation; but that the evangelical conditions of repentance and faith were to be sought and secured only by the preaching of the gospel itself. In the attempt to bring mto sharp outline the opinions of this sect, and con- trast them with the more generally received doctrines of the reformation, the controversial ANTINOUS spirit of the times doubtless did injustice to both parties and especially ‘to the personal opinions of their leaders. Although the strife ran high between Luther and Agricola, a con- ference at Torgau (1527) amicably_ adjusted their personal relations, and gave good promise of rest to the churches from the disputes which had harassed them. For 10 years a truce was observed. But in 1537, Agricola resolved to remove from Eisleben, his native town, to Wit- tenberg, and from this more prominent posi- tion, as a professor of theology, began to pro- mulgate his doctrines, at ﬁrst in a series of anonymous theses, under the title of position-es inter ﬁutres spams. Luther assailed him anew, and the strife ran higher than ever, until 1540, when Agricola, elected court preacher to the electoral prince of Brandenburgh, recanted the sentiments which had rendered him pecu- liarly obnoxious to Luther, and pledged him- self to the end of his life, “to teach in conform- ity to the Wittenberg church.” This recanta- tion, although it allayed the violence of the doctrinal discussion, did not protect Agricola from the attacks of his enemies. Whether justly or unjustly, he continued to be assailed on matters of faith to the day of his death (1566). From the death of Agricola, the Anti- nomian controversy took a still more concilia- tory form. The parties once so strongly mark- ed, began now to coalesce. “The controversy now centred upon the use which should be allowed to the law,” and it was ﬁnally agreed by all parties that the law was of use, 1, to lead to Christ; 2, to keep unbelievers in or- der; and 3, that the lives of Christian profes- sors should be in conformity to the law, though not controlled by and taking origin in the law. Thus, by leaving out the only vital point in the discussion at the outset, viz., the organic rela- tions of the law to the gospel, the formula con- cordice satisﬁed the scholastic temper of the times by technical concessions, and adjourned the real contest into the hands of the future. The Amsdorﬁans entertained very nearly the same sentiments as Agricola. In 1643, the as- sembly of divines condemned some works thought to be of Antinomian tendency, and in 1648 the English parliament ordered all per- sons holding Antinomian doctrines, to be im- prisoned in-case of refusal to recant, until they should ﬁnd sureties that they would not pro- mulgate their sentiments. The charge of Anti- nomianism has frequently been brought against Methodism, and as frequently repelled. A standard work on that subject among Meth- odists is “Fletcher’s Checks.” An Antinomi- an tendency made its appearance among the English Baptists in 1689, and later among the Baptists of this country, in a subdivision of that denomination known as Disciples, the principal expounder of whose sentiments is Alexander Campbell of Virginia. ANTINOUS. I. One of the suitors of Penelope, and the ﬁrst one slain by Ulysses on his return. II. A beautiful Bithynian AN TIOCH 661 youth, the favorite of the Emperor Hadrian, drowned himself in the Nile A. D. 132, ac- cording to Dion Cassius, under the follow- ing circumstances :—-The oracle at Besa had informed the emperor that a great danger which was threatening him could only be averted by the immolation of the person whom he loved most fondly. The youth hearing this, threw himself into the Nile as a voluntary sac- riﬁce for the safety of his friend and master. To perpetuate his memory, Hadrian transform- ed Besa into the magniﬁcent city of Antinopo- lis, or Antinoé, and caused a constellation of the heavens to be called by his name. Anti- nous was deiﬁed, and mysteries in his honor were celebrated at Mantinea. Artists vied in celebrating the beauty of the emperor’s favor- ite, and a great number of busts, medallions, and statues of him appeared. ANTIOCH, a city of Syria in Asia, 20 miles from the mouth of the river Orontes, was the most magniﬁcent of 16 cities of the same name built by Seleucus Nicator, about 300 B. C., in memory of his father Antiochus. It was advantageously situated, in communication with all the trade of the Mediterranean, and conven- iently approached by caravans from the east. Lying in a fruitful vale on a winding river, sur- rounded by bold mountain scenery, it was fa- miliarly called by the Greeks “ the beautiful An- tioch,” and became the favorite residence of the Seleucid princes, and of wealthy Romans. ‘ In the time of Chrysostom its population was com- puted at 200,000, and the ancient and illustrious Christian church, which had been established here soon after the martyrdom of Stephen, then numbered 100,000. The inhabitants were dis- tinguished both for their intellectual and their luxurious character. A high Greek civilization was mingled with various Asiatic elements; a passionate love of frivolous amusements was closely associated with a strong tendency to metaphysics and a solemn faith in astrology. The citizens were famous for their scurrilous wit, and for their invention of nicknames; and to this cause is to be attributed the appel- lation of “ Christian ” ﬁrst given in this city to the followers of Jesus Christ. For 600 years Antioch deserved the title which Pliny gave it, of “Queen of the East,” but few cities have suf- fered such vicissitudes of fortune. About 145 B. C., 100,000 of the inhabitants perished in a war with the Jews under Jonathan, one of the Maccabees. In A. D. 115 Antioch was almost utterly ruined by an earthquake, but was re- built in its ancient splendor by the contribu- tions and inﬂuence of the Emperor Trajan. In ~ 155 it was destroyed by ﬁre, and restored by - Antoninus Pius. On the decline of the Roman empire it suffered severely in the wars with Persia. In 331 it was visited by a famine so dreadful that a bushel of wheat sold for 400 pieces of silver. The same calamity befell the city in the reign of Julian, and again in that of Theodosius. The inhabitants were severely punished by Theodosius in 337 for resisting 662 ANTIOCH COLLEGE the payment of an eXtraordinary'tribute.' In the years , 458, 526, and 587, Antioch was visited by earthquakes, and on each occasion almost -utterly ruined. In 634: it fell into the hands of the Saracens, in 975 was reannexed to the Roman empire, in 1098 was taken by the crusaders, and was extinguished as a powerful city in 1268 by Bibaro, sultan of Egypt. It has never recovered from the effects of the earthquake of 1822, and now contains but about 6,000 inhabitants. Antakia, or modern An- tioch, is a miserable town, with mud and straw houses, and miry streets, occupying the south bank of the Orontes, at this place about 120 feet wide. It has 14 insigniﬁcant mosques with low minarets, but no Christian church. The fertile plain of Antioch is quite uncultivated, but on the hills around are numerous planta- tions of ﬁgs, olives, and vines. ANTIOCH COLLEGE, a seat of learning, situated at Yellow Springs, Greene county, Ohio, 74 miles N. N. E. of Cincinnati. It was incorporated in 1852, and has the peculiar char- acteristic of admitting girls and boys to the same course of education. Its buildings were erected at an expense of over $100,000, and are in a most beautiful and healthful location. Horace Mann, a distinguished scholar and statesman, and the former secretary of the Massachusetts board of education, has been the president of this college from its beginning. It has also 9 professors. There are connected with it in the collegiate department about 100 students, and about 400 in the preparatory de- partment; and in each grade the male students are about three-fourths of the whole. At its ﬁrst commencement in 1857 it graduated a class of 15, 3 of whom were young women. The funds by which this institution was founded were raised upon what is known as the scholar- ship system, and at the present time when the owners of scholarships are very likely to use their privileges, it has proved diﬂicult to sustain a college upon that system. The result has been that Antioch college has been obliged lately to take steps toward a change of its pecuniary foundation from the system of scholarship to that of an unencumbered endowment. The large interest in education which the institution has excited in the West, and the sympathy felt for it by numerous friends in New England and New York, render probable its ﬁrm reestab- lishment. AN TIOCHUS, the name of several kings of Syria. I. Surnamed Soter, or Savior, born about 325, died 261 B. C. He was the son of Seleucus ;Nicator and Apama, the daughter of the Per- sian satrap, Artabazus. At the battle of Ipsus, he commanded the cavalry of his father, and was routed by Demetrius Poliorcetes. A strange romance is told of him. He fell violently in love with his father’s young wife Stratonice. His ungratiﬁed passion threw him into a dangerous illness. His Greek physician Erasistratus, on being questioned by Seleucus as to what was the matter with his son, confessed the truth, ANTIOCHUS and Seleucus generously abandoned to him Stra- tonice, and, soon after, abdicated a portion of his dominions in his favor. He joined his fa- ther in those expeditions into the countries ly- ing between the Indies and the Caspian, which contributed so largely to the spreading of the Hellenic language and civilization. On the death of Seleucus in Macedonia (281 B. C.), he inherited all the dominions of his father. He soon lost Stratonice, and took one of her sisters. In his reign, a division of the Gauls who had ravaged Macedonia, Hellas, and Thrace, pene- trated into Asia Minor, and settled permanently in Galatia. Antiochus gained a brilliant vic- tory over them. As he owed this triumph to his elephants, he erected a statue of one of these beasts as a trophy. From this victory, he took the name of Savior. He prosecuted his claims to the throne of Macedon, in right of his father Seleucus, against Antigonus Gonatas, who claimed in right of his father Demetrius Polior- cetes. The matter was arranged between them by Antiochus allowing Gonatas to retain the Macedonian throne, on condition of his taking Phila, the daughter of Antiochus by Stratonice, to wife. He subsequently engaged in an unsuc- cessful war with Eumenes, king of Pergamus. Returning to Antioch, his capital, he put to death his eldest son, Ptolemy, who had revolted against him, and destined Antiochus Theos, his other son, to be his successor. He was killed by a Gaul near Ephesus. II. Surnamed Theos, or God, son and successor of the former and Strato- nice, born about 300, died 246 B. C. Timarchus, a Syrian ofﬁcial, had revolted against the kings of Syria, and proclaimed himself tyrant of Mi- letus. Antiochus conquered him, and the Mile- sians, in gratitude, gave him the style and title of God. He continued, without success, the war his father had commenced against Ptolemy Philadelphus, king of Egypt. The Parthians, under Arsaces, revolted, and separated them- selves ﬁnally from the Alexandrine-Greek king- dom of Syria. Thus commenced that great Parthian empire, which was afterward so for- midable an enemy to the Romans. Theodotus revolted with the Bactrians, and declared him- self king, and Antiochus, fearing for his throne, made a hasty peace with the king of Egypt, on condition of putting away his wife Laodicea, and taking in her stead Berenice, the daughter of Ptolemy. On the death of Ptolemy he put away Berenice, and reinstated Laodicea. The latter was unforgiving; she poisoned her hus- band, Berenice, and her child. III. Surnamed the Great, born about 238, put to death 187 B. C., son of Seleucus Callinicus and Laodicea. He succeeded his brother Seleucus Ceraunus at a time when his kingdom was in a disorganized condition. Attalus, king of Pergamus, had wrested all Asia Minor east of the Taurus from the Seleucidae, and Ptolemy was pressing him in Phoenicia. Achaeus, his cousin, saved him in this perilous crisis. Molo, governor of Media, and Alexander, governor of Persia, next revolt- ed, and declared themselves independent kings, AN TIOCHUS B. C. 221. They defeated 2 armies sent against them, but were at last reduced by Antiochus in person, and put to death. He next reduced Artabarzanes, the revolted governor of Atropa- tene. Achaeus,' ﬁnding that his young master had been alienated from him, now revolted and held the provinces which he himself had recov- ered from former rebels. The council advised the young king to march ﬁrst against the king of Egypt, and to gain possession of those subjects of contention, Coele-Syria and Palestine. After a temporary success, the Syrian king was totally routed at Raphia near Gaza, and made a treaty of peace resigning his claim to the two prov- inces. Having his hands free from war on the south-eastern ﬂank of his dominions, he turned his arms against-Achaeus on the N. W., defeated him, and put him to death, and thus the prov- inces of Asia Minor were re-annexed to the Syrian monarchy (B. C. 213). Antiochus now followed up his ambitious scheme of restoring the Syrian monarchy to the position it held at the death of its founder Seleucus Nicator. He turned his arms ﬁrst against Parthia, where the Arsacids had built up a powerful state. He was not able to break up the Arsacid monarchy, but reduced Arsaces to the condition of a pow- erful vassal, pledged to help his lord paramount when called upon. He was equally unsuccess- ful against Euthydemus, king of Bactria, whose predecessor, Theodotus, had revolted from An- tiochus Theos. Crossing the mountains of Pa- ropomisus (Hindoo-Koosh) into India, he made a treaty of alliance with the king of the Pun- jaub, and directed his march homeward through the provinces of Arachosia, Drangiana, and Car- mania, and reéstablished the Syrian supremacy in those. regions. This was the zenith of An- tiochus, and for this 7 years’ expedition, he received from his grateful subjects in the capital of Antioch, the name of Great. Soon after his return to Antioch, Ptolemy Philopater died, and his son Ptolemy Epiphanes, then 5 years old, succeeded to the throne of Egypt. Antiochus hereupon entered into an alliance with Philip IV. of Macedon, to overrun and partition Egypt. Palestine and Coele-Syria were again the battle-ﬁeld. Antiochus quickly gained pos- session of them. Upon his entry into Jerusalem, (1 98 B. C.) he was received by the Jews with great enthusiasm, granted them many privileges, es- pecially ordaining that no foreigner should be permitted to demand access into the interior of the temple. While he was meditating further damage to Egypt, he learnt the defeat of his ally Philip by the Romans at Cynoscephalae, and perceived that he would soon have to deal with them. He proposed a peace to Ptolemy on these terms: Ptolemy was to engage to marry Cleopatra the daughter of Antiochus, when he should come of age, and to receive as dowry the provinces conquered by Antiochus. Having thus purchased the neutrality of Egypt, he pro- ceeded with a ﬂeet along the coast of Asia Mi- nor, reducing many of the Greek cities there. He then crossed the Hellespont and took pos- 663 session of the Thracian Chersonese (B. O. 196), which he claimed as having been part of the conquests of Seleucus Nicator from Lysimachus, Alexandrine king of Thrace. But the Romans had already reduced Macedonia to a vassal king- dom. The Roman senate sent an embassy to him to demand that he should restore what he had taken from Philip and Ptolemy, whose guardianship the Roman people had just as- sumed. They also demanded immunity for their ally Attalus, king of Pergamus. Antiochus re- plied that as he did not seek to interfere with what the Romans did in Italy, they must not trouble him in Asia. In the following year, 195, Hannibal, driven from Carthage, took refuge with Antiochus at Ephesus. Hannibal’s advice was to carry the war immediately into Italy. It was disregarded, and Hannibal was looked up- on with jealousy. Not until 192 did Antiochus move. Then he crossed over into Greece at the invitation of the Etolians, who were in arms against the Romans. He brought only 10,000 men with him; was chosen commander- in-chief by the Etolian diet, and began with the incredible folly of making Philip of Macedonia his enemy instead of his friend. After captur- ing Euboea, instead of pressing forward, he wasted his time in treating about the surrender of a number of little cities, fell in love with an Euboean damsel and married her, and spent the winter at Chalcis in a round of dissipation, in which his army shared. The Roman consul Acilius Glabrio, with Cato for his legate, now advanced upon him, and his unstrung, enervated army. He made a stand at Thermopylae, was entirely routed, and barely escaped with his new wife. The next year, Lucius Cornelius Scipio took the conduct of the war, with his brother Africanus as his lieutenant. Disheart- ened and panic-struck by the defeat of his ﬂeet, Antiochus withdrew his troops from Sestos and Abydos, and the other fortiﬁed maritime cities of Asiatic Greece, which might have held the Romans in check. Thus they had free passage into Asia; the two armies met at Magnesia of Sipylus, that of Antiochus numbered 70,000 men, that of the Romans only 30,000. The Syrians were cut to pieces, and Antiochus was compelled to submit to whatever terms the R0- mans chose to impose. These terms were to re- sign the provinces west of Mount Taurus ; to pay 18,000 Eubceic talents for the expenses of the war; to deliver up to the Romans his elephants and ships of war, and to surrender Hannibal and the other anti-Roman refugees. Hannibal and another saved themselves by ﬂight, the rest were delivered up together with hostages for the execution of the treaty. One of these hos- tages was Antiochus Epiphanes, the king’s younger son. In collecting means to pay the indemnity, he plundered a wealthy temple in the Median province of Elymais. The indignant people rose and massacred him and his attend- ants. IV. Errrnxnns or the Illustrious, the sec- ond son of the preceding, succeeded his elder brother Seleucus Philopater, B. C. 17 5. His 664 ANTIOCO father had senthim to Rome as hostage for the execution of the treaty of Magnesia. He there had the advantages of a Roman education. His brother sent his own son Demetrius to replace him. He made war upon Egypt to recover the provinces of Ccsle-Syria and Palestine, the dow- ry of his sister Cleopatra, who had died. He recovered them in the ﬁrst campaign. Next year he overran all Egypt except Alexandria, and took captive the young king Ptolemy Philo- pater. In the same year, he sacked Jerusalem, and plundered the temple, as related in the book of the Maccabees. He undertook no less than 4 expeditions into Egypt, and would have an- nexed that country had not the Roman am- bassadors met him on the last occasion, and ordered its immediate evacuation. Popilius, whom he had known at Rome, was at the head of the deputation. Antiochus advanced to meet him and offered his hand. Popilius declined, and commenced reading the tablets on which were written the orders of the senate. Antio- chus having promised obedience, the Roman shook hands with him. On his return home, B. C. 168, he vented his chagrin upon the Jews, and commenced that great persecution which is related in the 2d book of the Maccabees, during which time the service in the temple was bro- ken off for the space of 3 years. He set up the statue of Titus Olympius there, and desired to introduce the worship of the Greek deities. This proselyting zeal was thwarted by the in- surrection of Mattathias and the Maccabees. The patriotic resistance of the Jews was suc- cessful. With the revolted Persians and Ar- menians he was more fortunate. In Media, he plundered the temple of Elymais, and soon after this, died. The Jews refer his death to a judgment of God upon his sacrilege toward the temple at Jerusalem, the Medes and Persians are equally positive that it was a judgment for the sacrilege done to their sanctuary at Elymais. His subjects called him, in parody on his name Epiphanes, Epimanes, the madman. This repu- tation he earned by many freakish acts. He would run about the streets of Antioch, visiting the goldsmiths in their shops as he had done at Rome ; he would drink with anybody and everybody, like the prince Hal of Shakspeare; he would go into the market-place without his robes, and imitate the electioneering practices he had seen at Rome, pretending that he was a candidate for the oﬁice of edile or tribune of the people. Sometimes he would rush out among the crowd with a handful of gold-pieces, and cry “scramble ;” at other times, he would have his lap full of stones, and when the crowd would crush round him, pelt them. The Syrian monarchy, from this time forth, is of little im- portance even in the East. ANTIOCO, an island near the S. W. coast of Sardinia, 8 miles in length, and 3 in width. It is very fertile. Pop. 2,219. ANTIOPE, the mother of Zethus and Am- phion by Zeus, was daughter of Nycteus, king of Thebes. Lycus, the successor of N ycteus, AN TIPATER having slain her husband, Epopeus, king of Sicy- one, carried her prisoner to Thebes, where she was treated with extreme cruelty by his wife, Dirce. Her sons avenged her by killing her persecutors and capturing Thebes. ANTIPAROS, anciently Ouanos, a small island of the Grecian archipelago belonging to the Cyclades. It lies between the islands of Paros and Liphanto, and is about 7 miles in length and 3 miles in breadth. It is a mass of marble rock, covered with a moderately fertile soil, which produces cotton, wine, and corn enough to support its inhabitants, consisting of some 500 souls, who live in a wretched village near the shore, and who are chieﬂy engaged in ﬁshing and agriculture. This island would hardly be worthy of notice were it not for the magniﬁcent stalactite cavern near its southern extremity. The entrance to this cavern is a long, narrow, and often precipitous passage, which is traversed by means of ropes that are either held by some of the natives, or joined to a cable secured to a pillar at the outside. On arriving at the interior end of this passage the spacious chambers of an enchanted grotto pre- sent themselves to view, whose roof, ﬂoor, and sides are covered with a dazzling incrustation as white as snow. Columns, some of which are 25 feet in length, hang like icicles from the roof, while others extend ﬁom roof to ﬂoor. It is brilliant and splendid beyond description. ANTIPAS, Hnnon, ' the son of Herod the Great and Cleopatra. He was a native of J e- rusalem. His father originally intended him as successor to the entire kingdom of Coele-Syria, ' but for some reason changed his purpose, and gave the kingdom to Archelaus, another son, and assigned to Antipas the tetrarchy of Galilee and Perea. Entering upon his tetrarchy, he married the daughter of Aretas, king of Ara- bia, but afterward divorced her and married Herodias, the wife of his brother then living. This involved him in a war with Aretas, and was also the ﬁrst step toward the indulgence of the passion which resulted in the imprison- ment and beheading of John the Baptist. Her- od Antipas was in the main a good tetrarch, devoting himself to the interests of his sub- °ects. Adorned and fortiﬁed many other places in his province. He was ﬁnally banished to Gaul (A. D. 39) by Caligula, on suspicion of being con- cerned in the conspiracy of Sejanus. It was before this Herod that Pilate sent Jesus (Luke xxm.) ANTIPASCHIA. The Easter festival kept in memory of the resurrection of Christ was by the Latins called pascha. The Sunday after Easter is hence denominated antipaschia. ANTIPATER. I. AMacedonian general, one of the successors of Alexander, born about 390, died 317 B. C. He was educated by Aristotle, and enjoyed the complete conﬁdence of King Philip of Macedon. When Alexander made his expedition into Asia he left Antipater be- hind him as viceroy of Macedonia and Greece. He built the city of Tiberias, and' ANTIPATER He soon had occasion to exert himself. An at- tempt was made by Lacedaemon, Achaia, Elis, and the greater part of Arcadia, to drive the Macedonians out of the Peloponnesus. Anti- pater marched into Arcadia and met the Lace- daemonian army before Megalopolis. He in- ﬂicted a decisive defeat upon the Spartans, Agis, their king, being slain. He also had trouble in Macedonia. Olympias, the mother of Alexan- der, succeeded, in the latter days of the con- queror’s life, in sowing in his mind a distrust of Antipater, and Alexander actually sent Craterus home from Asia with a body of discharged troops to supersede him in the home govern- ment. Fortunately for Antipater, Alexander died, and this order was never executed. At the division of the empire, Antipater received, as his share of the administration, Macedonia and Greece, and the guardianship of the fu- ture child of Roxana. Soon after the birth of this child, named Alexander Egus, Roxana and her son passed over from Asia into Eu- rope, and put themselves in the protection of Antipater. Immediately on the death of Alexander becoming known, the Athenians de- -termined to strike again for the liberty of Hellas, and made a wide-reaching alliance with the ZEtolians, Thessalians, and all the Greeks north of the isthmus except the Boeotians, and with the Peloponnesians who were not of the Lacedaemonian party. Leosthenes, the com- mander of the allied army, an Athenian, post- ed his forces at Thermopylae, and Antipater advanced with his Macedonians to quell the re- volt. Alexander had drained him of troops, and the Hellenes defeated him and shut him up in Lamia, a town of Thessaly. Leonnatus was the ﬁrst Alexandrine general who advanced to the aid of Antipater from Hellespontine Phry- gia. He was defeated, but the remains of his army joined that of Antipater. Craterus ar- rived from Asia with another reinforcement of 12,500 men. Antipater having now 48,000 men, and being largely superior in force to the weakened and ill-cemented Hellenic army, gave them battle at Crannon (322 B. C.) The battle was indecisive, but the allies sued for peace. Antipater refused to treat with them collective- ly, but expressed his readiness to treat sepa- rately. This had the desired effect; all the minor Greek states came to terms, leaving the Athenians and the .ZEtolians unsupported to bear the brunt of the Macedonian’s vengeance. Antipater used his victory with moderation; he demanded the surrender of Demosthenes and Hyperides, the 2 democratic orators, and the uncompromising fees of the Macedonian power. He also put a Macedonian garrison in Munychia to act in concert with Phocion and the Athenian conservative party. Thence he broke up the democratic constitution of Athens, and left the government in the hands of about 9,0Q0 citizens who were possessed of a proper- ty qualiﬁcation, and were disposed to peace. Thus ended the Lamian war (322 B. C.) An- tipater next turned against the .zEt0ll&I1S, drove ANTIPATHY 665 them into their mountains, and starved them into submission. On him fell the duty of checking the designs of Perdiccas, who was aiming at universal dominion, but before he had reached Asia with his army, Perdiccas was assassinated in Egypt. Antipater made a new division of the provinces, giving a part of the territory of Perdiccas to Antigonus, part to Lysimachus, and part to Seleucus. He contin- ued to exercise great power and inﬂuence until his death in 318 B. C., at the advanced age of 81. II. Grandson of the preceding, for a short time king of Macedonia, died 292 B. C. He was the second son of Cassander and Thessalon- ica, the sister of Alexander the Great. On the death of Philip IV., Antipater and his younger brother Alexander disputed for the throne of Macedon. Antipater, thinking that his mother favored the pretensions of his younger brother, put her to death, which deed prejudiced the Macedonian nation against him. Alex- ander called in the aid of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and Antipater ﬂed to Lysimachus, king of Thrace, whose daughter he had espoused. As he was insolent, the Thracian king put him to death. IH. Died 43 B. C.; son of Antipas, governor of Idumaea, was himself governor of that province during the high-priesthood of Alexander J annaeus. He espoused the cause of Hyrcanus against his brother Aristobulus. When, during the siege of Alexandria, Julius Caesar was hemmed in by the inhabitants of that city, Antipater came to his aid, and ren- dered good service to the Romans. Caesar, in return, obtained for him the dignity of . Roman citizenship, and appointed him procurator of Judaea. He was poisoned by Malichus, a Jew whose life he had twice saved. IV. Eldest son of Herod the Great by his ﬁrst wife Doris, brought about the death of his 2 half-brothers, Alexander and Aristobulus, in B. C. 6, but was himself condemned before the tribunal of Quintilius Varus, Roman governor of Syria, for compassing his father’s death, and executed. V. ANTIPATER of Sidon, the author of several epigrams in the Greek anthology, ﬂourished about B. C. 100. VI. Of Thessalonica, the au- thor of several epigrams in the Greek anthol- ogy, lived in the reign of Augustus and Tibe- rius Caesar. VII. Luorus Camus, a Roman jurist and historian, and the contemporary of Cains Gracchus (B. C. 123). He wrote a history of the second Punic war. ANTIPATHY (G12 avrmaﬁeta, compounded of awn, against, and 71-aisos, feeling), is commonly deﬁned to be an involuntary dislike or aver- sion of an animate being for some sensible object ; but in many cases the word is applied to inanimate nature, as to oil and water, which are incompatible or immiscible substances. It is commonly applied, however, to a certain class of exceptional feelings in individuals; such as a spontaneous dislike of cats 'or dogs, spiders, toads, and rattlesnakes; or peculiar odors, savors, colors, sounds, and forms. Attraction and repulsion, sympathy and antipathy, compa- _ viduals, and intolerable to others. 666 ANTIPATHY. tibility and incompatibility, -likes" and dislikes,‘ are words often used as synonymes intheir con- trasted signiﬁcation, but without scientiﬁc ac- curacy, or deﬁnite limitations in common lan- guage. Attraction and repulsion are mostly used with reference to material gravitation and cohesion; compatibility and incompati- bility apply equally to inorganic and organic nature; sympathy and antipathy, likes and dislikes, refer mostly to the feelings of ani- mated beings with reference to things animate or inanimate. One person dislikes cats; an- other dislikes mice, and shudders at the sight of the small, inoffensive nibbler ; many ladies dislike spiders near their persons; and most Europeans dislike serpents, while eastern na- tions seem to experience no such feeling of antipathy. Some persons cannot bear the rank smell of cheese or garlic; others have no aver- sion to the smell or taste of either; one kind of perfume is extremely pleasant to some indi- Brass in- struments make pleasant music to some cars, and jar the nerves of hearing in others; soft velvet is agreeable to the touch of some, and unpleasant to others; bright glaring colors please the eye of one, and call up feelings of aversion in the breast of another. Des goats et des couleurs on ma doit disputer, say the French; and all nations have similar say- ings with regard to differences of taste, and peculiar feelings of antipathy. It is sometimes said that mice have a natural antipathy for cats, sheep for wolves, hares for hounds, ante- lopes for lions, pigs for serpents, ferrets for rabbits, dogs for rats, &c., but these are not an- tipathies, properly so called; they are repul- sive feelings of a stronger nature. There are, no doubt, different degrees of antipathy, and some of them amount to a revulsive feel- ing, such as the hysterical dread of spiders crawling up the legs or down the back ; but the latter may be partly overcome by habit, while the true antipathy, though less revulsive in ef- fect, is deeply rooted in the constitution, and can never be eradicated thoroughly. Antipa- thies, properly so called, belong to things of one species or one genus; beyond these limits, feelings of aversion are more deeply incompati- ble, and even hostile in their nature. Cats may have antipathies for dogs of their own size; but they have deadly feelings of destruc- tive excitement against mice.—Music is aproper key to the deﬁnitions of sympathy and anti- pathy, as distinguished from hostility, aversion, and revulsion. The key-board of a pianoforte displays a regular gradation of notes, in half a dozen or more octaves, and the consonant and dissonant degrees of distance show where con- sonance and sympathy exist, and also where antipathy and dissonance begin. The reasons for these accords and discords in music are well explained by the science of acoustics and the ratio of vibrations. Tonics agree with octaves, thirds, sixths, ﬁfths, and fourths; with seconds -and sevenths they disagree. Similar reasons ANTIPHILUS will explain all kinds of natural sympathy and antipathy in man’s feelings. Differences of com- plexion, stature, temperament, &c., follow the same laws of sympathy and antipathy between the sexes. There we ﬁnd sympathies of iden- tity and sympathies of contrast, with antipathies of neighboring degrees of difference. Tall men often like short women, but a man of 5 feet 6 feels some innate antipathy for a woman 5 feet 10; although he may admire her moral nature. A dark man fancies a fair woman, or a woman of his own complexion; and so of woman with regard to man; but a yellow-haired woman with a faultless skin, would not fancy the com- plexion of a thickly-freckled face and rusty red-haired man; nor would a man with ﬂaxen hair and pure white skin be strongly drawn to- ward a woman whose complexion was a very doubtful auburn, and whose face was a mosaic of brown freckles. Nature seems to regulate the laws of harmony and discord, sympathy and antipathy, according to degrees of nearness and of distance on a scale of general gradation throughout all her realms of inorganic and or- ganic forms, in all varieties of beings and of things, animate and inanimate. These laws af- fect the physical, the mental, and the moral nature of mankind; and hence we may account, to some extent, for sects and parties in politics, religion, and philosophy; and even in the arts and sciences. For as the nerves of the body are affected pleasantly by one peculiar ﬂavor or odor, in one temperament, and most unpleasantly by the same sense of taste or smell in a differ- ent variety of constitution and complexion, though equally true and good in either case; so artistic views of what is beautiful or not, and intellectual appreciations of what is true or what is false in politics, philosophy, and reli- gion, may be equally dependent on inherent constitution and the difference between one nature and another. And, moreover, as boys of 15 grow to be 18, and experience new feel- ings and attractions, while their former notions and amusements gradually fade away; so many minds now satisﬁed with certain views of policy and doctrine, may by degrees outgrow them, and become enamored of still higher modes of thought and feeling, life and duty, which before seemed strange and hardly worthy of attention. Many worldly minds de- spise the simplest truths of man’s immortal na- ture; and to gain the goods of this life, risk the loss of those which lie beyond. Antipathies of this kind may be only temporary; while other kinds seem ruled by laws which are eternal. ANTIPHILUS. 1. Of Egypt, a celebrated painter who lived in the latter part of the 4th century B. C. In his youth he went to Pella, where he painted portraits of Philip and Alex- ander. His latter days were passed in his native country, where he enjoyed the patronage of Ptolemy, son of Lagus. The chief characteristic of his style, according to Quintilian, was a light and airy elegance. II. Of Byzantmm, a writer ANTIPHON I - of epigrams, who lived in the 1st century of the Christian era. Many of his epigrams still sur- vive, and they are generally excellent both as regards style and conception. - ' AN TIPHON, a short verse said or sung at the beginning and end of a psalm or collec- tion of psalms in the oﬁices of the breviary. ANTIPHON, an Athenian orator, son of Sophilus the sophist, born at Rhamnus in Attica, B. C. 480. After completing his education, Antiphon opened a rhetorical school at Athens, and also applied himself to the composition of orations for such as wanted to accuse others, or defend themselves in the courts or the as- sembly. If Antiphon was not the inventor of political and juridical oratory, he was at least the ﬁrst who subjected it to the rules of rhet- oric, and raised it to the rank of an art. Though a man of great eloquence, he never appeared as a public speaker except on that memorable oc- casion when he came forward to clear himself from the charge of treason, and to justify the part which he had taken in the revolution that had established the government of the 400 at Athens. We know in fact almost nothing of his political life save what is connected with the events of that revolution. He it was that planned it—-that framed the new constitution --that most contributed to the overthrow of the democratic party. When, therefore, that party recovered power, it was on him that the weight of their vengeance fell. He was then brought to trial, and, notwithstanding the ex- traordinary ability with which he defended himself, was condemned to death as a traitor, compelled to drink the fatal hemlock, and even denied a burial in Attic soil. He suffered in the year 411 B. C. There are still 15 of the orations of Antiphon extant. His language is correct, his phraseology perspicuous, his argu- ments convincing, but there is a stiffness about his style which makes it appear inharmonious after the ﬂowing periods of Isocrates. The best edition of the orations of Antiphon is that of Dobson published at London in 1828. ANTIPHONY, the response which, in the Roman Catholic service, one side of the choir makes to the other, in the chant. Antiphonal or responsive singing is the most ancient form of church music, and is said by the historian Socrates to have been ﬁrst introduced among the Greeks by Ignatius, and among the Latins by St. Ambrose. The chanting of the psalms alternately is doubtless older than Christianity, and prevailed in the temple service of the Jews, many of the psalms being composed in alter- nate verses as if with a view to this mode of singing. In the cathedral worship of the Catholic church, two full choirs are stationed one on each side of the sanctuary, one of which, having chanted a verse, remains silent, while the opposite choir replies in the verse succeed- ing; and, at the end of each psalm, the Gloria Patri is sung by the united choirs in chorus. ANTIPHRASIS is the description of a thing by its opposite, as when Antiochus who killed ANTIQUABY 667 iris mother is‘ called Philometer, or the mother- over. > AN TIPODES, a word said to have been in- vented by Plato, and signifying opposite feet,——a geographical term for persons who live at the opposite ends of a diameter of the earth. Several similar compound words have been invented to express different geographical relations; but antipodes is the only one in common use, pre- served by the paradoxical nature of the idea of persons living thus upside down to each other. -.A_NTIPODES, a small island in the south Paciﬁc south-east of New Zealand. It is so called because it is the .nearest land to the an- tipo%es of Greenwich, lat. 49° 32’ S. long. 178° 42’ . AN TIPOPE, a term applied by the Roman Catholic church to those persons who claimed to have been elected by the suffrages of the cardinals, but whose claims were for some rea- son not deemed valid by the church. Novatian, the founder of the sect of Novatians, was the ﬁrst antipope, and procured his election to the see in 252 by 3 bishopsin opposition to Cor- nelius. Amadeus VIII., a duke and layman, was the last antipope, under the name of Felix V. (1431). According to Petau’s Rationarium Temporum, there have been 14 antipopes. The factions which elected them were sometimes po- litical, and sometimes religious. ANTIQUARY. The word antiguarius ap- pears from Isidore (Orig. vi. 14) to be synony- mous with transcribers of old manuscripts, and the domus antiqua/riorum in monasteries seems to have been the apartment appointed to such purposes. The present occupation of antiqua- ries, however, is to collect and prepare materi- als for the historian. Preserving records, coins, pamphlets, caricatures, and many other things that to the ignorant and unreﬂecting seem too insigniﬁcant to be preserved, they rescue many a precious proof of the facts of history from destruction, seeking out in all the corners of the land those things which, if once lost, can never be replaced, and which sometimes are increased greatly in value by being brought together into one place. The historical socie- ties which now exist in many of our states are necessarily largely antiquarian in their charac- ter, and through them have already been pre- served many documents of great historical value, and many most interesting records of the past which a little longer neglect would have doomed to entire destruction. It has well been said, “ that the most insigniﬁcant tract, the most triﬂing essay, a sermon, a newspaper, or a song, may afford an illustration of manners or opinions elucidatory of the past, and throw a faithful though feeble light on the pathway of the future historian.” The objects of anti- quaries are thus quaintly set forth in a pa- per drawn up by a member at the inception of the royal society of antiquaries of Great Britain: “Such a society will bring to light and preserve all old monumental inscriptions, &c. Architecture, sculpture, painting, engrav- 668 ing, musie, will come under their considera- tion; and, the ancient methods being restored, many things may be used afresh. They.wi]l explain obscurities, not only in our own, but in Greek and Roman authors. A correspondence might be maintained through England and abroad, to inspect books and manuscript, to draw ancient fortiﬁcations, castles, churches, houses, tombs, inscriptions, epitaphs, painted glass, &c., and, if need be, to buy up the most curious for the society. This establishment, their library and repository, would be an ease and satisfaction to the ofﬁcers of state and to foreigners that attend their meetings; a semi- nary and school for learning the ancient con- stitution, laws, and customs of this kingdom; and to promote trade, manufactures, &c.” Our own historian Prescott, in his “Conquest of Mex- ico,” after speaking of Don Juan de Zumarraga, the fanatical destroyer of so many precious Mexican picture-writings, says: “The unlet- tered soldiers were not slow in imitating the example of their prelate. Every chart and volume which fell into their hands was wan- tonly destroyed; so that when the scholars of a later and more enlightened age anxiously sought to recover some of these memorials of civilization, nearly all had perished, and the few surviving were jealously hidden by the natives. Through the indefatigable labors of a private individual, however, a considerable col- lection was eventually deposited in the archives of Mexico; but was so little heeded there that some were plundered, others decayed piecemeal from the damps andmildews, and others again were used as waste-paper! We contemplate with indignation the cruelties inﬂicted by the early conquerors. But indignation is qualiﬁed with contempt, when we see them thus ruth- lessly trampling out the spark of knowledge, the common boon and property of all mankind.” It is only after experiencing the bitter but un- availing regret that must ﬁll the heart of every intelligent man after reading of such things as these, that one appreciates the importance of antiquaries and antiquarian societies not only to communities, but also to mankind. ANTIQUUS, J AN, a Dutch artist, born at Groningen, Oct. 11, 1702, died in 1750. In his youth he spent many years in Italy among the works of the old masters. Returning to Hol- land, the prince of Orange settled a pension upon him. He was as industrious as he was skllful. AN TI-RENTISM. The Dutch West India company, in order to promote the settlement of the country in New Netherland (now New York), authorized its members to take up land upon the banks of the streams and rivers, 16 miles on one side or 8 miles on each side, and so far back as might be convenient, on con- dition of introducing, within a limited time, 50 settlers for every mile of land. The propri- etor was invested with the title and privileges of a lord patroon or protector, and his colony or manor was governed by the same customs ANTIQUUS ANTI-RENTISM and laws as were the feudal manors of the United Provinces. A large number of manors were created under the Dutch, and subsequently under the English colonial government, and exist- ed at the outbreak of the American revolution. The feudal system of Europe was thus transplant- ed to the new world. After the revolution, a very large proportion of the land in the set- tled parts of New York was held by the pa- troons, and the cultivators occupied their farms on leases, for one or more lives, or from year to year, stipulating for the payment of rents, dues, and services, copied from the feudal tenures of England and Holland. Almost every incident of the tenures in socage and villeinage were imposed by contract upon the manorial tenants. Purveyances, preemption, ﬁnes for alienation, banalities, base services, and other similar conditions, burdened most of the farms. In 1779 and 1785, laws were enacted by the leg- islature of the state abolishing feudal tenures, but the proprietors of manor grants unwilling to give up alltheir feudal claims, contrived a form of a deed by which the grantees covenanted to perform services, and pay rents and dues, pre- cisely similar to the feudal incidents thus abol- ished. The counties of Albany, Rensselaer, Columbia, Greene, Ulster, Delaware, Schoharie, Montgomery, Herkimer, Otsego, Oneida, include within their limits most of these manors. The people who had settled in these counties, had long been dissatisﬁed and restive under the feudal exactions imposed upon them, and in 1839 began to consult together about some plan to throw off the burden. Associations were formed in these counties, and delegates appointed to meet and deliberate for the gene- ral welfare. The local societies thus form- ed soon became known as anti-rent associations. Ere long, the people became more and more engaged and excited, and the anti-rent feeling manifested itself in open resistance to the ser- vice of legal process for the collection of ma- norial rents. Asecret organization was devised, extending through several counties, by which bands of men were formed, and pledged upon summons to appear disguised and armed, and ready to protect the persons of the tenants from arrest, and from the service of process, and to guard their property from levy and sale upon execution. So soon as a sheriff appeared in one of the disaffected towns, a troop of men collected in fantastic calico dresses, and with faces masked, or painted to imitate Indians, and armed with pistols, tomahawks, guns, and cut- lasses, and generally on horseback, gathered aroundhim, or hovered near, warning him away and deterring him by threats from performmg his duty. In Columbia, Rensselaer, Albany, and Delaware counties, during the years 1844 and 1845, large assemblages of men so armed and disguised were accustomed to meet to hear speeches, and to pass resolutions. The leaders and sachems assumed Indian names, such as Big Thunder, Little Thunder, Blackhawk, §itc., and the highways and villages became famillar ANTI-RENTISM with their antics and whooping-s. A conﬂict between them and the civil authorities was in- evitable. The complicity of some oﬂicers, and the timidity of others, emboldened the disguised bands, and their audacity and fancied impunity from recognition and arrest led them to appear often inthe roads, and to more open demonstra- tions of their numbers and power. Citizens who disapproved of their conduct were now subjected to insult in the streets and at their houses, and bad and violent men, under cover of these disguises, sought occasion to gratify their passions in acts of reprisal or revenge upon persons who had incurred their enmity. The ﬁrst conﬂict which awakened general atten- tion to the state of affairs, happened in the town of Grafton, in Rensselaer county. troop of the calico Indians riding along the highway, met a man named Smith, driving a team with a load of wood. Smith had been outspoken in denunciation of their proceedings, and they bore him no good will. An alterca- tion ensued, and Smith, a man of coarse nature and violent passions, raised his axe to strike at some one of his assailants, when a pistol shot from an unknown hand prostrated him to the ground. He died in a few minutes. The men in disguise dispersed. A legal investigation, at which more than 200 persons were from time to time examined, failed to disclose the author of the deed, and to this day it is not known who ﬁred the fatal shot. Subsequently, at a mass meeting at Sleepy Hollow in Columbia county, a pistol, accidentally ﬁred, killed a boy of the name of Biefenberg. In 1845, a deputy sheriﬁ“ of the name of Steele, who had accompanied the sheriff of Delaware county to the town of Andes, to attend a sale of goods upon execution for rent, was killed. A large number of per- sons were indicted for the murder, but, as the act of killing could not be brought home to any individual, verdicts of manslaughter were found against several persons proved to have been present armed and disguised-—Previously to this fatal transaction, the sheriff's of Rensselaer and Albany counties had each been openly and threateningly resisted in the exercise of their duties, and the military force of the county had once, in Rensselaer, been called out to aid the oﬂicer in the service of process in the town of Nassau, and once in Albany county, for a like purpose in the town of Rensselaerville. A rude system of telegraphing gave warning in all the towns of the approach of an oﬁicer, and from all quarters came ﬂocking the mimic In- dians, as rapidly and mysteriously as the gather- ing of Clan Alpine at the summons of Roderic Dhu. The legislature of 1844 passed some laws against appearing disguised and armed, and imposed severe penalties upon such as should violate the law, or in such disguise re- sist due service of process, or interfere with the civil officers in the exercise of their duties. In his message of 1841 and 1842, Gov. Seward had alluded to and discussed the grievances com- plained of by the tenants. He recommended a 669 reference of the matters in dispute to arbitra- tors. He appointed three men to investigate the questions in dispute, to hear the parties by their witnesses ‘and counsel, and to make re- port to the legislature. This commission failed to accomplish any thing. The disaifection and excitement increased, owing to the obstinate and unyielding exactions of the landlords and the factions and illegal acts of the tenants, un- til ﬁnally the tragedy at Andes brought matters to a crisis. Gov. Wright issued a proclamation, declaring Delaware county in a state of insur- rection, and for months the village of Delhi was a military encampment, and squads of sol- diers perambulated the county making arrests, and frightening the good people intd obedience to the laws. The trials and convictions at Delhi, and the convictions of certain anti- renters at Hudson for conspiracy and resistance to law, put an end to operations by the self- styled Indians. The anti-rent associations de- termined to form a political party, whose policy should be to elect all town and county oﬂicers from their own ranks, and to vote for no state, civil, judicial, or executive oﬁicers, unfriendly to them, or unpledged to their cause. In the legislatures of 1842, ’3, ’4, ’5, ’6, and ’7, about one-eighth of the members were elected in the interest of the anti-renters. In the constitutional convention of 1846, some of the ablest men were avowedly anti-renters, or ad- vocates of their measures and principles. Their inﬂuence procured the insertion of a clause in the new constitution, abolishing all feudal tenures and incidents, and forbidding the leas- ing of agricultural land for a term exceeding 12 years. The legislature, at successive ses- sions, passed laws which bore heavily upon the landlord interest, and tended gradually to ameliorate the condition of the tenants. In 1846, Gov. Wright, who was a candidate for reélection, was defeated by 10,000 majority for John Young, whom the anti-renters had nom- inated. The policy of voting for their friends without regard to former political opinions, ex- erted a marked inﬂuence over politicians, and the anti-renters have since been able to com- mand a patient hearing in the legislature and the courts. Gov. Young pardoned from the state prison all the so-called anti-rent convicts, on the ground that their offences were rather political than criminal, and that it was the wise policy of all good governments to forgive and restore to citizenship political oifenders, after the law had been vindicated and order and peace restored. Since 1847, no single instance of resistance to law or the service of process has occurred, the excitement which threatened the peace of the community has died out, the anti-rent inﬂuence is no longer felt_as ad1sturb- ing. force in politics, and the anti-rent organ- ization contents itself with lawful efforts to contest in the courts the validity of the titles of the landlords, and the legality of the con- ditions and covenants contained in the manor grants. Hundreds of suits are pending in the 670 AN TISABBATABIANS courts, in which every legal objection to the manor grants is raised. Already the court of appeals has decided that the quarter sale reser- vation, or covenant, is a feudal incident, abol- ished by the law concerning tenures, passed Feb. 20, 1787, and therefore void. The re- maining covenants and conditions reserved in grants in fee will be brought to the same test. The anti-rent excitement, which at one time assumed the formidable type of insurrection, and foreboded rebellion and civil war, has ex- pended itself in legitimate political action, and will end in a peaceful solution of all its diﬂicul- ties in the courts of law. ANTISABBATARIANS, a sect‘ of Chris- tians, who maintain that there is no obligation to observe the Sabbath. Their reason for this is, that the Sabbath is a Jewish institution, and that its observance is not commanded in the New Testament. ANTISCORBUTICS (Lat. anti, against, and scorbutus, a barbarous word, intended as the Latin for scurvy), remedies against scurvy. The word scurvy is popularly, though with little correctness, applied to certain forms of disease, in which there is chronic irrita- tion of the skin, with desquamation, or a peeling off of the dry scaly surface of the cuti- cle; the common name of these dry scales being scurf ; hence the word scurfy, or scurvy, to designate this class of affections. This kind of scurvy is common amongst ill-fed, ill-clothed, uncleanly, and debilitated populations, and is often the forerunner of consumption. It is akin to leprosy, and was formerly more common than it is at present, amongst the working classes of European nations. Like scrofula, it is the result of a debilitated constitution, es- pecially of weakness in the blood-making or- gans; but it seems to be more purely the result of long-continued physical privations, uncom- plicated by disease, than scrofula, which would seem to be, not only the inheritance of poverty, but of excess and vitiated constitutions, during ages. fln ‘these diseases, the blood is badly made, especially where surrounding circum- stances are unfavorable; and the proper mode of treatment is to secure good animal and vege- table food easily digestible, and often varied; good air and sunlight, water, cleanliness, and clothing; avoiding all fatigue, but using mod- erate exercise in the open air, continually. Vegetables belonging to the family of the cructferw, such as radishes, and cress, cab- bage, spinage, mustard seed, &c., are deemed highly advantageous in this class of diseases; but discrimination is required with regard to quantity and quality-; for in some cases, es- pecially of a scrofulous nature, animal food of the best kind is essential, with a small compara- tive proportion of vegetable and farinaceous food; and, in all cases, large quantities of tur- nips and cabbage, and the common sorts of vegetables, with common bread, and beans, and farinaceous food, ill-cooked and diﬁicult to digest, are not enough to support life and in- AN TISCORBUTICS crease vitality in such debilitated constitutions. In scrofula, tonics and good animal food are essential elements of cure; in common scurvy, of a leprous kind, good food, light wines, bitters, and vegetables of the mustard, cress, radish, cabbage, and lettuce kinds, arranged in salads with good olive oil, and never taken in large quantities at once, so as to oppress the digestive organs, are the real antiscorbutics, although the vegetables of the tribe of cruciferw, such as horse-radish, mustard seed, cress, cab- bage, &c., are often classed, alone, as “the antiscorbutics ” par e:cceZlence.—We now come to a special form of disease called scurvy, of which the origin, cause, and cure are more deﬁned and better known; it has been called sea-scurvy, to distinguish it from “ land-scurvy.” Sea-scurvy was formerly the scourge of a sea- faring life. Bad food, exposure, and fatigue, engendered the disease, and often sailors, who made long-protracted voyages, fell in large pro- -portions victims to this dire disease. In 1593, Admiral Hawkins stated that, within his per- sonal experience, not less than 10,000 seamen had died of scurvy. Lord Anson, in the course of his voyage round the world, at a much later period, lost more than four-ﬁfths of his men; and, when he arrived at Juan Fernandez, of the 200 men then surviving, only 8 were capable of duty. An entire crew has sometimes perished of scurvy, leav- ing the ship without a single hand to steer it through the waters. The whole crew of the Spanish ship Oriﬂamma perished in this man- ner, and the vessel was discovered ﬂoatingat the mercy of the winds, with the dead bodies on board.—-Sea-scurvy was produced by a com- bination of unfavorable circumstances, formerly not understood. One of the most powerful causes of debility is constant exposure to a cold and damp atmosphere. The construction of ships was formerly such that sailors were con- tinually exposed to unwholesome exhalations from the bilge water, the sand used as ballast, and the remains of animal and vegetable matter strewed about the ship. From the imperfect means of ventilating the ship, or washing it, without increasing the dampness, no means of cleanliness were organized. The sailors were unprovided with soap, and inattentive to per- sonalcleanliness. They were at times subject to excessive labor and fatigue, and often ex- posed to calms and want of even moderate exercise. The diet of seamen during long voy- ages consisted almost exclusively of salt meat and hard biscuit, with very bad water. And even this was often scarce and insufficient. Fresh animal food and vegetables could not be obtained at sea. The diminution of the quanti- ty of food was found, in 1819, to be the princi- pal cause of scurvy in the Milbank Peniten- tiary; but seamen were constantly exposed to inferior quality, as well as insufﬁcient quantity, of food in former times. Salt meat is also less nutritious and more indigestible than fresh am- mal food. Taken in moderation, salt facihtates ANTISCORBUTICS ‘digestion, but in excess it hinders the digestion, even of fresh animal food and vegetables. Bad food, exposure, and fatigue, then, impoverish the blood and bring on scurvy.—Under the inﬂuence of these concurring causes, an indi- vidual begins to lose his natural and healthy ~color; the skin of the face ﬁrst, and afterward that of the whole body, becomes pale and bloat- ed; the lips acquire a greenish hue; the coun- tenance is very much depressed, denoting a like state of mind. In this state of depression, the patient becomes weary and averse to labor. When moderate exertion, even, is attempted, weakness is felt in the whole muscular system, and particularly in the knees, which sometimes become stiff and contracted. The breath is hurried and oppressed by walking fast, or by the least effort. The skin is dry, sometimes rough and scurfy, but oftener smooth and shining, with spots of a red, or dingy blue, or dark appearance arising from the stains of coloring matter exuded from the blood-vessels under the cuticle. The gums become swollen and spongy, the limbs oedematous; cuts and scratches bleed profusely, and cannot be healed. Old sores break out anew, and broken limbs, well united, separate again, and cannot be re- united, as long as the disease continues. The appetite is generally good, but great debility is manifest in every portion of the organism; and this debility arises from an alteration of the blood, produced by long privation and expo- sure.—Good fresh food of every kind, and other conditions of health and comfort, are necessary to produce good blood; but certain vegetables seem essential to prevent that peculiar degen- eration of the blood which causes scurvy. . In what way an inadequate supply of fresh vege- tables operates in causing this disease, is yet a matter of discussion; but the fact is establish- ed by experience. Many eminent physicians of the present day suppose that it is due to the absence of potash in salted meats, and other comparatively innutritious articles of diet, while the common antiscorbutics afford a large supply of that substance. Before the extensive introduc- tion of esculent vegetables in Great Britain, scur- vy was almost as common on land as at sea; and it is still, in a modiﬁed form, common in the most impoverished parts of Ireland, where bad potatoes form, almost exclusively, the diet of the poorest people. It is also proved by the rapid disappearance of scurvy from among the crews of ships, so soon as they procure a due supply of vegetable articles of diet, of any kind, but more particularly those of an acid nature, such as oranges, lemons, &c., belonging to the tribe of the aumntiaccm, and those of the grossula/riacece or gooseberry tribe. The cruci- ferce, or mustard and cress, cabbage and scurvy- grass tribe, although alkalescent vegetables, are very good; and so is spruce, which is derived from some of the c0nifcrcc.——These vegetables, or preparations made from them, constitute the antiscorbutics, properly so called, or means of preventing and curing sea-scurvy. They are 671 not, however, equally valuable as antiscorbutics, some of them being more eﬂicient than others. Those are the least valuable in which no vege- table acid greatly predominates. The crucifarte are not so useful in their natural state as the name scurvy-grass would indicate; but sour- krout, made from one of them, the cabbage, undergoing fermentation, and thus producing vegetable or acetic acid, a kind of vinegar, becomes an important antiscorbutic; and hence, perhaps, the frequent use of it in Germany. The tribe of the kcspcridca, or aumntiaccw, produce the best class of antiscorbutics, as they contain citric acid ; and the best of these belong -to the genus citrus, especially the citrus limo- uum, the well-known lemon. Since the intro- duction of this, for general use, into the British navyin 1796, scurvy has almost ceased. It may be used in various ways. The best is to let the patient suck the fresh fruit; but where this cannot be done, lemon-juice, mingled with one- tenth portion of spirits of wine, to preserve it, may be given; and this is the mode usually adopted in the navy. About a fortnight after leaving port, each sailor is supplied daily with an ounce of lemon-juice, and an ounce and -a half of sugar, to mix with his wine or grog. This is usually enough to prevent scurvy from affecting any of the crew; but where symptoms show themselves, they quickly disappear by an increased allowance of the quantity of lemon- juice. Vinegar, tartaric, malic, and other vege- table acids, are not so useful as lemon-juice, but unripe gooseberries, tamarinds, &c., are the best substitutes for lemons, when these cannot be procured. During the prevalence of scurvy in Dr. Kane’s Arctic expedition (1853—’5), the most powerful antiscorbutics were found to be raw fresh meat, raw potatoes, and a beer made of willow-bark and other Arctic astringents, beside the usual vegetable acids and various salts of iron. Both meat and potatoes were far more eﬁicacious for being raw. Mr. R. H. Dana, J r., in his “Two Years before the Mast,” ascribes a remarkable antiscorbutic virtue to raw onions. AN TISEPTICS (Gr. mm, against, and o'1]7r1'os‘, putrid), a term applied to substances or means which resist putrefaction. This process com- mences with the decomposition of albuminous matters, from which are evolved ammoniacal exhalations. Substances containing no nitrogen are little subject to putrefy. The ﬁrst princi- ple of antiseptics is then to render the albumen insoluble, in which state its decomposition and the conversion of its carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen into ammonia, carburetted hydro- gen, and other noxious gases, is prevented. This is effected by soaking the substances in alcohol or essential oils, Chlorine gas has the property not only of decomposing the eﬂiuvia already formed, but also of arresting their generation. In the form of chloride of lime it is a useful an- tiseptic. Air, heat, and moisture, are all requi- site for the decaying process to go on. Hence the exclusion of any one of these is an antiseptic AN TISEPTICS 672 ANTI-SLAVERY Process. Meats are preserved in tin cans her- metically sealed, from which the air has been expelled by keeping the cases in hot steam a moment, and then closing instantly, by solder, the small aperture left open for the escape of the air. The antiseptic properties of a freezing temperature are too familiar to be dwelt upon. Moisture is expelled from meats by drying them in the sun, or in the heat and smoke of chim- neys. In the latter position they absorb pyrolig- neous acid, which, from the creosote it contains, possesses powerful antiseptic properties, and greatly adds to the effect partially attained by the heat. The antiseptic properties of common salt, saltpetre, and sal-ammoniac, as also of alco- hol, pyroligneous spirit, creosote, sugar, char- coal, volatile oils, &c., are supposed to be owing to the aiﬁnities these substances have for water, abstracting and absorbing the moisture from those bodies they are brought in contact with. Corrosive sublimate has the same property, and also acts chemically upon the ﬁbre itself. Should these preserving substances be dissolved out, at any period however long after their application, the body returns to its former tendency to undergo the putrefying process. Tannin acts as an antiseptic by introducing its strong astrin- gent principle into organic substances, and com- bining with their gelatine, forming a hard, dura- ble compound, notwithstanding the tendency of each ingredient to decay when uncombined with the other. The antiseptic properties of peat are of the same nature as those of tannin. Bodies have been found perfectly preserved in peat bogs, that must have been undergoing the tanning process for hundreds of years. ANTI-SLAVERY. See Smvnnx. ANTISPASMODIGS (Gr. G1/TL, against, and o-vraa-pm, spasm), the means of removing spasm. Spasm or cramp occurs in muscular structures, and is caused by irritation of the nerves. Spasm consists in an irregular and sometimes excessive action of a group of muscles, or a single muscle, or some particular ﬁbres only of a muscle; and spasmodic diseases are classed in different varie- ties, according to the parts of the body affected, or according to the supposed 'cause of the disease. Simple cramps, colics, cholera, asth- ma, whooping cough, hysteria, epilepsy, cholera, or St. Vitus’s dance, tetanus, and lockjaw, are some of the chief diseases attended with spasms, for which antispasmodic treatment is required. Two kinds of nerves pervade the human body; nerves of sensation, and nerves of motion. They run together mostly, side by side, in the same sheath, like telegraphic wires, conveying sensa- tion from every portion of the organism to the brain and nervous centres, and motor stimulus from the brain to all the organs of the body, and particularly to the muscular structures. Though running mostly side by side, they are always quite distinct, and carry messages in opposite directions; sensations from their peripheral extremities to the brain; and volitions or inner- vations from the brain to their peripheral dis- tributions in the body. In a healthy state, the ANTISPASMODICS nerves of sense convey impressions to the mind and automatic will, which act or react, slightly or strongly, according to the nature of the im- pression. And here we may notice two kinds of sensation and reaction, commonly called voluntary and involuntary; the ﬁrst pertaining to the conscious or autocratic will, the other to the unconscious or automatic will. To illus- trate the ﬁrst, we may suppose a mother calls to her child; the child hears the mother’s call, and goes to her. The sense of hearing in the child was affected by the sound of the mother’s voice; the sensation being carried to the brain called forth the child’s attention, and the mind being thus excited set the conscious will in motion to act upon the brain, and stimulate the nerves of motion to act upon the organs of lo- comotion. The second kind of action and re- action in the nerves of sense and motion may be illustrated by the functions of digestion. When food is taken into the stomach, as at ordinary meals, the nerves of that organ are impressed by the contact of the alimentary substances upon the walls of the cavity, and the impression or unconscious sensation being carried to the ner- vous centres, causes a reaction or a flow of motor innervation from the cerebro-spinal centres to the digestive organs; which are thereby set in motion to secrete gastric juice and churn the ingested food with vigor and well-regulated industry, until the work is done, and then the stomach is allowed to rest until another meal is taken. Such is the healthy action of the stomach; but, if some improper food or poisonous substance be ingested, the impressions made upon the afferent nerves are more or less unusual and hurtful; and hence they may and often do excite reaction of an irregular ‘and violent character, in the parts affected, or even in other parts of the system. Emetics excite nausea and vomiting, or a revul- sive spasm in the stomach; indigestible sub- stances irritate the nerves of the alimentary canal, and sometimes cause severe reaction in the form of spasm, commonly called colic. Worms may irritate the nerves of the digestive system so violently as to produce not only colic in the bowels, but convulsions in the whole body. Inﬂammation of the mucous mem- brane of the air-passages may irritate exceed- ingly the nerves of those organs, and cause re- action of a violent spasmodic character. The uterus and ovhries in females may be so derang- ed by congestion and abnormal secretions, as to irritate the afferent nerves of the parts, and cause both local and diffused reaction of an hysterical spasmodic nature. A similar disturb- ance may affect the other sex, but it is not so common. Excessive irritation on any surface of the body, external or internal, may produce spasmodic reaction of a local or a general char- acter, as the tickling of the sole of the foot, in a slight degree, produces spasmodic laughter; and if carried to extremes, convulsions of a fatal nature.—-Spasmodic disease is therefore always caused by irritation of the nerves and violent - the amenities of life. ANTISTHENES reaction on the muscular structures, but the seat of irritation may be in diiferent localities, and the cause of irritation may be very differ- ent in different cases. Hence a proper knowl- edge of the cause and chief locality of irritation is essential to judicious treatment; the means being a secondary question, antispasmodic medi- cines, properly so called, are mostly palliative rather than efﬁcient means of cure. Poisonous matter in the blood, arising from insuﬂicient elimination of waste matter from the system, or from insuﬂicient aération in the lungs, or from absorption of morbid matter in the sys- tem, or from inhalation of carbonic acid gas, or any other cause in fact, may irritate the brain and nerves so violently, as to cause spasmodic action and convulsion in the body. And here we may observe, that direct irritation of the nervous centres, by tumors, congestions, and accumulations of ﬂuid or pus, may cause spas- modic actions and convulsions in the organism, just as irritation of afferent nerves in the pe- ripheral distributions; the source of irritation being central in one case, and peripheral in the other; while the result is more or less analo- gous.——The substances which are more especially considered as antispasmodics are the “volatile oils,” such as mint, lavender, line, derived chieﬂy from the tribe of plants called Zabiatce ; cajeput oil, from the myrtawaa ; dill, anise, fennel, &c., from the umbellzﬁrw ; from which tribe also are derived the foetid gum- resins, such as assafoetida, galbanum, ammo- niac, &c. These, with valerian, myrrh, and camphor, derived from the vegetable kingdom; musk and castoreum, from the animal kingdom; cyanide of iron and the oxides of bismuth and zinc, from the mineral kingdom, are amongst the most valuable antispasmodics.——Spasmodic affections may be complicated with inﬂamma- tion, and in that case they require most careful and somewhat different treatment. They may also occur in debilitated constitutions, or in persons of full habit; and here again, the treat- ment differs; so that the term antispasmodics, and the medicines classed under that head, are of small importance in comparison with a cor- rect diagnosis and an appropriatemode of treat- ment in each special form of spasmodic affection. ANTISTHENES, the founder of the Greek philosophical sect of Cynics, lived about 400 B. C. In his youth he fought at Tanagra (426 B. C.), and wasa disciple, ﬁrst of Gorgias, and af- terward of Socrates. He was present at the death of Socrates. He was an Athenian citizen, although his mother was a Thracian. He taught in the Cynosarges, a gymnasium set apart for the use of young Athenians born of barbarian mothers. He was the master of the celebrated Cynic Diogenes. His doctrine was to live low and think high. He despised all the conven- tionalities, all the pleasures, all the luxuries, all His dialogues and essays ﬁlled 10 volumes, which are all lost with the exception of a few letters and two declamations, called Ajax and Ulysses. VOL. I.—43 ANTOINE DE BOURBON 673 ANTITAURUS, a mountain chain which ex- tends from Mount Argaeus northward into Ar- menia, and connecting with the Caucasus skirts the basin of the Euphrates on the south. ANTITEESIS, a ﬁgure of speech in which an idea is emphasized by being brought into juxta- position with an opposite or converse idea, thus: “ This book contains much which is good and new, only it is a pity that the good is not new, and the new not good.” It must not be used too much, for it soon wearies the reader by an ap- pearance of too great elaboration. AN TITRIN ITARIANS, a term ﬁrst used in the 16th century in relation to the Socinians, but now applied to all who reject the doctrine of the Trinity as set forth by the church since the ﬁrst council of Constantinople (381). Until that time, the Trinitarian faith of the church had not been distinctly pronounced. The Anti- trinitarian movement in theology may be con- sidered as originating in the discussions of Praxeas (200) concerning the nature of Christ, and is from that time traceable through the Sabellians (251), the Samosatenians (269), the Arians (325), the Macedonians and Apo1linari- ans (362), and later, the Socinians and the Uni- tarians. These denominations are not to be re-' garded as necessarily possessing any further sym- pathy with each other than that which grows out of the fact that they have all opposed the Trinitarian doctrine of the council above men- tioned. Antitrinitarianism originated in a dis- cussion concerning the relation existing between the divine and human natures in Christ, and . ended in a denial, not only of his dual nature but of the personality and divinity of the Holy Ghost. Antitrinitarians do not reject the Scrip- tures any more than their opponents, but ground their views on the interpretations which they give of Scripture passages supposed to bear on the doctrine in question. ANTIUM, a maritime city of Latium, situated to the south of Ostia. It was the chief strong- hold of the Volsci, and the place whither Cori- olanus retired after being exiled from Rome. The ruins of Antium are now called Porto d’Anzo. ANTIVARI, atown and seaport of the north of Albania, on the Adriatic. Its harbor admits only small vessels. It exports oil only. AN T(ECI, a name applied to those who live under the same meridian, and at the same dis- tance from the equator, the one on the north side and the other on the south; consequently they have the same longitude, the same latitude, but of a different denomination; the same hours of- the day and night, but opposite seasons, and the night of one always corresponds in length with the day of the other. ANTOINE DE Bounnorr, duke of Vendome, and afterward king of Navarre, was the father of the famous Henry IV. of France. He mar- ried, in 1548, Jeanne d’Albret, only child of Henry II., king of Navarre, and assumed the title of king in her right. After the accession to the throne of France of the young king Fran- 674 ANTOINETTE, MARIE cis II., he endeavored to‘ obtain the control of the affairs of that country, but failed, through his want of energy and perseverance. On-the death of Francis II., in 1560, he was made lieu- tenant-general of the kingdom, and adviser to the queen mother (Catharine de’ Medici), dur- ing the minority of her son. Upon the break- ing out of the civil war, in 1562, he commanded the royal forces, and died in November of that year, of awound received at the siege of Rouen. ANTOINETTE, MARIE. See MARIE AN- TOINETTE. . ANTOLINEZ, the name of two Spanish paint- ers. I. J osﬁ, born at Seville in 1639, died 1676. He was remarkable as a landscape painter, but his death, at the age of 37, prevent- ed his . attaining the distinction which his talents promised. II. Fnanorsoo, nephew of the preceding, born 1644, died 1700. He studied for sometime under Murillo, and after- ward with his uncle ; but having become tired of painting, attempted the profession of an ad- vocate, in which, however, he did not succeed, being forced to return to painting in order to earn his subsistence. ANTOMMABCHI, CARLO Fnanonsoo, phy- sician to Napoleon at St. Helena. He was a native of Corsica, born in the latter part of the 18th century, died April 3, 1838, at San Antonio de Cuba. He was professor of anatomy at Florence, where, in 1818, L'aetitia Bonaparte sent Cardinal Fesch to induce him to go to St. Helena. Dr. Antommarchi’s great admira- . tion for Napoleon led him to yield readily to this request, and he made his ﬁrst appearance before the great captive at St. Helena, April -13, 1819. The emperor at ﬁrst treated him with marked coldness, but as the doctor dis- played as much discretion as ability, he soon honored him with implicit conﬁdence. Napo- leon left him a legacy of 100,000 francs, and after his death he returned to Paris, where he published a book on Napoleon, entitled, Les demiers moments do Napoléon, which, as may be supposed, was read all over Europe with in- tense interest. He had taken a cast of Napo- leon’s head after his death, which afterward brought him into many painful controversies with the advocates and opponents of phrenolo- gy. The cast not agreeing with the phrenologi- cal anticipations of Gall and Spurzheim, the -disciples of these savans at once jumped to the conclusion that the cast was not genuine, and that Antommarchi was an impostor, while their opponents availed themselves of the inci- dent as a general argument against phrenology. The poor doctor, worn out by their everlasting, and to him unproﬁtable discussions, left Paris in 1886, and betook himself to New Orleans and Havana, where he practised homoeopathy until his death. He was a man of admirable qualities, modest, and devoted to his patients. ANTONELLE, PIERRE Anromn, marquis, a French political economist, born at Arles in 1747, died in the same town, Nov. 26, 1817. He was one of the many brilliant men who AN TONELLI came to the surface at the epoch of the revolu- tion, and having studied with equal diligence philosophy, politics, and the arts, he played va- rious parts, and held various positions as a re- publican leader, from 1791 to 1797. It was his fate, however, to he often imprisoned and to be included in all prescriptions, and in 1797 he was condemned and exiled as an incorrigible anarchist. He travelled in Italy, and in that country of the arts, amid the remains of anti- quity, he forgot his past errors and his present misfortunes. AN TON ELLI, Gmcono, cardinal, secretary of state, and president of the ministerial and state council of the papal states, prefect of the apostolic palaces, president of the congregation in connection with St. Paul’s cathedral, was born at Sonnino, near Terracina, April 2, 1806. He was educated at the great seminary of Rome, and as he displayed considerable ability, he was raised to the prelacy by Pope Gregory XVI., received the appointment of recorder of one of the superior criminal courts, was sent as delegate. to Ovieto,- Viterbo, and Macerato, and subsequently received the cardinal’s hat. After the death of Gregory XVI., the cardinal became the conﬁdential adviser of his succes- sor, the present pope Pius IX., who appointed him under-secretary of state for the interior, and minister of ﬁnance to the second apostolic exchequer. In 1849, after the pope’s arrival at Gaeta, as a fugitive from Rome, the cardinal was raised to the position of secretary of state, which he still holds to the great satisfaction of the pope. He is a man of unbending disposition, azealous conservative, and a strenuous opponent of the innovating spirit of the age. His man- ners are cold, reserved, and little calculated to make him popular, but his devotion to the policy of the absolute powers, and to the re- ligious and political interests of the church of Rome, is great, and is supported by a remark- able energy and strength of character. His personal appearance is striking and imposing, impressing all who see him with a sense of the remarkable powers of intellect for which he is distinguished. AN TONELLI, Lnommno, cardinal, bishop of Velletri and Ostia, president of the sacred col- lege, born at Sinigaglia in 1730, died in 1811. He belonged to the ultra-j esuitical party, which brought him into collision with Clement XIV., who had abolished the society of the Jesuits, and it was only after the advent of Pius YI. that he could obtain the cardinal’s hat. During the French revolution he took an active part in the political movements of the Vatican, and proposed the most extreme measures. In 1804 he accompanied the pope to Paris. In 1808 he was expelled from Rome by the French, and conducted to Spoleta. A few years afterward he died at Sinigaglia, his native town. In his younger days he wrote the brief for the inter- diction of the duke of Parma, which suggest- ed to Voltaire the play, Le Royaume mis en in- terdit. AN TONELLO ANTONELLO DA Mnssnva, a Sicilian paint- er, born at the beginning, and died at the end of the 15th century. According to Vasari and otherauthorities, he was the ﬁrst Italian who painted in oil. Oil painting was suggested to him in 1443, by one of Van Eyck’s pictures, which he saw at Naples, andwhich struck him so powerfully that he immediately set out for Bruges, to study under Van Eyck himself. On his return to Italy, he divulged his experiences only to Domenico Veneziano, until some con- siderable time afterward, when he spread the knowledge of oil painting all over Venice. Be- fore his journey to Bruges, he had already ac- quired some fame at Messina, Rome, and Paler- mo, which became more ﬁrmly established on his return, when he worked for some time at Milan and at Venice, to some extent in por- trait painting, but chieﬂy in religious pictures. He painted two altar pieces for the two churches of the Dominante, beside several Madonnas and other sacred subjects for indi- viduals, and some few productions in fresco. His works are still preserved in many Venetian col- lections. ANTON IA, a strong fortress in Jerusalem, which stood upon a hill 50 cubits high, at the N. W. corner of the temple area, above which it rose to the height of 40 cubits. It was built by the Maccabees, and subsequently rebuilt on a more magniﬁcent scale by the ﬁrst Herod. Within, its extent and splendor were palatial. It communicated with the porticos of the tem- ple area by ﬂights of steps. ANTON IAN O, Smvro, an eminent scholar, born of humble parents at Rome, in 1540, died in 1603. At the age of 16 he was made pro- fessor of literature at Ferrara. Pius IV. took him thence to ﬁll the professorship of belles- lettres in the college of wisdom at Rome, where he gained great celebrity, and was sub- sequently chosen rector of the college. He afterward held the office of secretary to the sacred college for 25 years; was the chamber- lain of Clement VIII., and ﬁnally a cardinal. A work of his on education, and some orations, have been published. ' ANTON IDES, Hans, surnamed VAN DER Gons, a poet of Hollan d, born at Goes, in Zealand, April 3, 1647, died Sept. 18, 1684. The study of the Latin poets ﬁrst stimulated his genius, and having made some translations from Horace and Ovid, he composed a tragedy called “ Tra- zet, or the Invasion of China.” His genius procured him the notice and esteem of several inﬂuential persons, one of whom educated him at Leyden,'and gave him a place in the admi- ralty. The best of his poems is his epic on the river Y, entitled Y-stroom. ANTONIN I ITINERARIA, two works which have come down to the present day, and which may be compared, in some respects, to modern road-books. One of these gives statements of the distances between the various seaports of the Roman empire by water; the other is a direct itinerary of the Roman roads, COLUMN OF ANTONINUS 675 through the provinces, with the respective dis- tances from town to town, and port to port, in Roman miles. They are found by -modern trav- ellers to be extremely correct, and have proved of much use to those who have studied the local and comparative geography of the Roman provinces, with a view to illustrating the his- tory of campaigns, and to obtaining a clear comprehension of ancient military operations; among whom Col. Martin Leake may be men- tioned as one of the most distinguished, for the light he has thrown on the strategetical history of Greece, by his careful investigations of the topography of that most interesting country.-— By whom the Antonino Itineraries were com- piled is utterly uncertain. By some they have been attributed to Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, the emperor; by others to Antoninus, a geograph- ical writer, whose age is unknown; but both these opinions are evidently incorrect. Professor Anthon leans to the opinion that they were originally compiled in the cabinet of some one of the early Roman emperors, perhaps that of Au- gustus, and were enlarged by various additions, made during successive reigns, as new routes were opened, or new stations added. Some critics have assigned them to Julius Honorius, a contemporary of Julius Caesar, of whose works a few pages are extant, entitled Excerpts gum ad Oosmographiam pertinent ; others, especially Mannert, who expresses himself very positively on the subject, are in favor of a writer named ZEthicus, and surnamed Soter, a Christian of the 4th century, to whom is attributed a work, yet extant, called Oosmographta. Professor An- thon’s opinion, probably, comes the nearest to the truth.-—The best edition of the Itineraries is that of Wesseling, Amsterdam, 1735, 4to. AN TON INI VALLUM, the wall or ram- part of Antoninus Pius, erected during his reign, by his lieutenant, Lollius Urbicus, in the year 141, across the island of Great Britain, running from the north of the Tweed on the east to that of the Esk, where it enters the river Liddle, a short space above the Solway Frith, on the west, a distance of 60 or 80 miles, nearly on the border line of England and Scotland, though chieﬂy within the latter kingdom. It was considerably north of the wall of Hadrian, which ran across N orthumberland and Cum- berland, from the mouth of the Tyne to the Solway Frith, and was composed of a double line of turf and stone ramparts, or embank- ments, portions of which are still discoverable, having towers, at equal distances, covering the whole width between the two defences, afford- ing ﬂanks to the curtains, and serving as barri- cades to the legionaries, who garrisoned these great lines, which formed a complete covered way, connecting a series of fortresses support- ing one another, from sea to sea, across the whole width of the island. ANTONINUS, Cownn or, the name given to the sculptured pillar which Marcus Aurelius erected to the memory of his father-in-law, Antoninus Pius. The splendid staircase, with 676 190 steps hewn in the 19 blocks of marble of which the column is composed—-the statue of St. Paul crowning its top—-and the bas-reliefs around the column illustrating the victories of Marcus Aurelius over the Marcomans, present an appearance of singular magniﬁcence. The Doric and Corinthian styles are blended in the architecture of the column in a remarkable manner. The pedestal and top are Doric, while the proportions of the column are Corinthian. The bas-reliefs, in imitation of those of the column of Trajan, are in beauty and purity of execution rather inferior to the original. The column was restored to its present condi- tion in the latter part of the 16th century by Domenico Fontana, the architect of Sixtus V., and still exists as one of the chief ornaments of Rome. AN TONINUS, Masons Aunnuus, emperor of Rome, son-in-law and successor of Antoninus Pius, born A. D. 121, ascended the throne, 161. It was after the death of Ceionius Commodus, better known as Verus, his imme-' diate successor, that Hadrian, who would have at once adopted Marcus Annius Aurelius as his heir, but for his tender age, which rendered him unﬁt, as yet, for oﬁice, selected Antoninus Pius to succeed him. In order, however, to guard the empire against future anarchy, and the evils of a disputed succession, he caused Antoninus, in his turn, to adopt Marcus Annius and Lucius Verus, the son of Commodus, as his ultimate successors and inheritors of the diadem of the Caesars. During the long reign of Antoninus Pius, who had given to him his daughter Faus- tina in marriage, Marcus distinguished himself principally by his studies in philosophy, having assumed the mantle of the stoics in his 12th year; while Verus so far disgraced himself by his early proﬁigacy, that his adopted father dis- inherited him, and procuring the nomination of Marcus Aurelius, as sole emperor, by the senate, associated him with himself in the empire, previous to his own decease, in order to accus- tom him to the cares and burden of govern- ment. On his accession, however, with rare disinterestedness Marcus Aurelius, who now assumed the name of Antoninus, associated the disinherited Verus with himself ashis colleague, giving to him an equal share of the government, which he believed would be of utility to the state, and, in fact, to all parties; since he was himself inclined to philosophic pursuits and literary leisure; was averse to action, a disliker of war on principle, and of weak frame and in- ' ﬁrm health. It was his fate, however, to be forced into action, and to be constantly involved in war; and, with a ﬁrm resolution and clear perception of duty, which formed a part of his truly philosophic character, he overcame his physical disabilities, his moral dislike to war, and his leaning to mental pursuits, and proved himself both a resolute and successful general and a wise and moderate statesman. Shortly after the accession of the emperors, a war broke out with the Parthians in the east, the command ANTONINUS of which, nominally given to Verus, was virtu- ally held by his lieutenants, the principal of whom, Avidius Cassius, overran Mesopotamia, destroyed Seleucia, and penetrated as far as Babylon, while one of his colleagues made him- self master of Armenia, replaced the rightful king of the Parthians, Sozimus, on the throne, and reduced Vologeses, his rival and the insti- gator of the war, to sue for a dishonorable peace. This oriental outbreak was followed, or rather interrupted, by yet more dangerous hostilities in the north, extending the whole length from the sources of the Danube to the Illyrian frontier; where the barbarous tribes of the Marcomanni, Alani, J azyges, Quadri, Sarmatae, and others, all took arms, at once, in such force as compelled both the emperors to proceed to the frontiers. Here they were so successful, that, in A. D. 169, the enemy sued for peace, and the colleagues set out on their return for Rome; but Verus, dying of apoplexy on their journey, and the war being renewed, Marcus Aurelius again turned his face north- ward, and for the next 5 years carried on the war in person in Pannonia, without ever re- turning to Rome; enduring the greatest hard- ships and suffering from the excessive severities of that rigorous climate with the calm serenity of a true philosopher, while he conducted his campaigns with the skill of a ﬁnished soldier. On one occasion, a ﬁerce battle was fought on the surface of the frozen Danube, but the most remarkable victory, was one gained over the Quadri, in consequence of a sudden and terriﬁc thunder-storm, by which the Romans were saved from apparently imminent defeat, and the superstitious savages confounded and put to route. This victory was generally ascribed to divine interposition, the emperor and his Ro- mans attributing it to Jupiter Tonans, and the Christians, who composed the 12th or Meletine legion, to the inﬂuence of their prayers with the God of Hosts. Eusebius goes so far as to assert that, in consequence of the latter fact admitted, the emperor gave to that body of men the title of “the thundering legion ;” but as, in spite of his virtues, Aurelius Antoninus persecuted the Christians, it is incredible that he should have given them a title, admitting the truth of their creed, and the power of the God whom they worshipped. In the mean time, his wife Faus- tina, a more dissolute woman even than her mother, learning the danger of her husband’s situation, and fearing that in the case of his death, and the long minority of her young son, Commodus, she should sink into a private sta- tion, entered into an intrigue with Avidius Cas- sius, the emperor’s deputy and general 1Il Syria, promising him her hand in case of the destruc- tion of Aurelius, and encouraging him in that event to seize the reins of government. A false report of the defeat and death of Aurelius fol- lowing, Avidius Cassius assumed the purple; and despairing of pardon, when he learned the falsity of the report, persisted in his rebellion, and rapidly made himself master of all Asia ANTONINUS PIUS west of Mount Taurus. But while the emperor was making preparations to reduce him, the usurper was assassinated by a centurion of his own army. The conduct of Aurelius Antoninus was magnanimous in the extreme, and worthy of the best of Christian princes, rather than of a persecutor of the church of Christ. He put no one to death in consequence of the overt treason, punished but few, and burned the letters of Cassius, in order to avoid learning who had seconded or instigated him in his proceed- ings. During his progress to the army in Asia, Faustina, who had remained in her husband’s company during these compromising events, and whose privity he either did not suspect, or, more probably, did not choose to perceive, died in Cilicia; not without its being surmised that she died by her own act, self-convicted and fearful of just retribution. In A. D. 17 6, he revisited Rome, after an absence of 8 years, celebrated his victories by a splendid triumph, and by a largess to every Roman citizen of 8 pieces of gold; then, having associated with him- self in the sovereignty his unworthy, and indeed infamous son, Commodus, and celebrated the young man’s nuptials with Crispina, he marched in company with his expectant successor to conclude the war with the northern barbarians, and, in the midst of 'a career of uninterrupted triumph, died at Vindobona, now Vienna, on March 17, 180, in the 59th year of his age, not without a suspicion that his death was acceler- ated by his own son. He was indisputably an excellent man, and an admirable monarch. His whole life was a practical example of his own philosophic doctrines. Severe and conscientious toward himself, he was gentle and merciful to every one else. No monarch ever lived more beloved, or died more regretted, than he. The only blot on his character was a cruel persecu- tion of the Christians in Gaul; and this is so inconsistent with the spirit of his own charac- ter, with his general principles of mildness and toleration, and with the example of his prede- cessor, by which he was for the most part strongly inﬂuenced, that it cannot ‘be doubted that he either wholly misunderstood the sys- tem of Christianity, and believed it, as many in that age did, to be an irreligious political sect adverse to all forms of government, or that he was misled by ill-advisers. His “ Meditations,” which are still extant, would be an honor to any writer of any age, and breathe the very spirit of the religion which he perse- cuted, without knowing what or wherefore. The best edition of the “ Meditations” of An- toninus is Gataker’s, Cambridge, 1652, 4to. ANTCNIN US PIUS, Trrns Auunnrus FUL- vrns, emperor of Rome. He was descended from a respectable provincial family of Ne- mausus (Nismes) in Gaul, but was himself born at Lanuvium (Uicita Jacinta), a few miles S. E. of Rome, on the Appian way, Sept. 19, A. D. 86. He rose, during the reign of Hadrian, to the administration of Asia, and af- terward to the management of one of the four re- 677 gions of Italy; in both of which elevated posi- tions he distinguished himself eminently for his wisdom, mildness, and moderation, being loved and admired of all men, for his own virtues and unobtrusive merits. To these qualities, alone, he owed his elevation to the empire, after the death of Hadrian, having been adopted by that virtuous emperor, as his successor, wholly on account of his ﬁtness for the diﬂicult and dan- gerous eminence.—His reign was long, and so eminently happy and prosperous, that it passed away leaving no mark upon the page of his- tory; and being, as it were, almost blank, left not a wake behind, since the calamities of na- tions, the wars and pestilences, the periods of conquest, misgovernment, sedition, and anarchy, are the events which mark epochs by foot- prints, like those of the horse of Attila, in which no grass can grow, until the lapse of centuries shall have restored fertility to the soil and security to the husbandman. In his domes- tic policy, this wise and amiable ruler seems to have had but one object in view, the promotion of the good of the state, and of the happiness of his people. Abroad, he adhered strictly to the principles of his predecessor, making no effort to advance the limits of the empire, al- though, by his ﬁrmness and wisdom, he well knew how to deter the turbulent barbarians on his frontiers from disturbing the peace of the realm. The Germans, the Dacians, the Mauri- tanians, the Greeks, the Egyptians, all exhibited, at times, some tendency to give trouble; but all their aggressions were easily frustrated by mere demonstrations of military measures.—- The only commotion of any real consequence was that of the Brigantes, in the northern part of Yorkshire, who repeatedly invaded the Brit- ish province, but were severely defeated by the legate, Lollius Urbicus (A. D. 141), who built a strong rampart of turf and stone, the ruins of which can be still traced, and are, to this day, known as the wall of Antoninus, from the mouth of the Esk to that of Tweed, some dis- tance to the north of that of Hadrian, which had been erected to prevent the incursions of the Caledonians, from the mouth of the Tyne to that of the Solway. So great was his repute for wisdom and goodness, that even the remote barbarians far from civilization, dwellers with- out the shadow of the Roman name, eagerly sought his friendship and alliance. The Par- thians gave up their hostile views against Ar- menia, owing solely to his remonstrances; the Scythians submitted their disputes to his arbi- tration; and the barbarians on the Upper Dan- ube received a king of his appointment. At home he promoted literature and education, made up for the losses of citizens, incurred by public calamities, such as earthquakes, conﬁs- grations, and inundations, out of his private purse; and, living the peaceful and gentle life of a private citizen, was equally accessible to, and equally beloved by, high and l_ow.-—-His wife, Faustina, by her irregularities and de- baucheries, would have disturbed the equanimi- O 678 ANTONIO ty of one less calm and serene than he, in the quiet tenor of his way; but he passed over, as if unseen, what he could not prevent, and what it would have been shameful to disclose; and when she was dead loaded her memory with honors, of which she was not worthy.—He was fond of country life, and passed much of his time at his Campanian villas, 'never after his accession appearing at the head of his armies, and refusing to travel in his provinces, in order that they might not be subjected to the ex- penses of a royal progress.—He reigned long, peacefully, and well, from A. D. ' 138 to A. D. 161, dying at the age of 75 in his villa of Loricum, universally beloved and regretted. His reign of peace and order, his scrupulous obser- vance of religious rites—-for he seems to have been a devout and pious Pagan--procured for him the title of the second Numa. He tole- rated and protected the Christians, who had become very numerous during his reign, both in Romejand in the provinces; and received with favor the ﬁrst apology for the Christian re- ligion, addressed to him by Justin Martyr. It is said that the peaceful quiet of his reign in- creased the indolence and feﬁeminacy of the Romans; and that the legions, through want of employment, lost much of. their warlike spirit. Such generalizing allegations can, how- ever, rarely be sustained; and, apart from the inconsistency of supposing that Antoninus ought to have levied unjust wars on unoﬁ"end- ing nations, in order to keep up the military ardor of the Romans, it is probable that other causes than peace relaxed the bonds of disci- pline, and brought the legions to such a condi- tion that, subjects of contempt to their barba- rous enemies, they became objects of terror only to their fellow-citizens. By his wife, Faustina, he had 2 sons, both of whom died before their father, and 2 daughters—one of whom, a second Faustina, inherited both the beauty and the proﬂigacy of her mother. She was married to Marcus Annius Aurelius, whom be associated with himself, while yet living, in the government, and who succeeded him, -under the title of Antoninus II., in the administration of the empire. ANTONIO, Nmoms, a Spanish {bibliogra- pher of Flemish origin born at Seville in 1617, died at Madrid in 1684, distinguished himself by his bibliographical works, the Bibliotheca .Hispana Nona, and the Bibliotheca Hispana Vetus, which comprehend all the literary names of Spain, and in some cases of Portugal, from the 1st century to nearly the end of the 17th. In many instances biographies are given of the various authors. ANTONIUS, Masons, surnamed the Orator, born 143 B. C.; praetor in 104, when he fought against the pirates in Cilicia; consul in 99, when he distinguished himself by his resistance to the party of Saturninus; censor in 97 .' He was famed for his eloquence in the forum, render- ing, according to Cicero, Italy the rival of Greece, and for his integrity in public life. As ANTONY an aristocrat, he adopted the party of Sylla, and was put to death by Marius and Cinna, when they triumphed. He is one of the interlocutors in Cicero’s De Oratore.--Masons Cnsncus, son of the preceding, and father of the triumvir, was praetor in 75 B. C. He obtained from the senate.the direction of the coasts of the Medi- terranean, in order to free them from pirates, but used his power only to pillage the provinces. He failed of success in the Cretan war, and is thought to have died of chagrin. ANTONY, MARK (Masons Anromus), the Roman triumvir, born 86 B. C., died 30 B. C. This extraordinary character, one of the strangest in all antiquity, and paralleled only during the French revolution, was the grand- son of Marcus Antonius, the greatest orator and one of th?§?a.test men of his day, sav- agely murdered by the ﬁerce plebeian, Marius. His father, also Marcus Antonius, was surnamed Creticus in derision, from a disgraceful defeat which he suffered in an unprovoked invasion of the isle of Crete. His mother, Julia, of the family of the Caesars, was married a second time after his father’s death to Lucius Cornelius Len- tulus, strangled in the Tullianum for complicity in Catiline’s conspiracy; and by that desperate voluptuary he was educated, if it can be called education, to every sort of riot and debauchery. He went abroad early, served with Gabinius in Syria, and distinguished himself greatly, both there and in Egypt, where he already gave to- kens of consummate soldiership. He next joined Caesar in Gaul, where he passed several cam- paigns with still increasing honor as one of his legates, and deserved much of the credit, usually given to his leader, for the total defeat of the Ver- cingetorix at the terrible siege of Alesia. His third step was a civil one; for being elected one of the tribunes of the people, when the senate ordered Caesar to disband his forces, he, with Quintus Cassius, vetoed the bill; and, on the senate proceeding to arm the consuls with dic- tatorial power by the vote ne .guz'd respublica detrimenti capiat, they ﬂed together, disguised as slaves, to Caesar’s camp, feigning to believe that their lives were in danger, and gave that ambitious general the occasion he was looking for to cross the Rubicon and march his army upon Rome. In reward for this service, when Caesar went to follow up his fortunes by crush- ing out the Pompeian party in Spain, he left Antony governor of Italy, and lieutenan.t-gene- ral of his forces; and here it is that he ﬁrst displayed the frantic Pantagruelism of his char- acter. Purposely outraging all sentiments of decency and decorum, all feelings of Roman dignity and honor, driving in a car drawn by lions with Citharede, a beautiful actress, by his side, his own wife Fulvia following him among a bevy of fair courtezans from Magna Graacia, he astonished and terriﬁed all Italy by the open ostentation and cynicism of his vices. When the last struggle took place between Pompey and his own commander, however, he at once laid aside the debauchee and resumed the sol-' ANTONY dier; it was his skill that preserved the ﬂeet and intrenchments at Dyrrachium; it was he who commanded the victorious left wing in the crowning conﬂict at Pharsalia, and turned the wavering tide of success to the standards of Cmsar. During the second absence of Julius, when he was rioting and ﬁghting in Egypt, Antony was renewing, with -more than tenfold orgies of audacity and overt infamy, his life of the preceding year; crowned and carousing like Bacchus, from whom, at one time, as at another from Hercules, he claimed to be de- scended, at the head of his reeling legions, yet at the same time wielding the reins of state with eminent ability, during the absence of his pa- tron. When that patron returned, and was proclaimed “ perpetual Dictator and Father of his country,” when he was invested for life with the purple toga and palmated tunic, and author- ized to wear the gilded bays on his bald crown, it was Antony who shared his triumph and was his‘ colleague in the censorship. When the Ides of March had come, and great Caesar fell at the base of Pompey’s statue, it was the masculine and sonorous eloquence of Antony-—for he was an orator second to Cicero and Caesar only--that did actually raise the stones of Rome to niutiny, and forced the discomﬁted murderers to ﬂy from their half-ﬁnished task. And when the last act came of that wild drama, it was Anto- ny’s soldiership and Antony’s sword that defeat- ed Cassius and drove Brutus to suicide, while the cold, cowardly, crafty Octavius, afraid of war, as he was afraid of darkness, of thunder, of crdwds, of solitude, was sleeping in his se- cure tents.-In the prescriptions whichfollowed, it is characteristic of Antony; that he was ‘by so much the more insolent, as he was the less cruel, of the triumvirs--Octavius taking the lead in calm, cold-blooded barbarity, as did the mad Antony in overweening eifrontery and license. But the 3d triumvir, the imbecile Lepidus, was soon disposed of ; and Octavius and Antony divid- ed the Roman world, as masters. Antony took the East, as might have been expected; for his mind, in all its conditions of furious debauchery, con- tempt of ‘ends, reckless sensuality, heaven-daring vanity and ambition, was all oriental. Octa- vius, the cold formalist, betook himself to the West toconsolidate a new despotism out of old maxims and sage saws of the worn-out republic. —Thenceforth,' the life of Antony was one wild dream ; he was theOsiris to Cleopatra’s Isis ; be- stowing crowns; outraging senates; every thing for a moment, but nothing for a day. Once he broke from his luxurious lethargy, invaded cen- tral Armenia and penetrated Parthia; and then, forced to retreat at lengthby the circumstances of the country, the climate, the innumerable hordes of oriental horse, brought off his army by the most wonderful display of soldierly qualities by the most extraordinary retreat ever successfully made by man. In 21 days he fought 18 pitched battles, marched 300 miles, through one continu- ous skirmish, and when he reached the boundary stream, which might have been his Beresina, his mvrnareuns 679 Parthian pursuers unstrung their bows and bade him go his way unharmed, he was too great a warrior and too merciful a man to be slain by them in any petty skirmish. So he returned to his life of luxury and to Cleopatra, his serpent of old Nile. But his career was run; his veterans were worn out and wearied with his vagaries; beside they were Romans, and he would have made them Egyptians, and that they could not brook. Rome took arms against him ; his troops, his mistress, his fortune deserted him; and Actium saw him, for the ﬁrst time, with his back to his foes.—-Deceived to the last by the bad Egyptian queen, who cheated him by a false rumor of her death to his own destruction, he died by his own hand-—it was almost the monomania of his age and nation so to die I- and left a name and character like to that of but one other man who ever soiled the page of history with the record of his ill-deeds and evil death. Most like he was to Mirabeau in this, that he was every thing at times, and every thing almost the greatest, but nothing long-~orator, soldier, statesman; ﬁddler, triﬂer, buifoon; trib- une, triumvir, conqueror; faithful lover, false husband, frantic debauchee; and, when the wine of life was quaffed to the lees, a careless, fearless suicide at last. ANTOSIANDRIAN S, a sect of rigid Luther- ans, also called Osiandromastiges, who denied the truth of the doctrine of Osiander concerning justiﬁcation, that man is made just with a jus- tice like unto that of God himself. They hold that man is not made absolutely just, but only imputatively so. ANTRAIGUES, EMMANUEL Loms HENRI nu Luuvkx, comte d’, a French politician born at Ville-Neuve-de-Berg in 1755, murdered, with his wife, in a village near London, by his do- mestic, Lorenzo, July 22, 1812. A republican pamphlet, which he published in 17 88, inwhich he justiﬁed insurrections, and characterized “hereditary nobility as the most fatal gift which the heavens in their wrath had be- queathed to man,” produceda strong impres- sion upon the public mind, especially as it came at a time of great excitement, and from a scion of aristocracy, above all, from the Count d’Antraigues, a nephew of the count of St. Priest, the minister of Louis XVI. Antraigues’ pamphlet is supposed to have accelerated the outbreak of the revolution, and the liberals of his native town rewarded his republican zeal by sending him as deputy to the states-general of 1789. But, strange to say, after his electien his zeal suddenly cooled down; nay, he went over to the opposite extreme, and became as fanatical a royalist as a moment before he had been an enthusiastic republican. He left France in 17 90, put himself in political connection with such of the European powers as were opposed to the republic, and favorable to the cause of the Bourbons, and from that time till his death, he took a conspicuous, mercenary part in all the foreign machinations against the French people. Considerable sums having been put 680 ANTRIM at his command by the despotical govern- ments of Europe, he had it in his power to exert a powerful inﬂuence to assist Pichegru in his designs against Napoleon. The evidence of Pichegru’s conspiracy was found among the papers of Antraigues on the occasion of his falling into the hands of the French army, from which, however, he made his escape to Russia, while Pichegru was a doomed man. In Russia he embraced the Greek religion, received a pension from the emperor, and was appointed to a diplomatic post at Dresden, where, how- ever, he was not permitted to stay, as he had written an offensive letter to Napoleon, who insisted upon his expulsion from Saxony. He now turned his eyes toward Great Britain, and some knowledge which he had obtained of the secret articles of the treaty of Tilsit, enabled him to make successful negotiations with the English government, who in consideration of his com- municating those articles undertook to pay him a pension. It seems, however, that copies of the papers were put into possession of the French government through the instrumentali- ty of his domestic Lorenzo, and it is supposed that Lorenzo, becoming afraid that his master would ﬁnd him out, murdered him and his wife, just as they were about to proceed to London. This view of the murder seems to be corrobo- rated by the fact that Lorenzo committed suicide immediately afterward. AN TRIM, or Mnerssnn, a county of Michigan, bordering on Grand Traverse bay, Lake Michi- gan. Area, 700 square miles. Pop. not com- puted. Unorganized. ANTRIM, the north-easternmost county of Ireland, which has on its N. E. the Giants’ Causeway. Area, 1,164 square miles, nearly one-half of which is mountainous and boggy. Pop. 35O,OOO—ANTRIM, an inland town of this county, contains manufactories of linen, calico, hosiery, and near it are Antrim Castle, and Shane’s Castle, one of the famous round towers of Ireland. Pop. 2,700. ANTUCO, a volcano and valley of the Chilian Andes. The volcano is 16,000 feet high. Lat. 26° 50’ S. long. 70° 40’ W. AN TWERP, a maritime city of Belgium, the capital of a province bearing the same name. It is situated on the N. bank of the Scheldt, 26 miles N. of Brussels, and 32 miles E. N. E. from Ghent. Population (1855), 79,000. The city has the shape of a bow, the walls forming the semicircle, and the river the cord. The fortiﬁcations, which are very complete, have a length, including the citadel, of about 2% miles. The strong pentagonal citadel was built by the duke of Alva, in 1567. Antwerp is a very an- cient city. It was at the height of its prosper- ity in the 15th and 16th centuries, at which time it was the commercial centre of Europe, had a widely extended foreign commerce, was frequented by ships of all nations (as many as 2,500 vessels lying in port at one time), and is said to have had a population of 200,000. In 1576 it was sacked and burned by the Span- ANUND iards. In 1585 it was taken, after a protracted siege, by Alexander, prince of Parma. There- after its trade was removed to Amsterdam, and other towns of the United Provinces. In 17 94: it fell into the hands of the French. In 1832, after the revolt of the Belgian provinces, it was retaken, after a memorable siege, by the French Marshal Gerard. Although not so important a city now as in the middle ages, the commerce and manufactures of Antwerp, at the present day, are far from inconsiderable. The river admits vessels of the largest size. The basins erected by Napoleon, and which have been turned into spacious commercial docks, are ca- pable of containing 1,000 vessels. Extensive communication by canal gives to Antwerp an extended inland commerce; 1,970 vessels, of a tonnage of 286,474 tons, arrived here in 1846. It is the point of a regular and much frequent- ed steam communication with England, and has lately become a point of departure for numerous emigrants to the United States. It is one of the most important hide markets in Europe. Its chief manufactures are black silks and velvets. It has also manufactories of cotton, linen, laces, carpets, hats, and cutlery, as well as sugar reﬁneries, and ship-yards. The city retains to the present day much of its ancient splendor. Most of the houses are ancient, and solidly built. It has many ﬁne public buildings, the chief of which is its cathedral, a superb Gothic structure, begun early in the 15th centu- ry, and completed in not less than 84: years. There are 3 other churches of note, the ex- change, built 1583, the hotel de ville, a palace for the king when he chooses to reside in Ant- werp, and the hall of the Hanse towns. It has, beside, an academy of painting, sculpture, and the sciences, a public library containing 15,000 volumes, a picture gallery with 200 very valu- able pictures, many of them masterpieces of the old Flemish masters, a botanical garden, and diverse schools, hospitals, and asylums. ANUBIS, or ANEPU, one of the principal Egyptian deities of the second cycle. He was represented either as a dog or a man with a dog’s or a jackal’s head. Sometimes he wore a double crown. A white and yellow cock was sacriﬁced to him. He was supposed to be the son of Osiris, begotten by. Nephtys by a mistake. But Isis, the lawful wife, in- stead of being jealous, took the child, educated him, and he became her devoted and faithful guardian. When Osiris was murdered by Ty- phon, Anubis helped Isis to ﬁnd his body. He accompanied the souls of the deceased to their place of judgment, and, together with Hermes, Psycho, Pompus, and Horns, weighed their ac- tions before the tribunal of Osiris. In the Greek mythology he was confounded with Her- mes. In the mythological astronomy of the Egyptians he was the 7th in heaven. ANUND There have been two kings of Sweden bearing this name. The ﬁrst, who ﬂourished in the 10th century, was the son of Yngvar, and the father of Ingiald llroda. AN-UNG-HOY After a raid in Esthonia to avenge the death of his father, he seems to have given himself up to avocations of a peaceful nature. He opened roads and encouraged the clearing of land, from which he received the name of Brant-Anund. He made frequent journeys through the various provinces of the kingdom to dispense justice and to incite his people to the love and practice of agriculture. It was while he was upon such a tour that he was slain, together with several of his followers, by the falling of an avalanche of snow and earth at a place called Himmelhed.—The second ANUND, called J AKOB, was the son of Olof Skiitkonung, and ascended the throne in 1026. Little is known of his reign except that it lasted until 1051, and was generally peaceful. He made, however, in company with St. Olof, of Norway, an unsuccessful attempt to conquer a portion of Denmark. AN-UNG-HOY, an island of China in the Canton river, once fortiﬁed and constituting one of the Bogue forts, which, though ﬁercely de- fended, were taken by the British, 1841. With Chucupu island it bounds on the east the en- trance of the Boca Tigris. ANURADHAPURA, the ancient but now entirely ruined and abandoned capital of Ceylon. It lies nearly midway between Arripo and Dambool, 48 miles north of the latter. ANVARI, a poet and astrologer of Khoras- san, the favorite of Sultan Sangiar. Having failed in an astrological prediction, he was obliged to ﬂy to Balkh, where he died in 1206. ANVIL, an iron block with a smooth face on which smiths hammer and shape their work. Anvils are made of various sizes, shapes, and materials. The smallest, called bickerns, are mostly made of steel, but their shape is much varied to answer the numerous varieties of small articles to be made upon them. The largest used with tilt, trip, or steam hammers, are of a very uniform and simple shape. They are, like the face of the hammers, a truncated, quadrangular pyramid. They are placed with the small end up, the large resting upon a block of wood ﬁrmly ﬁxed in the ground. They are made of cast-iron. The middle-sized anvils on which the forging is performed with sledge hammers are made of cast or wrought iron. The surface on which the metal is hammer- ed is hard and smooth. The centre part of the anvil is a table longer than it is wide, at each end of which is a horn, one conical and the other pyramidal. This last is very often dispensed with. There is a square hole in the table near the edge, in which are held the va- rious cutting and swaging tools whenever they are used. Formerly extra good anvils were made of wrought iron covered with steel, the ﬁbres of which were placed vertically. To do this the bars of steel were cut in pieces about an inch long; these pieces were placed standing side by side, and bound by a wire. The whole was welded into a steel plate, which was itself welded to the anvil. ' The heat necessary for ANZIN 681 welding very often altered the steel, which was brought back to its original state by the anvil being warmed for a few hours in a box full of cement. It was afterward hardened by pouring a stream of water upon the steel face, and not stopping it till the whole block was cooled. A good anvil of this kind when struck makes the hammer rebound, producing a clear, silvery sound. ' The best anvils made in the United States are of cast-iron covered with steel; they possess most of the advantages above described, and are comparatively cheap. The covering of steel is placed at the bottom of a mould, and cast iron is poured upon it. Some makers place a core in the mould so as to leave a deep recess nearly reaching the steel covering in the centre of the anvil. The air penetrates into this recess, and the metal is cooled more uni- formly. This kind of anvils has only been made for a few years, mostly in Trenton, N. J ., and it has already nearly superseded the Eng- lish wrought iron imported anvils. ANVILLE, J EAN Bnrcrrsrn Bouneurcnon n’, a French geographer, of great eminence, born at Paris in 1697, died there in 1782. He had an innate taste for the drawing of charts and globes, and at the early age of 15 he pub- lished a map of ancient Greece, which attracted much attention. In his 22d year he was ap- pointed royal geographer. Subsequently he be- came private secretary of the duke of Orleans, and in 1775 he became connected, as associate- president, with the academy of science. He published 211 maps and plans, and 7 8 mémoires. One of his best maps is that of ancient Egypt. His Orbis oetewlbus notus and his Orbis Romanus have become the standard guides of the students of ancient history. His “General Atlas,” his Atlas antiguus major, and his maps of Gaul, Italy, and Greece, during the middle ages, are justly celebrated on account of their accurate delineation of modern discoveries. In 1779 the French government purchased for the royal library his ‘large collection, which consisted of 10,500 maps. His works have proved of great utility to modern travellers, and although pro- gress has been made in geographical science since their publication, they still retain their reputation‘. He was a man of matchless in- dustry, and in the latter part of his life worked 15 hours every day. Although he never travelled, yet severe study and incessant labor enabled him to survey the mountains, rivers, towns, and villages of the globe with surprising accuracy. He was a man of great modesty, and spotless character. ‘ ANYTUS, an Athenian rhetorician, who took an active part in procuring the condemna- tion and death of Socrates. He was afterward stoned to death at Heraclea. ANZASCA, VAL 1)’, a valley of Piedmont, province of Domo d’Ossola, noted alike for its picturesqueness, its splendid cascades, its beauti- ful women, and its extraordinary fertility. It contains the famous Monte Rosa. ANZIN, a town of France, department of 682 AN ZOOAN N 0rd, near Valenciennes. It is well known for its iron founderies, and is the centre of the most extensive collieries in France. Pop. 5,006. ANZOOAN, Anzouan, or ANZUAN, or HIN- ZUAN, an island in Mozambique channel, also called Johanna island. It is the most frequented of the Comoro islands, and is extremely fertile and picturesque. Its centre rises into a single peak, 3,800 feet above the channel. Pop. said to be 20,000. AONIAN MOUNT. Aonia was a district of Boeotia, near Phocis, in ancient Greece, where was Mount Helicon (the Aonian mount), and the fountain Aganippe (Aomlae aquw). As the Muses made Mount Helicon a place of favorite resort, that mountain became famous in the poetry of many tongues and ages as the Aonian Mount. The Muses were often called Aonides or children of Aonia. AORIST, a term of Greek grammar, applied to a tense of indeﬁnite, indeterminate time. There is a ﬁrst and second aorist in a regularly conjugated verb. The word aorist is com- pounded of a privative and opos, a term or limit. AORTA (Gr. acprq air-vessel). The aorta is the largest artery in the body, the main trunk leading from the left ventricle of the heart to the lower part of the spine, where it divides into two secondary branches called the common iliac arteries. These divide again respectively on either side into an internal branch which ramiﬁes in the lower regions of the trunk, and an external branch descending to the lower limb. . The aorta and the arteries were ﬁrst named air-vessels by the Greek anatomists, be- cause they are empty in the corpse; all the blood being found in the veins. Arteries were not known to contain blood in the living sub- ject until later times, and then the circulation of the blood conﬁrmed the fact. The aorta arises from the left side of the heart, ascends a short distance toward the neck, and then curves downward and backward near the‘spine, until it divides below into the iliac branches. The carotids arise from the arch of the aorta to supply the head and face, and the subclavian arteries derive from the same arch, to supply the different regions of the neck; and also to supply the upper limbs. Numerous large arte- ries arise from the aorta or main trunk as it de- scends from the upper to the lower portions of the trunk; and these divide again into innume- rable branches as they ramify minutely and ex- tensively within the body. AOSTA, a town of Piedmont, capital of the division, on the right bank of the Dora. It contains ﬁne ediﬁces, interspersed with gardens, and the remains of a Roman amphitheatre. The valley of Aosta, in which it stands, is famous for its immense forests of pine, and mines of iron, copper, lead, and marble. AOUST, JEAN MARIE, marquis d’, a French politician, bornat Douai in 1740, died at Quin- cy in 1812, a member of the states-general in 17 89, and of the convention in 17 92. He was APACHES favorable to the cause of liberty, but as he be- longed to the nobility he became obnoxious to the J acobins, although he had voted in favor of - the abolition of the privileges of his own order. Subsequently, however, he was promoted to oﬁice by the directory, and the ﬁrst consul ap- pointed him mayor of Quincy, which oﬂice was of great convenience to the marquis, as his estates were situated near that town.-Ens noun 1)’, son of the preceding, was born at Douai in 1763, and was executed at Paris, July 2, 17 94. He was a general in the French ser- vice, and while stationed with a detachment of troops in the lower Pyrenees, gained some ad- vantages over the Spanish forces. Two years afterward charges of treason and incapacity were preferred against him, in consequence of his conduct before Perpignan, on which he was tried before the revolutionary tribunal and shot. AOUSTE, a small town of France, depart- ment of Dr0me, on the river Dr6me. Its an- cient name was Augusta, and it was colonized in the time of the emperor Augustus. There are still important and interesting remains of antiquity here. APACHES, a warlike nation of New Mexico Indians, comprising, according to the census returns of 1850, a population of 8,000, of whom 2,000 rove over the unexplored parts of New Mexico between the river Gila and the southern boundary of Utah, while the larg- er portion of them range through the coun- try of the Rio del Norte and its tributaries, and westward, above the head-waters of the Gila. The Jicarillas, a branch of the na- tion, are found about the Sacramento moun- tains.—The Gila Apaches, who are the best warriors of them all, are found as far as the Rio San Francisco and the mountains of the same name. Those about the springs of the Gila and the Sierra del Mogoyen, are known as the Tonto Apaches, so named byithe Mexicans for their notorious imbecility—tonto being the Spanish for -idiot. \ The Mogoyen is the central point of all the Apaches on the western side of the Rio Grande. They deem it impregnable, and boast of being able, by means of signal ﬁres, to muster there, almost at once, a force of 500 warriors and more. The Mimbrenos Apaches derive their name from their hunting grounds on the Sierra de los Mimbres. Their country, which abounds in gold and copper, contains the famous old Mexican mine of Santa Rita del Cobre; this is situated on one of the spurs of the Mogoyen. The Copper-mine Apaches oc- cupy the country on both sides of the Rio Grande, and extend west to the country of the Coyoteros and Pinalenos, near the eastern San Francisco river. Their incursions extend far into the states of Chihuahua and Sonora, where, during portions of the year, they reside. Their favorite place-;of resort is near Lake Guzman, to the west of ElPaso. The Mascaleros Apaches range from La Sierra de Guadaloupe to La Si- erra de San Andre north and south to the Rio Pecos, and to the Rio ‘Grande to the west, a APACHES region including silver mines worked, in former times, by the Spaniards. They probably derive their name from a plant called mescal (maguay), which _ is the principal food of the Apaches in times of want. The plant grows in abundance all over the country. . It resembles the rahout of the Arabs. Its taste is bitter and scorching when raw, but sweet when baked. Beside the tribes named, there are a few other smaller Apache tribes, under a chief of the name. of Poncé, whose range is up and down the valley of the Rio Mimbres. The Apache language, which abounds with guttural, hissing, and indis- tinct intonations, is considered to be the parent language of a number of the surrounding tribes. With the advent of the white race in Mexico we ﬁnd the Apaches in constant warfare against them. When, in their search for gold in the high lands of New Mexico, the Spaniards ﬁrst met with these Indians, they found them to be a proud and independent, but harmless and well- disposed people. But many of the Spaniards were intent on missionary triumphs, and dis- played the symbols of a new belief, in company with adventurers who were only in quest of gold. The unsophisticated savages became disgusted with the foreign invaders, who did not hesi- tate to attack their dearest traditions; and in 1688 they made common cause with the Pueblo Indians for the purpose of driving the Spaniards out of the land. The missions were destroyed, and the priests massacred. They seized the mines, and any Spaniard who went near them was doomed to die. The whites eventually re- conquered the Pueblos, but all their efforts to subdue the Apaches failed before the indomita- ble spirit of that tribe, which to this day con- tinues to hurl deﬁance at all governments and all civilization. The states of New Mexico, Chihuahua, and Sonora, have suffered terribly from their incessant inroads. Not very long ago, the various Apache tribes had one common chief, of great valor. He was ﬁnally killed, some say by the unexpected discharge of a cannon by the hands of an American trader of Sonora, others say in a pitched battle between the Apa- ches and the Sonorians. His death was fol- lowed by dissensions among the other chiefs, and the Apaches have never since been united. -They carry on war only in small guerilla bands or marauding parties. But although their pow- er has been somewhat broken by this lack of harmony, they continue none the less to be the terror of the -unwary traveller, and the plague of the local authorities. An attempt was re- cently made to ‘conclude a treaty of peace with these tribes,'and ‘met with but doubtful success. For some years the government of the state of Chihuahuahas ' paid them a bounty; with the object of inducing them to stay their depreda- tions, but to no avail. They pocket the bounty without ceasing to rob and to 'pilf_er. The Apache is the Arab of the American continent. With his bow and arrow he sweeps over: the black and barren plain, chasing the antelope, the wolf, and deer, or pouncing down from his 683 hiding place on a village or settlement. Their lodges are built of light boughs and twigs. The captain of the band wears a kind of helmet made of buckskin, ornamented with a feather. Their arrows are very long, usually pointed with iron. - All are mounted on small ponies, capable of great endurance. The women all ride a-straddle. The Spanish bit, or simply a cord of hair passed between the jaws, forms their bridle. Panniers of wicker-work, for holding provisions, are generally carried on the horses of the women. The shells of _the pearl oyster, and a rough wooden image, are the fa- vorite ornaments of both sexes, and they are also fond of beads and metal buttons. Their feet are protected by high moccasﬁis of buck- skin. Their principal articles of clothing are made of coarse ‘cotton cloth, which they seem never to wash. ' The quivers are made of deer-' skin, and sometimes of wild cat skin. Many of the Apaches dress in the breech-cloth only, but they are beginning, now, to imitate the Mexican by wearing the scrape or blanket, and not a few wear the sombrero, or straw hat. The women wear a short petticoat, with their hair loose over their bare shoulders. Those in mourning for husbands killed in battle cut their hair short. The younger children go almost entirely naked. Those under the age of 2 years are carried in a kind of osier basket by the mother, in which the child is fastened in a standing posture. When on horseback, the bas- ket is fastened to the saddle on the near side. The women dye their faces with a kind of paint, black or red, and the men daub vermil- ion on their faces, and also grease their bodies when they are about to go to war. The chiefs can have any number of wives they choose. The atrocities inﬂicted upon an Apache woman taken in adulterybaﬂie alldescription, and the females whom they capture from their enemies are invariably doomed to the most in- famous treatment. However, they do not scalp their enemies. They are fond of card-playing and of smoking (the calumet, or pipe of peace, has been superseded by the corn-shuck cigarito of the Mexican), and when idle are given to a monotonous kind of singing. When ﬁghting they keep their horses in rapid motion, and are never at rest in the saddle. In their religious ideas they seem to favor the belief in one God; and Montezuma, or his spirit, is blended in their minds with a certain crude religious aspiration. They have a superstitious reverence for the eagle and owl, and for all perfectly white birds. They equally respect the bear, and refuse to kill it or to partake of the ﬂesh. With regard to the hog, they have the same repugnance as the Jews and other Asiatic tribes. They dread the terrible rattlesnakes, with which the more barren and sandy , region of the country abounds, and in their. opinion, which apparently verges toward a faith in metempsychosis, rattle- snakes are evil spirits and repositories of the souls of bad men. They have hitherto kept themselves out of the reach of the labors of 684 APAFI Christian missionaries, Protestant as well as Catholic. In addition to the 8,000 Apaches proper in New Mexico, there are the Lipans in Texas, who originate from the Apache stock, numbering 500, and the Mus-ka-le-ras and En- quatops, in the same state, who are Apache bands mustering, respectively, 2,000 and 1,500 souls, according to the census of 1850. The Apache nation, as a whole, is one of the most widely disseminated on the North American continent, and embraces a great many tribes which are as yet only known to us by name. In the narrative of Mr. Bartlett, U. S. boundary commissioner, we ﬁnd extensive accounts of their ravages in Sonora and Chihuahua. Mr. Bartlett an! his party were frequently attacked by the Apaches, of whom he gives the follow- ing description: “ The Apaches with which we had intercourse must rank below the Indian tribes east of the Rocky mountains, dwelling on the tributaries of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. They are without that digniﬁed hear- ing and those noble traits of character which characterize the latter; and as they perform no labor, not even that of hunting, their physical developments are greatly inferior. Mangus Colorado, and a few other prominent chiefs who live ‘pretty well and have the lion’s share of their plunder, are rather good-looking; and a ﬁner set of children than those of Mangus, of Dalgadito, and Poncé, are not often seen. But beyond these few exceptions, the Apaches are an ill-formed, emaciated, and miserable looking race. As those we saw did not cultivate the earth, they depend upon what they can steal from the Mexicans and Americans on the fron- tier, for their subsistence. The supply they obtained consists almost exclusively of mules; and when this fails, they resort to the bulb of the maguay. In fact, this may be said to con- stitute at all times the food of the majority; for the chiefs take good care that they, at least, shall have mule meat when there is any.” In Mr. Bartlett’s opinion, the population of the Apaches is not so numerous as would appear f1'<;1%t1 the census returns compiled by Mr. School- or . APAFI, Mronam. I. A celebrated prince of Transylvania, born 1632, died at Wissembourg, April, 1690. In 1661, on the recommendation of Ali Pasha, he was elected commander-in-chief of the armies of the sultan Mohammed IV. He re- mained faithful to the Ottoman power until the siege of Vienna in 1683. After the ill success of the sultan’s forces he transferred his alle- giance forever to the emperor of Germany (1686). The Transylvanian diet took the oath of allegiance to the house of Hapsburg as hereditary monarchs of Hungary, July 1, 1688. Apaiﬁ left behind him an autobiography. II. His son, born 1677, died at Vienna, Feb. 1, 1713, was recognized by the German emperor, on the death of his father, as prince of Tran- sylvania. (lount Teleki, at the head of the anti-German party, and aided by the Turkish troops, disputed his rights. Teleki was event- APATHY ually driven back by the imperial troops. As the emperor Leopold discovered that his pro- tégé and vassal Apaﬁ was about to be false to his allegiance and call in the aid of the Turks, he ordered him to Vienna, and made him ab- negate all his rights as prince of Transylvania in consideration of a yearly pension. He died childless, and was the last native prince of Transylvania. APAN AGE, the ancient feudal provision made for the eldest son of the king of France. The law afterward came to include every prop- erty to which princes of the blood were entitled in their own right by descent. At the time of the revolution, the duke of Orleans was in en- joyment of revenues as a prince of the blood, and on the restoration of the Bourbons the conditions of the law revived, to be again ﬁnally abolished. The rights of apanage are still retained in Germany, and are applicable to the junior members of royal houses. The daughters and younger sons of England have "no property in their own right; they are all dependent on the liberality of parliament; a liberality which is more frequently open to the charge of profusion than penuriousness. APATHY (Gr. a privative, and mites, pas- sion). Apathy denotes a low comparative de- gree of life and passion, in organic beings. The state of apathy may be normal or abnor- mal: the normal vitality of an oyster compared with that of a shrimp, is very low; one would be called apathetic, the other lively; but the abnormal state of the oyster itself, deprived of water, and half starved, would be prostrate and apathetic compared with the fulness of its real life in true conditions.-—The life of a tree, in the temperate regions of the globe, is leaﬂess, ﬂowerless, and apathetic in winter, compared with the life of the same tree, verdant with leaves, blooming with ﬂowers, and laden with rich fruit, in spring, summer, and autumn.-— Apathy denotes a want of elasticity and vigor. A piece of sheet lead, which takes any form you give it, and remains inert and passive in the shape and form impressed upon it by external force, is a type of apathy compared with the elastic ﬂexibility of a steel spring. Sensibility, activity, and energy, are the opposites of apathy : insensibility, indifference, inertness, and pas- sivity, are the natural characteristics of apathy, in animals of the higher types of organization. A tortoise is an apathetic animal compared with a bird; the one drones slowly through a smouldering existence of protracted apathy, the other ﬂutters rapidly through an ardent life of incessant motion and excitement. Apa- thy is not so much the absence of sensibility and passion as a low and slow degree of life: not so much an essential principle of organiza- tion as a state of comparative inactivity and lethargy; for animals of the lowest types of nervous organization have times and seasons of comparative activity and rest, animation and insensibility in their career; and man himself has similar alternations of state in the course of APE his existence. The extremes of life are natu- rally apathetic in comparison with ardent youth and vigorous maturity. The infant sleeps through the long hours of night and day, in the ﬁrst season of existence, and the aged per- son doses through long days of apathy at the close of his career. Sleep is one kind of apa- thy; hibernation is another; bodily fatigue and mental exhaustion produce other states of apa- thy; prostration and disease, still other forms of dulness and debility; but these are not per- haps legitimate applications of the word. Apathy, properly deﬁned, in application to or- ganic beings of the highest order, signiﬁes a vegetative life of low degree, allowing little force to be expended in external animation, or what is commonly termed animal life.——The human body is composed of a twofold mechan- ism, organic and relational, sometimes called the vegetative and the animal economy; in common language, the external frame and the internal organs. The one creates the blood and the internal forces; the other serves for work and locomotion, and expends the forces generated by the ﬁrst. When the organic mechanism is comparatively weak in power and slow in action, the external frame is ill supplied with force, and becomes naturally apathetic: when the forces generated are re- newed with vigor and rapidity within, the ani- mation is abundantly displayed in the external life; sensibility, activity, and ardent passion are the outward signs, therefore, of a vigorous organic life within.—Reptiles generally have a low and slow degree of vegetative life, and con- sequent external apathy; but they have seasons of abundant animation, and are then by no means apathetic. Bears and hibernating ani- mals- have seasons of low and slow degrees of vegetative life, and consequent external torpor; but these seasons pass, and life becomes inter- nally more vigorous, and externally more act- ive and excitable. Some animals, however, have a large proportion of dull apathetic life, with brief displays of animation for a season, while others have a large proportion of vigorous animation, with mere passing ﬁts of apathy and dulness.—-The human constitution varies, in like manner, with different races and individuals; some are full of life and vigor, energy and en- terprise, while others lack both energy and en- terprise, and whine, or pine through an unpro- ductive life of apathy and destitution. APE (pithecus). The ape, zoologically con- sidered, is a quadrumanou's animal of the class mammalia, nearly approaching the human race in anatomical structure, although with differ- ences far broader and more characteristic than is generally supposed. Commonly speaking, we distinguish the ape from the baboon, by the fact that the former has no tail at all, while the latter has but a. short one; and the baboon from the monkey by the fact that while the for- mer has but a short tail, the latter has one so long and prehensile that he uses it ordinarily as a ﬁfth hand. According, however, to the mod- 685 cm zoological deﬁnition, the genus ape, or pith- ecus, comprises those quadrurnanous mammals which have the teeth of the same number and form as in man, and which possess neither tails nor cheek pouches. This deﬁnition, while it excludes certain tailless baboons and monkeys, comprehends, on the other, the three sub- genera of orange, chimpanzees, and gibbons. The organization of these animals approaches that of the human species, although their points of inferiority are numerous. Their arms almost touch the ground when they stand erect on their hind legs; but the legs are scarcely a third part of the entire height. The legs are not on the same line with the thighs; the knees are turned outward, and the soles of the feet turn inward, so as to be opposed to one another. The apes are thus enabled to grasp the trunks of trees with much greater force than if their members were constructed like our own. The ﬁngers and toes are long, ﬂexible, and deeply separated from one another; and the ‘thumb, or interior ﬁnger, is completely op- posite to the other four, as well on the hind as on the forearms. Thus their hands and feet are equally well formed for grasping, and can be used indiscriminately. Hence, apes are neither two-legged and two-handed, like the human race, nor four-footed, like quadrupeds, but four-handed, guadrumcmous. When they walk erect, which they rarely do without the aid of a staﬁ‘, or of their forearms, owing to the oblique articulation of the lower extremities, they rest only on the outer edge of the feet, or posterior hands, not upon the soles, or palms, as they should be more correctly termed. This gives them a tottering and uncertain motion, to remedy which, they place the ﬁsts of their long arms on the ground, and move precisely in the attitude and at the pace of a lame man going on crutches; their mode of progression not having the slightest similarity or relation to that of either man or quadruped. Consequently, while on the ground, they are singularly slow, inert, and helpless animals; being, on the other hand, when in their native forests, the most agile of all creatures—their long arms beingused at one time, to grasp distant boughs, from one to an- other of which they can swing themselves with a velocity and to a distance, causing their pro- gression to resemble that of a bird more than that of any wingless creature; while, at an- other, outstretched horizontally, like a rope- dancer’s balancing pole, they enable them to walk with the most perfect ease and equilibri- um on the most precarious and uncertain foot- hold. It is well remarked, that the tail, which is chieﬂy of use to the smaller monkeys as an instrument for adjusting the proper balance of the body, would be to the apes a serious in- cumbrance, and useful in no contingency. The character and habits of the great apes, in a state of nature, are little understood. But, notwith- standing the gentleness and docility of those brought young from their native climates, there is reason to doubt whether in their native wilds 686 they do not become, as they grow old, ﬁerce, dangerous, and, perhaps, even carnivorous; for, although the number of their teeth and the for- mation of the molars and incisors precisely re- semble those of the human being, the canines are developed in the same relative proportion as in the carnivora. So much so, that the tusks of a full-grown orang-outang are fully. equal to those of a lion.‘ In conﬁnement, however, they are almost wholly free from the mischievous and petulant. curiosity and violent ﬁts of passion which characterize the smaller monkeys; are deliberate in their actions, ci_rcumspect,'intelli- gent, and susceptible of a high degree of attach- ment to those who take care of them, or with Whom they consort. They have two singular points of resemblance to man, in their habits, which are worthy to be contrasted with the structural dissimilarities which have been in- sisted on above: 1. They do not repose, like the other monkeys, squatting on their hams, but stretch themselves on their sides, like hu- man beings, and:support their heads on their‘ hands, or ﬁnd some natural substitute for a pil- low. < 2. Alone of animals, they use other means of defence or attack than their own nat- ural means, strength, and weapons, readily be- taking themselves to the use of stones and clubs, which they wield with considerable dexterity, either hurling them as missiles, or using them hand to hand. Of the apes, the chimpanzee, perhaps, approaches the nearest to man; but it is proved, by the accurate investigations of modern naturalists, that the interval between them is as wide and as characteristic as that existing between many races of inferior animals, between which no connection has been pretend- ed,'in spite of the efforts of Bory de St. Vincent to retain man and theorangs in the same zoo- logical family. . The structural diﬂ°erences, easi- ly recognizable by a comparison of. the skele- tons, are such as cannot be dealt with in a work of this nature, but they are conclusive. The formation of the skull, alone, as compared with that of the most abject human idiot, is unmistakably brutal; while all the discrepan- cies of . the osseous formation are distinctly re- ferable to original formation, and are neither to be induced by any possible degradation of the-- human species, nor by any cultivation of the anthropoid apes. The chimpanzees are classed under the sub-genus, troglodg/tea. They are principally, if not entirely, natives of Africa, for there appears to be a characteristic differ- ence between these animals and the great apes, or orange, of the Indian archipelego. There are 2 species of the chimpanzee found in Africa. The troglodytes niger, or black chimpanzee of Sierra Leone; and the troglodytes gorilla, or great chimpanzee of the Gaboon river. The latter and larger of these animals has never been brought to Europe or America; and it is the opinion of the persons best qualiﬁed to pro- nounce an opinion, that, however docile and tractable these apes may appear while quite young, their gentle manners give way in the APE adult to unteachable obstinacy and untamable ferocity. They are said to construct a sort of rude hut of leaves and brushwood, to ﬁght with sticks and stones, and lastly to carry oif negro girls and retain them as concubines in their societies in a state of hideous captivity. These latter tales, long discredited as travellers’ exaggera- tions, seem now' to be authenticated, beyond the.possibility of doubt. It is very remarkable that . a ' similar story prevails in the interior tropical regions of . South America, where no anthropomorphous ape is known to exist, of a huge, ferocious‘man of the woods, master of all the animals of the forest, addicted to car- rying off Indian girls and compelling them to his cruel embraces. It is called by the natives and missionaries, neither of whom entertain any doubt of its existence, the saloaje; and they hold it in great dread. Father Gili relates the history of a lady of San Carlos who was carried off by one of these animals, and who was subsequently brought back, together with a family of children, which she had borne in this hideous union, by certain hunters who discover- ed her in the forest, after years of captivity and rape; but this must be set down to exaggera- tion, in the latter portions at least; although it is quoted by no less an authority than the Baron Humboldt. The second species is the orang-outang, pithecus satyrus, of the eastern archipelago, generally known as the red-orang. It is an inhabitant of the islands of Borneo and Sumatra.-' Its height is under 5 feet, and its ﬁngers, when it stands erect, reach to the ankle joint. This is the orang-outang which is so frequently exhibited in menageries; and which affords so much entertainment to visitors, by its human appearance, and human mode of doing things, which are ordinarily mistaken for hu- man intelligence. It is easily taught to drink tea, or wine, out of a glass or other vessel, to use a knife and fork, and even to smoke tobac- co; which tricks naturally induce the unobser- vant and unreﬂecting to ascribe to the beast intelligence, reﬂection, and powers of compre- hension, almost human; whereas they, in truth, only show the strong imitative powers of the animal, assisted by the conformation of his hands, and frame in general; which enables him to represent, perfectly, the actions and mo- tions of the human being, in such a manner as can be done by no other animals, owing to the diiferences of their physical structure. In their mental ‘powers, or intelligence, the apes in nowise approach the dog, the elephant, the horse, although their natural facility of imi- tating human action has obtained for them the credit of approaching nearly to human com- prehension. The third and last species of the apes to be noticed, is the gibbon, lzglobates, or the wood-walker, so named from its astonish- ing agility among the forests which it fre- quents. It rarely exceeds4 feet in height, and some of the kinds are under 3; and, when standing erect, its arms reach fully to the ground. It is common all over India and the APEAK Indian isles. It is in all its varieties, of which there are 4-—the hoolock, hp,/Zobatec hoolock, the ourgha, hylobates agil-is, the gibbon, hylobates lar, and the silvery gibbon, - kg/lobates Zeu- ciscus—the gentlest, the most docilé, and the most attached to its keepers, of all the ape family. It is shy and timid, but, at the same time, easily reassured; it loves to be caressed, is singularly fond of, and attentive to, its young; and, in conﬁnement-—which is neces- sarily irksome in the extreme to an animal whose habits are of the most incessant and rapid activity when in a state of nature, while, from its inability to move easily on a plane sur- face, it is forced to an uneasy and unnatural quietude when kept a prisoner, even with the largest liberty, compatible with domestication,—- it is observed never to be happy unless in com- pany with the person, or persons, to whom it has attached itself, and who endeavor to lighten its captivity. It was formerly much the fashion, with both sexes, to keep apes and monkeys in a state'of familiar domestication, as pets-but it is a practice gone, fortunately, into disuse; since, caress the unfortunate animals as much as one might, they still must be miserable, melan- choly, and moping, when cribbed within the four walls of a modern house, instead of gam- bolling unrestrained in the free, fresh breezes, among the undulating topmost branches of their boundless forests. They are now rarely kept, except in collections of animals for scientiﬁc purposes, such as the Jardin des Plantes in Paris, or the zoological society gardens in London; where, as__far as possible, the circumstances and character of their places of captivity are adapt- ed to their nativeclimates and habits; and where they are subjected to as few inconve- niences and restrictions, contrary to nature, as can be dispensed with in view to retaining them in conﬁnement. APEAK, in nautical language, signiﬁes per- pendicular; thus the anchor is said to be apeak when by drawingin the cable it hangs perpendicularly to the stem of the ship. APEL, or APELLUS, J OHANN, professor of law in the university _of Wittenberg, and one of the most ardent supporters of Luther in the work of the reformation, was born at Nuremberg in 1486, and died in 1540. His published works are Dcfensio Joh. Apelli pro suo conjugio (he had married a nun while canon of Warzburg), Methodica Dialecticec Ratio, ad jurisprudentiam accommodata, and Bmchg/Zogus jar-is ct‘/vilis, sine corpus Zegum. The latter was at one time sup- posed to have~been written by the emperor Justinian. APELLES, a celebrated Greek painter, born, according to Pliny and Ovid, in the island of Cos; according to Suidas, at Colophon; but Strabo and Lucian call him an Ephesian. He appears, however, to have beensuch only by adoption, and to have studied at Ephesus. Apelles was engaged in his profession from about 848 to 304 B. C. His instructors were Ephorus the Ephesian, Pamphilus of Amphip- APELLICON 687 olis, and Melanthus, and, according to Athe- naeus, Arcesilaus. The masterpiece of Apelles was his Venus Anadyomene, or Venus rising from the sea. This painting was ultimately placed by Augustus in the temple of Julius Caesar, where it was gradually destroyed by age. It is said that Alexander the Great would allow no one but Apelles to paint his portrait, and one painting of that master representing Alexander holding a thunderbolt, was sold for $200,000. On one_ occasion, when contem- plating a picture by Protogenes, a work of im- mense labor, and in which exactness of detail had been carried to excess, he remarked, “Pro- togenes equals or surpasses me in all things but one, the knowing when to remove his hand from a painting.” He was accustomed, also, when he had completed any one of his pieces, to expose it to the view of passengers, and to hide himself behind it in order to hear the re- marks of the spectators. On one of these occasions, a shoemaker censured the painter for having given one of the slippers of a ﬁgure a less number of ties than it ought to have had. The next day the shoemaker, emboldened by the success of his previous criticism, began to ﬁnd fault with a leg, when Apelles indignantly put forth his head, anddesired him to conﬁne his criticisms to the slipper. Hence arose the expression “ac sutor ultra crepidam,” let not the cobbler go beyond his last. APELLIANS. The Marcionites, who ﬂourish- ed about A. D. 140, were early divided into 3 sects, the leaders, of which were Marcus, Lucas, and Apelles. This latter was the founder of the Apellians. They ﬂourished about the begin- ning of the 3d century. The origin of the Apellians was as follows: The Marcionites em- braced Dualism, but without much profundity of speculation; they constituted the practical branch of Dualists. Apelles was of a specula- tive turn, and resided for some time at Alexan- dria, where his Marcionite views were modiﬁed by the Monadism of that school. Ever after, he says he believed Monadism, but could de- monstrate Dualism. Consequently the Apel- lians formed a mediate party between Marcion- ism and the Alexandrian theology. . . APELLICON or Tnos, a Peripatetic philoso- pher, who had a maniafor. collecting books, and was not very fastidious as to the means by which he acquired them. If he saw a rare work which he could not purchase, he would, if possible, steal it; and once he was near losing his life in Athens on being detected in the pros- ecution of this practice. He, however, formed a magniﬁcent library, which was brought to Rome by Sylla, after the death of Apellicon in the year B. C. 84. This library contained auto- graphs of Aristotle’s writings, which had been found in a cave in Troas, and purchased by Apellicon. These autographs were afterward transcribed at Rome by Tyrannion, the gram- marian, who sent copies of them to Andronicus of Rhodes, which became the basis of that phi- losopher’s edition of Aristotle’s works. 688 APENNINES, a chain of mountains in Italy, which having detached themselves from the Low Maritime Alps, at Mount Cassino, ex- tend through the whole Italian peninsula, fol- lowing the line of the coast, at a distance of from 6 to 15 miles. Many geographers include, also, as a part of this chain, the mountains of Sicily and Sardinia, which, from their geologi- cal structure, give evidence of having been, at some remote period, connected with the penin- sular range.—The Apennines are greatly infe- rior in height to the Alps; the average height of the range does not exceed 4,200 feet. Its highest peak, Monte Corno, in Naples, accord- ing to Schouw, does not exceed 9,542 feet in altitude, while few of the others rise above 6,500 feet. N 0 portion of the Apennines rises to the limit of perpetual snow.—The range, with the low lines of hills which are connected with it, and which have received the name of sub-Apennines, is divided into 6 portions, which take their names from their relative geo- graphical positions, the northern, the central, the sub-Tuscan, the sub-Roman, the southern, and the sub-Vesuvian Apennines. The whole length of the chain, from Mount Cassino to the straits of Messina, is 840 miles.—The northern Apennines extend from Mount Cassino in 3 branches, or versants; the ﬁrst running S. and then N. E. to the Bocchetta, a distance of 72 miles. Its highest summit is the Bocchetta, 6,660 feet high; the second stretches E. and S. E. from the Bocchetta, separating the duchies of Parma and Modena from the principalities of Massa, Carrara, and Lucca. It is 108 miles in length. None of its summits are very high; the Sopotorio, the Gottio, and the J orame, are the principal; the third branch is a mountain mass, extending S. S. E. from the last, and sep- arating the northern part of the states of the church from Tuscany. It is 68 miles in extent. The sources of the Tiber and the Savio are both in Monte Cornaro, one of the summits of this versant.—-The central Apennines commence at Monte Cornaro, and form a low barrier across the States of the church, extending to Monte Velino, a distance of 138 miles. Their general course is S. S. E. Their most elevated summit is Monte Ascoli, 7,228 feet high. Castelluccio, a village situated on one of the passes of this di- vision of the Apennines, is 4,766 feet above the sea.—The sub-Tuscan Apennines are a distinct group of low mountains, covering the greater part of Tuscany, forming the water-sheds of most of the streams which water the grand duchy and its vicinity, but nowhere rising to any considerable elevation. Their two princi- pal branches surround, nearly in a semicircle, the district lmown as the Maremma of Sienna, whose putrid marshes, exhaling a deadly ma- laria, the travellers from Florence to Rome have learned to dread.-—The sub-Roman Apen- nines are a similar group, extending over the southern part of the ecclesiastical states, con- necting several hills of considerable note, such as Cantaro, Coriglio, Acuto, Carbonaro, Ceroas, APENNINES and Campatri, and ﬁnally spreading out toward the W. S. W. in the Campagna di Roma. An- other branch terminates in the 7 hills of Rome. —The southern Apennines have the form of a fork with two unequal prongs. The handle of this fork, the upper southern Apennines, ex- tends from Monte Velino toward Acerenza in the Basilicata; one of the branches, or prongs, traverses the Terra de Bari, and the Terra d’Otranto, and terminates at Cape Lucca; the other, or inferior branch, runs across the Gala- brias to the strait of Messina. It has a number of sharp pyramidal summits, though none of great altitude. The most remarkable of these are Monte Forcone, Monte St. Angelo, Monte Chilone, and Monte Calvello.-—-The sub-Vesu- vian Apennines are a series of low mountains, running nearly parallel with the southern range, and unite by a common base Mount Somma and Mount Vesuvius. The promontory of Il Monte Gargaus deserves mention in this place; it extends from Monte Chilone, and is 60 miles in length, constituting what is usually termed “ the spur of the boot,” in the map of the Italian peninsula. It terminates in a moun- tain 5,300 feet high.—With the exception of a small tract of the northern Apennines adjacent to the Alps, and another at the southern ex- tremity, where the granitic rocks make their appearance, the geological formations of the Apennines are either metamorphic or seconda- ry, and among these the limestones greatly pre- dominate. The white, compact marble of Car- rara, the sea-green marble of Bocchetta the Italian verd-antique, or serpentine marble of Florence and Prato, the yellow marbles of Sienna, and the marble of Porto Venere, near the Gulf of Genoa, are the most remarkable of these. Most of the limestones of the range being metamorphic, present no traces of fossil remains. The sub-Apennines are formed, to a considerable extent, of tertiary deposits. These are highly fossiliferous. In the volcanic dis- trict, which lies almost wholly within the king- dom of Naples, are found the products of vol- canic eruptions, and on the plains and marshes in the vicinity, large deposits of sulphur. Some of the eminences in the volcanic region dis- charge mud, from others carburetted hydrogen is evolved. To the height of 3,000 feet, the Apennines are clothed, for the most part, with evergreen oaks, chestnuts, and other forest trees. The higher portions of the principal range are formed of bare and rugged rocks, which are covered with snow from October till May. Their general aspect is far from at- tractive. The grand and majestic scenery of the Alps is wanting, and while their summits and ﬂanks appear bare and meagre, from the want of vegetation, the sombre hues of the forests give them a dreary aspect. The scenery of the southern division, as well as of most of the sub- Apennines, is of a more lively and agreeable character. The olive, the laurel, the orange, lemon, palm, and other tropical trees, diver- sify, by the varied hues of their fohage, the APHEK landscape, and refresh the wearied eye of the traveller. The Apennines are very fully de- scribed by Malte Brun, Balbi, Hausmann, Bru- guiére, Schouw, the author of the Geographic physique dc Royaume dc Naples, Ungewitter, and others. APHEK, the name of several cities spoken of in the Bible. I. A city of the tribe of Asher, probably the same with the Aphaka which Euse- bius places in Lebanon, and where there was a famous temple of Venus. II. A town near which the Jews defeated Benhadad (1 Kings xx. 26), situated on the east side of the sea of Galilee. III. A city of the tribe of Issachar, near J ezreel, where the Philistines encamped on two occasions before ﬁghting the Jews (1 Sam. iv. 1; xxix. 1). APHELION, a word of Greek derivation, signifying, from the sun, that point in a planet’s orbit most remote from the sun. APHIS, the plant louse, or puceron, a very numerous genus of insects included in the order homoptara. The number of species is also very large: 326 are described in Francis Walk- er’s list of specimens of “ homopterous insects ” in the collection of the British museum. Al- most every sort of plant furnishes a living to a different kind of aphis. The attacks of these insects are often ruinous to certain crops. In 1802, the annual crop of hops in Great Britain was reduced to one-seventh of the usual average, owing to the destructive swarms of the aphis; and the average crop is only one- ﬁfth of the natural crop, in seasons when the aphis is not prevalent. The A. rosoe is also most destructive to the rose tree, on which it is constantly found. Apple trees and pear trees are attacked by a species of aphis which injures their fruit. Cabbage and turnip crops are sometimes greatly injured, and, in many cases, destroyed by countless swarms of the A. brassiccca. Their attacks on all plants seem to be regulated by the health of the plant and the peculiarities of the season. If atmos- pheric conditions render the plant unhealthy, then the aphis appears; if these cease, the aphis disappears; and one crop of plants may be attacked several times in the same year.--- Most species of this insect are green; but a dark species, the bean-dolphin, or A. fabw, attacks the bean; whole acres of the plant being suddenly covered by these black insects.—- They have, however, many destructive foes. The larvae of the lady-bird (cocciiwlla), the syrphus or bee-like ﬂy, the/hemerobius perla, and several species of ichneumonidw, pursue and eat them very greedily. Tobacco is the principal remedy against destructive swarms of the aphis. In conservatories, or where plants can be placed under cover of any kind, they may be easily exposed to clouds of tobacco smoke; and that is the simplest way of destroy- ing the aphis; but in the open air, where the fumes of tobacco easily disperse, the best way is to apply the tobacco in water. The affected parts may be syringed with the infusion of to- von L—44 APHIS 689 bacco, and after the effect is produced, the plant may be washed by the rain or with pure water. ——These insects have a soft, roundish body, a small head, complete and half globular eyes, antennae of from 6 to 11 joints, longer than the head, and often hairy. The beak has its origin from the lower part of the head, between the fore legs, and is nearly perpendicular. The wings, when developed, are 4 in number, but some naturalists describe the upper wings as clytm, or wing cases, from their differ- ence of texture. The legs are very long and slight. At the extremity of the belly, most kinds of aphis are provided with a pair of horn-like processes, through which they eject a sweet, thickish ﬂuid, commonly called honey- ' dew, of which ants and bees are very fond.—At the end of autumn many of the species, such as the A. guercus and the A. rows, of both sexes, are numerous, some winged, and some without wings. While some can ﬂy to a distance, others, without wings, are restricted to the neighborhood of their native plant. As soon as she has paired, the mother aphis deposits her eggs or larvae in a place ﬁt for passing the win- ter; different places being selected by different species. Some prefer the oak, and leave their eggs on some -waving bough high in the air; others in the crevices of the bark, or in a subter- raneous receptacle. Bonnet supposes that the aphides are always viviparous, and never lay eggs; what are commonly called eggs produced in the autumn being a sort of cocoon, containing the young aphis enclosed in an envelope. This point, however, is not universally admitted. The parents die after disposing of their eggs or co- coons, and these rernain torpid during the winter, to be called into active life with the return of reviving warmth or of blight in spring. All the aphides which appear in spring are females, no males being seen till autumn. These females are endowed with a most wonderful fecundity. Latreille states that one female, during the summer months, will produce 25 daily; and Réaumur calculated that one aphis may be the progenitor of about 6,000,000,000 of descend- ants, in its own lifetime. It is not necessary for the young female aphides hatched in the summer, to pair with males, for no males are found until autumn, and yet these females will produce each their 25 a day of living young ones, all of which in turn hasten to imitate their parent.. The A. Zcmigem produces each year, says Prof. Owen in his lectures on comparative anatomy, 10 viviparous broods, and 1 which is oviparous; and each genera- tion averages 100 individuals. The progression being 1; 100; 10,000; 1,000,000; 100,000,000; 10,000,000,000; 1,000,000,000,000; 100,000,000,- 000,000; 1o,000,00o,o0o,000,o00; 1,000,000,000,-~ 000,000,000, for the 10 viviparous broods; and by adding the oviparous generation, the result is 30 times greater. The female aphides thus produced are considered as larvae, presenting a more developed condition than the larvae of - coleoptera and lepidoptera. The compound 690 APHORISM eyes are completely developed; the antennas have attained their perfect shape and propor- tions; the 6 thoracic legs their full size and power. The only subsequent change of these fertile larvae is an additional size and the mani- festation of the organs of reproduction. In the last generation, which is the 7th, the 9th, or the 11th, according to the species of aphis, the spontaneous power of reproducing their species is totally lost; wings are developed, and winged male insects now make their appear- ance. These are the winged insects which pro- duce eggs, and deposit them where they may be hatched by the sun in times of blight. The number of aphides which appear in spring must, of course, depend on the number of eggs laid in the preceding autumn; but countless swarms of them being ushered into life at the same time, has led to the popular notion that they are generated by the atmosphere. APHORISM (Gr. a¢op¢§w, to separate or di- vide), a short, sententious saying, embodying a fact or truth. Aphorisms are both natural or scientiﬁc, and moral or ethical. Hippocrates and Boerhaave have written medical aphorisms. Coleridge illustrates the meaning of aphorism by the childish practice of dissecting a map of a country. Many instances of aphorismic writing might be cited. Bacon’s Nooum Or- gan/um, and C. C. Colton’s “ Lacon,” are fa- miliar examples. Aphorisms teach by author- ity, not by argument. Anciently they were, therefore, more in use in science than they are now. Aphorisms are useful as a mode of put- ting into condensed .form for the memory the results of scientiﬁc or experimental investiga- tion. Thgre is great beauty in aphorisms, those “ Jewels, ﬁve words long, That, on the stretched foreﬁnger of all time, Sparkle forever.” APHRODISIAC (Gr. a¢pos~, scum of the sea; one of the. names of Venus, who is sup- posed to have been born of the sea). The word aphrodisiac is applied to certain drugs which are supposed to excite venereal desires and powers. Many stimulant drugs have been said to produce these eﬁ'ects, but only two are now positively known to affect the generative or- gans strongly; and these are phosphorus and cantharides. These produce a morbid excite- ment, a prurient congestion, without real power. This excitement is always dangerous and never fruitful. » APHRODITE, one of the chief Greek di- vinities, the goddess of love and beauty. In the Iliad she is described as the daughter of Zeus and Dione; a later legend relates that she sprung from the foam (Gr. a(,bpos) of the sea, and is hence called Aphrodite. She ﬁrst came to land at the island of Cythera, and thence pro- ceeded to Cyprus. These islands were her principal seats of worship, and hence came many of her epithets (Cytherea, Paphia, Cy- pris). Hephaestus (Vulcan), the deformed smith of antiquity, was her lawful husband, but the goddess of beauty did not greatly fancy APIAN US him. Hermes (Mercury), Poseidon (N eptune),' and Ares (Mars), were her favorites. Her amours were not restricted within the ce- lestial circle. Adonis was the happy young mortal who inspired her with the fondest passion. This connection has given rise to one of Shakspeare’s miscellaneous poems, the “Venus and Adonis.” She bore Eneas to An- chises. In the Trojan war she sided with the Trojans, and in protecting her son ZEneas from the Greek hero Diomed, was wounded by the latter, and ran shrieking up to Olympus. She surpassed all the other celestials in beauty, and received from Paris that apple, the prize of beauty, which indirectly brought about the Trojan war. Her peculiar attribute is the cestus, or embroidered girdle, which had the power of inspiring a devouring passion for the person who wore it. Her favorite animals were the swan, the sparrow, and the dove; her favorite plants the rose and the myrtle. The planet Venus and the month of April were also sacred to her. She appears to have been identical with the Phoenician Astarte or Ash- toreth, as the tale of Ashtoreth and Thammuz, is the counterpart of that of Adonis and Aph- rodite. To the Italians she is known as Venus. The Roman goddess has no distinct attributes. Many representations of the goddess in sculp- ture are extant. A picture which Apelles left incomplete no one ever ventured to ﬁnish. Fes- tivals in her honor, Aphrodisia, were celebrated in many of the cities of Greece and in Paphos. APHTHARTO-DOCETiE, in ecclesiastical history, a name given to the followers of Julian of Halicarnassus, who taught A. D. 519 that the body of Christ was divine and incorruptible from the moment it was conceived. They were also called docetw, because they contended that the physical sufferings of Christ were only seeming. This opinion was favored by the em- peror Justinian, and was the cause of much discussion in his reign. APHTHONIUS, a Greek rhetorician, who lived about A. D. 315. Of his life nothing is known. His writings, which have come down to us, are an elementary introduction to the study of rhetoric, which bears the title Pro- gymnasmata (1rpo'yvp.vao';m'ra), and a number of fables. The Progg/mnasmata was pre- pared for the use of boys, before they went to the regular schools of the rhetorician, and was founded on a similar work by Hermogenes, pre- viously in common use. For several centu- ries this treatise _ was employed in common schools as a text book of rhetoric, and, on the revival of learning, was again brought forward for a similar purpose, and in the 16th and 17 th centuries was universally employed, especially in Germany. Many editions of it have been published. The best is among the Rhetores G¢wci, Stuttgard and Tiibingen, 1832-’35. The fables written by Aphthonius are of less im- portance. They are in the style of Esop, but considerably inferior in merit. APIANU S, Pnrrnus voN, a German astrono- APICIU S mer and mathematician, born near Leisnig in Saxony, 1403, died at Ingolstadt, 1552. His name was properly Bienewitz or Bennewitz, from Biene, a bee, Lat. apis, whence Apianus. In 1523 he was made professor of mathematics at Ingolstadt, and he also enjoyed the favor of the emperor Charles V., who, beside conferring other distinctions on him, raised him to the rank of a noble. Apianus is said to have been the ﬁrst who remarked that the tails of comets are always directed away from the sun, and to have also pointed out the method of obtaining longitudes by lunar observations. Among his works may be mentioned Traotatus Cosmo- graphire, 4to, Landshut, 1524, a work similar to modern handbooks on the use of the globes; Astronomieum Oresareum, fol., Ingolstadt, 1540; and several others. APICIUS, the name of 3 noted Roman epicures. I. Called by Athenaeus one Apiotus, lived in the latter part of the 1st century B. C. He spent much of his time, at intervals, in Latium, on account of its excellent lobsters, but having heard that the Libyan lobsters were larger, set sail for Africa. Several ﬁshermen came off to his vessel with the ﬁnest; but, see- ing that they were inferior to those of Mintur- nae, he ordered the pilot to steer for Italy. He is said to have procured the banishment of Len- tulus Rufus, B. C. 92. II. M. Ganrus, who lived in the time of Augustus and Tiberius, is mentioned by Seneca, Pliny, Dion, Juvenal, Martial, and Athenaeus. He established a school where the art of good cooking was taught, greatly to the distaste of the philoso- phers. In the cultivation of his own appe- tite and that of his scholars, he had expended a fortune, more than $4,000,000, when he settled up his accounts, and perceiving that but $400,000 remained, concluded that he could not live as he wished upon that sum, and poisoned himself. He invented several sauces and cakes which long bore his name. Apion, the grammarian, made his life and labors the basis of a volume; and all cooks, for cen- turies, helonged to the Apician or anti-Api- cian faction. III. A contemporary of Trajan, who taught the world how to pickle oysters.——A treatise, De Re culinaria, or De Obsoniis et Con- dimentis, &c., bearing the name of Caelius Api- cius, by an unknown writer, is the most ancient cookery book in the world, and has been often reprinted. APION, a Greek grammarian and teacher of rhetoric, who lived at Rome, in the 1st century of the Christian era, was the son of Poseidonius, and by birth an Egyptian. The emperor Tibe- rius styled him eymbalnm mnndi, on account of his excessive loquacity and vanity. Apion received his education at Alexandria, where he studied under Apollonius and Didymus. In the reign of Caligula, Apion placed himself at the head of a deputation of Alexandrians who had come to Rome to complain against the Jews to the emperor. He is chieﬂy celebrated as a commentator on Homer. The most -valuable APOCALYPSE 691-. portions of his “ Homeric Lexicon” aresuppos-‘ ed to be embodied in that of Apollonius. . APIS, a bull worshipped by the ..Egyp- tians. In their mythology the soul of Osiris; murdered by the evil spirit Typhon, mi- grated into this bull. It was, therefore, the symbol of creative productivity and of fertility. The calf was born from ‘a cow made pregnant by a ray of the sun and of the moon. It must be black, with a white square sign on the forehead, the sign of an eagle on the back, various other mystical signs on various parts of the body, and a scarabaeus under the tongue. Its principal worship was in Memphis, in the temple of Ptah‘ (Hephaestus, Vulcan, or ﬁre). When such a calf was found, the priests transported it in a chari- ot, with great pomp, to Heliopolis, where it was kept in a temple, accessible to the worship of the people for forty days. During this time women wishing to become mothers cohabited with men publicly under the eyes of the divin- ity. After that lapse of time no one could ap- proach him, and he was transported to Memphis, where he had his own temple, with chapels and courts for exercise, and his own priests. His choice as to which of these chapels he would stay in, his appetite, and movements, were re- garded as oracles. His theophany or sacred days were yearly celebrated at the rising of the Nile, with great festivities and rejoicings. A golden vase was then thrown into the Nile to propitiate the crocodiles. His lifetime was of 25 years, in harmony with one of the theologi- co-astronomical cycles of the Egyptians. He then was usually thrown into a pit, but some- times embalmed and preserved in a costly sarco- phagus. After the death of one, and’ before the ﬁnding of another Apis, the whole land was in mourning. Apis in heaven was placed in the constellation of Taurus. APLANATIC LENS, a lens of such ﬁgure as to bring all the rays of light which fall upon it to a perfect focus. This requires a form Which cannot be given mechanically; and, as a sub- stitute, a lens is made whose two sides curve in spheres of a certain proportion to each other. The resulting error is called spherical aberration, and, in the best lenses, is to a great extent re- moved by careful and delicate polishing by hand, until the image made by the lens is satis- factory to the artist. See also Aonnomrro. APOCALYPSE (Gr. arrolcalvuxlrts, unveiling), the title of the closing book in the New Testa- mat canon, written, it is .supposed, in Asia Minor, in the interval between the death of Nero and the fall of Jerusalem, A. D. 68-70. Its authorship is much disputed. But while scholars are not agreed upon the testimony given by the book itself, the church tradition for, two centuries is favorable to itsbeing a writing of John the Apostle. Justin Martyr avows his belief in its apostolical origin. Irenaeus (A. D. 178) assumes it as a conceded point. At the end of the 2d century, we ﬁnd it accepted at Antioch, by Theophilus, and in Africa by Ter- tullian. At the beginning of the 3d century, 11; 692 is adopted by Clement of Alexandria and by Origen, later by Methodius, Cyprian, and Lac- tantius. Dionysius of Alexandria (A. D. 247) rejected it, upon ‘doctrinal rather than crit- ical grounds. Eusebius (A. D. 315) sus- pended his judgment, hesitating between the external and the internal evidence. The opinion of the more moderate critics of the present day is that the voice of antiquity favors the genuine- ness of the book. But the question of author- ship has been debated on other than critical grounds, a wide difference being recognized be- tween the Apocalypse and the Gospel of St. John. Those who believed that the apostle wrote the Gospel have doubted whether he wrote the Apocalypse, and they who ascribe the latter to the apostle, deny that he could have written the former, though it has been suggested that he produced the Apocalypse in his youth, and the Gospel in his old age. No book in the New Testament has proved so diﬂicult of interpreta- tion as this; none has called forth such efforts of learning and sagacity, no tradition having come down from the earliest time to tell us how it was understood by the age in which it was written. The volume, standing alone, has offered itself as a mark for random conjecture. We ﬁnd it ﬁrst in great favor among the ex- pectants of a millennium, who derived much sup- port from its literal text. In this interest it was used by Justin, who based upon it his belief in a Messianic reign of 1,000 years, and by Ire- naeus, who found in it his doctrine of a double resurrection, an antichrist, a Messianic king- dom, a new Jerusalem, a palpable temple and altar in heaven. Tertullian, also, quoted from it liberally to sustain his peculiar chiliastic views. And in fact, so late as the 4th century, the book was debatable ground for the dis- putants about the second advent. The next phase in the interpretation of the Apocalypse was the ‘allegorical. This may be said to have commenced in the 5th century, with Audray of Cappadocia, who regarded the book as designing to shadow forth, in ﬁgurative style, the mys- teries of the future time, and for 3 centuries after him, this portion of Scripture was much used in this vague and mystical way, both in the Latin and the Greek churches. In the hands of different sects, it was made to assume a partisan character, as if it described actual controversies between church and state, and was interested in the theological disputes that agitated the time. popular dread of an impending destruction of the world excited a special interest in the Apocalypse, which was without any result as respected its elucidation. In the 12th century, it was studied as containing, under the form of symbol, a history of the Roman church in its various struggles. Innocent III. found clearly indicated there the overthrow of the Saracenic rule; and when, later, heretics were the foes of the church, the marks of the doomed anti- christ were atﬁxed to these. As the heretics grew stronger, they in turn took advantage of In the 10th century, ' APOCALYPSE the lesson the church had taught, and brought the same ﬁgurative style of interpretation to bear against the ecclesiastical power. The scarlet woman and the beast denoted the pa- pacy. Gregory called Frederic II. the apoca- lyptic beast that rose from the sea, labelled blasphemy, and Frederic retorted by calling the pope the great dragon that drew down a ' third part of the stars of heaven. The Protes- tants, before the reformation, and long after, used the Apocalypse as a magazine of weapons against the holy see. In fact, Luther, and the Protestant theologians, down to the 17th cen- tury, had no doubt that hostility to the pope gave the only key to the dark volume. In 1650 Grotius attempted to recover a more un- prejudiced position toward the book, but the age was not prepared for a calm literary view. In 1690 Bossuet wrote his celebrated commen- tary, giving mainly the same opinion with Gro- tius, that the Apocalypse contained a revelation of the future of the whole Christian church, and his work is still an authority among the Roman Catholics. The Apocalypse began now to be studied more as a literary production, in the spirit of historical criticism. Abauzit, in the 18th century, suggested that its meaning should be conﬁned to the age in which it was written. He was disposed to view it as a sym- bolical prediction of the fall of Jerusalem, and found an explanation of the numbers and ﬁgures in the incidents of the Jewish war. This hint was taken by the poet Herder, who clothed the conception with the brilliancy of his own religious imagination. These attempts at exposition were followed by the theory of Eichhorn (17 91-1811), who exerted great learning and skill to prove the Apocalypse to be a dramatic poem. He divided the book, after the prologue, dedication, author’s narra- tive, and prolusion, into 3 acts: the 1st paint- ing the fall of Jerusalem, and the overthrow of Judaism; the 2d describing the downfall of Rome, and the triumph of Christianity over Pa- ganism; the 3d, portraying the heavenly Jeru- salem, and the glories of the future life. His exposition is now generally abandoned. In 1832 Liicke published his “ Introduction to the Apoc- alypse,” whose leading idea he states to be, the future and completion of the kingdom of God, its victorious battle with all worldly op- position, Jewish and Gentile, its triumph over Satan himself, and its ﬁnal glorious and blissful establishment. The book is at once a poem and a prophecy, a mighty song of faith lifted up in an age of persecution and fear, to com- fort and strengthen the heart of a distressed church, all its allusions bearing on a state of things actually transpiring, its numbers and symbols describing real persons and events of the time, its warnings and promises being ad- dressed to people trembling at the prospect of an impending crisis. The aim of the book is not theoretical but practical. Since Liicke’s exposition, little has been done to explain the general scope of the Apocalypse, but much to APOCALYPTIC KNIGHTS elucidate its details. We have deferred to this point all notice of Swedenborg’s peculiar theory of the Apocalypse, for the reason that it could not be classiﬁed with any others. Swedenborg judged the books of Scripture by their internal or spiritual sense. He paid little heed to critical proofs. Doctrinal, historical, and lit- erary considerations, he held in light esteem. The test of a book’s canonicity was its inspira- tion, and the test of its inspiration was its richness in spiritual thought. Hence no scrip- ture of the New Testament stood higher in his regard than the Apocalypse, which he made con- stant use of, not as an allegory, or veiled his- tory, not as a poem, drama, or prophecy refer- ring to human events, near or remote, but as a symbolical revelation of divine truths, the book of all others which was least cumbered.by lit- eral allusions to mundane things, and was most remarkable for the completeness with which it enshrined the Heavenly Word. This view is conﬁned to the followers of the Swedish seer, and has met with no favor from scholars or theologians in general. APOCALYPTIC KNIGHTS were a secret society founded in 1692 by Agostino Gabrino, son of a merchant of Brescia, avowedly to pro- tect the Roman Catholic church against anti- christ. On Palm Sunday, 1693, when, in St. Peter’s church at Rome, the choir sang Quis est iste 0-ea: glories ?—“Who is that king of glory ?” Agostino Gabrino stepped forward, with his sword drawn, and cried out, Ego sum rem glories !-—-“ I am the king of glory!” Hav- ing also disturbed public worship on another occasion, he was conﬁned in a mad-house. The order which he founded consisted of about 80 knights, mostly laborers and tradesmen, and was suppressed, by order of the inquisition, in 1697. .Agostino Gabrino intended to introduce polygamy among the members of his order, and the society has been accused of having pur- posed a rebellion against the pope and the upper classes. The knights always wore their swords, and had on their breasts a star, orna- mented with a tail, or pendant, which repre- sented the sword seen by St. John, as related in the Apocalypse. APOCALYPTIC NUMBER, the number 666, mentioned in Rev. xiii. 18. This number has been variously interpreted. In the church of the second century, it was generally supposed to have reference to antichrist. A more probable supposition is, that it refers to the Roman nation, the Greek letters of the word Latinus (Aareu/09) as numerals, amounting to exactly 666. APOORYPHA. (Gr. a'n'oKpv1r'ros'roLIo Cnuncn, a title applied by Catholics, Greek and Oriental Christians, Anglicans, etc., to the Christian church, on account of the note of apostolicity, or apostolic foundation, doctrine, and order; also in a general way by all Chris- tians.-—A1>osToLIo KING, a title granted by the holy see to the kings of Hungary, on account of the extensive propagation of Christianity by the founder of the royal line, St. Stephen.--The Arosrouo SEE, the Roman church, so called, because, according to the doctrine of the Catho- lic church, the bishop of Rome succeeds to St. Peter, as prince of the apostles, and as the only apostle who has had successors in the apostolic oﬁice. Sees founded and governed by apostles were also called apostolic.—Arosromo Sucons- sron usually denotes the succession of bishops by episcopal consecration from the apostles, but is also used by some Protestant divines, to de- note a transmission of the ministry by Presby- terian ordination. The fact of the succession is maintained by the Catholic and all the oriental churches, but the phrase is more frequently used by High-church Anglican divines, who have written many learned and elaborate works on the divine initiation and succession of bish- o s. APOSTOLIC FATHERS, the disciples of the apostles; more precisely, those disciples of apostles who are supposed to have left writings. They are—Barnabas, to whom was ascribed an epistle; Clement of Rome, the reputed author of an epistle to the Corinthians, also of the Clementine Homilies and Constitutions; Her- mas, whose name is connected with the “ Shep- herd ” without good cause; Ignatius, bishop of Antioch in Lysia, to whose authorship several epistles have been imputed; Polycarp, “the disciple of John the apostle, by him ordained bishop of Smyrna,” according to St. Jerome, who was credited with the authorship of an epistle to the Philippians; and Papias, whom Irenaeus speaks of as a hearer of John and a companion of Polycarp, to whom it has been customary to attribute 5 books, called “An Ex- APOSTOOL plication of the Words of _the Lord.” Among these we should reckon also Dionysius the Areopagite, marked by tradition as the person whom Paul converted at Athens.—Most of the writings bearing the name of the apostolic fathers, are regarded as spurious by various mod- ern critics. The genuineness of all has been dis- puted; but the fragments that remain are curi- ous as relics of an early age, and valuable as indicating the character of primitive Chris- tianity. APOSTOLICI. Three religious sects of this name have ﬂourished from time to time, though only one of them is of any special note. I. A sect which originated in the 2d century, con- cerning which very little is known. They had all things in common. II. A sect which sprung up in the 12th century. Historians record that their conduct was exemplary, though they were mostly from the lower classes of society. They would not take an oath, nor shave, nor cut their hair, nor marry. III. About 1260, Ger- hardo Sagarelli of Parma, an impetuous young man, who had been rejected from the Francis- can order, instituted the third sect known by this name. They believed that the kingdom of heaven was soon to come, and went barefoot through Italy, Switzerland, and France, preach- ing, begging, and singing. They rejected mar- riage, but lived in intimacy with females, whom they called spiritual sisters, and who accompa- nied their journeys. Honorius IV. abolished the sect (1286), and burnt Sagarelli (1300) as a heretic. Dolcino, a Milanese, took the lead of the sect, which ﬂourished for a short time, but under the vigorous opposition of the church soon became reduced, by the necessity of sub- sistence, to mere banditti, and (1307) the whole movement ceased. The ruling idea of each of the successive appearances has been, the rein- auguration of the simplicity and poverty of the apostolical mode of life. It was, therefore, always attended with bitter lamentations and denunciations of the power of wealth in the church. They are all of them, doctrinally, the outcropping of that theological development which is seen more broadly marked in the En- cratites, Catharists, and Manichaeans, though they held, consciously, few of the sentiments entertained by these more important sects. APOSTO OL, SAMUEL, an Anabaptist preacher of Holland, born in 1638, died near the close of the 18th century. In 1662 he was chosen one of the ministers of an Anabaptist congregation at Amsterdam, and his teachings came immedi- ately into collision with those of his colleague Galenus, the latter maintaining that the Chris- tian religion was not so much a body of dogmas which commands faith, as a moral code which requires obedience. The discussion became violent, and ended in the formation of two sects, the Galenists and the Apostoolians. The latter sect had the more vigor and enthusiasm, and im- peached Galenus before the states-general for Socinianism. - He gained both glory and acquit- tal, and the Galenists becoming in turn prepon- APOSTROPHE derant, the disciples of Apostool were obliged to celebrate their service in a brewery distin- guished by the sign of a painted sun, and hence were called the “Mennonites of the Sun.” Subsequently, the two sects were united under the name of Mennonites. APOSTROPHE, a ﬁgure of speech in rhetoric, whereby an absent or dead person is addressed as if he were present.—In grammar, the con- traction of a word by the use of a comma, as eoho’d for echoed, tho’ for though. APOTHECARY (Lat. apotheoarius, Gr. mm- Sqxq, shop, or store). Apothecaries formerly sold herbs and drugs and spices, and by long practice in the art of preparing tinctures, syr- ups, powders, extracts, pills, and medicated waters, they became a special corporation, dis- tinct from grocers, and, in some places, from druggists, and were organized into a privileged body in the civilized parts of Europe, during the middle ages. In England, the corporation still exists, in virtue of a royal charter, and with power to confer licenses on its members; who are invested with the right to administer medi- cine, as well as to prepare it and sell it openly- in shops. A large proportion of the medical practitioners in England are only apothecaries; but the corporation, wishing to keep pace with the progress of science, enlarges its curriculum of studies and examinations as occasion may re- quire. The royal college of surgeons in Lon- don also has a charter, and a right to give di- plomas, but this is honorary, and confers no le- gal right to practise medicine, and to sue for payment. Most young apothecaries, however, now obtain it, before they venture to practise as surgeons. In France, the old corporation of apothecary druggists has been dissolved, and a new chartered corporation of pharmadens has been substituted in its place. These keep shops, prepare medicines, and make up prescriptions, but have no legal right to practise as physicians. In this country, the business is followed without restriction.—-Arornnonmns’ WEIGHT, used in dis- pensing medicines, and by which the pound (It) is divided into 12 ounces (Z), the ounce into 8 drams ( 3 ), the dram into 3 scruples (3)), and the scruple into 20 grains (grs.). In the wholesale trade in medicines, avoirdupois weight is used. APOTHEOSIS (Gr. arroﬁeow, to deify), the act by which amortal is raised to the rank, and placed among the number, of the gods. In the origin of society, the people, seized with admi- ration and gratitude for their legislators, looked upon them as something more than human, and imagined that these great men did not die, but went to unite themselves to the Deity, and that from above the skies they watched still over the interests of earth. Hence they ad- dressed prayers to them, offered them sacriﬁces, and built to them temples. This worship was often rather increased than diminished by the progress of intelligence. Philosophers became in some sort the apostles of it, as they taught that man encloses within himself something immatenal, an emanation from the Supreme APOTHEOSIS 701 Being, which is appointed to return to its di- vine origin, but must ﬁrst purify itself from the stains contracted by its union with matter. The good man became after his death ﬁrst a hero and then a god, his immortal part being reunited to the Deity. ‘It was one of the dogmas taught by Pythagoras, who had derived it from the East, that virtuous men after death take their place among the gods. The lively imagination of the Greeks received eagerly a doctrine which so ﬂattered their hopes and af- fections, and deiﬁed at ﬁrst only sages, but soon also the authors of useful‘ inventions-and those who had rendered eminent services to the state. In process of time it became common among this superstitious and passionate people for lovers to raise altars to their mistresses, and parents to their children. Alexander the Great claimed, even while living, not only a divine pa- rentage, but a divine nature, and sent an order to all the republics of Greece to recognize his divinity. The decree returned by the Lacede- monians in answer is remarkable: “Since Alexander desires to be a god, let him be one I” The various dynasties which were made from the fragments of his empire often paid to their princes the compliment of an apotheosis, and on some of the coins of the Seleucid prince Antiochus is found inscribed the word “ God ” (Geog), which he had taken for a surname. The senators of Rome raised Romulus to the rank of the gods, but there was no second example of a Roman apotheosis till that of Julius Caesar. Flattery then got possession of this religious rite. Augustus had altars raised to his own worship during his lifetime among the Gauls and in other provinces, and most of the succeed- ing emperors went, after death, to swell the num- ber of the divinities. Each of them, upon his accession to the empire, sent his predecessor, according to a decree of the senate, to sit upon the divine Mount Olympus, and gave his bust to adorn the capitol; thus acquitting him- self of a debt which his successor in turn was to pay to him. Vespasian, always a railer, even in his last moments, announced the ap- proach of death to those who surrounded him, by saying, “It seems to me that I am becoming a god.” Eusebius, Chrysostom, and Tertullian, mention that Tiberius proposed to the Roman senate the apotheosis of Jesus Christ. In one of the satires of J uvenal, Atlas complains that the frequent apotheoses have ﬁlled the heavens with gods, so that he bends and staggers under their weight. Only the later emperors were while living worshipped at Rome; some of them not only built temples to themselves, but even served as priests before their own idols. Caligula, not satisﬁed merely with divine hon- ors, wished to be all the gods in turn; and sometimes with thunderbolt in hand and a long beard upon his chin, he made himself adored as Jupiter; sometimes, perfumed with essences and clothed with feminine robes, he chose to be esteemed the goddess of Cythera. The fol- lies to which this custom led need not all be 702 detailed. Nero raised his monkey to the rank of the gods, and Hadrian apotheosized his favor- ite, the beautiful boy Antinous. Good princes deiﬁed monsters whom they would have blushed to imitate, and Marcus Aurelius, the philosopher on a throne, placed among the number of goddess- es that Faustina whose vices had publicly dis- honored him. Even Christian emperors allowed divine honors to be decreed to them by the Pagans whom they persecuted. Constantine had the double advantage of being enrolled among the gods by the religion which he had de- throned, and among the saints by that which he had made to triumph. His successors were deiﬁed only by their Pagan subjects, and with Paganism this custom came to an end. The ceremonies of the apotheosis, as related by Herodian and Dion Cassius, were very curious. At the entrance of the palace, upon a magniﬁ- cent carpet, a waxen image of the emperor, with pallid and sickly countenance, is extended on a lofty ivory couch spread with cloth of gold. The body had‘ already been burned be- fore the ceremony. The senate sit on the left side of the bed clothed in black, and on the right noble women, dressed as mourners in plain white garments, and wearing no gold nor neck- laces. The physicians come in and look upon the sick man from time to time, saying only that he grows worse and worse, and at the end of 7 days they announce that he is dead. Then the young Roman knights and chosen youths of the equestrian order take up this couch of state, and bear it along the Via Sacra to the old forum. It is there placed as if between two amphitheatres, and on either side a chorus of noble men and women chant, in mournful strains, hymns in praise of the deceased. The couch is carried thence through the city to the Campus Martins, in the midst of which is con- structed a square pile ﬁlled with combustibles and adorned on the outside with hangings in- terwoven with gold, and with various pictures and images. Upon this ediﬁce others are placed resembling it in form and decoration, but of smaller size, and diminishing successive- ly in magnitude toward the top. The couch is placed in the second story, and around it is collected every kind of aromatic and incense, of fragrant herb and fruit and juice, for all na- tions and cities vied with each other in bestow- ing these last gifts in honor of the emperor. After this there is a procession of horsemen and chariots around the pile, with the drivers costumed to represent the greatest Roman gen- erals and the most illustrious ancestors of the deceased. This ceremony being completed, the new emperor approaches the catafalc with torch in hand, and at the same moment the pile is lighted on every side; and an eagle, or, if the apotheosis be of a woman, a pea- cock is let loose from the highest story, and, rising in the air with the ﬂame, bears to the skies the soul of the emperor. The deceased then receives the title of divas and the name of some divinity; thus Messalina was called APOTHEOSIS APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS Juno; and Drusilla, Venus. Colleges of priests and priestesses, sacriﬁces, and games, are insti- tuted in his honor. Magniﬁcent columns and shields are consecrated to him; and there are erected to him columns of gold or silver, some- times colossal, crowned with stars or rays, the symbols of divinity. These are placed by the side of the statues of the gods in the temples -and public places, and to destroy or sell them, or even to chastise a slave or change one’s gar- ments before them was a capital offence. APO-ULMENE, or Aro-enunmnn, the na- tive name of the chieftains of the second rank among the Araucanian Indians. APPALACHEE BAY, a large open bay on the S. coast of Florida in the gulf of Mexico, having a breadth of about 90 miles, and an ex- tent inland of 50 miles. There is a passage through the bay 10 feet deep, by which the town of St. Marks is reached, which furnishes the best anchorage ground‘ along the coast for the distance of 230 miles. APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS. These are the great range of mountains, called also the Alleghanies, which extend from that part of Canada lying between the New England states and the St. Lawrence river, through the whole length of Vermont-—across the western part of Massachusetts and the middle Atlantic states, to the northern part of Alabama. The name Appa- lachian was given to the mountains by the Span- iards under De Soto, who derived it from the neighboring Indians. The name Alleghany was given by the English settlers of the north, which they received from the Indians, and which was supposed to mean Endless. The White mountains of New Hampshire and the Adirondac moun- tains of New York are really outliers of this range, though separated from it by wide tracts of low elevation. In their Alpine forms and more metamorphic structure, they present also features somewhat different from those which are especially peculiar to the Appalachian range. The Catskills also are outliers less far removed from the main range. These groups will all be found described under their own names. Not including these lateral ranges, the greatest width of the Appalachian chain is about 100 miles. This is in Pennsylvania and Maryland, about midway of its course. Its extreme length is about 1,300 miles. At either end its termination is not well deﬁned, the mountains sinking away and being lost in the hilly country that succeeds to them; and at the south, its gneissoid and other ancient rocks grad- ually disappearing beneath the cretaceous forma- tions of this region. In all their extent the Appa- lachian Inountains are remarkable, not for their great elevation, nor for their striking peaks, nor for any feature that distinguishes one portion of them from the rest, but for a singular uniform- ity of outline, particularly of that which de- ﬁnes the summit of the ridges, as well as that which marks their direction. While varying little in height, the ridges pursue a remarkably straight course, sometimes hardly diverging ‘APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS from a straight line for a distance of 50 or 60 miles; and one ridge succeeding beyond an- other, all continuing the same general course in parallel lines, like successive waves of the sea. As one curves round into a new direction, all curve with it. Thus the valleys between the ridges preserve a uniform width, and are as remarkable for their parallelism, as are the hills which bound them. An illustration of these peculiar features may be seen upon the topo- graphical map of the anthracite region of Penn- sylvania, which accompanies the article AN- THRACITE in this volume. By those engaged upon' the geological survey of Pennsylvania, the topography of the Alleghanies has been made a special subject of investigation; and by Mr. J . P. Lesley, of Philadelphia, to whom we are indebted for this map, the study has con- tinued to be prosecuted with singular zeal and interest. In his treatise entitled “ Coal and its Topography,” we ﬁnd some of the results of these researches. An able paper upon “the Physical Structure of the Appalachian Chain,” was read before the American association of geologists and naturalists in the year 1842, by the Profs. Rogers, who were at the head of the geological surveys of Pennsylvania and Vir- ginia, and who had extended their observations into the continuations of the chain north and south from these states. This paper, full of original and highly instructive matter, is still the most complete treatise upon this subject. In the ﬁnal report of the geological survey of Pennsylvania, the subject will no doubt be more fully discussed, and illustrated by the ﬁne topographical maps prepared upon this work. Prof. Guyot of Cambridge has also given much attention to the physical structure of these mountains, and made careful barometrical meas- urements of several of their highest summits, both near their northern, and southern extremi- ties. The results of his observations were read before the American association for the ad- vancement of science, as were those of the Profs. Rogers. The attention of many other distinguished men of science, both of this country and from abroad, has been attracted to this most interesting feature in the structure of the eastern part of this continent; and their observations of the certain localities they vis- ited have been published in various forms.-—The general course of the Alleghanies is that of the coast line opposite to them. The sea makes its nearest approach to them at the mouth of the Hudson river, which is only 50 miles from the passage of this river through the Highlands. Thence as far south as Cape Hatteras, the width of the Atlantic slope gradually increases, till the space between the coast and the Blue Ridge is about 200 miles; and so it continues to the southern extremity of the mountains. This space is a hilly district, gradually becom- ing of higher elevation as it extends back from the coast. In New England its average height at the base of the mountains is about 800 feet above the sea; in Pennsylvania, about 500 feet, .703 and farther south about 1,500 feet. From the mountains to the lowest falls of the streams over the edge of the granitic platform, this is for the most part a region of the lowest strati- ﬁed, metamorphic, and granitic rocks. These lowest falls mark the head of navigation of the streams, and the descent to the lower and more level platform of the upper secondary and ter- tiary formations, which in the southern states stretch along the coast in a belt sometimes reaching 100 miles in width. The eastern ridges of the chain, rising from their elevated base, do not present the appearance of the height above the sea which they actually reach; and on their western slope, which stretches far away toward the Mississippi, their height is still more completely lost in the elevated and wide-spread plateau. Between Lake Cham- plain and Lake Ontario, this western table-land is 1,500 above the sea, and from it as a base arise the high summits of the Adirondack mountains. In Virginia and Tennessee, as ob- served by Prof. Guyot, the bottom of the val- ley west of the Alleghanies is 1,700 feet above the sea, and beyond it for 100 miles west ex- tends a plateau of 1,500 to 2,000 feet elevation, traversed by longitudinal ridges. All the cross sections from the eastern edge of the granite present ﬁrst the irregular proﬁle of the Atlan- tic slope, which is succeeded by the sudden rise to the highest elevation, and this by the wave- like descent and ascent across the valleys and the ridges, and ﬁnally terminate in the gradual descent on the western table-land. As ﬁrst pointed out by Prof. Rogers, the same law is found to obtain in this chain and in the J ura mountains, of steepest general slopes toward the east; but of individual ridges the gentler slopes are toward the east, and the steepest inclina- tions toward the west. In the mid-region of the chain-—in Pennsylvania and Maryland-— where the breadth is the greatest, the height appears to be correspondingly diminished. The summits, valleys, and table-land all reach here their least elevation. The highest summits are but little over 2,000 feet above the sea. Still the barrier between the eastern and western waters is complete; and no clean cut through the range is anywhere found, excepting that of the Mohawk river in New York, the highest elevation of which is only 400 feet above the sea Toward the north and the south from this central portion, the plateau becomes more ele- vated, as well as the summits that rise up from it. In North Carolina, near the borders of Tennessee, and in the northern part of Bun- combe county, the base of the Black moun- tains, which have been an especial subject of examination by Prof. Guyot, is found to extend -from 100 to 150 miles in length, with an eleva- tion of 2,000 feet. Above this many summits are found reaching more than 4,500 feet higher, as the Black Dome, the height of which above the sea is 6,760 feet; the Balsam Cone, 6,668 feet; the Black Brother, 6,626 feet; Cat-tail Peak, 6,615; Hairy Bear, 6,606, &c. The 704 great elevation of this group makes it the cul- minating point of the chain. Mt. Washington in New Hampshire, though found by the meas- urement of Prof. Guyot to be but 6,285 feet above the sea, which measurement differs only 3 feet from that made by the oﬂicers of the coast survey, appears much more elevated than the summits of the Black mountains, from its rising from a plateau of not half the height of the base of this group.—In none of the pub- lished maps of the states do we ﬁnd correctly represented those grand and beautiful features of parallelism of ridges and valleys, which characterize the topography of this chain. Lacking such illustrations, any description must fail to convey a clear idea of the peculiar scen- ery of the Alleghanies to those who have not wandered among its summits, and traced from them its long, narrow and fertile valleys, stud- ded with productive farms and prosperous vil- lages. From the summit of the Blue Ridge in Virginia, the natural features of these moun- tains are seen in their greatest beauty, as 'on one side the eye roams north and south over the rich valley of the Shenandoah, watered throughout its length by the river of the same Indian name, meaning the “daughter of the stars,” and bounded by the parallel ridges still farther west of the Fort mountain and the higher Alleghany ridge beyond. Other longi- tudinal valleys lie between these, each supplied with its own water-courses, and occasionally opening one into another by the gaps, which serve alike for the passage of the rivers and roads. On the other side the view extends over the broad Atlantic slope, and its numer- ous hills of lesser elevation. Upon one of the most beautiful is the former seat of Mr. J eﬁ'er- son, called Monticello, which overlooks the university of Charlottesville, founded by him and sustained by his fostering care. The She- nandoah valley is a part of the so-called Great Valley of Virginia, which extends across the state, and is known farther south as the valley of East Tennessee. To the north-east, in its range across the state of Pennsylvania, it is known by other names, as are also the ridges that bound it. But neither the ridges nor the valley lose their continuity; nor does the great limestone formation, which gives fertility to the latter, vary in its properties, any more than do the hard silicious rocks, which rise up from beneath them, and give their sharp outline to the crest of the Blue Ridge and its extension, called the South mountain and the Lehigh mountain of Pennsylvania. Equally beautiful is this valley, and more highly cultivated through Lancaster, Berks, and Lehigh counties, than along the Shenandoah. In the season of har- vest, when the ﬁelds are covered with the yel- low sheaves of wheat previous to their being gathered in, it is a custom with the population of Lehigh county to gather by thousands on a day agreed upon, to witness from a high rock upon the South mountain near Allentown, this spectacle, so grateful to a farming community, APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS and so attractive to all for its beauty. Across northern New Jersey this valley continues,'till the Blue Ridge passes into the Highlands, and loses its characteristic features, as it meets the Hudson below Newburg. The average width of this valley is about 15 miles, and so also is that of the mountain belt, which bounds it on the east. Beyond it, to the west and north- west, other ridges alternate with parallel val- leys over a belt of country varying from 80 to 60 miles in width, to the base of the main Alleghany ridge, or in southern Virginia to the foot of the Cumberland mountain. This por- tion of the range, which in central Pennsylva- nia, in the region of the J uniata, spreads out to its greatest breadth, it is proposed by the Profs. Rogers to call the Middle Mountain Belt. The portion of the Appalachian chain represented in the map, already referred to, of the anthra- cite region, is a part of this belt. The geologi- cal formations it contains include all those from the metamorphic group to the coal inclusive- the whole series of stratified rocks of the so- called Appalachian system-the aggregate thick- ness of which, measured as they appear in suc- cession at the surface, is not less than 7 miles. The highest formation of the series is that group of sandstones, shales, limestones, and coal, which are known as the coal measures. This (the coal now of bituminous character) re- appears in its order upon the summit of the Alleghany, dipping down its western slope at a steeper angle than the inclination of the moun- tain, and bringing in other and higher beds as the distance from the mountain increases. In the southern part of Pennsylvania, other paral- lel ridges succeed to the Alleghany mountains: Negro Mountain, Laurel Hill, and Chestnut Ridge, each a repetition of the other, at dis- tances about 10 miles apart; and each occupy- ing nearly as great a breadth as the valleys which separate them. The capping of their summits are the conglomerate rocks, which un- derlie the coal measures. These strata arch over the crests of the ridges, projecting in bold cliifs, and on each slope dipping beneath the coal measures, which in the valley-hills attain their greatest thickness. Thus the same strata appear upon the summits, and in undulating lines pass beneath the valleys to reappear upon the crest of the next ridge, and so on till dip- ping down the western slope of Chestnut Ridge, the coal measures spread in nearly horizontal strata over the western portion of Pennsylva- nia, Maryland, and Virginia. Their lowermost l-ayers reappear as they rise to the surface upon the other margin of the great coal basin, as far into Ohio as Zanesville, and thence along a line extending to the mouth of the Scioto. In the gentleness of the dips of the strata, this west- ern slope presents a striking contrast to the highly disturbed stratiﬁcation of the Atlantic slope. There the rock formations, nearer the disturbing causes which have elevated the mountains and metamorphosed the rocks of the most eastern ridges, are thrown into con- APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS fused and intricate positions, and pressed into folds and wrinkles, the prevailing inclination of which is toward the south-east—-as horizontal layers of heavy cloth, pressed laterally by irre- sistible force from one end of the pile, would be lifted into folds, whose general inclination, by the falling back of the arches, would be toward the direction where the force is applied. The direction of the line of force is that of the ridges themselves, or rather of the anticlinal and synclinal axes, the one being the crest of wave-like form into which the strata are thrown, and the other the trough. This, too, is the line of the great ﬁssures, which, now ﬁlled with metallic ores, constitute the mineral veins of the chain. It is the line of the rents caused by the earthquakes of the present period; and it is regarded by the Profs. Rogers as the line along which the elevating force that lifted the mountains extended moving onward at right angles to this line, with a wave-like motion, till the result was attained of placing the ridges in their present positions. Toward the south-east, whence the movement proceeded, the axes are crowded near together. Toward the north- west they are repeated at distances gradually increasing, till the undulations at last ﬂatten out and die away in the horizontally stratiﬁed regions of the west. The straightness or regu- lar curvature of these axes, and their parallel- ism in distinct groups, continued for distances sometimes amounting to over 100 miles, with- out change in the stratiﬁcation or topography, cannot fail to excite the astonishment of the geological observer. Among these axes are particularly noticed by the Profs. Rogers, the straight axis of Montour’s Ridge in the Susque- hanna region, which extends about 80 miles; the beautifully inﬂected axis of Jack’s moun- tain, in the Potomac region, 90 miles in length; and that of the Knobly mountain, nearly a continuation of the last-named, itself 100 miles long. In south-western Virginia, the straight axis of Clinch mountain is traced for more than 120 miles.—The strata of the Appalachian sys- tem are all of marine or terrestrial origin. The fossils they contain are all of families belong- ing to the salt water, or plants of terrestrial growth. The latest or uppermost groups are those of the coal formation. Throughout the whole chain none of the stratiﬁed rocks belong to a later epoch. Their elevation, then, must have taken place previously to those periods, when the upper secondary rocks, that lap upon the extreme eastern border of the Appalachian formations, were deposited, and previously to those still later periods, when the great deposits of tertiary marls, sandstones, and clays were produced, which cover the south-eastern part of our country. These mountains are then of much older date than the Alps or the Andes, upon the high summits of both of which rest the rocks of these later formations, containing their characteristic marine fossils. Raised probably by many successive impulses exerted on the same lines (it may be after long intervals 705 of rest), the rush from the retreating waters appears to have opened those gaps through the ridges, which constitute a peculiar and most in- teresting feature in the topography and scenery of these mountains, and which could not have been produced by the action of any existing streams. The same rush of waters acting upon piles of strata of various degrees of hardness, and consequent capacities of -resistance, im- pressed upon these the forms appropriate to these properties. This is seen in the sharp outline of single beds of sandstone, which pro- ject from the sides of the hill, around which they outcrop; and in the receding of the pro- ﬁle of the mountain against the beds of softer shales and slates. It is seen on a grander scale in the peculiar forms which each of the rock formations gives to the hills or mountains it composes, and which enables one to recognize it wherever met with by a glance at the to- pography. In the article Anrnnnorrn, this subject is again referred to.—The regular ar- rangement of the rock formations throughout all their foldings and undulations, is rarely dis- turbed by any of those sudden breaks which are common in other countries, and which bring into contact, by the displacement of por- tions of the series, strata usually far separated from each other. These “faults,” however, are met with in several of the states, but particu- larly in south-western Virginia, where they ex- tend for about 100 miles in length, their course being the same as that of the anticlinal axes, out of which they grow. They appear to have resulted from the lateral thrust toward the north-west, of the folded piles of strata. They are observed, always beginning on the north- west side of the anticlinal axes, in tracing these along their course, the strata on this side be- coming steeper and steeper, till at last they are inverted, and dip toward the south-east. At this point the strata appear to have burst asun- der along the line of greatest curvature, and the south-eastern portion to have been lifted up, bringing its lower strata against the higher members on the other side of the line of frac- ture. The depth of this dislocation, or the ex- tent of the displacement, increases toward the centre of the line of fault; and where the length of this line, as in the district under con- sideration, stretches along for 100 miles or more, it cannot appear disproportional that the vertical displacement should in its central por- tions amount to 51,, of this distance; and that the lower groups of the Appalachian system, usually separated by intervening strata of 4 or 5 miles in thickness, should be brought in con- tact, so that the edges of one series abut against the edges of the other. Thus the lower lime- stones of the great valley of Virginia are seen in Montgomery county, and thence westward along the line of the Virginia and Tennessee railroad, in vertical position, with the strata of the far more elevated series containing coal- beds dipping toward them, as if the more re- cent formations passed beneath these ancient -VOL! 706 groups. The thermal springs, which are of frequent occurrence along the Appalachian chain, and particularly so in Virginia, ﬂow out almost universally on the lines of anticlinal axes, or of the faults. Their elevated tempera- ture indicates the great depth from which they rise, and consequently that to which the folds and fractures of the stratiﬁcation reach.-—The geological formations of the Appalachian belt, comprising all the groups from the granite to the coal, are abundantly productive in the most important ores and minerals, which especially belong to these different formations. In the ancient granitic rocks, which skirt the edge of the lower stratiﬁed formations, and sometimes spread out over broad areas, as in the moun- tainous region west of Lake Champlain, in the highlands of New York and New Jersey, are found inexhaustible repositories of magnetic iron ores, which already are worked to great extent in connection with the valuable beds of hematite ores, that are found conveniently near them, ranging from Canada to Alabama along the line of the great Appalachian valley. These beds occur in great depressions in the lower limestones and metamorphic slates of this range, and sometimes in veins in the same rocks, and are worked in every one of the States through which this passes, everywhere presenting the same peculiar features. They are frequently of extraordinary extent, and though worked in several instances for more than 100 years, the actual depth to which they reach, and their real nature, has never been fully explained, Together with the magnetic ores, they furnish the supplies for a very large proportion of all the iron manufactured in the United States; and the numerous bodies of them still untouched, are a provision for still larger demands for generations to come. The value of these repositories can hardly be over- estimated, particularly when considered in con- nection with the long extent of their range, not far back from the coast, and the enormous sup- plies of mineral coal that can be conveniently brought to effect their reduction. Far more valuable are they than the gold found in the grahitic and metamorphic rocks of the eastern ranges, though this, judging from the produc- tion of certain localities in the southern states, would, if exposed by the great irregularities of the surface, like those of California, he found as rich and abundant as there. It is worked in alluvial deposits enriched from the auriferous veins; and these also contain ores of copper and lead, and occasionally of silver. These deposits and veins are met with in the valley of the Chaudiére below Quebec, and are again seen in a few localities in Vermont; but their great development is on the eastern borders of the Appalachians, south of the Potomac. The copper ores met with in the rocks of the Ap- palachian system have never proved of great importance. They are found along the range of the talcose and micaceous slates of the Blue Ridge, as well as associated with the gold far- APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS ther toward the south-east. In Virginia, these slates produce some workable beds of lead ore, and display occasionally attractive appearances of copper; but so far, no mines of the ores have been proﬁtably worked, except in the counties of Floyd, Carroll, and Grayson, near the borders of North Carolina. From these mines, discovered only within 3 or 4 years, the production of copper ores shipped to the north in the years 1855 and 1856, has been about 2,000,000 lbs. per annum. Upon the same range, and in the same geological formations, the mines opened about the year 1852, on the southern line of Polk county, Tenn., which is also the north line of the state of Georgia, have proved highly productive, the principal ore being a rich black oxide of copper, resulting from the decomposition of the pyritous ores on the “ back ” of the veins, into which ores it passes, as the veins are worked below water level. The great extent and productiveness of the lodes of this district give promise of its becoming one of the most important copper mining localities of the United States. In New Jersey, the same range produces the remark- able red oxides of zinc associated with Frank- linite, which are worked together, the one to produce the white zinc paint, and the other a superior quality of iron for the manufacture of steel. Farther south along the same belt, are found in the Lehigh valley and in Lancaster county, Penn., the valuable silicates and car- bonates of zinc, called calamine, which are worked for the same purpose as the red oxides of New Jersey. Veins of lead ore are found in several of the formations; and in Wythe county in south-western Virginia, a mine in the great limestone formation has been worked with some interruptions for more than 100 years. These lead veins, however, of the lower members of the Appalachian system, have for the most part proved of little importance; in- deed, throughout the range of the mountains none of the formations above the metamorphic rocks are rich in any other metallic ores, than the hematites which are occasionally met with, the red fossiliferous iron ores of Formation No. V. of the Pennsylvania survey, called in New York the Clinton group, and the argillaceous ores of the coal measures. The fossiliferous ore follows the outcrop of the red and variegated slates and shales, in which it is found as a stratum of 18 inches to 3 feet in thickness, passing across the states of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, and being met with and extensively worked along the shores of Oneida lake, and south of Lake Ontario in New York. It stretches on across the Niagara into Canada West, and is everywhere regarded as a valua- ble ore of iron, for its richness, the ease with which it is reduced, and the favorable effect it has in regulating the running of blast furnaces when mixed with other ores. The carbona- ceous and argillaceous ores of the coal formation supply many of the furnaces in western Penn- sylvania, and are made to produce large quanti- APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS ties of cheap iron worked with the fuel supplied by the beds of coal, that occur as alternating beds with those which furnish the ores. No rock formation is more useful to man for the variety and value of its productions, than the true coal formation. It furnishes the great supplies of anthracite and bituminous coal, beds of ﬁre-clay, and west of the Alleghany ridge abundant beds of limestone. Salt water is ob- tained by boring artesian wells to lower mem- bers of the series, and the brine ﬂows up or is pumped up into the valleys, to be evaporated by the combustion of the coal found in the neigh- boring hills. In many localities, where the salt-bearing rocks approach the surface, the brine is more readily obtained in large quanti- ties, and the coal is transported for its evapora- tion. The formations that furnish the salt, also contain great beds of gypsum. Onondaga county in New York is famous for these pro- ductions, and in Washington county in south- western Virginia, solid beds of salt are struck in the midst of the most extensive plaster depos- its.—As the Alleghanies abound in the most useful mineral productions, so their surface has been clothed with the most useful species of trees. From one extremity of their range to the other, they have furnished large supplies of the valuable white pine; and many of the less accessible districts of the belt still abound with it. Far toward the north, upon the better soils of the mountains, the hard-wood forests pre- vail—-the ﬁne sugar-maple, of the curly and bird’s-eye varieties, its wood harder and closer than that of more southern growth. So of the white birch, the tree which supplied the In- dians in a single piece the bark for one of their canoes. The ash and the beech also attain their highest state of perfection in the most fertile soil of these northern mountains. Upon the poorer lands, and along the ravines of the mountains, the “black growth” ﬂourishes—the evergreens, as the different species of the pine family—the spruce, the hemlock, cedar, and balsam-ﬁr; and in the swamps, the hackmatac, or larch. The varieties of the oak appear far- ther south upon the range, these and the chest- nut taking the place of the maple, birch, and beech, and, to some extent, of the evergreens also. The large cherry tree, so valuable for its timber, is met with in Pennsylvania, scattered upon the mountains. In western and south- western Virginia, it forms forests of itself; but its timber is in this region applied to little use. The white oak, the white poplar, and the white and yellow pines, and the chestnut, are the valu- able forest trees of the mountains of Virginia. In some localities still further south, the dark growth of the coniferee cover the summits, as found, for instance, by Prof. Guyot in the group in North Carolina, named the Black mountains, for the dark foliage of its balsam- ﬁrs, spruce, and hemlock. Among the ﬂowering shrubs, none are more beautiful than the varie- ties of kalmia and rhododendron, which are found in the greatest profusion upon the slopes APPABENT 707 of the Alleghanies and along their water- courses, giving to the rough places of the mountains the rich colors that adorn our culti- vated gardens. But though most beautiful in appearance, the laurel is regarded with any thing but favor by the explorers of these moun- tains. To penetrate the “laurel swamps,” as the thickets of these bushes are called, is like forcing one’s way through the chapparals of the tropics. Though the sun may shine brightly over head, a compass is as necessary as in the darkest day; and without frequent reference to it, the most experienced woodman is often “turned around,” as he threads his way through the intricate mazes of this tangled growth. APPALAGHIGOLA. I. A river, formed by the union of the Chattahoochee and Flint rivers in the south-western part of Georgia, which, after running southerly 100 miles through Georgia and Florida, empties into the gulf of Mexico through Appalachicola bay. It is navigable for steam- boats through its whole course, and with its branches is supposed to drain not far from 20,000 square miles. The tide runs up 60 miles. II. A bay on the western side of Florida, between St. George’s island and the mainland. It is, in fact, an estuary, formed by the river of the same name. III. The capital of Franklin county, Florida, on a bluff at the mouth of the river of the same name, 135 miles south-west from Tallahassee, is one of the most considera- ble commercial cities in the state, large quanti- ties of cotton being shipped here by steamboats. It is the seat of admiralty jurisdiction, and pos- sesses one weekly newspaper. Population in 1850, 1,000. APPANOOSE, a county in Iowa, on the southern border of the state, adjoining Missouri, has an area of 510 square miles. The river Charlton, which ﬂows diagonally in direction through it, and numerous smaller streams, fur- nish ample water power, while the rolling prairies which cover a large part of the surface are fertile, and the water courses are bordered by tracts of timber. Much of the county is still uncultivated, however, the ﬁrst settlement having been made in 1845. The great sta leis Indian corn. The products in 1856 were 55 ,449 bushels of corn, 125,827 of oats, 12,213 pounds of wool, and 82,878 of butter. Large beds of stone coal have been found at several points. Capital, Oentreville. Population in 1856, 7,709. APPARATUS, a name given to a set of im- plements or utensils employed in the search for scientiﬁc truth, or in its illustration. It is used thus in contradistinction to tools, which are the implements of an artisan or mechanic, while apparatus‘ is employed by an artist. A carpen- ter uses tools, an electrician or a chemist em- ploys apparatus. APPAREN T, in astronomy, sometimes stands in Opposition to real, as when we speak of the apparent motion of the sun, which is in fact a motion of the earth, which we in our minds transfer to the sun, as a child transfers the motion of the boat on which he stands to the 708 shore. At other times apparent is used for the uncorrected observation, as when apparent alti- tudeis spoken of, which signiﬁes the actual alti- tude of the star above the horizon as seen by the observer, while true altitude is the altitude after correcting for refraction, dip, parallax, &o. Apparent time is the time by the sun, while true time is time by the clock, or mean time. Apparent days are sometimes longer than 24 hours, sometimes shorter, averaging 24 hours, and clocks are made to run regularly 24 hours for this average time from noon to noon. APPARITION, a spectral illusion, by means of which an imaginary object produces the im- pression of reality on one or more of the organs of sense. Apparitioris, usually representing hu- man, but sometimes divine, angelic, demoniac, brute, or fantastic beings, have been common in all ages of the world. The great mass of mankind never perceive apparitions, and are unable to perceive them, even when they are said to be present, and to be sensible to the sight, hearing, and touch of those who have the peculiar faculty or disease of ghost-seeing. This faculty does not belong to man in his normal state ; it is a function of abnormal cerebration, our knowledge in regard to which is very un- satisfactory in many important particulars. A large proportion of persons in the states of in- sanity (including delirium tremens), somnam- bulism, and dreaming, and a very small propor- tion of those in the possession of their normal consciousness, perceive apparitions. These ap- paritions, seen in different states, all appear to bear a great resemblance to each other. They may be divided into classes according to the manner in which they are perceived. The largest class is of those which are seen; the second class includes those which are only heard by their voice, step, or the rustling of their garments (for the divine, angelic, and hu- man apparitions are usually dressed in the fash- ion supposed to be appropriate to their age, sex, or condition); the third class makes impressions on the sense of touch; and the fourth class is of those which are perceived by two or more of the said senses; for, of course, smell and taste are not used for perceiving ghosts any more than for perceiving real human beings. Visible apparitions are usually smoke-like in appear- ance, and more or less transparent; but the -impressions made by some on the senses of hearing and touch are precisely similar to the impressions made by objects whose reality is admitted by all. Apparitions may be again divided into those which are supposed, when perceived, to be mere illusions of sense, and those which are supposed to be objective realities. Perhaps the most noted‘ case of an apparition known to be illusory is that of Nicolai, a book- seller of Berlin, who read a paper on his expe- rience with apparitions before the royal acad- emy of Berlin, in 17 99. While he was ill, the spectres of a number of human beings appeared to him day after day for several months. Some of these were the phantasms of living friends, APPARITION but most were strangers. The same ﬁgures came to visit him daily, followed him about, spoke to him and to each other, so that he could hear them distinctly, and moved about like liv- ing persons. Finally, to get rid of their pres- ence, he submitted to be leeched; and, as he lost blood, they moved about more slowly, be- came fainter in appearance, and before night of that day they had forever disappeared. That the perception of apparitions is owing to an ab- normal state of the brain is now the general opinion of physiologists and pathologists, but whether that state is a phase of insanity is a disputed question. Many persons whom the World is not willing to believe insane, have as- serted the objective reality of apparitions, as witnessed by their own senses. Among these persons are Socrates, Joan of Arc, Tasso, Ober- lin, Swedenborg, Cazotte, and a vast number of others, who either were not in frequent inter- course with apparitions, or have not a world- wide reputation, and therefore do not deserve to be specially named here. How or when the belief in apparitions originated cannot now be discovered; but that, when once originated, the belief should have found general favor among men, in the earlier stages of civilization, was entirely in accordance with the whole pro- gress of superstition. Men in every age and country have believed in the objective reality of apparitions, and this belief was nearly uni- versal until within the last hundred years, ex- cept among the sects which denied the immor- tality of the soul, and perhaps some of the low- est savages, who had not risen to the conception of a purely spiritual existence. The skeptical and atheistical philosophy of the 18th century suggested doubts of the reality of these appari- tions, and threw ridicule on their testimony; and the result has been a gradually extending disbelief of their objective existence, and the general adoption, among intelligent men, of the theory that the reported ghosts of past and present times are or were mere illusions of the senses. Nevertheless, faith in ghosts still pre- vails, and will probably long prevail, among en- lightened nations. Persons in that abnormal state which permits the perception of appari- tions possess senses or means of knowledge sur- passing, in some respects, the normal senses; and those persons often imagine that this knowledge is communicated by a ghost. Thus, a person in a dream, or in somnambulism, or even sometimes in the waking condition, de- scribes events occurring at a great distance, and absolutely unknowable to any man in the nor- mal state, in the same place; or he prescribes the best medicine for a person in ill health, and foretells accurately the future progress of the disease. Such phenomena occur frequently in the mesmeric state; and the apparently super- human knowledge is ottenascribed to informa- tion derived from spirits, and the evidence ap- pears so strong that a considerable number of atheists have been converted by its means. In the beginning of this century, Jung Stilling, a APPARITORS German author of high moral and -intellectual worth, published his Geistorkunde (translated into English under the title of “ Pneumatolo- gy”), to prove the reality of apparitions; and about the year 1840 Mrs. Catharine Crowe, a .very respectable English lady and authoress, published her “ Nightside of Nature,” for the same purpose. In 1848, a religious sect, called Spiritualists, or Spiritists, was founded in the United States, on the doctrines that the spirits or apparitions of deceased persons are objective realities, frequently visit the living, are visible, speak so as to be heard, and give true informa- tion in regard to a new life which begins after the death of the body. This Spiritist sect was said to number 1,000,000 believers in 1856. Among them are several thousand persons of all ages, sexes, conditions of society, and classes of mind, who profess to frequently see, touch, and converse with spirits; and many of these ghost-seers have an excellent reputation for probity and clearness of thought. The most comprehensive and satisfactory book on appa- ritions is that of Dr. Brierre de Boismont, enti- tled “Hallucinations; or, the Rational History of Apparitions, Visions, Dreams, Ecstasy, Mag- netism, and Somnambulism.” APPARITORS, the general name for the public servants of the magistrates at Rome, in- cluding the summoners, interpreters, lictors, heralds, scribes, and others. They were so named because they were always at hand to receive and execute the orders of the magis- trates. In England, an apparitor is either the beadle in a university, who carries the mace, or the messenger of a spiritual court, who serves the process. APPEAL, in law, is the removal of a cause from an inferior to a superior court, for the purpose of reviewing the decision or sentence of the inferior tribunal. The right of appeal was unknown to the ancient Germans, and very imperfectly recognized by the Roman law, but it is now well settled to be the only direct check on incapacity and malfeasance in the ministers of justice, and is everywhere regarded as neces- sary to a sound and wholesome administra- tion of law. Every precaution should be taken to guard against the vexatious delays which are the too frequent accompaniment of modern law, by which a wealthy suitor may protract the ﬁnal issue, and harass a weaker opponent. A wholesome check on the improper use of the right of appeal has been adopted in some Brit- ish colonial courts, viz.: the payment into court of the sum in dispute, the appointment of a re- ceiver for lands, or security in other cases after verdict by the party appealing. The dependence of a right of appeal on the amount of the cause of action, seems an error, inasmuch as the principles of law are immutable and not referable to value. The ﬁnding of a jury on simple matter of fact, cannot be reviewed at common law. If, how- ever, it be a perverse verdict, given in open deﬁance of common sense and the universal opinion of mankind, or if their assessment of APPEAL 709 damages be excessive, or lastly, if the jury, or any of them, be guilty of misconduct, the court, without usurping the function of a jury, may di-‘ rect a new trial. The decision, on purely legal questions, of any single judge, may be reviewed by the court of which he is a member, and the decisions of the courts may be reviewed by the supreme court, on appeal.--In England, the same general laws prevail. The tribunals alone differ. Doubtful points of common law were formerly reserved by the presiding judge at the trial (who, however, might, on his own re- sponsibility, decline to reserve the point), and then argued before the judges of the supreme court at Westminster. Recently, however, a criminal court of appeal has been regularly or- ganized, composed of the same august body. In civil matters, an appeal lies from the legal decision of a single court to the 15 judges of all the superior courts. This is called a proceeding in error, and must be grounded on the record, and not on any question of fact or interlocutory proceeding. The appeal lies from colonial courts also to the judicial committee of the privy council; from vice-chancellors to the chancellor, and from him to the house of lords. In matters quasi-ecclesiastical and in matters purely ecclesiastical, there is also a system of ap- peal, the last resort being the judicial committee of the privy council, theoretically styled an ap- peal to the queen in council.--The process of ap- peal in the courts of this country resembles, in its general features, that which obtains in England. The losing party may remove the record from the inferior to the superior court, if he raise his objections at a proper stage of the cause, and observe the necessary formalities in preparing and pressing them. The course of procedure is regulated by the principles of the common law, statutory provisions, and rules of court. The supreme court of the United States exercises an appellate jurisdiction over the state courts, where the validity of a treaty or statute of, or authority exercised under, the United States is drawn in question, and the decision is against that validity; or where the validity of any state authority is drawn in question on the ground of its repugnancy to the constitution, treaties, or laws of the United States, and the decision is in favor of its validity; or where a question of construction upon the constitution, a treaty, statute, or commission of the United States arises, and the decision is against the claim un- der the authority of either. All civil causes, where the matter in controversy is of a suiti- cient pecuniary value, may be removed, on ap- peal from the United States circuit or district court, into the supreme court; but a criminal case cannot be so carried up unless the two judges, who may sit at the trial, differ in opin- ion upon a material point, which they sometimes pretend to do, in order to bring an important question before the highest tribunal known to the law. The circuit courts of the United States exercise an appellate jurisdiction over all cases brought in the district courts, except where the 710 APPEAL inatter in controversy is of very small pecuniary value. Each of the United States courts has ex- clusive and original jurisdiction in certain classes of cases; as have also almost all the highest State courts. But in New York, there is a court of appeals, organized solely for the purpose of hearing and deciding appeals from inferior tri- bunals. It consists of 8 judges, 4 of whom are elected directly by the people, while the other 4 are selected from the justices of the supreme court (the next court in dignity) having the shortest time to serve.—In France, incor- rect decisions are also held in check by a sys- tem of appeals. The ﬁrst regularly organized tribunals of appeal in France were about the reign of Louis IX. The French right of appeal, especially in criminal cases, seems to Ameri- can or English observers to he often frivolously exercised. The French courts of appeal may discharge or amend the judgments of the courts below, and may reduce or increase punishments or the pecuniary awards of juries. The theory of the French appeal seems to be a submission of the facts as stated in the proceedings to the court of appeal, to whose judgment all deduc- tions whatsoever are referred.—In Germany, the system of appeal was commenced in 1496, and is now greatly elaborated; the courts are of the 1st, 2d, and 3d instance. The appeals may be based either on matters of law or fact. Each kingdom has its own tribunals, and the smaller principalities are associated to- gether in districts, for the purposes of courts of appeal. The proceedings of the German courts, like those of the English court of chan- cery, are excessively prolix and tedious, and entirely in writing--the arguments only being oral: their essence being contained in the plead- ings, as deductions from the facts.—Beside the sense in which we, in modern parlance, use the word appeal, proceedings of historical interest known as appeals, were formerly recognized in English law, wherein the term was used as de- rived from the French appeller, to summon or challenge. An offender on his trial might, by permission of the court, confess the charge, and ' “ appeal” another person as the instigator or ac- complice of his crime, who, thereupon, might be put on his trial, or ﬁght his accuser. If he was acquitted or if he conquered, the accuser was hanged on his own confession; if convicted or vanquished, the accuser was pardoned, as for service done to the state. Sir Matthew Hale de- nounced this practice, and it fell into disuse, although, by various statutes now repealed, the indemnity, and even the reward of approvers, was long maintained.-—A party injured by a felony, his widow or heirs might also appeal the offender for the price of blood, and, subse- quently, for the purpose of punishment. This was distinct from a crown prosecution. The appellee, the person accused, could then demand his wager of battle, which the accuser, if a peer, a citizen of London, a woman, a priest, an in- fant, or above 60, might decline. There was one other cause in which the appellant might APPENDIN I decline to ﬁght, for example, if the appellee were taken in the fact. The combat commenced by the appellee throwing down his glove, which was lifted by the appellant, whereupon each party affirmed categorically, by an oath, the truth of the accusation and denial, concluding “and this I will prove against thee by my body.” Thereupon the parties must proceed to ﬁght, with club and buckler, in the presence of the court, from sunrise to the appearance of the stars in the evening. If the appellant were vanquished the appellee was acquitted, and had his action against the appellant, who was there- upon declared infamous: if the appellee were vanquished, he was hanged forthwith. This custom, known to the‘ ancient Teutons and adopted by the Franks and the nations of chiv- alry, is no doubt the precursor of the modern practice of duelling. The last occasion on which the appeal and wager of battle were used was in 1818, when a defendant having been ac- quitted in a very strong case of rape and mur- der, the brother and next heir of the deceased “appealed” him. The appellee waged his bat- tle, whereupon the appellant alleged circum- stances so conclusive of the appellee’s guilt as exempted him (the appellant) from ﬁghting. The judges decided that the facts were insuﬁi- cient to sustain his claim of exemption, where- upon the appellant withdrew from the prosecu- tion. The wager of battle was abolished the next year, 59 Geo. III. APPEL, CHRISTIAN, baron von, an Austrian ﬁeld-marshal, born at N eusohl, in Hungary, in 1785, commenced his military career as a conimon soldier, fought in the war against Na- poleon, and rose through the various grades of the service to his present distinguished position. He won his last laurels in quelling the Italian revolutionists of 1848—’49, and defeating the troops of the king of Sardinia. APPELLANT, in law, a party to an action by whom an appeal is taken; a’. c., a cause is carried up from an inferior to a superior tribu- nal for the purpose of review, correction, or reversal. The opposite party is usually termed respondent, but sometimes appellee. APPENDINI, Frzanonsco MARIA, an Italian critic and historian, born near Turin, Nov. 4.-, 1768, died at Zara, Jan. 1837. He was educated at Rome, took orders in the church, and de- voted himself to the instruction of youth. Having been elected professor; of rhetoric in the college of Ragusa, on the coast of Dal- matia, he obtained a thorough knowledge of the Slavonian language, of the Illyric dia- lect of which he published a grammar. He investigated with great diligence every thing which pertained to the history, antiquities, and literature of Ragusa, and published, his results in his most important work, Notizie Istom'co- crit'iche. He gives an interesting account of this little republic, now almost forgotten, which for centuries cherished the arts and manners of Europe on a barbarous shore, surrounded by the territories of the Ottoman power. When APPENZELL the republic of Ragusa, like those of Italy, was subverted by the armies of Napoleon, Appen- dini was retained as rector of the new college which was established there. The Austrians succeeded the French in 1814, and Appendini was commissioned by the imperial government to superintend an institution for teachers, at Zara, designed to furnish instructors for the schools of Dalmatia. His funeral here, after many years of active labor, was celebrated with great honor. He published several minor works at Ragusa and Zara, the principal of which were memorials of the life and writings of Francesco Gondola, Bernardi Zamagna, and Petrarch. APPENZELL, a canton of Switzerland, con- sisting of Outer and Inner Rhodes, the for- mer of which districts, having a population of 45,000, is Protestant, and the latter, having 12,000 inhabitants, Roman Catholic. governed by a grand council, which meets the assembled population once a year, for civil purposes. It contains large manufactories of embroidered cotton tissues and Swiss muslins, and numerous mineral springs. Mount Sentis here rises to an elevation of 8,232 feet. APPERLEY, Cnanms JAMES, son of Thomas Apperley, an English country gentleman of Welsh descent, better known by his nom de plume, “ Nimrod,” as a. sporting writer of great ability, considerable knowledge in regard to the horse and the fox-hound, and great ﬂu- ency, spirit, and graphic power of pen. ' He was born at his father’s seat in Denbighshire, in 1777, and died at London, May 19, 1843. Early in life he entered a crack cavalry regi- ment, but his career in it was neither long nor brilliant, and he left it 1mder dubious circum- stances. He then became a sporting writer, and at once took the highest rank in that line, being the conﬁdential correspondent of the old English “Sporting Magazine,” then edited by Mr. Pittman, whose circulation his contributions greatly increased, and from which he received, for many years, a handsome annual salary, be- side being kept furnished with such a number of good weight-carrying hunters as should enable him to see, as much as he chose to see, of any pack of hounds ‘he thought proper to describe. It is remarkable, however, that, in spite of all his fondness for hunting and thor- ough comprehension of its niceties, he was an extremely timid rider and an indifferent horse- man; was never seen in the same ﬁeld with the hounds, after the fox was found; nor was ever known to take a fence. He always, how- ever, picked up enough of what had gone on, from those who had actually seen what he de- scribed, and he had so extraordinary a tact and truthfulness of manner in his writings, that it was impossible for those who had not been on the spot, and diﬂicult for those who had, to imagine how a man should describe, point for point, the incidents of a run of several miles, and the conduct of all the various hounds, when he had not seen a dog from the ﬁnd to the kill, It is APPERLEY 711 or done more than keep within remote hearing of their cry.--Hunting, however, was both a passion with him and the study of his life; and his remarks on all its details, from the hunting of the hounds to the riding across country, to the conditioning of hunters, and to fast-coach- ing—-which, next to hunting, was the pursuit of his existence-are all worthy of attention. He is the best writer in his line; and no fact attests this more strongly than his being re- quested by Lockhart, then editor of the “ Quar- terly Review,” to prepare a series of hunting articles for that periodical, which was a subject quite out of the ordinary rule of its learned and digniﬁed pages. Latterly, Nimrod fell into great disrepute, even among the masters of fox- hounds, who had adhered to him longer than any other gentlemen in England. This dis- repute arose from petty meannesses of con- duct more annoying to persons of that class than more ﬂagrant acts of dishonor. He had a trick of construing the slightest expression of civility into an offer to give him free quarters for himself and half a dozen hunters for the season. He would also laud one pack of hounds, its master, its horses, its man, appoint- ments, the riding of its ﬁeld, to the very echo ; while he would defame another and a better, often with gross personality, simply because in the one case Mr. Nimrod was welcomed and enter- tained and in the other was treated with cold- ness. Another offence was to publish accounts of the domestic arrangements of houses where he was received, with familiar descriptions of honorable ladies, all intended, of course, for his own gloriﬁcation. Thus when his friend Pitt- man, of the old “Sporting Magazine,” died, he immediately got into hot water with his suc- cessors. Law proceedings followed, and, in the end, to avoid an English prison, Nimrod ﬂed to the vicinity of Calais, where he remained for most of his remaining life, writing occasionally, when he could ﬁnd publishers, but not to the increase of his literary reputation, which he materially injured by a biography of the ec- centric, if not insane, Jack Mytton. His most valuable work is that on summering horses without throwing them out of condition, which is done by feeding them on green food, in large loose boxes, with clay ﬂoors, their shoes being taken off; and their systems lowered by gentle alteratives, instead of the old method of turning them out to grass, where they are tormented by legions of ﬂies, exposed to violent changes of storm, hot sunshine and cold rain, and from which they often come up either lame from the effects of galloping and playing too wildly on the hard ground, or broken-winded from the effects of feeding too greedily on the herbage steeped in dew. This system is now generally adopted in England for hunters, and might be followed with advantage in this country, where the still ﬁercer heats of summer and tormenting plague of ﬂies are even more adverse to a run at grass than in Europe.—His most agreeable writings are the “ Quarterly” articles, about 712 APPERT Melton Mowbray; they are all readable, though evidently written by a man of coarse nature, wanting in tact, and ignorant or careless of the niceties of a high social state. APPERT, BENJAMIN Nrooms MARIE, an eminent French philanthropist, born at Paris in 17 97. At the age of 16 he was appointed assistant teacher at the imperial school of de- sign, but his tastes soon led him into very dif- ferent pursuits. In 1815 the desire to beneﬁt his fellow-beings suggested to him the idea of establishing schools for mutual instruction in the department of the North. He applied the principle in the following year to military or- ganizations, and with such results that the foreign armies then quartered in the country were eager to proﬁt by his system. His success in the army was so great that Marshal St. Cyr, minister of war, appointed him to open a nor- mal school for soldiers and non-commissioned oﬁicers in Paris. In 1818, 163 of these schools, with 20,000 pupils, were in full operation, and in the course of 2 years, 100,000 soldiers had reaped the beneﬁts of them, from whom many excellent sub-ofﬁcers were obtained. He was preparing to extend the system to the military hospitals and prisons when a change of the ministry interrupted his projects. He contin- ued, however, his school at the military prison of Montaigu until 1822, when he was himself imprisoned on a charge of favoring the escape of 2 political convicts. During his conﬁnement at La Force, he conceived the idea of improving the condition of the prisons, and upon his re- lease devoted several years to this philanthropic undertaking, making frequent visits to the penal institutions of France, and alleviating as far as possible the condition of their inmates. After the revolution of 1830 he became the Queen’s almoner and secretary-general of the society of Christian morality. In 1846 he visited the schools, hospitals, and prisons of Belgium, Prussia, Saxony, Austria, and Bava- ria, and published the results of his observations in his Voyage on Belgigue, Voyage on P/russe, Hamb0urg,ses Prisons at Hospices, and Uonférenoes com‘/re Ze systéme cellulairo. He has also pub- lished Dix ans cl la cour du roi Louis Philippe. --Fnanoors, brother of the preceding, is known in connection with a celebrated process for pre- serving alimentary matter, and particularly meat, by keeping it out of the inﬂuence of oxy- gen, and hermetically sealed. He has published an account of his process. APPETITE, in a general sense, means a natural degree of hunger suﬁicient to give relish for any ordinary kind of wholesome food. It is also applied to the cravings of the more sensual passions. All the physical appetites take rise from the body and are common to animals as well as men. Whe‘n prolonged be- yond a certain period of delay, they lose their pleasurably energizing degree of stimulation, and become painfully exciting or desponding in character. Natural hunger and thirst begin by exciting an appetite which gives a certain relish APPETITE to food and drink; but when prolonged ex- ceedingly, the want becomes distressing for a _ time; then partially subsides for a short period, to recommence more violently soon again, and with redoubled painfulness. By lying quietly in bed all day, or sitting without exercise and drinking water, persons have been known to soothe the pangs of hunger, and live for 10 or 12 days without food. Though commonly ap- plied to the wants of the body only, appetite is sometimes used to designate the Wants of the mind; for “man does not live on bread alone.” We often hear people say they have no taste for reading, no relish for serious books; while others have insatiable appetites for novels. They would like to be constantly ingesting poetry and romance into their intellectual stomachs. Not so perhaps with other kinds of intellectual or moral food. Religious books are wearisome to some young people; they have no appetite, no relish for nutriment to build up a strong moral organism. Their appetites are strong for all the dainties of the table, fashion- able dress, theatrical displays, poetry, and nov- els. Morbid appetites are thus engendered by continuous habits of indulgence. Natural ap- petites are ﬁrst enfeebled and then vitiated; health of body and of mind are slowly and ,in- sidiously impaired, until by and by innate no- bility and hopeful youth and strength become effeminate, fastidious, weak, and dreamy, iras-' cible and selﬁsh; and though outwardly per- haps reﬁned and delicate, the person inwardly becomes inactive‘, apathetic, and unhelpful to himself and to the world. The natural sun of heat and life within the body and the soul, being overcast by the clouds and exhalations of unhealthy organs, leads the victim of insane indulgences to seek externally for artiﬁcial stimulants to keep up an appearance of genial warmth and life within; but this can only he apparently successful for a time; and soon the penalty of the transgression of the laws of na- ture must be paid in full, and with a large ad- ditional amount of costs.—It is of great import- ance, therefore, to watch the appetites of body and of mind; to study the laws of healthy equilibrium; and, above all, to learn to know and understand the dangers of prolonged self- indulgence of the appetites of pleasure in mere animal sensation and wild imagination.—Appe- tite, properly so called, apprises man of the natural wants of the organism, and compliance with these internal promptings is rewarded by the double pleasure of the sense of taste in eat- ing and drinking, and the feeling of comfort within, arising from the food supplied to the digestive system. But where the mind is weak and the delights of bodily sensation strong, the pleasures of taste or the charm of varied sensa- tion in the palate, dwell on the imagination, and excite it to renewed indulgence of physical sensations, irrespective of the wants of the in- ternal organism, and even notwithstanding its declining health and manifest debility.—-And here we may observe that parents often throw APPETITE temptations in the way of children which are ruinous to future health of mind and body, by seating them habitually at table with them- selves, where many kinds of stimulating highly ﬂavored food and drink which are good, in moderate quantities, for adults, are served abundantly, and children are allowed either to partake of them freely, or they are refused, and thereby hurt in feeling for the time, and tempted afterward to seek in secret that which they have craved in public, with unnatural longing. and disappointed wish. And yet it is easy to conceive that where adults are often tempted to indulge the pleasures of mere physical sensa- tion, irrespective of the natural appetite and the material wants of the organism, it is not to be expected that children can either control their love of taste, or brook with ease rebuﬂ's, when others are indulging in the very things before their eyes which to them are rigidly refused. The proper remedy is to let the chil- dren take their meals habitually by themselves, and under proper supervision.—Natural appe- tite, as Guinguené, a French writer, observes, is maintained in a healthy state by sobriety. In this the animals are much superior to many men. Temptations, it is true, come seldom in their way, for they have no alluring arts of culinary and confectionary preparations. Man might learn, however, by the simplest observa- tion, that the use of art is not more elevating, in this case, than the abuse is dangerous and de- grading. The abuse of ardent spirits ruins nerves and mind; extreme indulgence in confectionery, pastry, iced creams and sweetmeats, ruins both the teeth and the digestive organs; and yet the natural appetite craves none of these, or seldom and in small proportions, while the morbidly excited imagination dwells with longing on the pleasures of mere physical sensation, regardless of the real wants of nature, or the health of body and of mind thereon depending.‘ The morbid cravings of the sense of taste, or any other sense, must not be confounded, therefore, with the natural appetite excited by the wants of the internal organism.—lt,is but just, how- ever, to observe, that artiﬁcial wants, to some extent, are generated by an artiﬁcial state of life and habits, and that sedentary life, in civil- ized society, requires, in many instances, a sort of artiﬁcial stimulus in food and drink, unneces- sary to a person living and working in the open air. But here, again, much care is necessary; for a little stimulus is good, but much is even worse for a sedentary person than it would be for a country farmer. It is not stimulus, as such, in fact, that .is required for sedentary persons, but more delicate and careful cookery, with wholesome condiments, to make digestion easier for them, as they have less power to di- gest coarse food and badly-cooked materials, than robust people who are always working in the open air. The natural appetite is every- where alike or similar with regard to the inter- nal wants of food for the material= restoration of the organism, but different ages, sexes, and consti- 713 tutions, under the same climate, require different kinds of food to keep the body strong and healthy; and all ages, sexes, and temperaments require peculiar sorts of food in cold and warm and tem- perate regions of the globe. And here the sense of taste comes in with an instinctive apti- tude for choosing that which is most ﬁt in quali- ty to satisfy the body, while the proper appe- tite dictates the quantity, and cloys when it has had enough. There is a proper sphere of sense then, and a proper appetite, and either may be vitiated by disease of body or by folly in the mind. In some diseases a perpetual want of food is felt, and.quantity is prized more highly than mere quality. In such a case the body is affected chieﬂy, the functions vitiated. Medi- cal treatment becomes indispensable. But where the sense of taste alone is vitiated, it may lead to gluttony or drunkenness, as well as to perpetual indulgence in pastry, jellies, jams, hot drinks, cold ices, and innumerable delicacies which are most unwholesome when indulged in frequently and to excess. In this case the original disease lies in the mind or the imagination, and the cure should be directed chieﬂy there; although the body is of course eventually injured, and may need the aid of the physician, as much as the mind requires the aid of moral treatment. There are three dis- tinctions to be made in analyzing appetite and taste; and these may be illustrated ﬁrst with reference to animals. All animals have natural appetites arising from the wants of the internal organism, which requires to be repaired by new supplies of food as fast as it is wasted by the wear and tear of life; but the same kind of food -is not equally suitable to every species of ani- mal; and here the instinct dictates to the sense of taste, what kind of food is ﬁt for the pecu- liar organism. The herbivorous tribes require one sort of food, the carnivorous another, the omnivorous again another; and in each of these general distinctions we ﬁnd minor varieties of taste and appetite, and adaptations of peculiar kinds of food to special sorts of constitution. The ox lives chieﬂy upon grass, the lion upon ﬂesh, the bear on a mixed diet of roots, fruits, animal food, and honey, when he can ﬁnd it. The ox, however, does not relish every kind of herb; he takes one sort and leaves another; and this no doubt because it suits his constitution better, and is more agreeable to the sense of taste. The horse feeds differently from the ox; in some respects, although they probably eat many kinds of herbs in common. The sheep again has some peculiarities of choice and ﬁt- ness in the food selected, and the goat cats with impunity and relish many things which would be poisonous to other animals or man, especially the hemlock. Some carnivorous animals, as lions, eagles, hawks, require the raw ﬂesh of newly slaughtered animals, while others, as the vultures and hyenas, seem to prefer dead bodies in a decomposing state, or not, at least, to feel disgust of taste or smell, while feeding on the putrid oﬂ'al of dead bodies. What may be the 714 APPIAN greatest relish of a lion or an eagle, a vulture or hyena, it is diﬂicult to say; the appetite for quantity being more apparent than the sense of taste in these carnivora, beyond the general preferences above named; but in the bear tribes there is a marked preferencefor honey manifested, which reveals a sense of taste that works on the imagination, and leads him to incur the risk of being stung to death by an in- furiated swarm of bees, rather than forego the sensual delights of plundering the hive, and licking out the honey ﬁom the honey-comb when he is master of the spoils. The swollen head and face and ears are nothing to the charm of sensual indulgence. How far the honey may be useful to the ursine constitution, as well as captivating to his senses, it is difficult to say; but this seems not unlikely; for he is a hibernating animal, and therefore probably ca- pricious in his appetites, and liable to alternating states of apathetic languor and restless excita- bility. Such constitutions are liable to frequent change of state, and consequent caprice of ap- petite.-And this brings us to the natural va- rieties of the human constitution and peculiari- ties of temperament, which cause natural dif- ferences in the appetites and wants of the or- ganism, as well as contrast and caprice in likes and dislikes with regard to food. Some people prefer one kind of food habitually or occasion- ally, and some another; and this, not from the attraction of the sense of taste alone, but from the natural wants of the internal organism. All people require some variety of food; and often, a mere change of diet, properly selected, will restore buoyant health and spirits to a person drooping for the want of change, op- pressed by a too long-continued deadening monotony, when medicine or other means had proved of no avail. It is of some importance, therefore, for 'each one to observe what suits his own peculiar constitution, as habitual diet; and what kinds of food are wholesome, as a change, occasionally, and for short durations only; and nothing is so safe a guide in this as the natural sense of taste, unvitiated by ex- cess and caprice, or dulled by daily habits of superﬂuous indulgence. Where habits of in- dulgence are acquired, the only way to par- tially recover the true sense of taste to suit the appetite, is to fast for a short time or take con- siderably less than the usual amount of food, for days or weeks, until the appetite becomes decided in its character, and the sense of taste alive to what is suitable or otherwise. The balance can be easily restored by a little moderate feasting afterwards, under the guid- ance of the appetite and its wayward help- meet, now in possession of her true senses, and able to discriminate between right and wrong. APPIAN, a Greek historian, born at Alex- andria, in Egypt. He removed to Rome in the reign of Trajan, and abode there till the death of Antoninus Pius. He was by profession an advocate, and at Rome he practised as such. He also ﬁlled the oﬂice of procurator, and had APPIANO ' charge of the imperial treasury. He wrote a Roman history in 24 books on a somewhat pe- culiar plan. Instead of arranging his facts in chronological order, he followed out to the end the history of the transactions of the Romans with each nation which they came in contact with and subdued, giving to the civil wars, from the time of the Gracchi to the downfall of the republic, a distinct division of his work. Eleven books of this history, together with some fragments, have come down to us. He had no claim to be classed as a writer with the great historians, whether Greek or Latin, who preceded him in the same ﬁeld, but his style is perspicuous and unaffected, and his work highly important as a repertory of information, much of which would be now sought in vain else- where. The best edition of the remains of Ap- pian’s Roman history is that of Schweighauser, 3 vols. 8vo, 1785. APPIAN WAY, the most celebrated of all the Roman roads, was ﬁrst constructed, Livy tells us, by Appius Claudius Caecus, censor, 313 B. C. It extended from Rome to Gapua, a dis- tance of 125 miles. Diodorus Siculus says that this work exhausted the public treasury, so ex- pensively was it constructed. It was afterward carried to Beneventum, and ﬁnally to Brandi- sium, which town became the great stopping point for those who wished to cross over into Asia Minor. It is supposed that Appius Claudius Pulcher, consul and grandson of Oaecus, carried it on. It was in the whole 330 or 350 miles long, from 18 to 22 feet in width, with paths for foot passengers on each side, and, like the other Ro- . man roads, was built in the most durable manner, the roadway paved with large blocks of the hardest stone, ﬁtted with great exactness one to the other, so that it was like one solid rock. It was in perfect repair when Procopius wrote, in 430 A. D. Oaius Gracchus ﬁnally erected milestones along this road, and all the other highways running from Rome. APPIANI, ANDREA, an Italian painter in oils and fresco, born in Milan, May 2-3, 1754, died in 1818. He belonged to an old but im- poverished family, and was forced to commence the study of his art in the humble capacity of a scene painter, whence, probably, he derived his predilection for fresco painting, in which he surpassed all his contemporaries. His best fres- coes are in the royal palace at Milan, and the cupola of Santa Maria di S. Oelso. Apollo and the Muses in the Villa Bonaparte is also an ad- mirable specimen of his style. Napoleon and most of the members of the imperial family sat to him for their portraits, and he was appointed court painter, a position which he held until the return of the Bourbons. He was also a knight of the Legion of Honor, and- of the order of the Iron Grown. An attack of apoplexy, in 1813, rendered him so helpless that he was obliged to sell his drawings and other valuables, and he died, in great poverty, by a second attack. APPIANO. I. J ACOPO I. 1)’, founder of an Italian family which rose to the rank of sover- ' ror of Germany to assist in his restoration. APPIANO eign princes, and ruled over Pisa and Piombino from the 14th to the 17th century. He began his career by betraying his friend, Pietro Gam- bacorti, who was then chief magistrate of Pisa, and had appointed him chancellor of that re- public. Having attached himself to the Ghibel- line party, he conspired with Galeas Visconti, sovereign of Milan, excited, in 1392, a commo- tion in the streets of Pisa, during which he ef- fected the massacre of Gambacorti and his two sons, and in the midst of the popular consterna- tion assumed the title of sovereign of Pisa. He intrigued with Visconti against the Florentines, and succeeded only in drawing upon Pisa the arms both of Milan and Florence. He died, leaving his country to the misfortunes of an un- equal war, Sept. 5, 1398. ‘ II. Gnnnxnno 1)’, son and successor of the preceding. Having failed in an effort to make alliance with the Florentines, he sold Pisa to Visconti, duke of Milan, for 200,000 ﬁorins, reserving to himself only the sovereignty of Piombino and the isle of Elba. The maledictions of his fellow-citizens followed him to the island, whither he with- drew in 1399. His descendants preserved for 2 centuries the principality of Piombino, after which it was united to the crown of Naples. III. J AOOP0 III. 1)’, one of the line of sovereigns of Piombino, died in 1474. His violent and disorderly proceedings alienated the aifections of his subjects, but a conspiracy against him, though aided by Galeas Maria Sforza, duke of Milan, proved unsuccessful. Yet Jacopo was obliged to fortify himself in a citadel which he had already constructed, and soon after, to place himself under the protection of Ferdinand, king of Naples. He consented to receive a Ne- apolitan garrison in Piombino, and, in return, was permitted to join to his own name that of Aragon. IV. D’Agaaeona, JAOOPO IV. D’, son of the preceding, sovereign of Piombino, died in 1511. He married Vittoria, the daughter of the king of Naples, and took a command in the army directed by that prince and by Sixtus IV. against Lorenzo de’ Medici. He was taken prisoner by the Florentines and obliged to pay a ransom for his liberty. In 1501 Caesar Bor- gia took possession of Piombino, and J acopo in vain appealed to the king of France and empe- At length an insurrection of the people of Piombi- no drove out the troops of Borgia and gave back to J acopo his throne. V. D’Anaeoua, Jaooro V. 1)’, son and successor of the preced- ing, died in 1545. The sovereignty of Piembi- no was conﬁrmed anew to him by the emperor Charles V., with the right to place the imperial eagle among his arms. When, in 1539, the combined ﬂeets of France and England threat- ened Italy with invasion, Cosmo de Florence, who had been charged to defend the coast of Tuscany, wished to place a garrison in Piom- bino. J acopo, suspecting his intentions, refused to receive his troops, till 1543, when Barbaros- sa was in sight of Italy. VI. JAOOPO VII. 1)’, ‘the last sovereign of Piombino, and the last of APPLAUSE 715 the family of Appiano. The Emperor Rudolph II. had invested him anew with his states, but he died without posterity, and the principality has been from that time under Spanish and Neapolitan domination. - APPIUS GLAUDIUS. See OLAUDIUS. APPLAUSE (Lat. plaudare), a public ex- pression of approbation. One of the most as- tounding effects of applause on record is given by Plutarch in the life of Titus Quintius Flami- ninus, who beat Philip IV. of Macedon at Oynos- cephalae, and proclaimed freedom to the Greek cities at the Isthmian games. The applause of the Greeks on this occasion is thus described: “The shout which they gave in the transports of joy was so prodigious that it was heard as far as the sea. The hyperbolical accounts that have often been given of the effects of loud shouts were veriﬁed on that occasion. The crows which then happened to be ﬂying over their heads fell into the theatre. The break- ing of the air seems to have been the cause; for the sound of many united voices being vio- lently strong, the parts of the air were separa- ted by it, and a void is left which affords the birds no support. Or perhaps the force of the sound strikes the birds like an arrow and kills them in an instant. Or possibly a circular mo- tion is caused in the air, as a whirlpool is pro- duced in the sea by the agitations of a storm!” The Romans made an art of the act of applause; Suetonius describes 3 species of applauders. The Roman comedians always wind up their plays with a humble petition to the audience to ap- plaud. From the poet Propertius we learn that the audiences rose on many occasions, as is done in our days, chieﬂy during the singing of national anthems. Seneca speaks of the clap- ping of hands, and of the waving of robes, somewhat similar to the waving of handker- chiefs of admiring ladies of the present century. Tacitus makes a disparaging allusion to the bad taste of the people from the country, who, by their ill-timed demonstrations, broke the har-'-< mony of applause. The Romans had, as we have said above, 3 species of applause, viz. : Bombus, a confused din resembling the buz- zing of bees, made either by the hands or the mouth; and Imbrices and Testaz, by heating or sounding vessels placed in the theatres for this purpose, the ﬁrst producing a noise as startling as that of the dropping of rain upon roofs, and the latter assuming the im- pressive sound of a sudden and violent smash of crockery. The plausores or applauders were divided into chord, and disposed opposite to each other like the choristers in cathedrals. Hence there was a kind of concert of ap- plause, which was performed at the end of the play, the impulse to it being given by the chorus, or by the actors who spoke last by the words of spectatores plaudite or oalete at plaudits. There were professors who taught how to applaud skilfully, and who derived a considerable income from this source and from the remuneration which they received from 716 APPLAUSE ambitious authors for concocting a loud and general applause. Nero was a zealous patron and the chief originator of this system of arti- ﬁcial plaudits. When he became possessed with the mania of eliciting admiration from the highly cultivated Greeks, he accomplished his ob- ject by taking 5,000 well-drilled plausores with him, who kept up a roaring tempest of delight during the performance, in which their master took a part. The custom of applauding favor- ite preachers by boisterous demonstrations on the delivery of a striking passage, was so com- mon in the early ages of the church as to call forth the rebuke of Augustine and Chrysostom. Coming down to modern Europe we ﬁnd dif- ferent modes of applause characteristic of different nations. In Italy the applause is not frequent, but when bestowed it comes in a tor- rent of enthusiasm. Here and there, however, during the performance a gentle do capo, or da capo, bravo, or brass, may be whispered rather than uttered. In France the system of applause is much grosser. France has brought to perfec- tion the institution of hired applauders called claquewrs. These lead away the audience by that force of example which acts so powerfully upon the Latin nations. In France the favor- ite cry is bis, bis. In Germany the applause is frequent and hearty, but not generally graceful. There is no unity in it. It is only the very loftiest performance, such as Rachel’s declaim- ing the Marseillaise, or Devrient performing Egmont, or Wagner or Jenny Lind singing, that overpowers the Teuton’s sense of individ- uality, and makes the audience applaud lite- rally uno animo, and coca. In England, ap- plause is somewhat coarse and less discriminat- ing, but in other respects rather resembles the German. The favorite cry is encore. In Amer- ica, the applause resembles the English, only that words are less frequent and action more in favor ; except that in the lower theatres the boys in the galleries shout “ hi! hi! ” In England the favorite mode of cheering among school- boys, attenders of politicahmeetings, and pub- lic dinners, is the hip, hip, hurrah, with the hurrah 3 times repeated, which is called “ 3 cheers,” or 9 times repeated, which is “ 3 times 3,” concluding frequently with “one cheer more.” The man who gives the signal and utters the preliminary “hip, hip,” is the fu- gleman. In the British house of commons -the applause is mostly testiﬁed by the “ hear, hear, hear,” oftentimes repeated. In the French chamber of deputies, constituent assemblies, national conventions, or by whatever name these political bodies may be called, the cry is ban, bio-n, tres bvlen. Carlyle, in his “ Histo- ry of the French Revolution,” quoting Mont- gaillard as his authority, gives us a mournful glimpse of the shifts to which the constitution- al ministers of Louis XVI. were reduced in the winter of 17 91-’92 : “Nay, the king’s govern- ment did likewise hire hand-clappers or clay- ueurs, persons to applaud; 280 applauders at 3 shillings a day; the muster rolls and account APPLE books of which staff still exist. Bertrand Moleville, in a way he thinks very dexterous, continues to pack the galleries of the legisla- ture ; gets sans-culottes hired to go thither and applaud at a given signal, they fancying it was Petion that bid them; a device which was not detected for almostaweek. Dexterous enough; as if a man, ﬁnding the day fast declining, should determine on altering the clock hands.” APPLE (pg/rue malus of Linnaeus, natural family rosaoeee). The origin of the apple is not known. It is mentioned in the Bible, and is therefore supposed to be a native of Palestine. At the present day, in Canaan and surrounding countries, it is worthless as a fruit. Apples are imported into Egypt and Palestine from Da- mascus. Pliny mentions “ the crab, a wilding,” as having had “ many a foul and shrewd curse given it” on account of its sourness. From these facts, it is supposed that the apple of the Scriptures must have been a fruit differing from ours, since it was spoken of in connection with other choice fruits, and must have possessed good qualities itself. “Patrick’s Commentary” puts forth the idea that the word translated apple, means any fruit emitting fragrant odors. The parent of all our apples is said to be the wild crab of Europe. Whether this be true or not, no doubt all our esteemed varieties had their origin in the apples of the mother country. Pliny states that 22 varieties were known to the Romans. Over 200 are known to us, from which selections are made embracing varieties suited to special districts, since those proving most excellent in one locality may prove worth- less elsewhere. The rich soils of the western states yield apples unequalled in size, but infe- rior in quality to those produced on eastern limestone soils, or where vegetable matter forms a less considerable element, and red oxide of iron occurs more frequently. The P. coro- or American crab-apple is a sweet-scented fruit, about an inch in diameter, translucent, fragrant, and of a yellowish-green color; blos- soms few, large, rose-colored, occurring in May. Tree, 20 ft. high; native from western New York to Wisconsin, and southward. The P. rieularis, having a reddish-yellow fruit about the size of a cherry, which the Chenook Indians eat. The .P. angusttfolia or narrow-leaved crab, natural to the glades of Pennsylvania, thence south. None of our valuable varieties spring from these. The apple is a hardy, slow-growing tree, with an irregular head, rigid branches, roughish bark, strong, broad, green leaves of ﬁrm texture, wood close and ﬁne-grained, delighting in lime- stone soils and deep loams, resting on ridges with north or north-eastern exposures, or upon elevated table-lands. It does well on all soils free from excessive moisture, other than those of a peaty, or purely sandy character. The apple is tenacious of life—ﬁne specimens in this coun- try are now bearing fruit at 150 to 200 years old. The ﬁnest sorts last from 50 to 80 years. This fruit is more universally grown, and its uses better understood, than any other. The APPLE orchard products of the United States are stat- ed, in the census returns for 1850, to be worth $7 ,7 23,186, the greatest share of which are ap- ples. Five hundred thousand acres of land were then under orchard tillage, and there is no doubt that 200,000 have been added since that time, making a total of 700,000 acres of orchards. Millions of trees have recently been planted, yet the demand, for the fruit is in ad- vance of the supply. So superior is the fruit of our own country, that in Covent Garden market, London, it commands almost fabulous prices. The N ewtown pippin, Baldwin, spitzenberg, swaar, and other equally choice varieties, are highly esteemed for dessert. Roasted, boiled, made into jellies, tarts, pies, preserves, sauces, in the form of apple-butter, or the famous rai- siné of the French, the apple proves acceptable to all. The expressed juice of well-selected apples, properly prepared, forms a lively, spark- ling liquor, superior to many wines, but from its intense acidity, calculated to derange the strongest stomach. Very strong cider is made by allowing the water of the fermented juice to freeze, and drawing off the remainder. Pomo- na wine is made by adding 1 gallon of brandy to 6 of new cider, allowing the mixture to stand from 6 to 12 months, racking it off, and bottling for use. Cider-brandy is distilled from apple- juice. Verjuice is made from cgab apples, and is said to possess medicinal properties. The French use it for sauces, and purifying wax. Immense quantities of apples are pared and cut by machinery, dried in the sun, or slowly dried in ovens, furnishing an excellent article for sauces and pies. Drying by a gentle heat is to be preferred. Where exposed to the hot sun and dews, all the delicacy of ﬂavor is lost. A mixture of apple pulp and lard forms a sort of pomatum. The wood being ﬁne-grained, is of- ten stained black and used as ebony. It is also employed for the manufacture of shoe lasts, cogwheels, and some kinds of furniture. New and choice kinds of apples are derived from seeds planted to produce stocks. One stock in 10,000 may prove better than the original. Known varieties are perpetuated by layers, cut- tings, grafting, and budding—principally by the two latter methods. For descriptions of these operations, see ARBORIOULTURE.-——DW2tI‘f apple-trees are sometimes cultivated for orna- ment, as when planted for hedges, forming very beautiful ones, when properly selected with re- gard to color of blossoms, and fruit. They are also planted in limited grounds, for the produc- tion of a great variety of fruit in a narrow space. Many varieties grafted on the wild crab seedling do well, and become very dwarf. The French paradise apple is a small variety, and dwarfs kinds grafted on it, being less dwarf in its hab- its than the crab, and more so than the Dougain or English paradise stock, which is most fre- quently employed. In England and France, apples are trained, not only as dwarfs, but as espaliers, and balloon-shape. N 0 training is needed in our climate, as all varieties of apples 717 fruit perfectly without. Those who wish to pursue training as a matter of taste and en- riosity, are referred to French and English treatises on this subject. Thousands of acres of hilly land might be proﬁtably planted with the apple, where no other fruit would answer so well, and other crops are grown with diffi- culty. Deep limestone lands are the best. If the soil is not already rich, it should be made so, not by the use of forcing animal manures, but by the application of cold composts of ma- nure, muck, salt, lime, and ashes. The tree holes should be large and deep, replacing none of the uncongenial subsoil. After the tree is set at the depth it was in the nursery, cover the soil with loose rubbish to retain moisture, and over which, water or liquid manure may be poured, without danger of hardening the soil. The distance between the trees will be from 25 to 40 feet, according to variety. The soil should be constantly stirred, until the trees are several years established. If well manured with lime, ashes, and cold compost, the bark cleansed with alkaline washes, the decaying, weak, and interlacing branches annually removed, the or- chard will improve in quality, and constantly yield large crops of fruit. The apple will not ﬂourish on wet soils. The analysis of the apple made by Prof. Emmons, shows in 100 parts of the ash of sapwood 16 parts potash, 18 parts lime, 17 parts phosphate of lime; in 100 parts of the ash of apple bark, 4 parts potash, 51 parts lime; hence the plain necessity of furnishing a supply of these all-important mineral substances. The apple is not subject to disease. Now and then, a blackening of the terminal shoots or a slight rust of the leaf is to be observed. An enlargement of a limb, here and there, has lately been noticed, but not understood. In- sects of several kinds attack this fruit-tree. The borer (saperda Znjvittata), the woolly aphis, the caterpillar (angsopterix pometaria), the apple moth (cozpocapsa pomonanna), the bark louse (coccus), should be vigilantly warred against. The bark louse may be kept down by removing the dead bark from the tree, and washing with alkaline solutions. The borer may be attacked in this way at the time the eggs are deposited, afterward by a wire thrust into the hole he inhabits. The apple-moth is destroyed by gathering all the fallen apples, and feeding them to swine, or allowing the latter to run in the orchard, where they may feed on the apples as they fall, thus consuming the lar- vae before they have time to enter the earth. The caterpillar, by removing and burning their nests, or igniting them with a ﬂame from a camphene lamp, thrust among the branches by means of a long pole. A few years of attention on the part of every cultivator would soon rid us of these pests. Select varieties of apples for particular localities, must depend on their adaptation, which can alone be judged of by fair trials and comparisons made by the best pomologists. The national pomological cou- vention, instituted in 1850 by the lamented A. 718 APPLES OF SODOM J. Downing and others, has rendered excellent service. Inquirers are referred to the reports of that society, and the various excellent works on fruit culture. There are recommended, as worthy of general cultivation for summer use, the American summer pearmain, early harvest, early strawberry, large yellow-bough, red As- trachan, summer rose; for autumn use, the fall pippin, gravenstein, porter; for winter use, the Baldwin, bullock’s pippin, Danvers winter- sweet, fameuse, Hubbardson’s nonsuch, lady- apple, ladies’ sweet, melon, minister, Rhode Island greening, Roxbury russet, swaar, Van- dervere, white seek-no-further, Williams’s fa- vorite (except for light soils), wine-apple, or Hay’s wine-saps. . APPLES OF SODOM, a name given to fruit of rather fabulous properties, growing, or supposed to grow “ Near that bituminous lake where Sodom stood.” Its description by ancient writers, especially by Josephus, gives it many marvellous characters, such as that the fruit, on being plucked with the hands, is dissolved into smoke and ashes, although presenting a fair external appearance. Travellers have not been agreed in identifying the ancient descriptions with any one of the existing ﬂora of that region. A very general opinion, supported by Hasselquist, is that the “ apples of Sodom” are to be found in the fruit of the solanum melongena (nightshade), which he describes as ﬁlled with dust or ashes, or at least, that when punctured by a certain insect, as it frequently is, the whole interior of the fruit is converted into a ﬁne dust, leaving the rind entire in form and color. Hasselquist saw this plant in abundance in the vicinity of the Dead sea, and also at Ras el Ain, near Tyre. Robinson, in his “Biblical Researches” (1838), considers Hasselquist to be incorrect, and iden- tiﬁes the apple of Sodom with the asclepias gigantea eel procera. The Arabs call it osher. It is found in abundance on the shores of the Dead sea, and Robinson says that seeing the two (the osher and the nightshade) growing side by side, the former struck him at once, from its agreement with the ancient story, while the latter did not. He describes the osher as from 10 to 15 feet in height, having a grayish cork-like bark, oval leaves, ﬂowers similar to the silk-weed of the northern United States, and as discharging, like that plant, a milky fluid, when broken. The fruit resembles an orange in size and color, but when even very carefully touched, explodes like a bladder or puff-ball, leaving in the hands only a rind, and a few ﬁlaments by which the interior was traversed. This opinion seems to throw the apples of Sodom at length into the domain of science and fact. APPLETON, or GRAND CHUTE, a village of Wisconsin, capital of Outagamie county, on the N eenah or Fox river, near the rapids called the Grand Chute, 30 miles from the mouth of the river, and 4 miles from the foot of Winnebago lake. The river at this point descends about APPLETON 30 feet in the course of a mile and a half, af- fording immense water power, and by means of dams it is rendered navigable for steamboats through its whole course. Through the Fox and Wisconsin rivers, steam communication is maintained between Lake Michigan and the Mis- sissippi. Pop. in 1855, 4,474. APPLETON, DANIEL, the founder of the pub- lishing house of D. Appleton and Company, in New York, was born at Haverhill, Mass., in 1785, and died March 27, 1849. He commenced bu- siness as a general store-keeper, in his native place. He afterward removed to a larger busi- ness ﬁeld in Boston, and subsequently to New York. In the latter place he commenced the importation of English books, and in the course of years, by his energy of character, established one of the largest importing and publishing houses in the United States, which is now con- tinued by his sons. APPLETON, Jnssn, D.D., president of Bow- doin college, born at New Ipswich, N. H., Nov. 17, 1772, died at Brunswick, Me., Nov. 12, 1819. His father, being in narrow circum- stances, intended that-he should learn some trade, but he showed at an early age such a fondness for study, that this plan was abandon- ed, and after ﬁtting for college at the village academy, he entered Dartmouth college in 1788. There he made great proﬁciency in all branches of study, but particularly excelled in English composition, and in the classics. After graduating in 1792, he taught school for two years at Dover and Amherst, N. H., and then prepared himself for the ministry, under Dr. Lathrop of West Springﬁeld. He was licensed to preach in 1795, and in Feb. 1797, was or- dained as the pastor of a church in Hampton, N. H., where he remained 10 years, performing his clerical duties in the most acceptable man- ner, but still ﬁnding time, amidst his labors, for literary pursuits. He wrote many valuable ar- ticles for the earlier volumes of the “ Pan- oplist,” under the signatures of Leighton, and Owen, and was one of the founders of the Piscataqua “Evangelical Magazine.” He was at this time a trustee of Phillips academy at Exeter, and his advice, in that capacity, re- specting its management, was highly valued by the board. In 1803, when barely 30 years old, he was one of the prominent candidates for the oﬂice of professor of theology in Harvard university. In 1807 he accepted the presidency of Bowdoin college, and was installed in De- cember. In 1810 he received the degree of doctor of divinity from Harvard university. In the position which he had now assumed, Dr. Ap. pleton performed a prodigious amount of labor, as in addition to the duties appertaining to his office of president, he was often called upon to preach in the neighboring towns, beside which he preached before the Bible, missionary, education, and peace societies of Maine, the American board of foreign missions, the Massa- chusetts legislature, and numerous other public bodies. The effect of this over taxation of his APPLETON energies became visible in 1817, but he kept on in the discharge of his duties until the begin- ning of 1819, when his disease (an affection of the larynx) grew worse, and a visit to his friends at Amherst failed to beneﬁt him. On Oct. 12 he had a profuse hemorrhage, and died Nov. 12. He had six children, one of whom is the wife of the Hon. Franklin Pierce, late pres- ident of the United States. Dr. Appleton was universally beloved as a pastor, and very suc- cessful as the head of a college. He was a profound thinker, and his fondness for analyti- cal investigation shows itself in his published. works. These consist of several dedication, funeral, and ordination sermons, a sermon be- fore the Bath society for the suppression of vice, and several of his discourses before the associations and societies above mentioned. In 1820 a volume was published containing his inaugural address, and 11 annual addresses to the graduates of the college. In 1822 a volume of his lectures and occasional sermons was pub- lished. Among the topics discussed in these are human depravity, the eternity of future punishment, the demoniacs of the New Testa- ment, the evils of war, &c. APPLETON, SAMUEL, a wealthy and enter- prising merchant of Boston, remarkable for his generous philanthropy, born at New Ipswich, N. H., June 22, 1766, died in Boston July 12, 1853, aged 87. His father, Deacon Isaac Ap- pleton, was a highly respected citizen, and had 12 children, of which Samuel was the third. His opportunities for study were conﬁned to the district schools, and at the age of 17 he be- came himself a teacher. Soon after he became of age, he spent 2 summers in Maine, forming one of a party of young men engaged in set- tling a new township. Feeling that a. mer- chant’s life was more congenial to his tastes, he then entered a country store, but ﬁnding his sphere too limited, he came to Boston in 1794, and established himself in trade, with his brother Nathan. He was for many years a heavy importer of English goods, and at a later period largely engaged in the cotton manufac- ture. He accumulated wealth rapidly, and at his death his fortune amounted to nearly $1,000,000. But it is not as a successful mer- chant, but as ‘a benefactor of his species, con- spicuous for his muniﬁcent charities, that he chieﬂy challenges our regard. The amount of money which he gave away during his life nearly equalled that which he possessed at his death. Scarcely a day passed in which he did not contribute to some benevolent scheme, and he always desired to have an opportunity given him to subscribe. He was warmly at- tached to his native place, and endowed the academy there with a fund which secured its permanence. He founded the professorship of natural philosophy of Dartmouth college, with agift of $10,000. In his old age he became more and more absorbed with a desire to re- lieve the sufferings of the poor, and intrusted physicians and others with large sums for APPOMATTOX 719 that purpose. Mr. Appleton thought well of ' human nature, and the conﬁdence which he placed in the integrity of his customers was rarely abused. He cared little for sectarian differences, believing that the same fundamen- tal principles underlie all outward distinctions. Although not blessed with children, his mar- ried life was a singularly happy one. He gave his wife, by his will, property to the amount of $200,000, and placed an equal amount in the hands of his executors,“ to be by them applied, disposed of, and distributed, for scientiﬁc, literary, religious, and charitable purposes.” APPLING, a county in the S. E. part of Georgia. Area 1,060 square miles; the surface is level, and sandy; name derived from Col. Daniel Appling. In 1850 it produced 63 bales of cotton, 53,794 bushels of Indian corn, 2,038 of oats, and 35,234 of sweet potatoes. There were 17 churches, and 222 pupils attending public schools. Capital, Holmesville; popu- lation, 2,949, of whom 2,545 are free, and 404 slaves. APPODI, a river of Brazil, province of Rio Grande-de-Norte. It rises in lat. 6° 25’, ﬂows N. N. E., and after a course of 150 miles falls into the Atlantic in lat. 4° 32'. APPOGGIATO (It. appoggiare, to lean upon), is a musical term employed to denote emphasis, or, more commonly, a connected, gliding mode of delivery, in which every note leans, as it were, upon the other, without leaving any per- ceptible break. APPOGGIATURA, derived from the above, is a small note of embellishment, or fore-note, equivalent to either a half or a quarter of the note which it precedes, and whose value it re- duces to that extent. It serves to connect the larger intervals, and in bold, rapid movements, affords fuller scope for intonation and ﬂorid expression. The following illustration will show how it is written and how performed: W Performed. APPOMATTOX, a county of Virginia, S. E. of the centre of the state, bounded on the N. W. by James river, and drained by the sources of the Appomattox river, from which it is named, was set off from the adjoining counties in 1845. Its area is 260 square miles; its surface diver- siﬁed with ranges of mountains, and covered with forests, and its soil fertile. Tobacco, corn, wheat, oats, and butter, are its staples. It is intersected by the south side railroad (from Pe- tersburg to Lynchburg), and possesses one plank road. In 1850 it produced 186,855 bushels of Indian corn, 76,345 of wheat, 92,116 of cats, 964,100 lbs. of tobacco, and 83,299 of butter. There were 22 churches, and 361 pu- pils attending public schools. In 1850 its real estate was assessed at $1,091,671, in 1856 at $1,481,398, showing an increase of 35 per cent. Capital, Clover Hill; pop. in 1850, free 720 APPOMATTOX RIVER 4,209, free colored 185, slaves 4,’? 99, total , . APPOMATTOX RIVER rises in Appomat- tox and Prince Edward’s counties, and after ﬂowing east-wardly 120 to 150 miles, forming the boundary of several counties, empties into James river at City Point. It has a narrow and deep channel, and is navigable for vessels of 100 tons to Petersburg, about 20 miles from its mouth, and the head of tide-water. By going by a canal round the falls at Petersburg, bat- teaux, and even vessels of 4 or 5 tons, ascend to Farmville, some 80 to 100 miles farther up. APPON Y, correctly Arronrr, a Magyar family, eminent in the history of their country from the 13th century. The family is divided into 2 branches. During the last three-quarters of a century the Apponys of the elder branch have been prominent in public life, especially in diplomacy.——AN'roNY, Count Appony, born in 1782, early entered the diplomatic service of Austria, and became one of the conﬁdential agents of Prince Metternich. From .1826 to 1849 he was Austrian ambassador at Paris. His name was thus connected with the mo- mentous events occurring during that period. One of his sons follows the same career, and already occupies an eminent position. During the revolution of 1848-’50, the Apponys were the leaders of the aristocratic conservative party in Hungary, and unﬂinching in their de- votion to the Hapsburgs. APPRAISEMEN T (Fr. appréaier or ap- praiser, to set a price upon), a valuation of property by persons authorized to make it by the law or by stipulation between the parties. In England, appraisers by profession, generally brokers of household furniture, exist, who can act only when licensed. Goods seized for non- payment of rent cannot be sold there until an appraisement shall have been made. The 3 principal kinds of appraisement known to American law, are: of the inventoried proper- ty of decedents and insolvents; of property taken for public use; and of real estate seized upon execution. The mode of appointing appraisers, the proper course for them to pursue, and the consequences of their action, vary in different states. The greatest diversity of practice ob- tams with regard to the last of the three men- tioned. Under some statutes the creditor may enforce a sale of his debtor’s lands without a previous appraisement; under others, an ap- praisement is a necessary prerequisite. In some states, land once sold on execution is irredeem- able by the debtor; in others, he has a right to redeem it within a reasonable period, 6 months or a year, at the appraised value, with interest. There are states where the creditor has no right to sell upon execution, but may take the property of his debtor in payment so far as it goes, at two-thirds of the appraised value; in case of refusal the levy is discharged, and the creditor must pay costs». Such legislation, as operating to obstruct the execution of civil process, and to make land a legal tender in pay- APPRENTICE ment of debts, would seem to contravene those provisions of the constitution which forbid the enactment of a law impairing the obligation of contracts, or making any thing but gold and silver a tender for the payment of debts. As regards existing contracts at the time of their enactment, some of these laws have been held unconstitutional upon the ﬁrst ground ; but we are not aware that the other question has ever been raised in the courts. To settle private controversies, or to ﬁx the value of property, the sale of which is under negotiation, ap- praisers are often selected by the parties. APPRENTICE (Fr. apprend-re, to learn), a person bound to service for a term of years, and receiving in return for such service in- struction in his master’s business. Appren- ticeship, which would seem to have been un- known among the ancients, had its origin in the system of associated trades, which prevailed in almost all parts of Europe in the middle ages. Those only who were free of the fraternity of a trade were allowed to exercise it; and the usual, if not the indispensable, mode of acquir- ing this freedom was through an apprenticeship to a member of the body, for a time, and under regulations, varying in different towns, and in different trades in the same town. In some instances the rules designed to limit the num- bers of the fraternity were so strict as to pro- hibit the master from taking any apprentice but his own son. In France, the apprentice, after having served in that capacity from 3 to 8 or 10 years, served as a journeyman, called the compagnon of his master, a number of years more, after which he was entitled to admission as a master into the comm/anauté, or corps de marchands, if the che]“-d’cemrre, which he was re- quired to deliver to the jwrande, wardens of the company, showed him to be a proﬁcient in his art. Sons of merchants living with their fa- thers until they were 17 years old were entitled to the privileges of those who had served their apprenticeship. These companies were abol- ished at the revolution, but the contract of ap- prenticeship, although no longer imperative, is still frequently entered into in France, and there are statutes regulating the rights and du- ties of the parties to it. In Germany, where the system exists to the present day, in a more or less modiﬁed form, the term of apprenticeship, Lehrjahre, is generally about 7 years, but some- times less. The apprentice, after serving for the prescribed term, becomes a Gesell, like theFrench oompagnon, and is entitled to receive from the guild a general letter of recommendation, armed with which he commences his travels. Being recognized and employed by his brethren of the same craft, he works his way from town to town, and on returning with certiﬁcates of good conduct during his Wanderjahre is entitled to be- come a master. Goethe has given this system immortality in Wilhelm Meister. In Italy the con- tract of apprenticeship resembled that in use in England. In Scotland and Ireland the regulations regarding it were never rigorous, and those exist- APPRENTIOE ing in the latter country were early superseded by English laws designed to encourage immi- gration.—-In the 12th century guilds were form- ed in England, and shortly afterward, without doubt, apprenticeships came into vogue, al- though there is no notice of them in the stat- utes until the year 1388. Previously to that time, however, the word is found upon the stat- ute-book in connection with the practice of the law. Those members of the profession who are now known as barristers, were called until near the close of the 16th century apprenticii ad le- gem or ad bar/ras (apprentices at the law or bar of court), being considered learners until they were of 16 years’ standing, when they became- seroientes ad legem (sergeants), and were quali- ﬁed to execute the full oﬁice of an advocate. The suitor was,.called the client of the sergeant, but the master of the apprentice at the law. The London apprentices, many of whom were of high birth, or had wealthy masters, formed an important body and ﬁgure in history, partic- ularly during the time of the civil wars. The term of apprenticeship was ﬁxed at 7 years, which had been the ordinary period of service previously, by a statute passed in the reign of Elizabeth. The institution became so wide- spread that acts designed to limit the number of apprentices were passed, and the courts showed no favor to the laws which recognized and supported the relation, but restricted their operation to trades existing at the time of their passage--a doctrine which, while giving rise to some absurd anomalies, exempted most of the large manufacturing towns from the operation of the act of Elizabeth. In 1813 numerous pe- titions for the repeal of this statute were pre- sented, and shortly afterward, apprenticeship, as a necessary means of access to a trade, was abolished. It still exists, however, as a volun- tary contract, creating similar rights and duties -_ between the parties, and attended by similar in- cidents with those created by the statutes of most of the United States. By the general law of England and America infants may be bound by deed of their own free will, and by their own act, with the consent of their father, moth- er, or guardian, or by certain classes of public oﬁicers, where there is no guardian, or the child is a pauper, to a term of service in any business until the age of 21 years in the case of a male, or of 18 in the case of a female. In indent- ures by public officers, a covenant requiring the child to be instructed in some or all of the com- mon English branches is usually inserted, anda way is prescribed for the redress of grievances on both sides. Provisions have been made in the legislation of England and in many of the United States, regulating the character and amount of the work put upon the apprentice by the mas- ter. It is the better doctrine that a contract of apprenticeship is not assignable or terminable without the consent of all the parties to it. As no special form of indenture is prescribed, the parties vary the covenants to suit themselves. In England the apprentice pays the master a v0L. I.-46 APRAXIN 721 certain sum for taking him; in this country, as a general thing, nothing is paid. Sometimes the apprentice pays for his own board and lodging; sometimes an allowance for this is made. In the New England states farmers often take ap- prentices in husbandry, to whom they agree to give certain perquisites, such as a suit of clothes every year and a sum of money at the termina- tion of the connection. In some trades wages are paid for work during the later years of service, and implements of trade granted at parting. APPROXIMATION, in mathematics, signi- ﬁes an approach to exactness, which may be carried to any required degree. It may be il- lustrated by the decimal fraction .3333, &c., which becomes the more nearly equal to Q; the further the row of ﬁgures is carried out. Meth- ods of approximation are among the most im- portant practical results of modern mathemat- ics, and play a striking part in the intricate cal- culations of astronomy. Approximation is most frequently employed where exact results are un- attainable. The rule of false or double position in arithmetic is one of the most general and valuable processes of approximation. APRAXIN. I. Fnnon, a Russian grand admi- ral, born of an eminent Russian noble family of Tartar origin, in 1671, died Nov. 10, 1728. He was one of the leading men of the reign of Peter the Great, and is especially remarkable as the cre- ator of the Russian navy. During the war be- tween Sweden and Russia he expelled the Swedes from Ingermanland, in 1710 conquered Viborg in Karelia, and when war with Tur- key broke out, in 1711, he commanded in the Black sea. In 1713 he attacked Finland from the sea, and fearfully devastated the shores of Sweden, destroying hundreds of villages, many towns, and iron-works. These devastations obliged Sweden to sue for peace, which was concluded at N ystadt in 1721. He accompa- nied Peter in his warlike expedition against Persia, and served on the Gaspian sea. He al- ways enjoyed the greatest conﬁdence of Peter, though ﬁrmly opposed to his reforms. II. STE- PHEN Fnnoaownson, grandson of the former, died Aug. 31, 1758. When young he served in the army of Mfmich against the Turks, rose rapidly, and, returning to the court of the Empress Eliz- abeth, distinguished himself by his decided op- position to the policy of the king of Prussia and his diplomatic adherents, including Count l’Es- torg, the favorite of the empress. At the be- ginning of the 7 years’ war Apraxin, with the rank of ﬁeld-marshal, commanded an army against Frederic II. In May, 17 57, he invaded Prussia, took Memel, advanced into the interi- or, destroying every thing by sword and ﬁre, and, on August 30,won the battle of Grossagern- dorff against the Prussian general Lewald.- In- stead, however, of marching on Berlin, to which capital the road was open, Apraxin retreated to Gourland, having, as it is pretended, received news of the sickness of the empress Elizabeth, and having conspired with the grand chancellor 722 APRICOT Bestusheif to raise to the throne her grand- nephew Paul, over the head of his father, Pe- tor III. After the recovery of the empress, Apraxin was tried by court-martial, but died in prison before the conclusion of the trial. APRICOT, a well-known fruit, cultivated in the temperate regions of Europe, Asia, and America. It is said to be a native of Armenia, its Latin name being Armemlaca. It is cultivated as a standard tree, and also on walls, where the heat of the sun is otherwise insuﬂicient. The fruit of the standard trees is better in ﬂavor than that of wall trees. The rules for training the apricot are similar to those for training the peach. APRIES, a king of Egypt, the Hophra of the Bible, and the Vaphes of Manetho, was the 7 th king of the 26th Egyptian dynasty, and succeed- ed his father Psammis about 593 B. C. Herod- otus tells us that he conquered the Tyrians in a naval battle at Sidon, and reéstablished Egyp- tian power over Syria. He was defeated in an attempt upon Greece. His subjects revolted and made Amasis king ; a contest followed be- tween the two; Amasis was successful, and Apries was strangled, 570 B. C. APRIL, the 4th month of the year, consisting of 30 days. With the Romans it was the 2d month of the year. Julius Caesar added the 30th day to it. In the time of Nero it was called Neroneus. It is supposed to be derived from aperire to open, because the buds open themselves at this period. In the Athenian calendar, the latter portion of Elaphebolion and the greater part of Munychion correspond to April. Charlemagne, in his new calendar, called it grass month, the name still given to it by the Dutch. Romme’s French revolutionary calendar merged it into the greater portion of Germinal and the commencement of Floreal. On antique monuments, Aprilis is represented as a dancing youth with a rattle in his hand. APRIL CEREMONIES. The ﬁrst of April is called in the English language April fool’s day, but the custom of sending people on empty errands and laughing at them, is common in every country of Europe, and wherever the European races have settled on this continent. Two accounts are given of its origin. The oriental scholars say that it is derived from the hula? feast among the Hindoos, where a similar custom prevails. The older opinion is that it comes from a celebration of Christ’s being sent about to and fro between Herod, Pilate, and Caiaphas. In France the fooled man is called poisson 0Z’a/vrz'Z, meaning a silly ﬁsh, like a mackerel, easily caught. In Scotland he is called gowk, which means a cuckoo. A PRIORI, A POSTERIORI, are adverbial expres- sions used to denote different logical processes and modes of induction. They are as old as Aristotle. A prion‘ is said of reasoning from cause to effect, a posteriori from the effect up- ward to the cause. They are used also with reference to ideas; those which are founded on intuitive perception, such as the differences of ALTHORP time and space are a priori; those founded on experience, such as the deductions of physical or historical research, are a posteriori. APROSIO, LUIGI, known also as Father Vin- timille, an Augustine monk and author, born in 1607, died Feb. 23, 1681. In 1639 he was ap- pointed professor of belles-lettres, at the con—- vent of St. Stephen in Venice, and subsequently vicar-general of Santa Maria della Consolazione. He possessed a ﬁne library, was an elegant scholar, and well versed in the art of reading cipher. Although an industrious writer, he left comparatively few works. APSHERON, or ABOHERON, a peninsula in the Russian dominions, extending into the Gas- pian sea, lat. 40° 32' N. long. 50° 12’ E. Its soil yields sulphur and inﬂammable gas, and it is famous as the place of the sacred ﬂame so venerated by the ﬁre-worshippers of Asia. It affords large quantities of black and white naphtha, and annually furnishes for export, saf- fron, madder, and salt, from the port of Bakoo, on its south coast. APSIDES, the ends of the longest diameter of the orbit of a planet, moon, or comet; that is, the points of perihelion and aphelion in a planet’s, of apogee and perigee in the moon’s orbit. These points move slowly forward in the same direction that the revolving body moves. The earth, therefore, in going from apogee to apogee, that is, in an anomalistical year, 365d. 6h. 13m. 46s., makes more than a complete revolution round the sun. APSLEY RIVER, East Australia, rises near latitude 31° S. and long. 151° 40' E., ﬂows east- ward, and enters the ocean at McLeay river. APSLEY STRAIT, Timor sea, off the north coast of Australia, between Melville and Ba- thurst island, length 46 miles. A now aban- doned British settlement was made on this strait in 1824. APT, a town of France, department of Van- cluse. It is enclosed by old walls, and has many Roman antiquities, manufactures of wool- len and cotton fabrics, and earthenware. It was embellished by Caesar. APTERAL (Gr. a priv. and m-epov, a wing), an architectural term, used particularly with reference to the temples of the ancient Greeks and Romans. It is applied to buildings which have no lateral columns, but may have porticoes of columns projecting from their ends; that is, to buildings which are prostyle or amphipro- style, and opposed to peripteral. The Greek temples were for the most part peripteral, as the parallelogrammic temples of the Romans were generally apteral prostyles. The latter have been much more frequently followed in modern churches and ediﬁces. APTHORP, EAST, a clergyman of the church of England, eminent as a writer, born at Boston in 1733, died at Cambridge, Eng- land, April 16, 1816. After completing his studies at Jesus college, Cambridge, he was sent as a missionary to Cambridge, Mass., by the society for propagating the gospel in foreign APTITUDE parts, in 1761, where, after a time, he became involved in a controversy with Dr. Mayhew, concerning the aims and acts of that society, which made him very unpopular, and ended in his returning to England, where he preached for many years. Among his published writings is an answer to Gibbon’s theory of the causes of the spread of Christianity. APTITUDE, ﬁtness, tendency, disposition. This word is adopted from the French, in which language it is applied to persons, to denote their natural or acquired ﬁtness for peculiar functions, occupations, positions, or professions. It is derived from the Lat. aptus, signifying ﬁt for, inclined to, qualiﬁed for, ready, quick, and apt. An apt scholar means a person who learns easi- ly, willingly, and well, compared with one who studies unwillingly, and learns imperfectly. Aptitude, properly deﬁned, refers to vocation. Social, political, and religious life, industrial, commercial, artistic, and scientiﬁc developments, consist of an extensive variety of functions and occupations, professions and vocations. Some persons are born with natural aptitudes for one vocation, some for another; some have natural aptitudes for industry or commerce, others for art or science, poetry or eloquence, painting, mu- sic, mathematics, chemistry, or natural philoso- phy. Some have natural aptitudes for civic life, political intrigue and government, military con- quest and adventure, dramatic representation, or religious ministration, and the propagation of the faith.-—Men of genius in every line are those who have the highest degrees of aptitude for the vocations in which, respectively, they stand preéminent in history. Many persons are obliged to learn professions, and occupy positions, for which they have no natural apti- tude; they learn against the grain, and do im- perfectly, without attraction for the work, or in- terest in the calling, that which others in the same vocation, who have natural attractions for the work, do well, and easily, and pleasantly, both to themselves and to the world at large. There are good and bad husbandmen, good and bad housewives, good and bad tradesmen, good and bad artists, good and bad preachers, teach- ers, governors, physicians, soldiers, poets, ora- tors, and writers. Not that nature made mis- takes in giving or withholding aptitudes for every vocation; but man has not yet learned to give to every man and woman such an edu- cation as develops every natural aptitude, and such a liberty of choice in occupation or voca- tion, as shall ultimately put “ the right man in the right place ” in all professions, functions, and positions.—Many men have military aptitudes and instincts, but few are Alexanders, Caesars, and Napoleons; many have the gift of oratory, but few are marked in history as Demosthenes, Cicero, Mirabeau, Sheridan, Patrick Henry, and Daniel Webster. Many have natural ap- titudes for dramatic display, and even attain to much perfection in the art, but Garrick, Talma, Kemble, Mrs. Siddons, Rachel, and Ristori, shine forth as stars of the ﬁrst magnitude in APULIA the history of dramatic eminence. Aptitudes and genius, therefore, belong to the same order of distinctions in human nature, but the latter, only, holds the highest rank, while all the lower and the intermediate degrees are ﬁlled natu- rally by the former. A man or woman may, however, have more aptitudes than one, and these of different degrees of power; and those who have great genius in one, may be inapt, and even below mediocrity in almost every vo- cation but the one in which they are preemi- nent. A lion may be powerful and strong, but he cannot charm the world as a nightingale; nor can a grave philosopher delight the world as much as a bright dancing girl or Jenny Lind. Wisdom is justiﬁed of all her children,_and God has endowed man with natural aptitudes for every legitimate vocation. These apti- tudes, however, often lie uncultivated, as herbs, and weeds, and animals run wild in prairies, forests, marshes, and deserts on the globe, with here and there a garden, and a cornﬁeld, a park, and running stream, to show what man can do when natural aptitudes within are duly educated and applied. APULEIUS, the greatest of the Roman Pla- tonists, was born in the 2d century of our era, about the time of Antoninus Pius, at Madaura, in Africa. His mother was a descendant of Plutarch. His learning seems to have been va- rious; for after speaking of having mastered the primary branches of study, he. says: “ But I drank of other cups beside these, at Athens; of poetry, the fabulous; of geometry, the lim- pid; of music, the sweet; of dialectic, the rough and unpleasant; and of universal phi- losophy, the never-satisfying and nectareous cup.” His desire to become acquainted with all the mysteries of philosophy and religion prompted him to undertake many journeys, which consumed his fortune. Coming to Rome, he was obliged to sell his clothes in order to obtain the sum necessary for his initiation into the service of Osiris. He soon repaired his fO1‘l3l1I16 by marriage with a rich widow, whose relations instituted legal proceedings against him, alleging that he had used magic to win her property and affections. But in his de- fence, Apuleius satisﬁed the judges that a widow of 14 years’ standing needed not the constraint of magic, in taking a husband younger than herself. The most celebrated of the numerous works of Apuleius, is the “Metamorphosis, or Golden Ass,” a philosophical romance, writ- ten, according to Warburton, to ridicule Chris- tianity. But the more probable design of the author was to show, under the guise of alle- gory, that a voluptuous life leads to bestiality; from which a man can be lifted only by culti- vating virtue and religion. His writings on ethics and metaphysics are a good epitome of the works of Plato. But the development of that philosopher’s more profound doctrines was reserved for subsequent inquirers. APULIA, a province of south-eastern Italy, situated between what has been called the spur 723 ‘ 724 and the heel of the boot, to which the penin- sula has been compared; the former consisting of the mountainous promontory of Garganum, now Monte Gargone, to the north of the Sinus Urias--gulf of Manfredonia—and that of Iapy- gium, now Capo Leuca. It is now called La Puglia, and is a constituent portion of the kingdom of Naples. Of its original inhab- itants, the Apuli, little or nothing is known; but it appears that, in its early stage, it was but a small province, lying between the Ager Frentanus and the province of Daunia; and.as such it is described by Strabo and Pliny. In its largest extent, as it was understood by the Romans, it extended from the river Tifernus on the Frentanian, or north-western ﬁontier, to the river Bradanus on the Lucanian, or south- ern side; was divided from Samninm by a line, from head-water to head-water of these two rivers, and embraced all the Adriatic sea-coast, for above 4 degrees in length, including the two promontories and the waters of the gulf named above, as well as the whole eastern shore-line of the gulf of Otranto. It contained, there- fore, in this tract, the countries of Daunia, Peucetia, Calabria, Messapia, and the Salentini. This district was early settled from Greece, and formed a part of what was known as Magna Graecia; as is indicated by the tradition that Diomed, the son of Tydeus, settled on its coasts after the Trojan war, and was treacherously murdered by Daunus, king of the Daunians, whom he had aided against his enemies, the Messapii. The whole of this part of Italy was known to the Greeks as Iapygium, from Tapyx, the west-wind, which blew over it to the Hel- lenic shores; a name which seems never to have been known to the Romans, more than was that of Apulia .to the Greeks. It was very fertile, and famous for the quality of its wool, especially that of the province of Luceria. Its principal rivers were the Tifernus, Cerbalus, Auﬁdus, and Bradanus, now the Tiferno, Cer- varo, Ofanto, and Brandano, and its most con- siderable towns, Arpi, Luceria, and Arpinum, of which scarcely a relic at this time remains; indeed, the country is little better than a fertile desert, and is said to contain, to-day, more sheep than it does men.—So late as the second Punic war, the Greek colonies were both pow- erful and populous, in this quarter of Italy; APULIA land it was here—-owing, perhaps, to the scarce- ly extinguished enmity of the population to their Roman masters——that occurred most of the events of the second Punic war. It was here, on the banks of the Auﬁdus, that was fought the dreadful battle of Cannae, the sever- est defeat that ever Rome endured, during her years of greatness. It was here, in the town of Canusium, that, when all the noblest of the young ofﬁcers who had escaped that carnage were resolved to forsake their country, as already fallen, and sell their swords to the highest bidder, Publius Cornelius Scipio, the future conqueror of Hannibal, conﬁrmed their wavering courage, and forbade them to despair AQUA of the republic. It was here, not far removed from the scene of his mightiest triumph, that, as the great Carthaginian lay in his lines, ex- pecting the arrival of his brother Hasdrubal with reinforcements, that brother’s bleeding head was thrown into his trenches, telling him that the last hope of Carthage was at an end. Lastly, it was on the highlands of this Apulia that his eyes rested, amid their tears, for the last time, as he sailed from the shores of that Italy which he had held for 15 years as a con- queror, to ﬁght his last battle for Carthage, on her own soil, and in vain.—Next to her share in the Punic wars, Apulia has to boast that she gave birth to the poet Horace, who was a na- tive of Venusium, on the banks of the Auﬁ- dus, and who has recounted, in lyric verse, many of the passages of his childhood and youth before he visited imperial Rome; how that “ the wood-doves covered him with fresh leaves, when he had fallen asleep, a child, on Mt. Vultur in Apulia;” and how “the wolf ﬂed from him, although unarmed, while cele- brating the charms of Lalage, in the beech- woods of Dannie.” Apulia, during the period of the decline and fall, shared the fortunes of the western empire. During the middle ages, it was the scene of many of the exploits and adventures of the Normans of Aversa. APURE, a river of Venezuela, having its source in the eastern chain of the Andes, near St. Christopher, and passing through the plains of Oaraccas in a N. E. direction, uniting with the Orinoco, of which it is an important tributary, in lat. 7° 36’ N. long. 66° 36’ W., at a height of only 224 feet above the sea level. According to Humboldt, its mean descent is about 14 inches to the mile; but the current in the lower part of its course is hardly perceptible, and any rise in the waters of the Orinoco causes it to overﬂow its banks. The lands thus overﬂowed yield, after the water has retired, a rich and excellent pasturage. steamboat company have obtained from the Venezuelan congress the exclusive privilege of navigating the Apure. APURIMAC RIVER, called also the Uoayali, one of the principal sources of the Amazon, rises by several branches in the Andes, at a distance of not more than 50 miles from the Paciﬁc coast. Its most southern tributary, the Rio Chava, according to Lieut. Gibbon, rises near Caillomas inv S. Peru, lat. 15° 20’ S. long. 71° 15’ W. Its northernmost aﬂiuent, the Rio Jauja, rises in lat. 11° 20’ S. long. 76° 5’ W., at a distance of only about 60 miles from Lima. After the union of several of these tributaries, its course -is northward, for nearly 400 miles,. -when it turns to the N. E. and unites with the Beni, another of the sources of the Amazon, and the two, aﬁzer receiving several other streams of considerable size, form the Grand Para, which, after a northerly course, unites with the Amazon, in lat. 4° 30’ S. long. 73° 20' W. AQUA, the -Latin word for water; a favor- The Orinoco ' AQUA rosxnn ite preﬁx of the old alchemists to -various ﬂuid mixtures, as aqua-fortis, now called nitric acid; aqua-regia, the mixture of nitric and muriatic acids, used to dissolve gold, the king of the metals, now called nitro-muriatic acid, or nitro- chlorohydric acid; aqua-cites, now alcohol ; aqua-marine is an old name given to a ﬁne variety of beryl from their color resembling the green of sea water. Pliny speaks of them as those gui oiriditatem puri maria imitantur. The chemical symbol used to designate water is Ag., and also H. O., the latter indicating its composition, viz., 1 atom of hydrogen and 1 of oxygen. AQUA TOFANA (aqua olella Toﬁanina), a secret poison employed in Italy during the last half of the 17 th century, and said to have been ﬁrst invented by a woman named Tofana. Tofana appears to have been a native of Pa- lermo in Sicily, but afterward removed to Naples, where she exercised her criminal art on a large scale, and whence the poison derived one of its names, aguetta di Napoli. After a long impunity, suspicion being‘ aroused, Tofana was arrested by order of the viceroy and thrown into prison. The date andmanner of her death are uncertain; according to Labat, a French traveller, about the year 1709 she was seized in a convent in which she had taken refuge, and having, on being tortured, confessed her crimes, she was strangled in prison. On the other hand, Keysler, a German traveller, says he saw her in prison at Naples, a little old woman, in 1730. The poison was put up in small phials, labelled “manna of St. Nicholas of Bari,” with an image of the saint on one side. Incredible and ‘contradictory accounts are given of its nature and effects; it is most probable that it was essentially a strong watery solution of arsenic obtained by long boiling. The use of such an article, even in the dose of 5 or 6 drops, frequently repeated for a length of time, would cause death with many of the symptoms ascribed to the aqua Tofana. At present the symptoms would at once excite suspicion, and modern chemistry would with unerring certainty detect the poison; but in the 17th century, with no means of such detection, it _is not wonderful that it was a long time used without discovery, and that deaths were often attributed to it, with which it had nothing to do. AQUAMBOE, or AKAMBO, a petty kingdom of Africa, Upper Guinea, eastof the river Volta. It has a town of the same name. AQUAPIM, a maritime state of Africa, upper Guinea, forming the northern border of the gulf of Guinea, in lat. 60° and long. 0. It con- tains an indolent population, who. cultivate very little of their district, which is very fertile in- land, but live mostly on yams and ﬁsh. Gold dust and palm oil are obtained here. AQUARIANS. I. Those who, from scruples against the use of wine, were in the habit of con- secrating water for sacramental purposes. The tendency to those ascetical views of life, so early manifest in Christian ethics, and which culmi- AQUATIC ANIMALS 725 nated in the rigid monasticism of the 9th century, was received into Christianity through the Ori- ental Gnosticism, and ﬁrst into the Antiochene theology. Gnosticism had taken rank hold in Christian philosophy as early as_ the 1st century. According to the dualistic theory of the Gnos- tic philosophy, the material world was the cre- ation of an evil power.. To crucify the ﬂesh, with its affections and lusts, became a very lit- eral and intense duty, involving such mortiﬁca- tion of all physical passions as would most effectually deliver the individual from the power of this evil creator. Out of this ascetic view of life springs Aguarianism, among a mul-T titude of similar manifestations. The Aquarians were also called Erwratites and Hgd/ropa/rustatw, because they offered water. They are to be referred to the 2d century for their origin, and to Tatian, a disciple of Justin Martyr, as their founder. II. There was also another body of Christians having their origin about the same time, known as Aquarians. They used water in the sacrament, not from princi- ple, but from policy. During the Roman per- secution of Christians, when they were under the necessity of preserving secrecy, many Chris- tian disciples would not use wine in the morn- ing sacrament, for fear of being detected by its odor, while they made no scruples of using it in the evening. These politic Aquarians of course ceased to exist, with the civil tolerance under Constantine. Ascetic Aquarianism, on the other hand, though not distinctly appearing as the symbol of any sect after the close of the 4th century, has nevertheless perpetuated itself in the sentiment of many Christians up to this day, who have scrupled to use fermented liquors in the sacrament. AQUARIUS, THE WATERBEARER, is the sign of the zodiac into which the sun enters about the 20th of J anuary,—so named either from Gany- mede, J ove’s new cupbearer, or more probably from the season, when the sun is in that sign, being rainy. It is designated by .73’. Aquarius is also the name of that constellation which was in the sign Aquarius at the time that the signs were named, but which, by the precession of the equinoxes, now occupies the next sign, as, Pisces. A similar equivoque occurs with each sign of the zodiac. AQUATIC ANIMALS are those which live in water altogether, , or frequent the water con- stantly in quest of food. There are numerous tribes of aquatic animals in each of the 4 realms or departments of the animal king- dom. One whole class of vertebrata, the ﬁshes, live entirely in the water; and many tribes of birds and reptiles are aquatic in their habits and organic conformation, seeking food and pleasure in or on the water. Several tribes of the mammalian class are also aquatic ani- mals, some living entirely in the water, as the whales and dolphins, while others frequent the Water for subsistence, as the otter and the bea- ver. Many tribes of the articulata, as the crabs and lobsters, shrimps and prawns, are 726 aquatic animals; and most of the mollusca, oysters, clams, &c., are aquatic. The radiata, also. consist mainly of aquatic tribes; and al- together the inhabitants of water may be much more numerous than those of land; ‘but the popular term aquatic animal is not so much applied to ﬁshes and such animals as live and breathe entirely in the water, as to those which live on land and breathe the-air, although they ﬁsh in water for their daily food, and in organic conformation, are especially adapted for aquatic habits and pursuits. Those which live entirely in water, and breathe air, as the cetaceous ani- mals, are commonly called ﬁsh, although they are, in fact, mammaliari aquatic animals.—The element in which animals habitually live, or to which they resort for the purposes of procuring food or seeking shelter, is intimately connected with their outward forms and internal struc- ture, as well as with their habits and economy; and Aristotle made this a leading principle of classiﬁcation. “Animals,” he says, “may be distributed into different classes according to their manner of living, their actions, their char- acter, and their parts. Considered according to their manner of living, their actions, and their character, they are divided into terrestrial and aquatic. The aquatic are divided into 2 classes: the one, as is the case with many ﬁshes, pass their whole life in the water, breathe that element, and ﬁnd their food in it; nor do they ever leave it: the others obtain their food in the water, and habitually reside in it, but they do not breathe it; they breathe air, and bring forth their young on dry land. Among the latter, some are provided with feet, and walk upon dry land; others have wings and ﬂy; and others, like the water-serpent, have no feet. Aquatic animals inhabit seas, lakes, rivers, and marshes.”——Since the time of Aris- totle much more deﬁnite views of aquatic an- imals have been given to the world. Organic structure is now minutely studied in rela- tion to the habits and the habitat of animals. Those which reside entirely in the water, and seek their food and produce their young in that element, have their organization strictly adapted to these purposes and these condi- tions. The extremities by which the acts of walking and ﬂying are performed would be unsuited to animals residing in an element of the same speciﬁc gravity as their own bodies. Fins, therefore, are given to ﬁshes, and flip- pers to the whale. The real organ of pro- gression in these instances is the body itself, which is so formed, and possesses such muscular vigor, that the animal propels itselfforward, with a force and velocity proportionally greater than in any other class of animals. The great ma- jority of these animals, the ﬁshes, not only reside altogether in the water, and seek their food there, but they breathe that element, and are furnished with an appropriate appa- ratus for extracting oxygen gas from it. These tribes may reside in the ocean, at any con- venient depth, and for any length of time, ' AQUATIC ANIMALS without coming to the surface for the purpose of breathing. They are organized for rapid movement, therefore, in a horizontal direction, and comparatively slow ascending or descend- ing motion. The tail is broad in a vertical di- rection, which enables them to turn with astonishing rapidity, and is no impediment, but rather an assistant to their forward movements._ The case is different with whales, and other marine mammalians, which, though residing entirely in the water, breathe air by means of lungs like the terrestial mammalia; and are thence obliged to come repeatedly and rapidly to the surface of the water to seek air, however far they may descend into the depths of the ocean. For this purpose they are provided with a carti- laginous tail ﬂattened horizontally, by moving which upward or downward, they descend to, or ascend from the greatest depths with astonishing rapidity. Fishes turn about and move straight- forward rapidly, but they are comparatively slow in changing their depths ; and those which lie in deep water at the bottom of the sea, might, if they breathed air, often be suffocated before they could rise to the surface; owing to the vertical position of the tail not being adapt- ed to propel them in a vertical direction. By the direction of the tail being simply changed from the vertical to the horizontal plane, the air-breathing cetacea are adapted to these extra conditions of aquatic life. Like other mammalia, the cetacea suckle their young. The mammae are situated on the breast; and, when the young animal requires to suck, the mother assumes an upright position in the water, elevating her head and shoulders above the surface, and supporting herself in that po- sition by means of her ﬂippers or fore paws. --There are 2 ‘grand distinctions to be made in the structure and the habits of aquatic air- breathing animals of the vertebrate type: 1, those which frequent salt water ; 2, those which only seek their food in fresh-water rivers and lakes. The ﬁrst are ﬁn-foot- ed, as it were; the second are web-footed. The latter partake more of terrestrial than of aquatic habits, form, and structure; the former, more of aquatic than terrestrial. The organiza- tion of the fresh-water aquatic animals differs but slightly from that of the ordinary land an- imals; their extremities are perfectly devel- oped, and the main difference lies in their toes being united by an expanded web, which gives the foot a broad, membranous form convenient for swimming, with considerable freedom of walking and running on land. Of this nature are the extremities of otters, beavers, &c., among mammals; crocodiles, alligators, frogs, and fresh-water tortoises, among reptiles; and of ducks, geese, swans, pelicans, gulls, auks, puf- ﬁns, &c., among birds. These are all web-footed, and their organs of progression differ but little from those of land animals. A‘quatic habits in these animals do not require much adaptation in their structure; but where aquatic life great- ly predominates over terrestrial habits, as In AQUATIC PLANTS those air-breathing animals which frequent salt water, the organic structure is profoundly mod- iﬁed, and their extremities approximate more in form to the purely aquatic than to the ter- restrial type of organism. AQUATIC PLANTS, or WATER PLANTS, are those vegetable organisms which live either en- tirely or partially immersed in water, or which require a preponderating quantity of water as the condition of their existence. As there are numerous tribes of aquatic animals in each of the 4 departments or primordial types of the animal kingdom, so there are numerous tribes of aquatic plants in each of the 2 realms of the vegetable kingdom. And moreover, as aquatic animals are more numerous in the lower than the higher types of organism in each of the 4 realms or primordial departments, so aquatic plants are more numerous in the ﬂowerless than in the ﬂowering realms, and in the lower than in the higher types of organism in each department. And here again, in the classiﬁcation of aquatic plants, as with that of aquatic animals, we ﬁnd two primary natural distinctions between those which live in or near salt water, and those which live in or near fresh water. Most of the ﬂowerless plants which grow at the bottom of the sea, entirely immersed in saltwater, belong to the tribes of algae; and those which live entirely immersed in fresh water, belong also to the ﬂowerless tribes of vegetable organism; and, as nearly all the species of the genus fucus and their allies grow in the sea, so are found in fresh water the majority of those ﬂowerless families of plants, formerly classed as the genus confcroa and its allies. The most conspicuous specimens of fresh-water plants belong, how- ever, to the exogenous and the endogenous tribes of ﬂowering plants; and many tribes be- longing to this higher type of vegetable organ- ism, are also found among the plants which, though not inhabiting the sea, require the in- ﬂuence of salt water on the soil in which they grow. Species of the genera salsola, anabasis, glaum, and salicornia, will only grow and ﬂour- ish where they can feel the inﬂuence of salt water; and hence they have been called plantce salinaa. These plants are found not only in the immediate vicinity of the sea, but also wherever salt-springs ﬁnd their way to the surface of the earth. The plantre littorales, or maritima, are always found near the sea, or on the banks of rivers to which the sea has access. Such are species of oitezr, chenopod-ium-, heliotropium, sam- olua, erg/ngium, and rhizopkora, or mangrove.-— Many of the families of plants of the highest or- ganization have near allies which are inhabit- ants of the water. The ranuuculus aquatilis be- longs to the natural order ranuuculacew. All the species of the natural orders ng/mphaacea, calli- trichacew, ceratophyllacece, belonging to the class exogens, grow in water ; and all the aquatic plants belonging to the natural order podostemacea, though of a less perfect organiza- tion, are classed as exogens. Among the en- dogens, the orders butomacew, uaidacece, or AQUAVIVARIUM 727 jiueiales, pistatsea, alismacea, &c., consist entirely of aquatic plants.~—In horticulture, aquatic plants are those which naturally grow in deep water, and they are carefully distinguished, by the cultivator, from marsh plants.- The management of aquatic plants, when they are hardy, is very simple. They are planted in boxes with holes in the sides, and the boxes are sunk three or four feet below the surface of the water, so as to lie upon or within the mud at the bottom of a pond. Ad- ditional precautions are required, however, with those which require the protection of a green-house or the warmth of a stove. Left to themselves, in such situations, they are apt to suffer from a constant uniformity of tempera- ture, which is unfavorable to growth. Natural alternations of stimulation and repose occurring. with the natural alternations of the seasons, and the various periods of night and day, are favorable to the healthy vigor and development of plants, while constant heat and stimulation leaves them no alternate times of active growth and rest. Under such perpetual stimulus their natural excitability is overwrought, and they soon droop and die. Proper ventilation, there- fore, and due alternations of temperature, are necessary where aquatic plants are cultivated under cover, and by artiﬁcial means. The plants requiring special treatment are chieﬂy those which belong to the water-lily tribe, the most beautiful of which is the Victoria regia. AQUAVIVARIUM, or AQUARIUM, a term applied to certain artiﬁcial arrangements for the exhibition of living animals and plants inhab- iting either fresh water or salt water. It has long been known that animals living in water may be kept in transparent glass vessels for exhibition, giving them fresh supplies of water daily; but the discoveries of modern chemistry and physiology have pointed out the means of imitating nature so closely in the arrangements necessary for preserving the life of aquatic ani- mals in artiﬁcial tanks with transparent walls of glass, that it is now no longer necessary to renew the water daily in these vessels. As the air is contaminated by the breathing of animals living upon the surface, and its oxygen is com- bined with the carbon furnished by the organ- ic body, so the air contained in the water is consumed by administering to animal life, and the gaseous product is not only unﬁt for longer sustaining this, but, unless removed, proves fatal to it. The ofﬁce of plants is to restore to the atmosphere the oxygen, and absorb the ex- cess of carbon; and it appears that the sub- aqueous vegetation fulﬁls the same oﬂice in preserving the purity of the air in the water, upon which depends the life of the animals it contains. But beside the animals and plants properly proportioned to each other to main- tain the uniform composition of the air in the water, it has been found necessary to add cer- tain animals which feed on decomposing vege- table matter, and act as the scavengers in this community. Such are the various species of 728 the molluscous animals, as the snails, &c. It is also of importance to guard against the prepon- derance of animal life in these artiﬁcial tanks or jars; for although there can hardly be too many plants for the health of the animal, as long as they grow healthily, and do not decom- pose, yet an excess of animals over plants, in a given space, will disturb the balance, and lead to the destruction of life. Valisne-ria spiralis, various species of chama, anacharis alsinastram, stratiotes aloides, callitriche aatumnalis, or vemalis, ranuncalus aguatilis, and myriophyl- lam spicat/am, are among the fresh-water plants adapted to this purpose.-—Marine plants purify sea water, as fresh water plants purify. fresh water. The diﬁiculties of maintaining the balance are, however, greater in sea water arti- ﬁcialtanks, than in fresh water, but by care in selecting sea weeds, avoiding those which are large and throw off much matter from their surface, and not over-crowding the water with animal life, tanks containing marine aquatic animals and plants can be easily managed. Species of porphyra, chondrus or-ispus, iridea edulis, and the deiesseriec, are recommended.-- The greatest experiment of this kind hitherto attempted, is a large glass building, 60 feet by 25, erected in the gardens of the zoological so- ciety, Regent’s park, London, in 1853. The sides of this parallelogram are bounded by ponds of plate glass, each being about 6 feet in length, 30 inches in depth, and about the same in width. They are raised about 3 feet from the ground, and all that is within can be con- veniently seen. These tanks are supplied with gravel, sand, rocks, and sea-weeds, to imitate the rock-pools left on the sea shore by a reced- ing tide. The water in them has not been left entirely to the purifying inﬂuence of the plants alone, a certain quantity of water being sup- plied to the fresh-water tanks every day, while the salt water is gradually drawn off and sup- plied again by dropping, so as to effect aération, by means of tubes above the tanks. This is a precautionary measure, to make doubly sure. The fresh-water tanks contain pike, tench, perch, roach, rudd, carp, gudgeon, eel, stickle- back, and minnow, with some of the larger forms of fresh-water crustacea, as the crawﬁsh. With these are placed a large variety of the fresh-water mollusca, belonging to the genera Zimneus, planar-bis, anodonta, unio, &c.-—In the marine tanks, all the classes of the invertebrate animals are represented, as well as the ﬁsh among the vertebrata.—-In the sea, the mol- lusca play the same part as in fresh water; they are the scavengers of the ocean. The pinna, the oyster, the pecten, the cookie, amongst bivalves, the whelk, the periwinkle, and many other univalves, are also seen in these tanks. Amongst the articulata, the lobster, the crab, the shrimp, and the prawn, are seen alive in their native element. The success which has attended these experiments in England has en- couraged their repetition in this country, and the aquarium is already introduced into public AQUAVIVARIUM museums and private houses. of natural history it presents an opportunity for the close observation of the habits of the occupants of the waters, such as is afforded in no other way, while a new source of entertain- ment is provided in watching, by one’s ﬁreside, the movements of animals whose haunts have heretofore been only in the obscure recesses of the oceans, rivers, and ponds. Mr. C. E. Ham- mett, Jr., of Newport, R. I., has made public his observations and experiments, which appear to have been conducted in the true spirit of a naturalist. He prefers a shallow vessel, not exceeding 8 inches in depth, provided with glass sides, and of a diameter as large as 30 inches; The bottom is covered with an inch of clean sand, and a little gravel is put upon this. Some stones are added, and fresh-water plants are rooted in the sand, or, if salt water is used, marine plants are scattered over the surface. The vessel is then left for a week for the plants to vegetate. To keep down the fungous or mucous growth, fresh-water snails are added, or, to salt water, the buccinum, or sea snail. The ﬁshes, crustaceous and molluscous ani- mals, should be introduced by degrees, with proper regard to maintaining the due balance of vegetable and animal life. Those which ap- pear to thrive best are minnows, stickleback, shrimp, small lobsters, hermit-crabs, eels, and star-ﬁshes. The patella or limpet, the bucci- num, purpura or whelk, and several varieties of crepidula, also do well. In fresh-water tanks, the newts, the stickleback, the water- beetles, the tadpoles, and many others, com- pensate for the loss of the numerous animals that live only in salt water.——The following extract will exhibit the kind of entertainment to be afforded from one of these collections: “ No animal in a tank has behaved with more propriety, and been productive of more amuse- ment, than the small species of hermit or soldier crab. They are ever active, and constantly ready to change their shells for their own grat- iﬁcation or that of beholders. They seldom pass each other without disputing the right of way, and yet never injure each other at all. A little incident will show the pleasure that may be found in observing them. While watch- ing my tank, I saw a hermit crab cogitating upon the expediency of vacating his shell for an empty one lying near him. After mature deliberation, he concluded upon the exchange, and suddenly popping his tail into the vacant shell, he crowded out a cloud of particles, probably of decayed animal matter; this at- tracted the attention of a shoal of minnows, which immediately attacked the poor hermit, endeavoring to draw him from his shell. But a new claimant immediately appeared, in the person of a common crab, which clasped the hermitin his claws, and attempted to carry him off by ‘force of arms.’ The minnows, unwill- ing to be thus defrauded, now beset the rob- ber, while the hermit, taking advantage of this diversion, crept quickly away from the scene of To the student. AQUEDUOT strife, doubtless convinced that there is no place like home.”—-To obviate the necessity of _ transporting sea water into the interior, its salts, obtained by evaporation, are prepared at Brighton, in England, and sold, to be used in the proportion of 6 ounces to a gallon of fresh water. The temperature of the aquarium should not fall below 50° F., nor rise above 70°. The mean temperature of the sea is estimated to be about 56°, with a variation of about 12° throughout the year. In hot summer days a screen is necessary against strong sunlight. A work was published in London in 1855, called the “ Hand-book of the Marine Aquarium,” by Philip H. Gosse, which contains all necessary particulars respecting their preparation and management. AQUEDUOT (Lat. aqua, of water, and ductus, a channel), formerly spelled aqueduct, as the etymology of the word requires. Though the signiﬁcation of the term renders it appli- cable to any channel for the conveyance of water, its use has been very generally limited to structures raised above the surface, upon which water conduits are laid. Hence the name water-works has come to be commonly applied to those aqueducts which are not fur- nished with such structures—-a distinction en- tirely unwarranted, and which it is better not to recognize, the old word comprehending and being originally used to express all that we mean by the new. It retains its correct signi- ﬁcation in New England, but in Pennsylvania we never hear of the Philadelphia aqueduct.-— The use of these conveyances for water to sup- ply cities, may be traced back to a very remote period in Persia and in J udea. The “pools of Solomon,” near Bethlehem, described by Ste- phens in his “Incidents of Travel,” were 3 large reservoirs connected with each other, from which water was conveyed to Jerusalem, 6 miles distant. One of these- pools was 660 feet in length and 280 in breadth. Jerusalem is still supplied with water from them through a 10-inch earthen pipe. The ancient city of Mexico, on this continent, was also supplied with water by the aqueduct of Chapultepec, built by Montezuma, and carried across the lake upon a causeway. But no aqueducts, ancient or modern, equal in length or in expense of labor, those constructed by the Incas of Peru. To irrigate their sterile and sandy soil, they brought water from the reservoirs of the mountains distant several hundred miles. The aqueducts passed along the precipitous sides of the Andes, winding around the terminations of mountains, penetrating some by tunnels worked through the solid rock without iron tools, and crossing the frightful guebradas, or chasms, upon walls of solid masonry. The conduit was constructed of large slabs of freestone, which were closely ﬁtted together without cement. The aqueduct which crossed the valley of (lon- zlesuyu, was between 400 and 500 miles long. The works have long since fallen to ruins; but in many places the water still ﬁnds its way be- 729 neath the surface in these artiﬁcial channels, and the grass to this day is greener around the spots where it flows out to the surface. In Egypt, similar works were constructed under Sesostris, and in Babylonia under Semiramis. The Romans, however, exceeded all other na- tions, ancient and modern, in the skill displayed in the construction of these works. A treatise, De Aguwductibus Urbis R0/mac, was written by the consul, Sextus Julius Frontinus, who had the direction of the aqueducts under the empe- ror Nerva. He refers to no less than 9 differ- ent aqueducts. The number of these was after- ward increased to 24, some of which had sev- eral channels placed one above another, and ex- tending many miles. They were built on a grade of regular descent, winding around the hills, or penetrating them by tunnels, and in the low levels supported on arches, which sometimes, as in the New Anio, extended for 6% miles in one continued series, many of the‘ arches more than 100 feet in height. The whole length of this aqueduct was 63 miles 700 paces.- The Aqua Martia also, which extended 38 miles, contained nearly 7,000 arches. The conduits were constructed in brick or in stone- . work laid in cement. The capacity of all the aqueducts was wonderful -in proportion to the population. Strabo said that whole rivers ﬁowed through the streets of Rome. It is esti- mated that 50,000,000 of cubic feet of water must have been supplied daily to a population of 1,000,000, or about 312 imperial gallons to each individual. This is about 10 times the supply from the 3 aqueducts at present in use. The Romans built other aqueducts also in their provinces, some of which exceeded in grandeur those which supplied the capital. That of Metz i-n Belgic Gaul, is among the most remarkable. ' There may also be cited the aqueducts of the island of Mitylene, of Antioch, of Segovia in Spain, and of Constantinople.--In the reign of Louis _XIV., an aqueduct of vast expense was constructed for supplying Versailles with water. The bridge of Maintenon, built for supporting this aqueduct, is said to be the most magniﬁ- cent structure of the kind in the world. It is about 4,400 feet, or -I} of a mile in length, up- ward of 200 feet in height,‘ and is constructed of 3 tiers of arches, one upon another, 242 in each tier, and of a span of 50 feet.—-The great water-works for supplying Marseilles have been over 20 years in building. The aqueduct is a canal 60 miles long. several chains of limestone mountains by no less than 45 tunnels, the length of which is 83,- miles; and across a ravine 5 miles from Aix by a structure of masonry 262 feet high and 1,287 feet long. ter that ﬂows through it is 198,000 gallons per minute. The cost in 1852, some time previous to its completion, had been over $10,000,000.-—In all the ancient aqueducts, for want of strong metallic pipes, it was necessary to construct the water-course upon a very grad- ual descent, lest by the rush of the water the It passes through- The quantity of wa- 730 structure should be destroyed. This accounts for the very circuitous route followed by many of them, adopted for the purpose of adding to their length, and thus reducing the grade. In modern aqueducts this system is only partially followed, the use of cast-iron pipes admitting of frequent changes in the inclination, and even of the passage of ravines and rivers, by the pipes descending the bank on one side and rising on the other. For convenience, how- ever, of access to the pipes for repairing and cleaning, it is found most advantageous in practice to keep them where they are accessi- ble; and for safety, not to subject them to un- necessary strains, such as would result from the pressure of a high column of water. For these reasons the high viaducts of masonry are not yet abandoned, and the water is still con- veyed as near a level as may be. For large aqueducts, stone channels, like those made by the Romans, have the advantage over iron pipes of greater‘ capacity and durability.——Of recent aqueducts, those of Lisbon, New York, and Boston, are particularly worthy of notice. The ﬁrst, completed in 17 38, is about 3 leagues in length, and in some parts of its course has been excavated through hills; but near the city it is carried over a deep valley for a length of 2,400 feet, by several bold arches, the larg- est of which has a height of 250 feet, and a span of 115 feet.—The Croton aqueduct of New York surpasses all modern constructions of this kind in extent and magniﬁcence. It was completed in 1842, having been 5 years in building under the superintendence of Mr. John B. Jervis, chief engineer. The whole ex- pense, including $1,800,000 for distributing pipes, and amounts paid for right of way, and other incidental charges, was $10,375,000. In- cluding commissions and interest, the whole cost has been $12,500,000. The whole length, from its source at Croton river to the distribut- ing reservoir on 5th avenue and 40th street, is 40% miles. A dam constructed across the river, raised the water 40 feet, and formed the Croton lake, which covers about 400 acres. This is the collecting reservoir, and contains with a depth of 6 feet of water, 500,000,000 gallons. The ﬁow of the Croton is about 27,000,000 gallons daily at its lowest stages. Should so large an amount of water as 35,000,000 gallons ever be required, the reservoir could furnish in a dry time 8,000,000 gallons daily for 62% days, which is as long as any period of drought is likely to be. This supply of 35,000,000 gallons may therefore be depended upon; and if more should ever be required, it can be obtained by constructing other reservoirs further up the stream. From the dam to the Harlem river, nearly 33 miles, the aqueduct is built of stone, brick, and cement, arched over and under, 6 feet 9 inches wide at the bottom (this being the chord of an arc, the versed sine of which is 9 inches), 7 feet 5 inches at the springing line of the arch, and 8 feet 511,- inches high; area of cross section, 53;; square feet. AQUEDUCT Its capacityis equal to 60,000,000 gallons daily. The inclination is 1.1088 feet per mile, or 33.92 feet in the 33 miles. The velocity of the water is 1% mile an hour. Across Harlem river, the aqueduct is carried upon the High bridge in 2 iron pipes of 3 feet diameter,’ which are laid 12.T2T,%, feet lower than the bottom of the con- duit on the north side of the river, and 10 be- low the aqueduct on the south side. While the bridge was building, the water was con- veyed in a 3-foot iron pipe, down one bank of the river and up the other, and the original in- tention was to have had this for the permanent plan. Objections being raised that the pipe would obstruct the navigation of the river, and such restrictions being imposed by the state legislature as to its use, it was ﬁnally decided to build the bridge with arches 80 feet wide and openings 100 feet high, to admit the pas- sage of vessels; the bridge, as now completed, is 1,460 feet long, with 8 arches in the river of the required span, and 7 others on the banks of 50 feet span. The whole height of the bridge above high water mark is 114 feet.—Had the aqueduct been carried across the bridge its full size, the loss of 2 feet head might have been avoided; and a further unnecessary loss of 3 feet head is incurred in the inverted siphon across the Manhattan valley, from the High bridge to the receiving reservoir. In this dis- tance of 4,105 feet, the water was carried in 2 pipes of 3 feet diameter, to which a 4-foot pipe has since been added. They descend in this valley 109 feet, and rise within 3 feet of their level at the north side of the valley.—The re- ceiving reservoir covers an area of over 35 acres, being 1,826 feet long and 836 feet wide, and is capable of containing 150,000,000 gallons of water. From this reservoir to the distribut- ing reservoir, a distance of 2} miles, the water is conveyed in 3 lines of iron pipes of 3 feet diameter, and one line of 30 inches diameter. The capacity of this reservoir is 20,000,000 gal- lons. It is a stone structure 45 feet high above the streets, and 425 feet square at the top, cov- ering 'a little more than four acres. The water for supplying the city is taken from this reser- voir and conveyed through more than 134 miles of pipe, the mains being 3 feet diameter, and the smallest pipes 4: inches. The annual in- terest on the cost of this work is $665,000; this is raised by a water tax and some other taxes, while by means of a sinking fund the cap- ital will be gradually redeemed. For a house of average size, the tax is $10 per annum. Manufactories, hotels, stables, distilleries, ships, &c., pay according to the quantity of water used.-—-The aqueduct in construction, for fur- nishing water to the cities of Brooklyn and Williamsburg, under the direction of J . P. Kirkwood, Esq., chief engineer, receives its supplies from the outlets of several ponds and springs, the waters of which it intercepts in the short interval between their sources and their discharge into the ocean on the south side of Long Island. The water is taken from these AQUEDUCT streams at a level of 8 to 10 feet only above high-water mark. The ponds above are at various levels and of various sizes. The one upon which dependence is placed for the larg- est supply of water, though inferior in size to some others, is Cornell’s Pond on Parsonage creek. It covers an area of 37 acres. The number and size of these sources is so great, that no doubts are entertained as to abundant supplies being furnished, particularly as the aqueduct may be at any time extended to reach more of the same kind of streams. The most distant one from the receiving reservoir is 13 miles, and the nearest 5 miles. From the for- mer the water is intended to be conveyed in an open canal, descending 2 inches per mile, and extending 7% miles; where it is then received in a covered conduit 10 feet wide at the spring- ing line of the arch,, and 8 feet 8 inches high in the clear. The descent of this is 6 inches to the mile. It is 5 miles in length, and termi- nates within 3,500 feet of the Ridgewood re- servoir, at a level 167 feet below. The connec- tion between the conduit and reservoir will be by 2 lines of heavy pipe of 3'feet bore—the water to be pumped up by 2 large engines, each capable of delivering 10,000,000 N. Y. gallons in 16 hours. The conduit and canal are of suf- ﬁcient size to deliver 40,000,000 gallons in 24 hours; but the supply at present arranged for contemplates a daily delivery of 20,000,000 only. The Ridgewood reservoir -is excavated in the sand and gravel at the summit of a hill 6 miles distant from the City Hall at Brooklyn, and is of suflicient size to contain 170,000,000 gallons. From the reservoir, 120 miles of pipe of all sizes will be laid for distributing the water, divided as follows: 5 miles each of 36 and 30-inch diameter; 4 of 20-inch; 12 of 12-inch; 30 of 8-inch; and 64 of-"6-inch diam- eter. An open canal is a very objectionable feature in an aqueduct intended to supply water for domestic purposes, particularly when of so gentle descent as in this instance. Considera- tions of economy, however, have prevailed over the objections of the engineer, though at some future time the covered conduit may be ex- tended to take the place of the canal. Vegeta- ble and animal matters must accumulate along the banks of a canal of so slow a current as this will be, and the water he impregnated with carbonic acid gas derived from their decompo- sition. This will make the use of lead pipe, as service-pipe, dangerous to the health of con- sumers, though its ill effects may not soon be perceived, or, when felt, be attributed to their real cause.-—Jersey City is supplied with water by an aqueduct of about 8 miles in length, from the Passaic river at Belleville. Its construction was commenced in 1852, under the direction of Wm. S. Whitwell, chief engineer, and in Aug. 1854, the water was regularly distributed throughout the city. From the river the water is conveyed by an inlet-conduit, the bottom of which is 4 feet below ordinary low water of the river. This extends about 375 feet, termi- nating in a large pump well, the bottom of which is on the red sandstone. The size of the brick arched conduit is 7 -5- feet wide at bottom, 8% at the springing line of the arch, and ex- treme internal height 8 feet 9 inches. The en- gine-house over the pump-well is built for 2 Cornish engines, with steam cylinders of 80 inches diameter, and a stroke of 11 feet, each intended to work a pump of the same length of stroke, and a plunger of 34% inches diameter. Only one of these engines is yet provided, and this furnishes more than double the power re- quired, working only 5 strokes per minute. The rising main from the engine house to the receiving reservoir on Belleville ridge, is 3 feet diameter and 2,305 feet in length, discharging at the top water line, 157 feet above ordinary high water of the river. The capacity of this reservoir is 10,334,229 imperial gallons. Two iron pipes, one of 20 and one of 36-inch diam- eter, are intended to convey the water to the distributing reservoir on Bergen Hill, nearly 6 miles distant. The smaller one is laid, and is at present sufﬁcient. The greater part of the way across the Hackensack marshes, the pipe is laid upon the surface raised above its general level, and covered by an embankment of earth, a double ﬂooring of 2-inch plank being placed beneath the pipe. tween the reservoirs is 25 feet. The delivery of the 20-inch pipe will then be a little more than 2,000,000 imperial gallons in 24 hours. The capacity of the distributing reservoir on Ber- gen Hill, 2 miles from Jersey city ferry, is about 45,000,000 imperial gallons. Its top water line is 128 feet above the ordinary level of high“- tide. The largest distributing pipes are of 26- inch diameter; but of 19 miles laid, about 12 miles are of 6-inch pipe, and more than 2 miles of 12-inch pipe. The water proves, after rest- ing in the reservoirs, to be of excellent quality, and the supply is inexhaustible. The works, estimated at ﬁrst to cost $600,000, were actually in operation with an expenditure of $5 94,885.78, though several additions were made to the ori- , ginal plan. Two years afterward, on July 1, 1856, they had been extended and improved, and the whole outlay was then $640,828.04.— The city of Boston is supplied with water from. Lake Cochituate, formerly known as Long Pond, in Framingham and N atick, distant from the fountain on Boston Common 19% miles, and from the reservoir at East Boston, 23% miles. The work of constructing the aqueduct was commenced Aug. 20, 1846, under the direc- tion of E. S. Chesbrough and Wm. S. Whit- well, engineers, after the subject had been un- der consideration for about 13 years, and ex- plorations had been made of every point that might furnish the required supply. On Oct. 25, 1848, the water was ﬁrst admitted into the public fountains, and a great celebration was held on this occasion. The source comprehends a water area of 684 acres, the greatest depth. being 70 feet; at a stage of water lower by 6% feet than this, the area is 504 acres. The water- 731 . The difference of level be-' 732 shed that feeds this source, is an area of 11,400 acres. The minimum fall of rain at Boston for a series of 27 years, has been found to be 29.98 inches; and the discharge from the out- let of the lake, estimated for 2 years, shows that more than T4,, of the fall of rain passes out from the lake, furnishing a supply of 10,176,570 wine-gallons. The quantity calculated upon as necessary to be provided, was 7,250,000 gal- lons, which would give to a future popula- tion of 250,000 inhabitants, 28% gallons a day each person. Additional rights were how- ever secured, which might hereafter be ap- plied to increase this supply; and the waters of Jamaica Pond, in Roxbury, are also se- cured to the city, and may be used independ- ently of the Cochituate supply by the 10-inch pipe laid to the city in the year 1840. The ca- pacity of this pond varies, with the stage of the water, from 28,000,000 gallons to 4 times this quantity. The elevation is 50 feet above tide- water. At Cochituate lake, a dam was con- structed of granite at the outlet, and, in this, a ﬂume, designed to hold the water, 8 feet deep, the bottom of which is 124.36 feet above tide marsh level. The bottom of the aqueduct, commencing in the lake under a gate-house of hammered granite, is 3 feet 4 inches below the bottom of the ﬂume, and 3 feet 10 inches below the assumed low water-line of the lake. From the lake to the receiving reservoir in Brookline, about 14.5 miles, the aqueduct, for the greater part of the way, is a conduit of brick masonry. Over the valley of Charles river is a line of iron mains, and in Newton and Brookline are 2 tun- nel excavations. The brick conduit winds, by irregular curves, along the country, where it is of such elevation as admits of the work being mostly beneath the natural surface. The brick- work is 8 inches thick, laid in hydraulic cement, the section of the conduit being that of an egg, the largest end down, the greatest width 5 feet, and the extreme internal height 6 feet 4 inches. This aqueduct is everywhere covered by at least 4 feet of earth, and nowhere admits of a passage under it except by the culverts, at the crossing of Charles river, which it passes by 2 30-inch iron pipes, and at a bridge over a val- ley in Needham. The iron pipes cross the river upon a stone bridge, at a level 58 feet below the aqueduct on each side, and 71 feet above the lowest stage of the water in the river. The whole length of each of the pipes is 979 feet, the dis- tance, in a straight line between its two termini, 956 feet. The tunnels are in porphyritic rock of great hardness, one, 2,410, and the other 1,150 feet long. In excavating these tunnels, the inﬂux of water was so great, that 7 steam en- gines were kept constantly pumping during their construction. Four waste weirs are pro- vided for letting off the water and for ventila- tion. They answer the latter purpose so well, that but one ventilating shaft has been put up on the line. The descent or fall is 3.81 feet in the brick aqueduct, which is 14.446 miles long. In the pipe section, 956 feet long, it is 0.45 feet; AQUEDUCT- total, 4.26 feet in 14,627 miles. With this de- scent and a depth of 3 feet 10 inches, the aque- duct is found to be sufficient to convey more than 10,000,000 gallons in 24 hours, a capacity considerably greater than was originally esti- mated with that depth. The receiving basin at Brookline is a natural depression in the sur- face improved and perfected, covering about 22 acres with a maximum depth of 24 feet of wa- ter, and least depth 14 feet. Its greatest ca- pacity is 119,583,960 wine-gallons—its bottom, 100.6 feet above tide marsh level. Two iron mains, one of 36 and the other of 30 inches diameter, convey the water to Dover street in the city, a distance of about 3% miles, where the larger is reduced to the size of the smaller, and the two pass, together with an attendant smaller pipe connected with them-, through the city, supplying the different portions and the distributing reservoirs. The length of all the pipe employed, down to the size of 4 inches diameter, is 112} miles. The distributing reser- voirs are on Beacon hill, at south Boston, and another at east Boston. To the last two, the water is conveyed in pipes sunk beneath the water at the draws of the bridges—these reser- voirs regulate the delivery by accumulating the water during the night. The Beacon hill re- servoir, back of the state house, is a solid struc- ture of granite, of the capacity of 2,678,961 gallons, its bottom, 108.03 feet above tide marsh level, and the top of the coping outside, 124.03 feet. The South Boston reservoir, excavated on Telegraph hill, contains 7,508,246 gallons; its bottom, 105.35 feet elevation above tide, and the top of the dam, 125.86 feet. The cast Bos- ton reservoir, ﬁlled within 3 feet of its top, contains 5,591,816 gallons. Its bottom is 80.6 feet above tide marsh level, the top of the dam, 110.6 feet. Ten public fountains are built in different parts of the city, and supplied by the Cochituate aqueduct. The whole cost of the water-works up to January, 1853, after the de- duction of $513,069.48 received for water rents, was $5,37 0,818. The amount of water rates paid in the year 1852, was $177,012.41——and the estimated amount for the succeeding year, was $190,000. The supply of water has proved to be greater than was calculated upon; but the consumption increased in a much greater ratio, amounting in 1852 to more than 8,000,000 gal- lons daily, for the supply of a population of 140,- 000. This waste of water threatened to be of so serious consequence, that decided measures were required to check it.—Franklin, it is said, ﬁrst suggested the importance of furnishing to the city of Philadelphia copious supplies of wa- ter in 17 63 or 17 64, after the visitation of the yellow fever, and in his will, dated June 23, 1789, recommended an appropriation by the city, to be expended at some future time, in constructing an aqueduct to bring in the wa- ters of the Wissahiccon creek. In 17 97, public petitions were ﬁrst presented upon the subject, and the next year a survey was made by Mr. B. H. Latrobe of several streams in the vicinity AQUEDUCT of the city, and a plan proposed of using the water of Spring Mill creek, 12 miles distant, and another, which was adopted, of pumping the Schuylkill river-water by steam-power, and collecting it in tanks for distribution. One engine was placed near the river, at the N. W. corner of Schuylkill-Front and Chestnut streets, from which the water was conveyed in a brick aqueduct of 6 feet diameter and 3,144 feet long, to the Centre Square engine house. This was at the crossing of Broad and Market streets; and another engine here pumped the water into 2 wooden tanks, set in the top of the building 50 feet above the bottom of the brick tunnel. One of the tanks was 10 feet, and the other 14 feet, diameter-—their depth, 12 feet-—capacity of both was 17,094 ale-gallons. The engine could not ﬁll them in less than 25 minutes, and they were exhausted in about the same time by the wooden logs, of 6-inch and 4%- inch bore, which conveyed the water from them through the city. Great diﬁiculties were en- countered in procuring the steam-engines and pumps; for at this time there were only 3, of any considerable power, in the United States—- one imported in 1763, for the Schuyler copper mine at Belleville, one at a saw-mill in New York, and a small one of Oliver Evans, in Phila- delphia, used for grinding plaster. The greater part of the machinery was of wood, as the lever beams, ﬂy-wheels, shafts, arms, pumps, cisterns, and even the boilers. These were boxes of 5- inch white pine plank, 9 feet wide, 9 feet high, and 15 feet long, securely bolted and braced. Inside of each of these was the ﬁre box of wrought-iron, with vertical ﬂues of cast-iron. Boiler-plate iron was then unknown; the larg- est sheets of wrought-iron were 3 feet long and 15 inches wide, of rough shapes, which the purchaser was obliged to cut to suit his purposes. The steam cylinder of the Centre square engine was cast in two pieces, united by copper, the joints secured by a cast-iron band 18 inches wide. Though the cylinder was only 36 inches diameter and 6 feet 6 inches long, nearly 4 months were spent in boring it. The pumps were double-acting force-pumps, lined with sheet copper to make them tight. The works commenced supplying the city on J an. 27, 1801. They had cost, in the year 1803, $295,452; in 1811, $508,511 ; when more eﬂicient works were called for. Frederick Graft‘, and John Davis, after surveying the different resources, re- commended the steam-works at Fairmount, then called Simes’s hill. These were commenced in 1812, and completed in Sept. 1815. Water- power was considered very uncertain, on ac- count of ice and freshets. A Bolton and Watt steam-engine was obtained, of 44-inch cylinder and 6 feet stroke, working a vertical double- acting pump of 20 inches diameter and 6 feet stroke, and pumped 1,733,632 ale-gallons in 24 hours into the reservoir constructed on Fair- mount, 102 feet above low water in the Schuyl- kill. In Dec. 1817, a high-pressure engine of Oliver Evans, was added, and the cost of raising 733 2,300,000 ale-gallons per 24 hours was $84.50. The reservoir contained 3,266,126 gallons, and the water was conveyed from it to the Centre square distributing chest by 6 lines of logs—5 of 6 inches, and 1 of 45 inches, diameter. In 1819, it was determined, from the great expense attending the steam-engines, to substitute water- power, and build a dam across the river, which should furnish this power and complete, at the same time, the work required to render the river navigable. The dam was built at the ex- pense of $150,000, and completed in 1821. At this time,-the ﬁrst large iron mains were laid from the reservoir to the city. They were of 22 inches in diameter, and imported from England. In 1820, the ﬁrst iron pipes of this size made in this country, were cast for the aqueduct by Mr. S. Richards of Philadelphia. The ﬁrst water-wheel was started to supply water Oct. 25, 1822, and the steam-works were given up in January succeeding. As the demand for water increased new wheels were added in after years; the ﬁrst 3, though made of wood, con- tinuing in constant use for 24 years, when they were taken down in 1846, and replaced with new wheels of iron. The whole number of breast wheels is 8, constructed of cast-iron with buckets of wood. Four are 18 feet diameter and 15 feet wide; one, 15 feet diameter and 15 feet wide; and 3, 16 feet diameter and 15 feet wide. At low tide, the fall is 7 feet 6 inches. From 4 to 6 hours every day, the rise of tide prevents their use. The pumps are 8 in num- ber, double-acting, and of 16 inches in diameter. The one driven by the small wheel has a stroke of 4% feet, and makes 14 full strokes per minute. The 16 feet wheels drive their pumps 13 strokes, of 5 feet, and the 18 feet wheels 11 strokes of 6 feet, per minute. In December, 1851, a Jon- val turbine wheel was added, with a pump of the largest dimensions given, and running 12 strokes. It is not affected by the back water of the tide or freshets; and if all the breast wheels were replaced by turbines, the supply of water would be increased from 45 to 6 million gal- lions daily. The mains ascending to the reser- voirs from the pumps are all 16-inch pipes; the shortest 183 feet long, the longest 433 feet-— the vertical lift being about 96 feet. In 1852, all the expense of running the 9 wheels and pumps was $7 .67 per day; or $1.33 per million gallons raised. The reservoirs upon Fairmount were added to as the works were increased. In 1829, after 3 reservoirs had been completed there, the Centre square works were given up: in 1836, a fourth reservoir was constructed on Fairmount, quite covering the hill, and making the whole capacity 22,031,976 ale-gallons, and total cost $133,822. Their greatest depth, the same in all, is 12 feet 3 inches. Three mains carry the water from Fairmount—one of 22 inches, commenced in 1819, is 2,661 feet long, and then, being reduced to 20 inches, continues of this size 9,516 feet farther; one of 20 inch- es, laid in 1829, is 10,596 feet long; and the 3d, of 30 inches, laid in 1850, is 13,821 feet long. Amiternum, the birthplace of Sallust. 734 AQUILA The distributing pipes throughout the city are as follows: Of 1} inch diam. . 2,258 feet. 3 “ “ , . 120,516 “ 4 “ “ . 25,407 “ 6 “ “ . . . . 178,589 “ 8 “ “ . . . . . . 9,745 “ 10 “ “ . . . . . . 40,668 “ 12 “ “ . . . . . 23,646 “ 16 “ “ . . . . . . 10,553 “ 20 “ “ . . . . . . 20,245 “ 22 “ “ . . 2,661 “ 30 “ “ . 18,735 “ Total, 453,028 feet. The northern part of the city above Vine street is supplied by independent steam power works, both on the Schuylkill and Delaware sides. The increase of population below this still, however, required additional reservoir room to that afforded on Fairmount, and in 1850 a new tract was purchased upon more elevated ground in the district of Spring Garden, and another reservoir was then constructed 16 feet higher than the others. Its capacity is 16,646,- 247 ale-gallons, equal to 20,321,392 wine-gal- lons. A standpipe of 4 feet diameter is erected at Fairmount 50 feet high, reaching 30 feet above the Fairmount reservoir, or 14 feet above the new reservoir, into which pipe the water is introdu.ced from the ascending mains. The con- nection with the new reservoir, 3,747 feet dis- tant, is by a 30-inch main. The work was com- pleted and water admitted to this reservoir Dec. 22, 1852. The total cost of the whole works from 1799 to the close of the year 1852 is $3,- 247,894. The consumption of water in 1852 was at the rate of 30.6 ale-gallons to each individual per diem, or 187 ale-gallons to each water ten- ant. A large proportion of the consumption, however, is for 127 steam-engines of 1,090 horse power, and for numerous manufactories. The number of dwelling houses supplied is 15,535. The whole amount of water rents for the year is $119,202.25. AQUILA, a fortiﬁed city of Naples, capital of the province of Abruzzo Ultra, 58 miles N. E. of Rome. It was built by the Emperor Fred- eric II. in 1240, from the ruins of the ancient It was much reduced by earthquakes in 1688, 1703, and 1706. It has no fewer than 24 churches and numerous monastic houses. Pop. 12,000. AQUILEIA, a town in Italy at the head of the Adriatic. It was founded about 182 B. C., either by the Romans as a defence against the northern barbarians, or by the Gauls, in which case, however, it soon fell into the hands of Home. It perhaps derived its name from aquila (an eagle), which appeared as afavoring omen to its founders. It was a powerful mili- tary post in the time of Caesar. In Strabo’s time it was the great emporium of Roman trade with Pannonia, Istria, Dalmatia, and Il- lyria, roads running from the town into those countries.——-Maximinus laid siege to Aquileia, but, failing in the attempt to take the place, he was slain by his own soldiers. In the year 452 A. D. it was taken by Attila, and razed to the AQUINAS ground. Its inhabitants ﬂed to the lagoons, where Venice now stands. It was afterward retaken from the Huns by N arses. It was an old see of the bishops who in the 6th century carried on a long contest with Rome. AQUINAS, Tnoams, saint, and doctor of the Latin church. Accounts differ as to the time and place of his birth. According to some authori- ties, it happened in the year 1224, at Aquino, on the borders of Campania, not far from Monte Cassino; while others, following the accounts of the early biographers, Bartholomew of Lucca, and William of Tocco, say that he was born at Belcastro, in the year 1226. His lineage was noble, his father being count of Aquino, and allied both by descent and marriage with several of the royal families of Europe. At an early age he was intrusted to the care of the Benedictines at Monte Cassino, under whose training his ﬁne natural gifts were precociously developed. Thence, after a few years, he was transferred to the new university of Naples, where he at once signalized himself by his sin- gular purity of life, his devotion to study, his mastery of logical diﬂiculties, and his wonderful memory. From the ﬁrst, he showed an incli- nation to the monastic life, and to the practice of self-denials; and his frequent interviews with a pious Dominican soon determined him to join the brotherhood of the “preaching friars.” In 1243 he received the habit of the order. His relatives ﬁercely opposed his wishes, tried ﬁrst by persuasions and afterward by vio- lence to separate him from his ascetic vows, imprisoned him in a tower of his father’s castle, vexed him by many temptations and acts, but were unable to overcome his ﬁrmness. After an imprisonment of many months, by the help of one of his sisters whom he had converted, he was enabled to escape, and was allowed to resume in peace his convent life. The approval of the pope soon after conﬁrmed his purpose, and silenced all objections. In company with the general of the Dominican order, he jour- neyed to Cologne, where he became a pupil of Albert the Swabian, commonly called Al- bertus Magnus, a famous teacher of scholastic philosophy. The nickname of “ Dumb Ox,” which his fellow-students gave him, from his size and his silence, gave occasion to his master one day to exclaim, when the promptness and acuteness of his answers had astonished them all, “This dumb ox will give such a bellow in learning as all the world shall hear.” In 1248, when scarcely past his majority, Thomas was appointed to teach ethics at Cologne; and,_4 years later, we ﬁnd him teaching theology In the city of Paris, where he soon became an oracle, consulted by the doctors and honored by the king. His school was thronged with students, and crowds waited upon his preaching. In the year 1261, he was recalled by Urban IV. to Italy, and became a constant attendant and friend to this most active of popes, teaching in the more important places of central and southern Italy, particularly in Naples, Rome, AQUINAS Bologna, and Pisa. One of the curiosities of this last city is the altar in the church of St. Catharine, at which St. Thomas was wont to oﬁciate. Though he steadfastly refused all episcopal dignities, and was glad to be dis- charged even from the honor of the teacher’s place, he was always ready to work for his order in its assemblies, and for the church in her councils. On one-occasion he journeyed to London to attend the 40th general chapter of the Dominicans; and he was on his way to the council of Lyons, to sustain the cause of the Latin against the Greek church, when he was seized with his fatal sickness. He died March 7, 1274, at the Cistercian abbey of Fossa Nuova, on the Pontine marshes, after a painful illness of a month, which he bore with the most ex- emplary patience. Less than 50 years after- ward, in 1323, he was canonized, and the day of his death appointed as the day of his festival. He is ranked with the 4 great doctors of the Western church. The works of St. Thomas have always had high authority, and large use is still made of them in the system of Catholic theological study. They form 17 , 19, and even 20 folio volumes, in the various editions which have been published in successive centuries, from 1490 to 1745. The 3 volumes of the Summa Theologice, incomplete as they are, may be regarded as the most ﬁnished compend of scholastic divinity. The elaborate comments on the 4.- books of Peter Lombard, the “Master of Sentences,” are even more remarkable for their subtlety of reasoning, their minute dis- tinctions, and their amazing reﬁnements of thought. While their theology is substantially that of Augustine and Anselm, their style and method is that of the heathen Aristotle ; whom, it was quaintly said, St. Thomas rescued from atheism, and secured for orthodoxy. For the philosophy of the Stagirite, St. Thomas had a reverence second only to his reverence for the fathers and the evangelists. He studied the logic of Aristotle along with his Bible in the tower of Rocca Secca, and found in its sugges- tions a treasury of argument which he afterward could use in- defence of the faith. His own knowledge of the great philosopher was gained from an inferior Latin translation, and some have asserted that he was unable to read the original Greek. Yet the Dominicans maintain that one of their brotherhood executed a new and exact translation of Aristotle under the eye of Aquinas. The Latin style of the “ An- gelic Doctor ” (for by this title is St. Thomas known among the mediaeval writers) is less pure than that of some other of the standard scho- lastic doctors. It fatigues by excessive tenuity, by divisions and subdivisions, which confuse the_reader in their attempt to make the topic clearer before him. St. Thomas was not a mystic, nor a follower of the Alexandrine school in its critical renderings, yet his speculations have the effect of mysticism upon the mind, and his criticisms try one’s patience like the long-drawn allegories of Origen. The contro- ARABELLA STUART ‘_73'5 versial tem-per of his writings is nearly lost in the ingenuity and copiousness of his dialectics, and the cloud in which the thunderbolts lie, hides their force and sharpness. In his own age, no eminent doctor had the inclination to dispute with him, although the rivalry between the followers of St. Francis and St. Dominic, which was developed in subsequent ages, had already begun to show itself. It was reserv- ed for Scotus, in the next century, to give name to an antagonist school, which should divide the suffrages of the Catholic world, and question the orthodoxy of several of the posi- tions taken by the champion of Aristotle, both in theoretical and practical divinity. After long centuries of strife, the most important point of diﬁ"erence has by a recent decree of the church been decided in favor of the Scotists, and the view of the Thomists in regard to the immaculate conception of the Virgin has been ﬁnally overruled. As a preacher, St. Thomas was graceful, eloquent, and effective. His manner was calm, his presence commanding, his words measured and free from bitterness. He was never unduly excited, and preferred to bear, instead of rebuking, the hasty speech of adversaries. Curious anecdotes are recorded of his presence of mind in ‘time of danger, and his absence of mind in secular affairs and.cere- monies. He could move a congregation to tears as easily as he could refute the cavils of skeptics. He loved to argue with unbelievers, and his conference with Jews ended more than once in their conversion. His abstruse studies did not hinder his zeal in devotion, and he was wont to say that he learned more at the foot of the cross than from all his books. He was celebrated as a model of piety quite as much as a marvel of genius, and his claim to sainthood rests on truer foundations than his restoration of a heathen philosopher or his acute scholastic pleadings. He was from ﬁrst to last a submis- sive son of the church, and had none of the combative and rebellious spirit of the restless Abelard. He asked no recompense for his la- bors but the approval of the church and the consolation of the spirit. Many cities have contended for his relics, and the fame of his sanctity is the highest boast of that religious order of which he was a brother. AQUINO, a town and see of Naples in the province of Terra de Lavaro. It was the birth- place of Juvenal, and, according to some, of Thomas Aquinas. Population, 1,100. AQUITANIA, a country of Gaul, situated between the Garonne and the Pyrenees. It was the smallest of the three divisions of Gaul, and Augustus, in order to equalize it in some measure with the other two, extended its fron- tier to the Loire. The language, institutions, and physical conformation of the Aquitani, were quite different from those of the other inhabi- tants of Gallia, and proclaimed their affinity with the Iberian tribes of the Spanish peninsula. ARABELLA STUART, commonly called the Lady Arabella, was the daughter of Charles 736 Stuart, earl of Lennox, the brother of Darnley, husband of Mary Queen of Scots, and Elizabeth Cavendish, daughter of the Countess of .Shrews- bury, commonly called “ Old Bess of Hard- wick.” She was born about 1577, died Sept. 27, 1615. Her parents both died early. Queen Elizabeth of England viewed her with sus- picion as a claimant to the throne, who was likely to be used as an instrument by the Catholic party. Constant watch was kept over her during the life of Elizabeth. James I., on his accession to the English throne, regarded her with no more favorable eye than Elizabeth had done. The conspiracy of which Raleigh was accused, for putting her on the throne in place of James, only aggravated her position. James would not assent to any proposals of marriage for her. At last she contracted a secret marriage with Sir William Seymour, 2d son of Lord Beauchamp. She and her husband were arrested and imprisoned separately. They both escaped from their conﬁnement. Sir William Seymour got away -safely to Flanders. Lady Arabella Stuart was captured by a royal ship on her way to France, andwas reconducted to the tower. Her tender and loving heart broke under her disappointments,~her intellect gradu- ally gave way, and she -died a maniac in the tower after 4 years’ conﬁnement. Sir William Seymour remained many-iyears a voluntary exile; and though he afterward married again, preserved his affection unaltered for his unhappy lady, and named his daughter Arabella Stuart in honor of her. Few acts of King James were more cruel than his treatment of his unfortu- nate ward. ARABESQUE, a style of ornament consist- ing of inﬁnitely varied combinations of straight and curved lines, very much used by the Arabs, or rather the Moors, of Spain, and deriving its name from them. The Koran forbids to all true believers the representation of any animal, and Mohammedan traditiongmakes the punish- ment of those who break this law to consist in being haunted by the forms of those animals whose outward shapes they may have ventured to depict, demanding of them to create souls for them as well as bodies. It is true that the rude ﬁgures of the lions that uphold the great basin of the fountain in the celebrated Court of Lions, in the Alhambra, and some other rude specimens of painting and of sculpture, are quoted in contradiction of the existence of any such law, or, as a proof, that it was not at all regarded. These sculptured or painted animals are, however, so very few in number, and so poorly executed, when compared with even the roughest and poorest of the arabesques that surround them, that they afford, on the con- trary, the strongest proof of the existence and observance of the religious prohibition above referred to; and are easily explained as the work of Christian laborers, or as monuments of the power of some absolute ruler who sought to show himself above all fear in this world, or in the next. A part of the orna- ARABESQUE ARABGHEER ments called arabesque may be traced to the Assyrians and Egyptians, especially in the designs of borders; and came from them to the Greeks. Specimens of. them may also be found on the remains of Roman buildings, as, for instance, on the ceilings of those subterra- nean chambers on the Palatine Hill, called the Baths of Livia; but the most beautiful speci- mens, without doubt, are to be found in the far-famed palace of the Alhambra, once the home of the polished, courteous, and gallant Moor. Though the colors have faded somewhat from the effectsof time, the eye still wanders with delight among their mazy beau- ties, gliding over graceful curves, inﬁnite in their variety, and ever charming from the harmonious contrasts of bright colors, whose opposing brilliancies, to a certain extent, neu- tralize each other, and make even the bright gold that borders or winds among them seem merely a necessary adjunct to the richness of the whole. To those who cannot see the origi- nals, the work of Owen Jones is an excellent substitute. After feasting his eyes upon the wonderful beauty of these rich mazes, it may interest the philosophical inquirer to observe from how few and simple elements they all arise. If a series of straight lines be drawn equidistant and parallel to each other, crossed by a similar series at right angles, so as to form squares, and the spaces thus given be intersected diagonally in each alternate square, the ﬁgures here shown, and every other possi- ble combination, will be given by the lines. The same ﬁgures and the same variety may equally be produced where the lines are equi- distant diagonally; there is, in fact, no possible limit to the invention of designs of this descrip- tion; by different combinations of lines and colors they may be multiplied with the greatest facility. The same style of design may be shown not only on surfaces, but in the forms of solids. Thus, in the Alhambra, “the ceiling of the Sala de la Barca, a wagon-headed dome of wood of most elaborate patterns, receives its support at each end from pendentives abutting against the great arches.” These pendentives are of a very curious mathematical construc- tion. They are composed of numerous prisms of plaster, united by their contiguous lateral surfaces, consisting of seven different forms, proceeding from three primary ﬁgures. These are the right-angled triangle, the rectangle, and the isosceles triangle. The curves of the sev- eral pieces are similar, so that a piece may be combined with any one of the others by either of its sides; thus rendering them susceptible of combinations as various as the melodies which may be produced from the 7 notes of the musical scale. Such is the wonderful power and effect obtained by the repetition of the most simple elements. ARABGHEER, Aeanerx or ARABKIR, a town of Asiatic Turkey, near the Euphrates, 135 miles S. S. W. of Trebizond. It is surrounded by numerous fruit trees, situated on a plateau. ARABIA It employs 1,000 looms in weaving cotton fabrics from English yarn. The white mul- berry is abundant. The climate is severe. ARABIA, called by the Arabs themselves Jcziret-cl-Arab, “ the island or peninsula of the Arabs,” an extensive peninsula forming the S. W. extremity of Asia, though, in physi- cal characteristics, bearing more aﬁinity to Af- rica.-—It is bounded. on the north by Asiatic Turkey and the Euphrates; east by the Chal- dean mountains, the Persian gulf, and the gulf of Oman; south by the Indian ocean and the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb; and on the west by the Red sea and the gulf and isthmus of Suez, the latter of which connects it with Egypt. The northern boundary is very imperfectly de- ﬁned, hardly any two geographers agreeing in re- gard to it. This is owing mainly to the fact, that the southern desert of Syria, and the Irak- Arabi, are parts of the same vast arid plain, without any distinct landmarks. Burekhardt’s boundary is perhaps as acceptable as any; he represents it as a line extending from the Medi- terranean, near El Arish, along the southern border of Palestine and the Dead sea, thence winding across the Syrian desert to Palmyra, and thence crossing in a straight line to the Euphrates at Anah.-—-Adopting this boundary, Arabia lies between 12° 40' and 34° N. lat., and between 32° 10’ and 59° 40' E. long. Its greatest length from Suez to Ras-al-Had, on the gulf of Oman, is 1,660 miles. From the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb to the Euphrates is about 1,400 miles. Its superﬁcial area may be estimated at something more than 1,000,000 sq. miles.—The ancient geographers divided Ara- bia into 3 portions, Arabia Felix, or the Happy, A. Petraa, or the Rocky, and A. Deserta, or the Desert. These divisions are, however, un- known to the inhabitants. The modern native divisions are: I. The Bahr-el-Tour-Sinai, or Sinaitic peninsula of Petermann, the El Hadjr of Von Hammer, comprising the small penin- sula between the Mediterranean and the 2 northern arms of the Red sea, and correspond- ing very nearly with the Arabia Petraea of Ptolemy. ll. Hejaz, or “ the land of Pilgrim- age,” lies south of the above, extends along the Red sea to the parallel of 19°, and is bounded easterly by the great central desert. This di- vision contains the 2 holy cities, Mecca and Medina, as well as their ports Jeddah and Yembo. The pasha of Egypt is nominally the ruler of this region; but the Beled-el-Haram, or holy land proper, including the 2 sacred cities, is under the peculiar jurisdiction of the Sherif of Mecca. The Howeitat Arabs, a ﬁerce and dangerous tribe, control the coast from the 25th parallel northward. III. Yemen occupies the remainder of the Red sea coast from the 19th parallel to the straits of Bab-el- Mandeb, and extends easterly to the district of Hadramaut. It comprises the ﬁnest and most fertile part of Arabia. The stronghold and port of Aden, an Asiatic Gibraltar, now be- longing to Great Britain, is in this district. voL. I.--47 737 IV. Hadramaut forms the great southern divi- sion of Arabia. It extends along the Indian ocean from long. 45° to 56° 30', and stretches far into the interior. Little is known of it except a narrow strip along its coast. V. Oman occupies the tract lying between the Persian gulf and the Indian ocean, having for its west- ern boundaries the district of Hadramaut, and the great central desert. It is divided among several petty chiefs, the most enlightened and powerful of whom is the imaum of Muscat, whose efforts to extend the commerce of his country with foreign nations, have ‘ given him considerable reputation. He claims the greater part of the sea-coast. VI. El Achsa, or Had- jar, extends along the western coast of the Per- sian gnlf between Oman and Irak-Arabi, and the Euphrates. Its western or inland boundary is a mountain range which separates it from the central desert. VII. Nedjed, or Nejd, is the central and largest of the divisions of Arabia, but very little is known concerning it. It is inhabited by wandering tribes, whose wealth consists mainly in their camels and horses, and who journey from one oasis of this arid desert to another, seldom remaining long in one 10- cality. They are mostly Wahabites, or, as they call themselves, Wahabees. The southern portion of this district is said to be a vast sand plain utterly uninhabitable It is called by the Arabs, Roba-el-Kholy, “the abode of emp- tiness.” VIII. El Hamad, or the Syro-Arabian desert, extends from Nedj ed northward to Pales- tine and the Euphrates. It is mostly in the hands of the Aneizeh Arabs, over whom the Per- sians profess to exercise some control, by means of sheiks or chiefs stationed at Bagdad. The Baron von Hammer, an eminent German oriental- ist, adds to these 2 other divisions, viz. : Es Shehr, or Mahra, east of Hadramaut, a dreary region but containing some well-cultivated and well- inhabited districts, and occupied by a people whose language differs materially from the modern Arabic; and El Yemamah, the S. E. portion of El Nedjed, bordering on El Hadjar, Oman, and the great desert of Ahkaf.--The entire coast of Arabia from Suez around to the Persian gulf, is bordered by a belt of level, sandy, but generally fertile ground, from 1 to 50 miles breadth, designated by the natives the Tehama or low land. Beyond this is an arid sandy desert, rising toward the centre of the country into an elevated table-land, which de- clines toward the north into the lower level of the Syro-Arabian desert. This desert tract is intersected by some mountain chains of con- siderable height, and has scattered over its sur- face fertile oases, or wadis, narrow valleys, where the presence of springs, or permanent streams, has clothed the earth with fertihty and beauty. The Sinaitic peninsula is traversed by spurs from the Mount Lebanon range. Mt. Seir and Mt. Tor, the Sinai and Horeb of the Scriptures, are its principal summits. The high table-lands of the interior, which approach within from 5 to 50 miles of the coast, through- 738 out itswhole extent, are traversed by several chains of mountains; of these, the J ebel Sham- mar, running east and west, are the loftest and most extensive; considerable portions of these are covered with forests. The J ebel Kur run parallel with the J ebel Shammar, but are of less altitude. The Torik mountains run north and south, and cross the eastern part of the plateau. These chains are all of the primary formation. The mountains of El Arad, com- posed of limestone rocks, run from N. E. to S. W. through the Nedjed, and terminate at Ras Reccan on the Persian gulf. The coasts of Ara- bia are, to a very considerable extent, lined with coral, and are, in many places, precipi- tous; the Tehama bears evidence of being an alluvial or diluvial deposit, and as the shore is still gradually rising, the limits of the Tehama are slowly increasing. Of the many islands which border the coast, the Bahrein isles, in the Persian gulf, and Socotra, in the Indian ocean, are the only important ones.——Arabia has no considerable river. Its streams taking their rise in the mountains lose themselves for the most part in the sands, or form deep ra- vines, called by the natives wadis, which only discharge into the sea or ocean when swollen by the rains. Of these, the Obur, the Sehan, the Abbacy, the Zebid, and the Kebir, ﬂow into the Red sea; the Meitam, the Chabb, the Prino, and the Masora, into the Indian ocean. Several of these are said by recent geographers to pursue a subterraneous course, for which the dense clay, which underlies the sand, and the cavernous limestone afford facilities, and to dis- charge into the sea, at some distance from the shore. A recent German traveller relates that, at certain points near the coast, the sailors would spring overboard with their goatskins, and diving down, would bring up fresh water from springs below the surface of the sea. As none of the -mountains of Arabia reach the limit of perpetual snow, there is nothing to feed the rivers, and the winds which pass over the country are destitute of moisture. In many parts little or no rain falls, throughout the year. On the western coast they are periodi- cal, occurring from June till September. On the southern and eastern coasts, on the contra- ry, they occur during the winter months. Dur- ing the rains, the whole country is covered with the richest verdure, and the senses are greeted with those fragrant odors which have given to a portion of the country the name of “ Araby the Blest;” but the parching heat of the sun soon changes these fertile ﬁelds into an arid waste, and its scorching rays threaten to drink up all the ﬂuids of the body, and turn man himself into a mummy. But for the re- lief afforded by the constant breeze the heat would be utterly insupportable, yet even the winds themselves are often suffocating from their dryness, or exhausting from their humidi- ty. The tales told by travellers of the Samiel, Simoom, or Sirocco, the poisonous winds of the desert, have often been much exaggerated: for ARABIA while travellers have undoubtedly suffered much from the oppressive heat of the winds, and from the clouds of sand set in motion by them, there is good reason to doubt whether anyhave ever perished from any poisonous quality in those winds, or have been, as some have as- serted, buried or overwhelmed by the sands, until death from other causes had overtaken them. There is a very strong resemblance, in almost every particular, between the Arabian desert and the African desert of Sahara.-— Ophthalmia is quite common in Arabia, owing mainly, probably, to the irritation produced upon the eye by the glare of the sands, and their al- most constant presence in the atmosphere. A species of leprosy, known as Arabian elephanti- asis, is also prevalent, and is attributed to the bad quality of the food and water. The plague has occasionally visited the coasts, but never penetrates into the interior. The wandering Arabs of the interior are remarkable for lon- gevity.-—By far the greater part of the soil of Arabia is composed of loose shifting sands, and is, of course, unproductive. The portions to- ward the coast, which are more fertile, consist of an intermixture of sand and clay, which, when suﬂiciently moistened, yields abundantly. The country around Medina bears evidence of having, at some former time, been subjected to volcanic action, and there is little reason to doubt that some of the mountains of the inte- rior are now, or have been within the historic period, active volcanoes. A somewhat remark- able phenomenon in the central portions of Arabia, especially those bearing evidence of volcanic action, is the sand gulfs or pits de- scribed by Baron von Wrede. These are large pits ﬁlled to the brim with a whitish impalpa- ble powder, which seem unfathomable. The baron cast into one of them a sea-lead, which was sucked down so rapidly that he was fain to let go the line, which, though of considerable length, instantly disappeared. The mountains consist of porphyry, jasper, quartz, sandstone, alabaster, basalt, marble, and limestone. The minerals are blue alabaster, agates, carnelians, tourmaline, the emerald, the onyx, gypsum, saltpetre, sulphur, naphtha, asphaltum, iron, lead, and copper. Gold was formerly obtained in Yemen, but the supply has long been exhaust- ed. Mines of iron, lead, copper, and rock-salt, are still wrought.-—Although but a small por- tion of Arabia is susceptible of cultivation, its vegetable productions have always been greatly famed. The date, and other species of palm, stud the oases of the desert, and furnish food to the abstemious Bedouin. On the Tehema, the coffee-tree yields the small Mocha berry, so well known to all epicures. The balm tree (ancyris opobalsamum), which furnishes the fra- grant and costly balm of Mecca, the acacia cam, which produces the gum Arabic of commerce, the cassia ﬁstula or purging cassia, the aloe, and the olibandm or frankincense, are the most valuable of the products of the soil. The durra or dourra (sorghum oulgare), a species of millet, ARABIA which furnishes the chief article of food to the Village Arabs, the sugar-cane, wheat, barley, beans, rape, lentils, melons, gourds, ﬁgs, or- anges, lemons, pears, quinces, apricots, almonds, peaches, grapes, tamarinds, and cocoa-nuts, form the bulk of the other productions of the coun- try. Two of the most useful of the domesti- cated animals are undoubtedly natives of Ara- bia. The horse has been supposed to originate here, and, amid the deserts of N edjed, the best breeds are still reared. In tractableness, do- cility, endurance, and speed, the Arabian horse has no equal. The camel with a single hump, and the dromedary, which is only a variety, and not a distinct species, are natives of the Arabian deserts. The camels of Arabia are more ﬂeet than those of Africa, but are said not to endure thirst so long. The ass, also, originated in this country, and the onager, or wild ass, though perhaps a different species, still roams in the deserts of N edjed. The domesticated animal is reared with care in Yemen and Oman, and is remarkable for speed and endurance. Many of them are exported from the ports of Oman. There is a race of oxen with a hump on the shoulders, like those of Syria, and this species probably originated either in Syria or Arabia. The broad, thick-tailed sheep is also common to the two countries, but their' wool is coarse, and their ﬂesh not delicate. Among wild animals, the rock-goat, or ibex, the gazelle, the antelope, the jerboa, an animal of the opossum family, are very abundant, and in the interior, the hyena, the panther, the ounce, the jackal, the wolf, the fox, the wild boar, and the wild cat, exist. There are many species of apes, some of which cause great damage to the coffee planta- tions of the Tehema. Among rapacious birds are found one or more species of the eagle, fal- con, heron, owl, and ostrich. The partridge, the guinea-fowl, and the pheasant are also found in different districts of the country. Fish abound on all the coasts, and on that of Oman are found the pinna marina, or pearl oyster, in large quantities. The pearl ﬁshery on this coast is said to employ 30,000 men. Reptiles are very numerous; tortoises, many species of lizards, some of which, like the guaril, are of great size, and are used for food; others, like the cha- meleon, are remarkable for agility and adroit- ness; serpents, some of them of very venomous species, batrachians, &c. The insects are nu- merous, and nearly all noxious; the locust often destroys the hopes of the tiller of the soil, and many of the others are capable of inﬂicting serious injury upon men or animals.-—The methods of agriculture adopted by the Arabs are extremely rude, but owing to their indus- try, and the porous and friable character of the soil, which only needs water to make it yield abundantly, in the more fertile regions, they succeed in raising very good crops. In many parts of Yemen, ploughing is not attempted, but the ground is cultivated with a crowbar and hoe, as substitutes for the spade. Throughout nearly the whole country which is under culti- 739 vation, artiﬁcial irrigation is practised. At Muscat, wheat and barley are sown in Decem- ber, and reaped in March.—For many centu- ries, the Arabians monopolized, in connection with their neighbors of Tyre, and Phoenicia, the greater part of the carrying-trade of the world, and even during the middle ages, though the Venetians, the Portuguese, and the Dutch, had entered into competition with them, they still retained the trade between India and Europe. The discovery of the Cape of Good Hope by the Portuguese, however, was the signal for a rapid decline in their commerce. Within afew years past, the opening of the overland passage to India, by the British government, the pur- chase and development of Aden as a seaport, and the energetic measures adopted by Saiyid Said, the present imaum of Muscat, for the ex- tension of his commercial relations, have given the commerce of Arabia a new impulse. The principal exports of Arabia are coffee, much of which is produced in the country, though a very considerable portion is brought to Muscat, Mokka, and J eddah, from Abyssinia, Nubia, and Egypt, and exported thence as genuine Mocha coffee, dates, gum Arabic, myrrh, aloes, the best being the product of the island of Socotra, though considerable quantities are raised in the interior, almonds, balm of Mecca, frankincense, some aromatic and medicinal drugs, and pearls. The traﬁic in pearls is almost entirely in the hands of the Banians, or Hindoo merchants, and amounts to something more than $1,500,000 yearly. From Muscat, wheat, horses, raisins, salt, dried ﬁsh, and drugs, are also exported. In the way of imports, Arabia receives from Europe, silver, iron, copper, lead, ﬁre-arms, and gunpow- der; from Abyssinia, slaves, sheep, elephants’ teeth, and musk; from the eastern coast of Af- rica, gold, slaves, amber, and ivory ; from Egypt, rice, lentils, sugar, and oil; from Surat, linen; and from Coromandel, cotton. The imports of the port of Muscat amounted in 1845 to over $5,000,000, and have been constantly increasing since that period.—The population of the Ara- bian peninsula has been variously estimated at from 12 to 15 millions. The latter is probably the nearest to truth, as recent explorations de- monstrate that the interior contains more fer- tile lands, and a denser population, than was formerly supposed. It is estimated that the va- rious races and tribes known collectively as Arabs, comprise nearly seven-eighths of this population; the remainder consists of Jews, Banians, Turks, Negroes, Abyssinians, Franks, and others. Of the Arabs, there are 2 classes, the ﬁxed, or agricultural, and the nomadic. The ﬁrst occupy cities, towns, and villages; the second, generally known as Bedouins, are a wandering race, living in tents, and moving in troops from place to place. Of the agricultural class, there are many distinct tribes, differing so much in manners, habits, and language, as to give the impression to the traveller that they originated from different stocks. The recent discoveries, at several points in the interior, of 7 40 Himyaritic inscriptions, and the existence of a language spoken by the natives of the interior villages, called Ehkili, bearing a much stronger analogy to the Himyaritic than to the Arabic, would seem to indicate that a portion of the ﬁxed Arabian population are descendants of those sons of Ham who originally settled Syria, Phoenicia, and the countries adjacent.-—The Bedouins, on the other hand, are, probably with ' less admixture than the inhabitants of villages, the descendants of Ishmael. With them the Arabic language is spoken with great purity and force. They are frank, hospitable, pos- sessed of an indomitable love of liberty and in- dependence, but are also revengeful, vain, su- perstitious, passionate, and given to robbery. Nowhere has the Bedouin been more graphical- ly described, than by the prophecy of Ishmael’s future career, Gen. xvi. 12: “And he will be a wild man ; his hand will be against every man, and every man’s hand against him; and he shall dwell in the presence of all his brethren.” The Bedouins are divided into numerous tribes, some of very considerable numbers, while oth- ers, whose names have been famous for many centuries, are now dwindled to a mere handful of ﬁghting men. The Aneizeh, a tribe occu- pying the region called El Hamad, and extend- ing their wanderings over the Syrian desert, are the most numerous of all the Bedouin clans. They are said to be able to bring into the ﬁeld from 90,000 to 100,000 warriors, and to number about 350,000 souls. The Beni Harb, the most formidable of the tribes of the southern desert, number from 30,000 to 40,000 warriors; the tribe of Asyr, about 15,000; the Beni Shammar from 6,000 to 8,000 ; while the Beni Koreish, the noblest of all the Ishmael- itic tribes, and specially distinguished as the friends of Mohammed, have dwindled down to 300 men, and the Beni Sad, and Beni Kahtan to from 500 to 800 each.——Mohammedanism, or Islamism, is the prevalent religion of Arabia, though, among the inhabitants of the Wadi Doan, a large and populous valley in the interior of Hadramaut, Baron von Wrede found traces of the ancient ﬁre-worship; and M. Arnaud, in 1843, found among the moun- tains of Yemen many Arabs whose reverence for Hud, a prophet who preceded Mohammed, and who cursed him and his followers, was stronger than that for the prophet of the Koran. Mohammedanism, in the lapse of ages since the death of its founder, had lost much of the strictness and purity which characterized its earlier teachings, and the most gross, corrupt, and licentious practices had crept in, even to the worship at the holy places, Mecca and Medi- na. At a period when this corruption had reached its height a reformer appeared, in the person of Mohammed Ebn Abd-el-Wahab, a na- tive of an obscure village in-the mountains, born in 1692, and educated at Bassorah. Possessing the elements of character necessary for a re- former, the young Wahab, on his return from Bassorah, commenced the work of reform in his ARABIA native village. Being soon banished for his ﬁerce onslanghts on prevailing corruptions, he ﬂed to Derayeh, the capital of the Nedjed, where, protected by a powerful sheik, named Saoud, he continued his denunciation of the prevalent moral degradation of his country. Upon a people as impressible as the Arabs, these ﬁery anathemas exerted a powerful inﬂuence, and the reformed faith spread rapidly. Ere long, like the prophet, he took the ﬁeld in defence of his principles. His forces were led by the saga- cious Saoud, and city after city, which had at ﬁrst opposed his doctrines, became convinced of their truth when they were commanded by the edge of the sword. In 1765, at the death of Saoud, all eastern and southern Arabia had yielded its allegiance to the Wahabees. Forty years later, and the sheiks of the holy cities, and the sherif, or Turkish governor, of Mecca, had yielded to the force of arms what they had denied to the force of argument. All Arabia was avowedly reformed. Only a few stubborn mountain tribes, like those of the Wadi Doan, refused their allegiance. But the period of their sway was brief. Exasperated at his defeat, the sherif of Mecca made his complaints to the sultan at Constantinople, and Mehemet Ali, then pasha of Egypt, under the orders of his master, applied himself to the work of extirpat- ing the Wahabees from Arabia. The undertak- ing was a formidable one, and it required vast outlays of men and money to accomplish it. But Mehemet Ali was one of those charac- ters whose will is paramount to all else, and he had willed their destruction. The ﬁrst attack was made upon them in 1811, but it was not till 7 years later that, after the most terriﬁc slaughter on both sides, Abdallah, the Wahabite leader, was taken prisoner, and the power of the Wahabees was broken. Abdallah was taken to Constantinople and executed; but again and again did Mehemet Ali ﬁnd it necessary to send large bodies of troops into the country to repress the rising spirit of revolt, and it was not till 1834 that these gallant reformers could be said to be wholly crushed. With the triumph of the Osmanlis the old corruptions have in a great measure returned, and the worship of the holy places is far more degrading andlicentious than when the stern Wahabite leaders held pos- session of their shrines.—In the middle ages, while thick darkness brooded over Europe, the Arabs, then known as Saracens, cultivated the sciences, particularly mathematics, geography, and astronomy; and literature to an extent which made them the leading minds of the world. Medical and chemical science, too, were more profoundly studied here than any- where in Europe; but with their waning polit- ical power came intellectual apathy and decay, ' till now the only remains of their literature are found in their wild but musical improvisa- tions, and their science has dwindled into the dogmas of the schoolmen.—The early history of Arabia, like that of most oriental nations, is in- volved in mystery and myth. They claim de- ARABIA scent from J oktan, the 5th in descent from Shem, and from Ishmael; and undoubtedly the Bedouins originated from this stock, but a con- siderable portion seem to have had a kindred origin with the Egyptians. Among the de- scendants of J oktan one founded the king- dom of Yemen, another that of Hejaz. A suc- cessor of the former, named Saba, erected a stupendous reservoir or artiﬁcial lake, in which he collected the mountain torrents, and distrib- uted them by canals over his territory, which, thus fertilized, became very productive. It was in this rich and densely populated region that Bilkis, who has recently been identiﬁed as the queen of Sheba who visited Solomon, reigned. In the reign of one of her successors, the reservoir burst its barriers, and the long pent-up waters, rushing through the towns and villages, carried desolation in their track. So complete was the destruction that the surviving inhabitants had not the means to rebuild the reservoir, and hence their once fertile ﬁelds be- came a waste and arid desert. A young French traveller, T. J . Arnaud, who visited this region in 1843, found among the ruins abundant ev- idence of its former grandeur in the massive blocks of stone covered with inscriptions in the Himyaritic character, and in the ruins of dwell- ings and temples which must have once ap- proached in magniﬁcence those of Palmyra or Tadmor. Himyar, the supposed founder of this city of March, was the immediate successor of Saba, and, from the works attributed to him, must have been a wise and beneﬁcent prince. He is supposed to have invented the alphabet known as the Himyaritic character. In the 5th century of our era the last monarch but one of the Himyarite dynasty embraced Judaism, and commenced a bitter persecution of the Ohris- tians in his domini.ons. This aroused the in- dignation of the Abyssinian Christians, who, early in the succeeding century, invaded Yemen with a large army, and after several sangninary battles defeated the Himyarite king, and drove him in despair into the Red sea. The govern- ment passed into the hands of the Abyssinian generals, but one of the descendants of the for- mer kings obtaining the aid of the king of Per- sia, succeeded in driving them from Yemen, and reinstating the ancient line. His reign was short, however, and with him terminated the race of Himyarite kings. A new era soon dawned on Arabia, in the birth of Mohammed, in Nov. 570. The ﬁery genius and enthusi- asm of Mohammed soon gained for his new doctrines a ﬁrm foothold, and Mecca once con- quered, he found nearly the whole peninsula at his feet. The skill and bravery of Abubekr, Omar, and Ali, carried forward what he had begun. These three, in turn, succeeded Mo- hammed, under the title of caliphs; they were followed, after a bitter civil war, by Moawyiah, the founder of the dynasty of the Ommyiades, who held the supreme power over the Moslem empire until A. D. 750. To this dynasty suc- ceeded that of the Abbassides, who transferred ARABIAN HORSE 741 the seat of the caliphate to Bagdad, which was built by Al-Mansoor, the second prince of that house. From the 8th to the 13th century they held sway over the greater part of the Moham- medan countries, though more and more re- stricted by the occasional secession of a prov- ince, or its revolt under the inﬂuence of some leader descended from another branch of the royal race. Stripped by degrees of their ﬁnest provinces, the Abbassides still retained a bar- ren sceptre in their grasp, until the beginning of the 16th century, when the Turks took cap- tive the last of the dynasty, and the caliphate passed into the hands of the Osmanlis. The subsequent history of Arabia is but a succession of squabbles among the numerous petty chiefs, among whom the country is partitioned, except the reform movement of the Wahabees aheady described in speaking of the religion of the country. The following works may be con- sulted for full information on the subject of this article: Niebuhr’s “ Travels,” Valentia’s ‘.‘ Travels,” “ Travels of Al‘ Bey,” Burckhardt’s “Travels in Arabia, and No es on the Bedouins,” Willsted’s “ Travels,” Baron von Wrede’s “Jour- ney to Hadramaut,” Thomas Joseph Arnaud"s “Travels in Yemen,” Lieut. Burton’s “Mecca and El Medineh.” ARABIAN HORSE, the most celebrated for speed, endurance, spirit, courage, intelligence, and docility, of all the equine family. It has been imagined that the horse is naturally indi-' genous to Arabia, but there is no greater error; for, on the contrary, Arabia was one of the last countries of antiquity to which the horse was introduced. Nevertheless, in Arabia and the conterminous countries of Africa and Asia, the horse has arrived at such a degree of excellence as no other horse in a state of nature has ever at- tained. The peculiar characteristics of the Ara- bian horse are the perfection of his form, the ﬂatness, strength, and ivory-like solidity of his bones, and his tendency to form hard, solid muscle, in contradistinction to cellular tissue or fat. The canon bone of afourteen-hands-high Arab, though not equal to one-fourth of that of a Flanders dray-horse, in compass, exceeds it 20 times in strength and soundness. The Arab is small in size, rarely exceeding fourteen hands; he has a beautiful, lean, bony head, with a very broad forehead, large, prominent, expressive eyes, a nose rather hollow than prominent, a tapering muzzle, and large, well-opened nostrils; his mane very long, thin, and silky. In the desert he is the familiar comrade, tent-mate, and playmate of his master, as docile and in- telligent as a dog. His ordinary food is one meal of barley, a few dates, and a draught of camel’s milk, per diem ; and on this scanty fare he will accomplish 60 or 80 miles a day for many successive days. The modern English and American thoroughbred horse is lineally de- scended from a nearly equal mixture of Arabian, Barb, and Turkish blood, and is, to all intents and purposes, the best horse now existing in the world. The most famous imported Arabs, 742 and those which have transmitted the highest qualities to their posterity, are the Darley Ara- bian, brought to Englandin Queen Anne’s reign; the Leede’s brown Arabian; Honeywood’s white Arabian; the Oglethorpe Arabian; the N ewcombe bay mountain Arabian ; the Damas- cus Arabian; the Cullen brown Arabian; the chestnut Wi1son’s Arabian; the Coorabe gray Arabian; and Mr. Bell’s gray Arabian; the Bloody Buttocks, and Bloody-shouldered Ara- bians; the Alcock’s and Devonshire Arabians; and many others of inferior note. The horse, long called the Godolphin Arabian, is now very generally conceded to have been a Morocco barb. Many Arabians have been recently imported, both into England and the United States, but they have in no respect improved the breed; and so low do they now rate as pro- genitors in England, that the colt of Arabian sire and Arabian dam is allowed no less than 36 lbs. advantage in a race with English bred horses. ARABIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERA- TURE. The Arabian language belongs to the so-called Semitic languages, together with the Hebrew, Aramaic, Ethiopian, Phoenician, Syrian, and other minor languages, and is among them the richest, not only in literature, but also in words and forms. It has two principal dialects, of which each is, or was, spoken in several sub-dialects : namely, the northern, which, through the Koran, has for centuries been the general tongue of the Arabian empire, and is best of all represented in literature; and the southern, of which a branch, the Himyar tongue, has outlived the others in a few monuments and relies, and is supposed to be the mother of the Ethiopian language. It is the former which up to this day is in various degenerated dialects spoken ‘in Arabia, parts of Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt, Abyssinia, Nubia, Tripoli, Tunis, Algiers, Morocco, and all over the Sahara desert, and forms part and parcel of the Turkish, Persian, and several of the East India languages. The Arabian language is characterized by an abun- dance of rough guttural sounds, the great rich- ness and pliability of the vowels, while the con- sonants are comparatively unchangeable and in almost all radical words consist of only 3 letters, under which the vowels are written or rather as a rule, not written, but only hinted or guessed at. Pronouns, prepositions, adverbs, and con- junctions, do not form separate words, but are placed either at the commencement or at the end of the nouns and verbs, and blended with them into one word. In most of these features the Arabic, with all known Semitic languages, is widely different from all other families of languages, and distinguished by a certain dig- nity, volume of sound, and vigor of accentuation and pronunciation. The Arabic, in particular, has proved amply capable of serving as a vehicle for every science, and for a rich, highly im- aginative lyrical poetry. It had its gramma- rian as early as 650 of our era, called Abul- Aswad-al-Duli, and a host of others, at later ARABLAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE times, among whom we mention Ibn-Malek (whose Alﬁya was published by De Sacy, Paris, 1833), Ibn-Hadjil (Kdﬁg/a, Rome, 1592), Al Sanhedji (Aladsch/rumig/e, Rome, 1592, Arabic and Latin by Erpen, Leyden, 1617, Arabic and French by Bresnier, Algiers, 1546), and Al- Djauhari, died in 1009, whose Al-sihah, a die- tionary of the pure Arabic, is still valuable, Mohammed-ben-Yacob-al-Firuzabadi, 1414, the author of the best Arabian dictionary extant (2 vols., Calcutta, 1817), and Djordjani (Dqﬁm'- tiones, published by Fliigel, Leipsic, 1545), whose dictionary explains only scientiﬁc and artistic terms. When the Arabian empire was dissolved, the Arabians ceased to have their own grammatical writers, and Europeans be- gan to take their place. Postel (1538) in France, and Spey (1583) in Germany, revived the study of the language and its grammar. Among the many distinguished writers in this line, among the French, English, and Ger- mans, we mention only Lane and his Thesaurus or dictionary of the Arabic, not yet completed; Von Hammer, whose History of Arabian litera- ture appeared at Vienna, 7 vols., 1842-’57 ; Zen- ker, whose Bibliotheca Orientalis, Leipsic, 1846, is an index to all printed Arabian works; Jahn (1802), De Sacy (1826), editors of Arabian an- thologies. The best works for learning the modern Arabian language, as spoken in Al- giers, Syria, Egypt, etc., are Sheik Altantowi’s Traité de la langue Arabs oulgaire (Leipsic, 1848), a grammar, Berggreen’s Guide Frang:ais- Arabs oulgaire des cog/agcurs (Upsala, 1848), a dictionary. The Arabian is, like all Semitic languages, written from the right to the left; the characters are of Syrian origin, and import- ed into Arabia before Mohammed’s time. The oldest characters, called Ouﬁc, are rough, and only 16 in number, for the 28 consonants. Still, they were not superseded for about 300 years, when the so-called Ncskhi characters were adopted. These are used to this day. The same characters are distinguished by different points for different consonants, while the vow- els, often not written at all, are marked out by short strokes over or beneath the line.— It is impossible that a gifted people under a genial climate and amid a subtropical world of animals and plants, enjoying the freedom of nomadic tribes and the leisure to embellish their life with the noblest of arts, not rich enough to invite conquerors, not too poor to want the means of self-defence, and, therefore, independent, proud, brave, adventurous, like all nomadic tribes, and highly imaginative, by their Semitic descent, by their clear, serene sky, and the strong contrasts of desert and oasis, of picturesque mountains and charming vales, of the tranquil enjoyment of life, and of hair- breadth escapes from sudden death, should not have an early literature of lyric poetry. The Arabians had a rich poetic literature even be- fore Mohammed, and one far richer, afterward, when his new, voluptuous, conquering, and fan- tastic religion had created an Arabian nationality ARABIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE and national pride. Throughout the Arabian literature, this proud, independent, and exu- berant spirit can be traced. The religious ser- vices of that age were gloriﬁed by poesy, the successful songs in poetical contests were con- secrated to the Divinity, and, written in golden characters on byssus, hung up in the caaba, the ancient national sanctuary at Mecca. Seven such songs are yet preserved, full of passion, manly pride, and intensity of imagination and feeling. De Sacy, in his Ohrestomathie Arabs, has some specimens of that early period by the bards Nabegha, Asha, and Shanfara, and Frei- tag has published the “ Praise song on Moham- med,” by Kaab-ben-Zohair, a cotemporary of Mohammed (Bonn, 1822, Arabic and Latin). The 2d period of Arabian literature begins with Al-Mansoor’s reign, 753. It is but natural that the highest development of literature, science, and art in every nation should follow in the wake of great national exertions which have united its different tribes, and inspired them with the feelings of national pride and great- ness. After, therefore, Mohammed had preach- ed in the Koran (which of course became the standard work of poetico-prosaic style) the holy war for spreading Islamism all over the world, and had, a short time before his death, united all the Arabian tribes into a nation; after, in about 80 years, the Arabians had made their nation, tongue, and religion, the dominant one in a third part of Asia, almost one-half of Africa and in Spain, and had formed an acquaintance with the then most educated nations of the world; their ﬁrst leisure, under the caliphs of the house of Abbas in Bagdad, since 749, was spent on the creation of a national literature, and the cultivation, not only of luxury and sensual reﬁnements, like other oriental nations, but like- wise of art and science. Under Haroun-al- Rashid, who began with encouraging poetry, importing learned men from every country, who translated and multiplied the standard works of Greek and old Persian literature; under Al- mamoun (813-’33), who offered the Greek em- peror 100 cwt. of gold and a perpetual peace, if he would lend him the philosopher Leo only for a short time, and who founded good li- braries and schools in all the capitals of the empire; and under Motassem (833—’41), who was himself an accomplished man of letters— the Arabian literature ascended in quick succes- sion to its summit of excellence, not only in the eastern, but also in the western empire, where the Ommyiades in Spain, from Cordova, spread rays of enlightenment and cultivation. Here the period of Arabian civilization was even longer than in the East, and the performances in almost every branch, at least of science, more splendid, solid,and genuine. Fifteen academies, many high- er and popular schools, the library of 600,000 vol- umes of the Caliph Hakem, and the strange fact that the best scientiﬁc students of the Christian world, like Gerbert, afterward Pope Sylvester II., came to Cordova to learn the Aristotelian philosophy, medicine, and mathematics at the 143 hands of Arabian teachers, bear testimonyto the genius of this nation and its achievements. The Christian world is indebted to these Moham- medans for more than it had been ablev to give them; they returned the spiritual capital which they had received as a loan from Christian coun- tries, with ample interest. But for them, many classical works would not have lived to poster- ity, many important discoveries would not have seen the light, and the civilization of the European West and North would have been sub- jected to a longer and harder struggle for men- tal emancipation.—As to poesy, the ancient im- petuosity of expression, the passionate feelings, and the spirit of individual independence, no longer characterize the productions of this period. In their stead appears a reﬁned form, rhythmi- cal polish, elegant diction, and tame sentiments. There is no star of the ﬁrst rank among the nu- merous poets, there is no attempt at dramatic creation, not even a great national epos, such as nearly every historical nation can exhibit. The Arabian mind is not classical enough, fails in the harmonious proportions, in the considerate com- bination of fancy and philosophy, of truth and beauty, which are the great features of the drama and the epos; it is always eccentric, ' one-sided, either soaring high into the realms of imagination, and losing the soil of sober re- ality, or calculating, forming notions, collect- ing useful facts, and speculating after the rules of logic. This is the reason why we here ﬁnd lyrical and romantic poesy almost exclusively fostered. Tender idyls by Motenabbi Tograi (published by Pococke, Oxford, 1661) ; Ibn- Doreid (published by Haitsma, Leeuwarden, 1773); the “Praise of Mohammed” by Busiri (published by Rosenzweig, Vienna, 1824); the Makmnat of Hamadani and particularly of Hariri, a kind of poetry in the style of Boccacio, namely, a series of improvisated novelettes and anecdotes, in which the style, polished to the utmost and charming by every embellishment of diction, is the chief feature; the novels of Ibn-Arab- shah (published by Freitag, Bonn, 1832), the allegory of “ The Birds and the Flowers” (Ara- bic and French by Garcin de J assy, Paris, 1841), the fairy tales and romances of the “Thousand- and-one Nights,” translated into almost every civilized language; the romances: “ Feats of Antar,” the “ Feats of the Combatants,” the “Feats of the Heroes,” and many similar, which very early found their way into the popular lit- erature of Europe; indeed, almost every kind of lyrical, didactical, and half-epical poetry, is well represented. It is strange to see how much the troubadours have borrowed from the Arabi- ans, while these owe their tales, fables, fairy stories, partly to the Persians and Hindoos, and partly to Greek originals, which are now lost. Next to poetry we must look to theology for original Arabian literature. We need not here characterize the Koran; the Soonna or oral tra- dition, which is believed to be inherited from the prophet by his earlier successors, is far more reasonable and more creditable to its much later 744' anthers. It is well known that Turks and Persians (Soonnees and Sheealza) regard each other as inﬁdels, because the former adopt the Soonna as entitled to the same respect as the Koran, while it is rejected by the latter. But even within the orthodox church of the Soon- nees there were 76 sects, differing in the position they claim for reason and philosophy in regard to the sources of revelation. Thus 4 sects of the 76 considered as orthodox, differ as follows: the Haneﬁtes do not reject tradition, but pre- fer reason in the interpretation of holy writ; the Shaﬁtes repudiate the use of reason and philosophy fundamentally; the Kambalites and Malechites admit reason only where tradi- tion fails. The interpretation of the Koran is of double importance, because -it is the sole and exclusive source and foundation of Mussol- man social and political law. The number of interpreters and commentators of the K0- ran is considerable, and we mention among them Samakhshari and Baidhawi (published by Fleischer, 2 vols., Leips., 1844). The dogmatical work of Omar-al-Nasaﬁ, and the celebrated code of laws by Sheik Ibrahim, are translated by Mouradgea d’Ohsson, Tableau généml dc l’empire ottoman, 2 vols., Par. 17 87. The French in Algiers have furnished us with good compilations from the Koran and its juridical commentators, among which Préois dc jurisprudence mnsnlmane, salon le rite Maléohite, par Kalil-ibn-Ishak, French by Perron, 2 vols. Paris, 1848, and Du Couroy Legis- lation Snnnite, rite Hanéﬁ, Paris, 1848, have met with approval. Philosophy would, of course, not be a favorite with the strictly orthodox sects, nor treated with freedom of sentiment by any sect, the revealed religion being the only fundamental source of , belief, while philosophy is condemned to perform the merely formal service of arranging and commenting on what has been revealed, and of ﬁlling up gaps where nothing was thus communicated. Aristotle, whom they obtained in Spain in Latin transla- tions from the Goths, in Asia in New Platonic editions and commentaries from Alexandria, was, therefore, only an authority in points which did not touch the creed. They commented on and continued his deductions. Alkindi, ‘of Basra, about 800, Alfarabi (954), Avicenna, who died 1036, Ibn-Yahya, Algazzali 1111), who tried to refute all Greek philosophy, budsafar-ibn-Thophail (1190), who in a philo- sophical romance,Hai-Iln- Y okdan (published by Pococke, Oxford, 1671), was the ﬁrst to teach that man by degrees developed himself out of the animal kingdom, and Averroes, an ex-. cellent commentator on Aristotle, have, since better editions and expositions of the great Greek have helped to understand him right, lost much of their former signiﬁcance, but were most valuable for their age. Natural science gained much of permanent value from the Ara- bians. Many Arabian expressions in use up to this day for certain stars, and the words azimuth, zenith, nadir, algebra, alcohol, alkali, ARABIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE and others, will remind posterity of their merits. In geography they stand foremost; they ex- plored all of Northern Africa, and almost all of Asia, and laid down their explorations in good maps and the works of Ibn-Khordadbeh, El- Istakhri (Liber Ulimatnm, published by Miiller, Gotha, 1839), Ibn-Haukal, about 815 (lrals, published by Uylenbrock, Leyd. 1822), above all El-Edrisi about 1150 (French by J aubert, 2 vols. Par. 1836), Omar-ibn-al-Wardi (Ar. and Lat. by Hylander, Lund, 1824), Yakuti, whose important work is still unpublished, Abulfeda Kaswini (“ Cosmography,” published byWusten- feld, 2 vols. Gott. 1848), and others. The Ara- bian travellers were not less important. Al- Hassan-ben-Mohammed-al-Wasan, of Cordova, is known under the name of Leo Africanus, and described in the 16th century his travels through Africa and part of Asia; Mohammed-ibn-Batu- ta, translated by Moura, Lisb. 1840, visited, in the 13th century, Africa, India, China, Russia, &c., and Ibn-Fozlan (published by Friihn, Petersb. 1823), saw Russia, and described it graphically in the 9th century. The astrono- mer Albiruni wrote, in the 11th century, a valuable book on India, published by Reinaud, Paris, 1845. In medicine the Arabians excelled all their contemporaries, and Europe owed to them whatever she knew in the middle ages on botany and diagnostics. The Koran for- bidding the dissecting of bodies, they could make no progress in anatomy; but they made up this loss by laying the foundation for chemistry (the name of alchemy or alchymy is of Arabian origin). There were celebrated medical schools in all the Arabian capi- tals, and when the ﬁrst Christian school of medicine, in Salerno, was established, almost every thing was borrowed from the Arabians. Aharan ﬁrst described the small-pox,_ Rhazes wrote a treatise on small-pox and measles (Eng. by Greenhill, Lond. 1848), Avicenna was the celebrated author of the “Canon of Medicine,” an authority for many centuries. Abulkasem wrote on chirurgical operations and instruments, Avcrroés on the whole science of medicine, Ali-ben-Iba on ocular diseases (Arab. and Lat. by Hille, Dresd. 1845). On natural history there are works by Damiri, Ibn-Baitar, and Kazwini; on agriculture by Abu-Zakarya of Seville. In mathematics the Arabians rank even higher; they simpliﬁed the science by the adoption of the original Indian system of decadic numbers and ciphers, and of the sines in geometry, reduced the trigonometri- cal methods of the Greek in number, enlarged, if not invented algebra (Muhamed-ben-Musa, Ar. and Engl. by Rosen, Lond. 1830), wrote on optics, translated Euclid, commented on Ptolemy’s “Trigonometry,” had observatories in Bagdad and Cordova, and ﬁxed new stars in their maps. Albaten observed in the 10th century the progression of the apsidic line of the earth’s course, Mohammed-ben-Djeber— al-Batani the inclination of the ecliptic, and Abulfeda combined geography with astrono- .but they are scarcely noteworthy. ARABIAN LITERATURE my and mathematics, a merit in which he an- ticipated the modern age. The service of the Arabians in history is not sufﬁciently estab- lished, their works in this line needing a still more extended and ample research. They have those of Masudi, “ Historical Encyclopaedia,” entitled “ Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems ” (Eng. by Sprenger, 1 vol. Lond. 1841); Tabari (Annalee, published by Rosegarten, Greifsw. 1831); Hamza of Ispahan (Ar. and Lat. by Gottwald, Leips. 1844), all of them universal historians; Abul-faraj and Elmakin, Historia Saraceuica, published by Erpen, Leyd. 1825, were Christians; Abulfeda wrote many histori- cal monographs, Navairi (Histoirc dc S/icile sous la goucerucment des Arabes, by Caussin, Par. 1802). The French academy is about publishing some other works on the crusades. The history of the Arabs in Spain was written by Abul Kasem (1139) and many others; Ahmed-al-Mokri was published by Gayangos, 2 vols. Lond. 1841; Abu-Mohammed-Assaleth, Portug. by Moura, Lisb. 1840, Ibn-Udari by Dozy, Leyd. 1849. Ibn-Abi-Zer wrote the Arabian history of Man- ritania (Aunales regum Maur. Ar. and Lat. by Tornberg, 2 vols. Ups. 1843 ), and Ben-Abil-Raini, Hzlstoirc dc Z’Afrz'guc (French by Pelissier and Remusat, Paris, 1845); Kotb-Eddin, a history of Mecca, Kemal-Eddin of Aleppo; others wrote biographical works; Makrizi, a history of the Egyptian Soldans (French by Quatremére, 2 vols. Par. 1837), and a history of the Copts (Ar. and Germ. by Wiistenfeld, Gott. 1846), a number of other special works on Egyptian history, Emad-Eddin, a biography of Saladin, Ibn- Arabshah that of Timour Khan (published by Manger, 2 vols. Leeuwarden, 1767); Ibn-Kaal- dun an introduction into the study of history in a truly philosophical spirit, and a history of the Berbers; Hadji-Kalfa, a history of Arabian, Persian, and Turkish literature (published by Fliigel, vols. i.-v. Loud. 1835-’50). They write, as a rule, simply and without rhetorical ﬂourish, and may yet help to ﬁll up many a gap in our historical resources. It is a pity that so gifted and energetic a nation should, since their po- litical decline, have also declined in litera- ture ; but over-reﬁned and imbued with Oriental luxury, they found their Capuas in Cordova and Bagdad. Compressed by warlike neigh- bors into narrower limits every century, their scientiﬁc and artistic spirit died out with their national glory and power. This would certainly not have been the case but for the rigidity and want of development in their religion, which with its fatalism and want of nobler spiritual elements, speedily enfeebled their natural energy. There are still among them a few learned men, mostly grammarians, commenta- tors, and compilers; some others have pro- duced poems and works of travel under the inﬂuence of European civilization; some popu- lar songs of modern times have been collected, Finally, the Arabian books written by Christian authors and Jews, whose number is not small, and among ARABIAN NIGHTS 745 whom Maimonides must be mentioned, cannot properly be classed with the Arabians. ARABIAN NIGHTS, called also the “Thou- sand and One Nights,” a collection of wild and delightful stories translated from the Ar- abic, and more widely diifused among the nations of the earth than any other product of the human mind. While it is read or recited to crowds of eager listeners in the Arab coifee houses of Asia and of Africa, it is just as ea- gerly perused on the banks of the Tagus, the Tiber, the Seine, the Thames, the Hudson, the Mississippi, and the Ganges. Beside the mil- lions of Moslems whom this book styles the true believers, the still more numerous millions of Christians, though their religion and them- selves are contemned in it, read and enjoy it, for they can nowhere ﬁnd its equal in the splendor of its pageantry, the variety and bold- ness of its incidents, and the expression of fer- vent and intensely natural desires. This unique character also, as has well been said, obviates one objection to placing romances in the hands of the young. While the youth proﬁts by the amount of wordly wisdom displayed by the en- snarers, and those who foil them, he can never feel a disappointment that the real world should be so different; for where every thing is so un- like the world around him, he feels when he treads upon this enchanted threshold that he is entering the realms of pure imagination. While there are children on the earth to love, so long will the “Arabian Nights ” beloved; and we all owe this pleasure to one who was himself a poor French boy. Antoine Galland was born of poor parents, at Rollo in Picardy, in 1646. He lost his father while an infant, and was placed in the college of Noyon at the age of 13. His mother was too poor to keep him there. He was accordingly put to a trade. He left it in disgust, and went to Paris. While at college he had gained some knowledge of Latin, Greek, and Hebrew. At Paris he was befriended by Du Plessis, and placed under M. Petitpied, doctor of the Sorbonne, with whom he studied oriental languages. He was named to accom- pany M. N ointel to Constantinople, where he learned modern Greek. He went thence to the Holy Land. In 1675 he returned to Paris with a collection of medals, which proved so inter- esting and valuable that he was sent to get more. in collecting manuscripts for the celebrated Col- bert; and at this time he must have obtained his copy of the “Arabian Nights,” of which he translated and published a large part, thus winning for himself the gratitude of innumer- able generations of the young. If, however, we seek to discover the author of the original Arabic work, we shall ﬁnd it impossible. Even the period and the place in which it was writ- ten can only be inferred from internal evidence. The earliest known date connected with it is contained in a marginal note to the copy of the Arabic manuscript which M. Galland brought with him from Syria. This note was written, In 1679 he was employed in the East , 746 as it appears, by Wahaba, a Syrian Christian of Tripoli, in Syria, and prays for long life for the owner (at ﬁrst it was erroneously translated author) 'of the manuscript. This date is 1584 A. D. In many of the stories Haroun al Rash- id is familiarly spoken of and introduced among the characters; these must, therefore, have been written some little time after his death. In all the stories the Moslems are spoken of as the true believers, and Christians, Jews, and Ghebers, or Magians, are treated as inferiors. It is, therefore, a necessary conclu- sion that the writer was a .Moslem. The time then must have been after the establishment of the religion of Mohammed, and at least some of the stories must have been written after the time of Haroun al Rashid. But the most acute and curious remark upon this subject has been made by the learned orientalist, De Sacy, who refers to the fact that coffee was not -in use at that time. Now, it is not strictly true that cof- fee is not mentioned at all in the “Arabian Nights,” but it is spoken of so seldom (only 3 times in all), and in such a way as to show it to be most probably the work of a copyist, or in some way an interpolation. For certainly the offering of coffee, which has so long been a necessary part of polite hospitality in the East, would necessarily have been introduced into every story touching, as they all do, upon domestic life. Coffee was not commonly used in Arabia before 1500 A. D., having been in- troduced 1454 A. D. Tobacco is mentioned but once, and then so very incidentally that it may very well be considered an interpolation. As this weed was not introduced into England until 1565, its appearance in the East must have been at least as late as this epoch. The style of the work is not the pure old Arabic, but the ordinary spoken language of Syria and Egypt. From what has been said, the year 1450 A. D. may, perhaps, be taken as the saf- est approximate date. As to the country in which this book was written there is consider- able diﬁ“erence of opinion. The learned Von Hammer contends for Persia, De Sacy for Sy- ria, and Lane for Egypt. The ﬁrst copy met by M. Galland was found in Syria; and Bagdad and Damascus are frequent scenes of action. On the other hand, Mr. Lane contends that the description of Arab life at Cairo, and in Egypt, are so minutely accurate, that none but a native of that country could have written the book. Persia and the Persians have so little prominence in the work that it is dif- ﬁcult to understand how Von Hammer can believe that in its present shape, at least, it could ever have been written by a native of that country. His ideas are, however, more busy with the ultimate than the immediate origin of the work, and this brings us to the last and one of the most interesting considera- tions connected with this admirable collection, and- that is, did the author invent or compile these stories? and are they ancient or modern inventions? A careful consideration of all the ARABIAN NIGHTS researches of the most learned orientalists must bring us to the conclusion that some were in- vented by the author, some caught from his contemporaries or those immediately preceding, and that others have come down to us from remote ages and in various forms; these last of course being ﬁtted with scenery, machinery, dresses, and decorations to suit the age and country of the writer. Mr. Hole, in his small but most learned treatise ; Mr. Keightley, in his interesting little book “On the Trans- mission of Popular Fictions ;” and Mr. Lane, in the copious and valuable notes to his excellent translation from the original Arabic, have sup- plied us with the materials for some most curi- ous parallels. In the story of Bedr Basim and J oharah we ﬁnd our Homeric acquaintance Circe, under the name of Queen Lab, amusing herself by transforming her lovers into animals of various kinds. In the third voyage of Sindbad we ﬁnd our old friend Polyphemus under the guise of a black giant still at his, to him, interesting entertainment of crunching the tenderest travellers he can ﬁnd. As we know that several of the works of the Grecian mas- ters were translated into Arabic, Homer in particular having been translated into Syriac by Theophilus of Edessa, chief astronomer at the court of Elmahdee, the source of the above is evident. The ﬂying horse of brass may be a.counterpart of Pegasus; but there is a curious passage in Plato, as quoted by Larcher in his notes to Herodotus, in which that author makes Gyges, a poor shepherd, to have penetrated into the palace of king Candaules by means of a ring which rendered him invisible, and which he found upon the ﬁnger of a dead man enclosed in a horse of bronze. This is curious inasmuch as it is an Asiatic story quoted by a Greek as early as 390 B. C. This makes no mention, it is true, of the horse as a ﬂying one, but a coun- terpart to the ring is found in the cap confer- ring invisibility in the story of Hassan el Bas- rah, and was already familiar to us in the story of Jack the Giant Killer. The ﬂying horse is also found in Chaucer (1328-1400), in his story of “ Cambuscan bold.” We ﬁnd him also (Clavilefio Aligero, the Wooden-pin Wing- bearer) in Cervantes (1547—1616). The escape of Sindbad from the cave in his fourth voyage is evidently taken from Plutarch’s account of the escape of Aristomenes, and the idea of the sur- viving wife or husband being buried alive with the dead may very well have come to the author from the suttee of the Hindoos. Kin- dersley’s specimens of Indian literature furnish us, in the detection of Nella Rajah by his skill in cooking a particular dish, the source perhaps of the detection of Bedreddin, and this is stated to be a story of the highest antiquity. The account of the mountain of loadstone is to be found in Pliny (Geog. vii.). Serapion also speaks of this. That immense bird, the roc, or ruch, or rukh, is spoken of still more extravagantly by other Arabian writers, as quoted by Bochart in his Hier- ARABIOI ozoicon. The old traveller Marco P010 (1250-- 1323) talks through a whole chapter dc ma/.m'ma ave ruck. One of its feathers was 12 paces in length, and its food was elephants, which it caught and ﬂew away with. The story of the valley of diamonds and of the method ‘of getting them, by pieces of ﬂesh thrown into it and afterward brought up by birds, is to be found in a work written by Epiphanius, bishop of Salamis (403 A. D.) Mr. W. H. Morley, in a note to Mr. Lane, says that he has found one of these stories in a col- lection of Persian tales, and the Persian preface to this book declares that it was written in the Pehlevi (ancient Persian) tongue. In the year 338 most probably, of the Hegira, 960 A. D., it was translated into the Dari language. The author of the preface then mentions that he has rendered it into modern Persian. It is clearly shown from a passage in the Golden Meadows of El-Mesoudee (377 H. 987 A. D.), that a Persian collection of stories called Hezar Afsaneh, in Arabic Elf Khurafeh, the Thousand Fanciful stories, existed before the Arabian Nights. This passage was much dwelt upon by Von Hammer, but considered as altogether inconclusive by De Sacy. Von Hammer has, however, discovered another passage in the Fihrist which so clearly identiﬁes the Per- sian Hezar Afsaneh in its plot at least with the Arabian Nights, that there is no longer any room to doubt that the general plan and many of the stories must have been borrowed from this older collection. They are called the Thousand and One Nights, but all the stories that have been discovered thus far make only 568. As the author of the Fz'7mIst, how- ever, remarks, more than one night was con- sumed in relating one story. Of the different English translations, the old one from Galland contains our old favorites; that of Lane is val- uable for the closeness of its translation, letting us still further into the arcana of eastern life. The Calcutta translation by Torrens and Mac- naughton has versiﬁed, and in many instances very well, the poetical extracts, giving us also many details omitted in the preceding. ARABIOI, or ABABIANS. The gospel was introduced into Arabia at a very early date. Paul was there immediately after his conver- sion (Gal. i. 17). We do not know that he es- tablished any church there. Eusebius says (vol. vi. 19), that (217) “A soldier handed a letter both to Demetrius (bishop of Alexandria), and to the prefect of Egypt, from the governor of Arabia, the purport of which was that he should send Origen to him in all haste, in order to communicate to him his doctrine. Where- fore he was sent by them.” Beryllus, who was bishop of Bostra, in Arabia, began soon to in- troduce certain Arian doctrines among the Ara- bians, which wére readily embraced. The fol- lowers of Beryllus received the name Arabici. They denied the divinity of Ohrist, aﬁirmed that the soul dies with the body, and is raised to life again with it in the resurrection. Origen ARAOHNE 747 contended with Beryllus, and a synod con- demned the Arabici as heretics. ARAOAN, a town of British India, formerly capital of the province of Aracan, on the east coast of the bay of Bengal. The province is subject to immense quantities of rain, and is consequently unhealthy. Its soil is the property of the East India company. According to the native annals, Aracan was once a kingdom which extended over part of Ohina and Bengal. The country then contained 2,000,000 inhab- itants. The town of Aracan lies on a branch of the Aracan river, in a district which for 200 miles is one vast mass of vegetation, mud, and marsh. The inhabitants of Aracan are nearly all able to read and write, and are Buddists. They export, chieﬂy to Bengal, ivory, gold, sil- ver, salt, young horses, and rice. In 1846 the shipments of the latter article amounted in price to £120,000. ARAOATI, a port of Brazil, on the Rio J a- guaribe, in the province of Oeara, about 10 miles from the sea, lat. 4° 31’ S. long. 37° 48' W. It has 5 churches, and a very ﬁne town- hall. Its exports are mainly cotton and hides. Of the former, about 800,000 lbs. are shipped annually, and of the latter, some 2,000 skins. Its trade would be much more considerable, but for the diﬁicult and dangerous navigation of the river, which has a bar at its mouth, with only 8 feet of water. It is subject to severe ﬂoods dur- ing the rainy seasons. Population, about 5,000. The name Aracati is also applied to a river, in the same province, which, after a course of about 120 miles, enters the Atlantic by two months. ARAOATSOHA, a plant found in the Andes. It is described as being more nutritive than the potato, which is also indigenous to that country. The soil in which it grows most congenially is moist and light. It is cultivated in Germany. Considerable interest has been excited among naturalists and scientiﬁc men, by the fact that this plant has also been discovered growing na- tive in the country of Sus, on the north side of the Atlas, and is called by the Arabians, am- catscha, or atscha, which signiﬁes the “dry root.” How has it happened that this plant is designated by the same name among two na- tions so widely separated by an intervening sea? Does it throw light on the ancient nautical knowledge of the Arabians, or does it tell of geological conditions of the earth in for- mer days, by which these two great bodies of land were once united? ARAOHNE, a Lydian maiden, who was ﬁa- mous for her skill in the art of weaving. She challenged Minerva, and wove a piece of cloth on which the amours of the gods were repre- sented. This work was so faultless that Mi- nerva, despairing of being able to excel it, tore it to atoms, whereon Arachne hung herself. The goddess, however, loosened the rope, and saved the life of Arachne, but notwithstanding this, the rope was transformed into a cobweb, and the maiden into a spider, that insect which Minerva most hated. 748 ARACHNIDA .ARAGHNIDA(G1'. apaxm], a spider, and elder, resemblance), a class of invertebrated animals belonging to the articulata. This class includes spiders, mites, and scorpions. The arachnida differ ﬁ'om insects in having no antennas; in the number of eyes being, in most species, 8; and, even when only 2, in never being placed laterally on the head; in the legs being usu- ally 8, although, in some species, 6, and in oth- ers 10; in their respiratory apparatus con- sisting of radiated tracheae. The greater num- ber of the arachnida are carnivorous. Some parasitic species, such as the minute parasite mites, are furnished with a sucker, in some respects constructed like that of the gadﬂy. In other species there is a pair of upper jaws and a pair of under jaws carrying jointed feel- ers, and between them a sort of tongue, formed by a projection from the breast. At the back of the month there is a piece of horny texture, termed by Savigny, Latreille, and Au- douin, the pharynw, forming the entrance into the gullet. The gullet, the stomach, and the intestines, run in a direct line from the pharynx to the vent. In the greater number of arachnida there is a complete circulatory system of ar- teries and receiving veins, returning blood. The respiratory organs have 2 peculiarities, on which Latreille established his 2 great divisions of arachnida (pulmonaria and trache- arz'ct). The pulmonaria, which Straus-Diirck- heim and Leon Dufour place in the 1st or chief division, comprises the numerous species of spiders and the scorpions. Their respiratory apparatus consists of small cavities formed by the union of triangular laminae of extreme thin- ness. The division furnished with air-pipes (tmchearia) similar to those of insects, comprises the harvest-spiders, or shepherd-spiders, mites, and other genera. “The presence of tracheae, or air-pipes,” says Latraille, “excludes all complete circulation; that is, the distribution of blood to different parts, and its return from the res- piratory organs to the heart.” The eyes of the arachnida are all simple. In the greater number of spiders they are 8 in number; but in some they are 6; in others they are only 2. Nothing is known of the organs of hear- ing in arachnida, although it has been well ascertained that these animals do hear. Male spiders are always much smaller than the females. The palpi, or feelers, of the male are furnished with organs of various forms, usually bulging at the tip; the feelers of the female gradually taper to a point. The eggs of spiders, not having a hard shell, are soft and compressible. Before being laid, they lie in the egg-bag, squeezed together and ﬂattened, within the spider’s body, but as- sume the globular form after being laid. The female spider, in preparing a nest for her eggs, uses her own body as a bird uses its body to give form and proper size to its nest. The eggs excluded from a cavity just behind the breast. The hatching of the eggs of one species (the epeim diadema) has been traced ARAFAT with care, and the successive evolution’ of the embryo depicted with skill, by M. Her- old, of Marburg. The systematic classiﬁcation of arachnida can hardly be deemed perfect in its present form, but that of Latreille being deem- ed the best, is generally adopted. He arranges the arachnida into two great orders—pulmona- rim and trachearia. He subdivides the ﬁrst order, arachnida pulmonaria, into 2 families, under the names of amneidce and pedipalpi. The araneidce include our common spiders, hav- ing palpi simple, pediform; mandibles, armed with a movable and perforated claw, emitting a poisonous liquid; abdomen, inarticulate, ter- minating by spinnerets. The pedz'palpz', includ- ing the scorpions and their allies, have the ab- domen articulate, without spinnerets ; palpi produced, cheliform (chela, claw), or shaped like pincers; mandibles, with a movable digit. The second order, trachearia, has been variously subdivided by different naturalists. It includes various forms of shepherd -spiders and sea-spi- ders, mites, and ticks; true mites, garden-mites, spider-mites, wood-mites ;' true ticks, plant- ticks, water-ticks, harvest-ticks; false scorpi- ons, book-scorpions; shepherd-spiders, sea-spi- ders, and parasitic sea-spiders. ARACUAHI, a small river of Brazil, in the province of Minas Geraes, which has its source in the Sierra das Esmeraldas, about lat. 17 ° 30' S. long. 42° W., and running N. E. falls into the J equitinhontra. It is about 200 miles in length, and suﬂiciently deep to be rendered easily navi- gable for at least 100 miles. ARAD, OLD, a town and bishop’s see, capi- tal of the district of Arad, Hungary. It has a considerable amount of trade in cattle, and a fair second only to the fairs of Pesth and Debreczin. Pop. 16,400.—NEw ARAB is cele- brated for its fortress, which is used as a state’s prison for Austrian political oﬁ:'enders. ' ARAFAT, or ORPHAT (gratitude), a mountain in Arabia near Mecca, a pilgrimage to which is -enjoined upon all who visit that city. This mountain is a granitic hill only about 200 feet high above the plain. On the visit of Burck- hardt (1814) during the time of an annual pil- grimage, he counted nearly 3,000 tents, while at the same time he estimated that the majority of the visitors were without tents. Among the motley crowd be ascertained that at least 40 languages were spoken. The area of the moun- tain is not large enough to hold the pilgrims. The pilgrimage occupies 3 days from Mecca. On the second day, the ceremony of the sermon on the mount is observed. The cadi of Mecca usually preaches the sermon, riding ﬁrst upon a camel up the entire length of the stone steps which ascend the mountain, to the summit. Hearing this sermon is the great point of the pilgrimage, and confers the name of hadji (pil- grim). There is a tradition among the Mo- hammedans that on this mountain Adam ﬁrst met Eve again, after a separation of 120 years immediately following the expulsion from Para- dise. On the summit is a chapel, which, ac- ARAGO cording to tradition, was built by Adam him- self. It was riﬂed in 1807 by the Wahabees. ARAGO, Domnvroun Fnamgors JEAN, a cele- brated French physicist and statesman, late di- rector of the observatory at Paris, born Feb. 26, 1786, in the village of Estagel, near Per- pignan, died in Paris Oct. 2, 1853. He display- ed from his earliest childhood those remarka- ble powers of mind which subsequently won for him the highest rank among the scientiﬁc men of the century. After having studied mathe- matics at home, and at the college of Per- pignan, he entered, in 1803, the polytechnic school. On leaving it, in 1805, he was appoint- ed secretary of the board of longitude, and in 1806 he was charged with ﬁnishing, in conjunc- tion with Biot, the measurement of the arc of the meridian, begun by Delambre and Méchain, as the basis of the decimal metrical system of France. Three years were thus spent, not without risk of his life, and not without fre- quent loss of liberty, from the excited political state of affairs on the borders of France and Spain. In 1809, on his return to Paris, he was elected member of the French institute, and soon after appointed professor at the polytech- nic school. In 1830 he became perpetual sec- retary of the academy of sciences, and director of the observatory, a post which be retained to the last. Although thus directly concerned in astronomy, his active mind embraced the circle of physical sciences, and he rendered special services to optics, by his own experiments, and by his inﬂuence over others, and especially by directing the labors of Fresnel and Malus. He was the ﬁrst to recognize the value of Young’s optical papers. He also investigated magnetical phenomena, and made some contributions to meteorology, especially in connection with elec- tricity. The colors of polarized light, the ap- plication of polarization as a test of the origin of light, the experimental proof of the retarda- tion of light in dense mediums, the apparent magnetism of copper rotating near a permanent magnet, the inﬂuence of the aurora upon the needle, are among the points on which Arago’s labors were crowned with the most brilliant success. The last three years of his life, he was unable, through blindness, and other suf- ferings, to devote to scientiﬁc study. He was the author of more than 60 distinct memoirs on various branches of science. He established, in concert with M. Gay-Lussac, in 1816, the An- nalee de physique et de ehimie. In 1828 the Auuuwire du bureau des longitudes, and Les comptes reudus hebdomadaires were, on his ur- gent recommendation, commenced by the acad- emy in 1835. His celebrated essay on Le phe- noméne des amzeaua: colorés appeared in the Mémoires d’Areuez'Z, which also had Humboldt, Laplace, Berthollet, Chaptal, and other emi- nent men, as contributors. The famous article in the “Edinburgh Encyclopsedia,” on the po- larization of light, is from the pen of Arago. As secretary of the academy, he pronounced historical eulogies on his predecessor Fourier, 749 on Dr. Young, Watt, Oarnot, Oondorcet, Am- pére, &c., which are considered as models of the kind. His complete works are now in course of publication at Paris, under the direc- tion of Barral, and a German translation by Hankel is announced at Leipsic, as well as an English translation at London. From the royal society of London he received the Copley medal, an honor never before conferred upon a French man of science. When Napoleon, after the battle of Waterloo, thought of emigrating to the United States, for the purpose of devoting the remainder of his life to scientiﬁc pursuits, he invited Arago to accompany him, and when this intention was foiled by England, Monge endeavored in vain to prevail upon Arago to follow the ex-emperor to St. Helena. On the outbreak of the revolution of 1830, we ﬁnd Arago espousing the cause of the people. In 1831 he was elected member of the chamber of deputies by his native department of Pyrénées- Orientales. Here he took his seat on the ex- treme left, on the side of Laﬁtte and Dupont de l’Eure, and soon became a prominent leader of the opposition. He delivered many memo- rable speeches in behalf of science and educa- tion, and in the political questions of the day he strenuously opposed all encroachments upon the rights of the people, and denounced, as such, the government monopoly of railways, and the project of the fortiﬁcations of Paris. In addi- tion to his parliamentary functions, he was a member of the council-general of the Seine, of which he was president until 1849. The declara- tion of the council in favor of the emancipation of slaves, was exclusively due to Arago’s instru- mentality. He took a conspicuous part in the movement which led to the overthrow of Louis Philippe, and on Feb. 24, 1848, he became a member of the provisional government, and of- ﬁciated ﬁrst as minister of marine, and after- ward presided at the same time over the war department. He belonged to the republican wing of Marrast and Marie, who opposed the theories of the socialists, and advocated libe- ral institutions, as they exist in the United States. The department of the Pyrénées-Ori- entales chose him as representative to the na- tional assembly. When the provisional gov- ernment relinquished the reins of power, the assembly appointed him member of the execu- tive commission. In this position he displayed great personal courage during the bloody days of June, 1848. He opposed the election of Louis Napoleon to the presidency, and, discontented with the turn which politics were then taking in France, he gradually ceased to take part in public affairs. But he proved true, to the last, to his republican creed, and refused to take the oath to the government of Louis Napoleon. In May, 1852, he addressed a letter on this subject to the minister of public instruction, which was favorably received, the government exonerating him from the oath of allegiance, without de- priving him of his oﬁice as director of the ob- servatory. His death was deplored as a ca- - their way out in the tumult of debate. 750 ARAGO lamity by lovers of science all over the world, He left the reputation of a generous relative and friend, an eloquent teacher, an indefatiga- ble worker in the realms of science, and a brave soldier in the army of humanity. He possessed in a high degree the warmth of feeling which is the special attribute of the children of the south, while at the same time he was remarkable for apeculiar tenacity of intellect. His lectures on science always attracted crowds of eager listen- ers. In addition to the vast stores of knowledge which he unfolded before the audience, there was an irresistible magnetism in his presence and ut- terance. II. EMMANUEL, son of the preceding, born at Paris, Aug. 6, 1812. He is an awoeat, and was elected member of the council of advocates. His name as well as his opinions and tendencies caused him to be retained in several political cases of importance. In 1839 he defended Barbes and Martin Bernard. He took an active part in the revolution of 1848, and, on the morning of Feb. 24, protested from the bal- cony of the National against the abdication of Louis Philippe, declared the monarchy extinct, and called for a provisional govern- ment. He was at once appointed by his re- publican friends to oppose the proclamation of the regency, and ran to the palate royal with Sarrans, jun., Chaix, and Duméril. They ar- rived at the door of the chamber in time to see the duchess of Orleans and her son enter. When M. Dupin had read from the tribune the abdication which announced the regency, Em- manuel Arago rose and loudly proclaimed that royalty was by this act extinct, and that the people objected to a regency. Lamartine and other deputies followed, and a provisional gov- ernment was organized on the spot, the duchess of Orleans and the royal dukes making In a few days it was announced in Paris that Lyons was in a most excited state owing to the stop- page of trade and the destitution of the work- men, and Arago was instantly despatched by the provisional government as commissary general, with plenary powers to act according to his discretion. Finding that (the question being one of food) the danger was imminent, Arago consulted with the mayor of Lyons, the receiver general, and the inspector general of ﬁnances, and gave an order on the receiver general for a sum of 500,000 francs, to be im- mediately applied in relief of the distress. This action was subsequently misrepresented and made the subject of furious party invective. He was elected a member of the legislative as- sembly for the Pyrénées-Orientales, and was despatched to Berlin as envoy extraordinary. He resigned on the election of Louis Napoleon as president, and, returning to Paris, has con- tinued in steady opposition to Louis N apoleon’s government. IH. ETIENNE, brother of Domi- nique, born at Perpignan, Feb. 7, 1803, a dra- matic author. He studied at Loréze, and under- took a course of chemistry at the polytechnic school, which he abruptly quitted for the purpose ARAGON of joining the secret societies. He then threw himself into a literary career, and in 1834 he put forth a melodrama and a comic vaudeville, whose success was complete. He established two satiri- cal journals, La Lorgnette and Figaro. He was afterward director of the Vaudeville until it was burned down. He has written no less than 120 theatrical pieces. His most pretentious, though perhaps not most successful piece, is Les Aristo- eraties, a ﬁve act comedy, produced at the Théatre Frarmais. In 1830 he closed his the- atre to join in the popular movement, and dis- tributed the theatrical stock of arms to the people during the 3 days. His zeal was only inﬂamed, not extinguished, by the share he had in the revolution of 1830, and he was among the most prominent to signalize his disap- proval of the shortcomings of the Louis Phil- ippe government; which marked its sense of his hostility by cancelling his theatrical license in 1840. The Reforme, a daily demo- aratic journal, was founded by Etienne Arago. He was of course one of the -prime movers in the revolution of 1848, and was placed in the direction of the post oﬂice, an appointment which he ﬁlled with integrity. In 1849 he was concerned in the revolutionary movement of June, which was put down by Gen. Changar- nier. In consequence of this he went into exile. IV. J moons ETIENNE VICTOR, a brother of Dominique, born March, 1790, at Estagel, died in Paris, Jan. 1855. At an early age he devoted himself to literature. When only 20 years of age, he made an artist’s tour through various countries of the Mediterranean. In 1817 he went a voyage in the exploring vessel Uranie as draughtsman to the expedition; The Uranie was wrecked at the Moluccas, and M. Arago experienced his full share of trouble and privation, and did not return to France until 1821. After his return to France, he resided at Bordeaux and Toulouse. He continued a life of literary activity even after the total loss of his sight, which happened in 1837. He wrote several theatrical pieces, and an account of the voyage of the Uranie. His most in- teresting work from the circumstances un- der which it was written, is Souoemlrs d’un aoeugle: Voyage autour du monde. V. J EAN, a brother of Dominique, born 1788, died July 9, 1836. He was a sub-treasurer in Perpignan, and, having been deprived of his appoint- ment on a denunciation which subsequently turned out to be false, he embarked for Nev;r Orleans, and, joining Mina, became a general In the Mexican service in the war of independence, where he rendered eminent services, and won a high military reputation. ARAGON, once a kingdom, now a royal province in the north of Spain. Its extent is about 16,000 sq. miles; pop. in 1849, 847,105. It is bounded on the N. by the Pyrenees, on the E. by Catalonia, and on the W. by Na- varre. The surface is irregular from the nu- merous spurs of the Pyrenees that cross it, beside which it is separated from the neigh- ARAGON ' boring provinces by ranges of lofty hills, that convert it almost into a basin. The Pyrenean chain in Aragon reaches a great altitude, its peaks exceeding 11,000 feet in height. The province is watered by numerous aﬁiuents of the Ebro, the Huecha, J alon, Huerva, Aguas, Martin, Guadalupe, and Matarrana, the Gallego, Cinca, Xiloca, Alomacid, and Turia. There is a canal in the province, which was commenced in 1520 by Charles V., and which, had it been completed according to the original design, would be a noble work; but it was for a long time in abeyance, and has stopped short of its object, which was to reach the sea at Tortosa, and furnish a maritime outlet for the province. It extends from Tudela to near Sasta-go and Tauste. Its average width is 69 feet, its depth 9 feet. It is mostly lined by high, thick walls, and crosses the J alon river by an aqueduct 4,800 feet in length. The productions of Aragon are grain, ﬂax, and hemp, of good quality, wine, and various dye stuffs. The mineral productions are iron, quicksilver, lead, copper, cobalt, marble, and coal. ently worked, the chief being one of rock salt near Remolinos. Cattle are not very plentiful, but sheep are bred in considerable numbers. The mountains and forests abound in game. Aragon is divided into three provinces, Huesca, Saragossa, and Teruel. The principal city is the famous Saragossa. The history of Aragon forms an important part of the history of Spain. Intersected by the direct military road connect- ing Spain with France, it has been affected by all the changes of government through which the whole country has passed. It has been under the sway of the Roman, Carthaginian, Goth, and Arab. The Aragonese were not, however, worsted in their contests with the Moors. In the inaccessible fastnesses of the Pyrenees, a remnant of patriots took refuge and maintained their independence. Issuing thence, they recovered some part of the Chris- tian territory, and erected a kingdom. And it is not a little singular that a nation which, in the history of the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, was a model despotism, should, in earlier ages, under every circumstance of discouragement, have held so ﬁrmly to their freedom, and imposed so many checks on the exercise of arbitrary sway by their sovereigns. The Ara- gonese had probably the earliest representative system of Europe. They elected Garcia Iniguez as their sovereign and leader, but compelled him to an oath to maintain their fueros, or con- stitutional charter; to give to his subjects half the territory he should take from the enemy; not to enact laws without their consent; vnor to declare war or to make peace without the con- sent of his counsellors. The fueros provided a cortes, in which all classes of the state were represented, and also enunciated princi- ples of self-government and popular rights, not exceeded by the liberalism of the present day. To insure the sovereign’s adherence to this compact, a justicia was appointed as guardian The mines and quarries are indiffer- ' 751 of the laws.~ He was to be appointed by king and cortes together; his decisions were with- out appeal, and he was only answerable to the nation at large. He was allowed 2 deputies to assist him in his high oﬂice, who might be appointed by the king for 3 years, and were to be taken from the caballeros, the class between nobles and commoners. The cortes were com- posed of the nobility, the caballeros, the com- mons, to whom, in 1301,.the ecclesiastics were added. Unanimous consent of the orders was requisite to a law, and any one of the four had a right of peremptory veto. The king’s assent was also requisite. There were 8 nobles in the cortes, 23 ecclesiastics, and 31 members for cities and boroughs. The number of repre- sentatives seems to have varied occasionally. The cortes were summoned and dismissed by the king, who presided at their deliberations in person, unless unable to do so, in which case the crown prince or his lieutenant was present. He could not remain in the cortes at the taking of the votes on a measure. The king opened the assembly by a speech, which was replied to by the cortes; and after this preliminary mat- ter was disposed of, committees of the several orders were appointed to prepare the measures to be considered in the assembly. The justicia had a seat in the house below the throne, and every Aragonese, “of what rank soever, had the free and indefeasible right to lay before the cortes any greuges (grudges or grievances) in relation to a breach of the fueros of the kingdom. The cortes appointed a committee to report on the grievance, which might be either an act of omission or of commission.—- After all petitions and grievances had been dis- posed of, but not before, the cortes voted the supplies for the service of the state. These supplies were of a limited character. In 1376 the ﬁrst money grant was asked by Pedro IV. to levy a body of men-at-arms. The Aragonese cortes refused, being “accustomed,” as they said, “to serve the king with their persons, not their purses.” Subsequently, the same king, however, coaxed his subjects into a loan. In 1412, Ferdinand I. obtained another loan, which loans paved the way to royal aids, benevolences, and other exactions. The royal demesnes were the sources to which the king originally looked for funds to carry on his wars—the nobility and men-at-arms attending him at their own cost. This also was English usage. The ordinary expenses of the state were defrayed by taxes levied for terms speciﬁed, after which their collection was illegal. On the dissolution of the cortes, oﬁicers called a da'putaoe'on, and associated with the justicia, were appointed by the cortes to watch over the public interests until they met again. The Aragonese had an ancient constitutional right of recurring to arms as a defence against the refusal of their king to observe and protect their fueros. This was not a mere inherent right, but a distinctly recog- nized provision; and the Aragonese, in the forms of their coronation, reminded the sover- 752 ARAGON eigns of it. The king having taken the oath to uphold the constitution, protect the fueros, and do justice, the justioia who administered it, replied in the name of the people, “We, who are worth as much as you, take you for our king and lord, provided you keep our laws and liberties, otherwise not.” In the reign of the gloomy tyrant Philip II., the jnatioia, Juan de Samoza, having summoned the people to arms to protect their fneros, the king sent a force against him, and wrote an autograph letter to his general, directing him to take and punish the y'nsticia without delay; an order which was strictly obeyed, for, being deserted by the no- bility of Aragon, the patriotic judge was seized and beheaded without form of trial. Aragonese liberty had tottered ever since the union of the crowns of Aragon and Castile, by the marriage of Ferdinand and Isabella. This increased the power of the monarchy; and the accession of Charles V. was the death-blow to the liberty and cherished privileges of the Spanish cities and provinces. ARAGON. I. ALEoNso DE, a Spanish Jesuit, born in 1585, died in 1629; distinguished him- self as missionary in Paraguay, and as author of various works on grammatical subjects. II. FERNANDO DE, archbishop of Saragossa, grand- son of Ferdinand, king of Castile and Aragon, author of a history of the kings of Aragon, and of other historical works; was born at the be- ginning of the 16th century, and died in 1575. III. GIOVANNA DE, an accomplished Roman lady, princess of Tagliacozzo, and wife of As- cagno Colonna, distinguished by her beauty and talents; died in 1577. She took an active diplomatic part in the differences between the house of Colonna and Pope Paul IV., and her superior management of these affairs gave so much offence to the pope, that he would not permit her to marry her daughters without his permission. IV. TULLIA, a Neapolitan poetess ARAGUAY and belle, born in 1510, died in 1565. She was the reputed daughter of the archbishop of Palermo, Tagliavia, who gave her an excellent education, and the means of living in pecuniary independence. She was distinguished for her beauty and social qualities quite as much, if not more, than for her literary abilities, which, however, 'were highly respectable, as she was a ﬁne Latin and Italian scholar. She had many admirers in Neapolitan society, including the cardinal Hippolytus de’ Medici. Her poetical works ﬁll 3 volumes. ARAGONA, a small town of Sicily, 7% miles N. N. E. of Girgenti; pop. 6,530. It has a cas- tle, ﬁne paintings, and antiquities. It is near the clay volcano of Maccaluba. ARAGUARI, a river of Brazil, in Brazilian Guiana, rises in the Sierra de Tumcaraque, in lat. 3° N. and long. 52° 32’ W., ﬂows east, and, after a course of about 160 miles, falls into the Atlantic a little north of the mouth of the azon. ARAGUAY, or ARAGUAYA, a large river of Brazil, which rises in the mountains, in lat. 18° 10’ S. and long. 51° 30' W. near the Parana. It ﬂows northward, between the provinces of Matto-Grosso and Goyaz, to S50 J 050, lat. 6° 5’ S., where it unites with the Tocantins, and the combined stream discharges its waters, after a course of nearly 400 miles further, into the southern estuary of the Amazon, in lat. 1° 40’ S. Its whole course is about 1,300 miles, of which about 1,100 are navigable. About mid- way of its course, it separates into 2 arms, which enclose the island of Santa Anna, 210 miles long and 40 broad. Its principal tribu- tary is the Das Mortes, which joins it in lat 12° S. Many tribes of warlike savages are found on the banks of the Araguay. Its great navi- gable length furnishes an uninterrupted naviga- tion from Para, almost to the head-waters of the Parana. END OF VOLUMIE FIRST. CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. I A,a1ctter............, . . . . . . . . . . .. A, in music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 1 Aa, Christian C. H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Aa, Hildebrand van der . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Aa, Peter van der ............... . . 2 Aa, Peter van der . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Aa, several rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Aagaard, Christian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 . Aagard, N iels.' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Aagesen, Svend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Aain el Ginoon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Aal Jacob . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 Aalborg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Aalen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 Aalst, Everard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Aar, a river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Aard-Vark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Aard-Wolf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 3 Aargau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 Aarhuus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Aaron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Aaron of Alexandria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Aaron, Isaac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 Aaron al Rashid, see Haroun Aarschot, Philippe de Croi . . . . . . .. 4 Aarsens, Cornelius van . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Ab, a month . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Abs, Samuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 Ababde . . . . . ..- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 4 Aback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Abaco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Abacot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Abacus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 Abad, I, II, III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 Abad y Queypeo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Abaddon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Abadiotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Abaft. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Abaka-Khan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Abakansk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Abana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .— . . . . . . . . . . 6 Abancay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Abancourt, Charles Xavier J . . . . . . 6 Abancourt, Charles Frerot d.’. . . . . 6 Abandonment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 Abano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6 Abano, Pietro di . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Abantes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 Abarbanel, Isaac Barbanclla ..... . . 6 Abarca, Joaquin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Abarim, or Aborim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Abascal, Don Jose Fernando.. . . . . 7 Abasolo, Mariano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Abatement, in law . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7 Abati, Antonio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Abatis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7 Abattoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 7 Abaujvar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8 Abauzit, Firmin. '. ............. . . 8 Abbadie, Jacques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8 Abbas the Great . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . . 8 Abbas ben Abdul Mottallib . . . . . . . . 9 Abbas Mirza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Abbas Pasha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 ..—.___ PAGE Abbassa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Abbassides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Abbatucci, Jacques Pierre . . . . . . . . 10 Abbatucci, Charles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Abbatucci, Jean Charles . . . . . . . . . . 10 Abbé . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Abbeokoota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10 Abbess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -. 12 Abbeville, in France . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 12 Abbeville, in S. C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Abbey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Abbitibbe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Abbo Floriacensis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Abbon, or Abbo Cernuus . . . . . . . . . 12 Abbot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Abbot, Abiel, D. D. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Abbot, Benjamin, LL. D. . . .. . . .. . 12 Abbot, Charles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13 Abbot, Charles, Lord Tenterden. .. 13 Abbot, George . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Abbot, Maurice. . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13 Abbot, Robert. . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Abbot, Samuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Abbot, Samuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Abbot the Hermit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Abbotsford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Abbots-Langley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13 Abbott, Jacob . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Abbott, John S. C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Abbreviatori . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Abbt, Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Abd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Abdallah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Abdallah, a chief of the Wahabce. . 15 Abdallah, father of Mohammcd. . . 15 Abdallah ben Yassim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Abdallah ben Zobair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Abdallah ebn Balkin ............ .. 15 Abdallatif . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Abdals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Abdas, a Persian bishop ......... .. 16 Abd el Kader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 Abdel Kooree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Abd cl Malek ben Mcrwan . . . . . . . . 18 Abd el -Malek ben Omar . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Abd el Mottallib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Abd el Mumen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Abd el Wahab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19 Abdera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 19 Abderrahman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Abderrahman I., the Wise. - . . . . . . 19 Abderrahman III., the Great . . . . . . 19 Abderrahman, sultan of Morocco. . 20 Abdias of Babylon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 _Abdication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Abdie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 20, Abdiesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ' 20 Abdomen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Abduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 21 Abdul Hamet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Abdul Hamet Bey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Abdul Medjid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Abdy, Mira . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24 4/-_~"‘ 1/ " ‘J l w\_. : ‘\ '4 \. PAGE Abecedarians............. ...... .. 24 A’Beckett, Gilbert Abbott . . . . . . . . 24 Abeel, David, D. D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - 24 Abegg, Jul. F. H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Abev , Bruno Erhard . . . . . . . . . . . .. 25 Abeil e, Joh. o. L ............... .. 25 Abeken, Bernhard R .... . .~ . . . . . . . . 25 Abeken, Wilhelm Ludwig . . . . . . .. 25 Abel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Abel, Charles Frederic . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Abel, Clarke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Abel, Jacob F. von . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Abel, Joseph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Abel, Karl von . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 Abel, Niels Henrik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Abel de Puyol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 26 Abelard, Pierre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 26 Abelin, John Philip . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 28 Abelites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 28 Abell, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : 28 Aben . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Aben Ezra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Abencerrages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Abendberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Abendroth, Amadeus A. . . . . . . . . .. 29 Aben-Humeya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Abensberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 29 Aber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Aberbrothwick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29 Abercrombie, James . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Abercrombie, James, D.‘D . . . . . . . . 30 Abercrombie, John, M. D . . . . . . . . . 0 3 Abercromby, Alexander, Lord. . . . 30 Abercromby, James, Baron Dun- fermline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Abercromb , Sir Ralph . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Aberdeen, ew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Aberdeen, Old . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31 Aberdeen, Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Aberdeen, Earls of . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 31 Aberdeenshire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Aberdevine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 33 Abergavenny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 33 Aberli, Jean Louis . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 33 Abernathy, John, Rev. . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Abernethy, John, M.D . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Aberration of Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Abert, John J. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Abex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Abeyance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Abgar, or Abgarus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ 34 Abgillus, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 ﬁhiad, Bahr el, White Nile . . . . . .. 2% iathar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Abib, a month . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 AbidaJebe1..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 35 Abildgaard, Soren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Abildgaard, Peter Christian . . . . . . . 35 ﬁhildgiiarltll, Nicolai Abraham. . . . . ime ec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Abinger, Lord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Abington, Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 35 Abington, Mrs. Frances . . . . . . . . . . . 35 Abinzi..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 35 PAGE Abiponians....................... 86 Abisbal, Henry 0’Donnell . . . . . . . . 36 Abjumtion, Oath of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Abkasia. ....................... . . 36 Ablaikit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Ablancourt, Nicolas Perrot d’. . . . . 36 Ablative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Able, Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 37 Ablecimoﬂ’, Alexander . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Ablation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 37 Abner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 b0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 37 Abo, Peace of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 37 Aboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Abomey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Aboo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Aboo Arish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Aboo Sambool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Aborigines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 Abortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 Aboukir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 About, Edmond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38 . Aboville, Francois Marie . . . . . . . . . 39 Aboville, Auguste Gabriel . . . . . _ . . 39 Aboville, Auguste Marie . . . . . . . . . . 39 Abracadabra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Abraham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Abraham a Sancta Clara . . . . . . . . . . 39 Abrahamites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Abraham Men . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Abraham Oshki . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Abrahamson, Werner II. F . . . . . . . . 39 Abramson, Abraham . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 Abrantes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89 Abrantes, Duke of, see Junot . . . . . . Abrantes, Duchess of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Abraxas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Abrial, André Joseph d’ . . . . . . . . .. 40 Abrolhos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Abruzzo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Absalom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Absalon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 Abscess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Abschatz, Baron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Abscissa, see Analytic Geometry Absentee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Absimarus, Tiberius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Absolute . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 Absolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Absolutism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Absorokas Indians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Absorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Abstinence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 Abstinence, Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Abstraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Abt, Franz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Abubekr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Abu Hanifah ben Thabet . . . . . . . . . 48 Abu Taleb Khan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Abu Temam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Abudsafar ebn Thophail . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Abulfar ‘us . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Abul Faz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Abulfeda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Abulghazi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Abydos, Asia Minor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Abydos, Egypt . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . 49 Abyla. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Abyssinia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Abyssinian Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53 Acacia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Acacius, Saint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Acad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 Academy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 54 Academy, Italian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55 Academy, French . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Academy, Spanish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Academy, Portuguese ........... . . 57 Academy, German . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Academy, Scandinavian. . . . . . . . . . . 58 Academy, Sclavonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Academy, British and Irish . . . . . . . 58 Academy, American . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Acadia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Acalephae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Acamapixtli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Acanthus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Acapulco, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Acarnania . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Acarus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acastus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 CONTENTS. PAGE Accendones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Accent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Accent, in music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 Acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Nicole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Renier. .. 62 Donatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Filippo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 John de Cerqueira . . . . . . . 62 Accius, Lucius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Acclamation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Acclimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 62 Accolade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Accolti, Benedetto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Accolti, Bernardo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 Accolti, Francesco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Accolti, Pietro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Accomac county . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Accompaniment ................ . . 64 Accoramboni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Accord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Accordion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Accorso, Francesco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Accorso, Mariangelo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Accra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 64 Accubation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Accum, Friedrich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 Accusation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Accusative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Aceldama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Acephali . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Acerbi, Giuseppe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Acernus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Acerra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Acesius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Acetates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Acetic Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65 Acevedo, Alonzo Maria dc . . . . . . . . 68 Acevedo, Christoval dc . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Acevedo, Felix Alvarez . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Achaia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Achaean League . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Achaeans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68 Achaemenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Achaintre, Nicolas Louis . . . . . . . . . . 69 Achard, Franz Karl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Acharius, Erik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Achary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Achates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Aehates, a river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Acheen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Achelous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 0 Achen, Jan van . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Achenbach, Andreas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Achenwall, Gottfried . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Achenwall Sophia Eleonora . . . . . . 70 Acherley, »oger. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Acheron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Acherusia, several . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Achery, Dom Jean Luc d‘ . . . . . . . . . 70 Achill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Achilles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Achilles Tatius, of Greece. . . . . . . . 71 Achilles Tatius, of Alexandria. . . . . 71 Achilli, Giovanni Giacinto . . . . . . . . 71 Achillini Allesandro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Achmet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Achmet III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Achmet Geduc or Acomat. . . . . . 72 Achmet Pasha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Achmet Resmi Eifendi . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Achmim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Achromatic Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72 Achterfeld, J oh. Hein . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Acilius Glabrio, Manius . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Acilius Glabrio, Consul . . . . . . . . . .. 73 Aci Reale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Ackermann, Konrad Ernst . . . . . . . . 73 Ackermann, So hie Charlotte. . . . . 73 Ackermann. Jo . C. G . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Ackermann, Rudolph . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Ackland, John D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 Acloque, André Arnoult . . . . . . . . . . 74 Acoemetae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 4 Acolyte . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Aconcagua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Aconita . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Aconite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Aconite, Winter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 75 Aconzio, Giamoco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 PAGE Acosta, Andrea ................. . . 75 Acosta, Christopher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Acosta, Joaquin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Acosta, Jose de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Acosta, Uriel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Acoustics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75 Acquapendente . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Acquaviva, Andrea Matteo . . . . . . . . 76 Acqui . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Acre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Acre, St. Jean d’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76 Acrel, Olof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Acrelius, Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Acridophagi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . " Acrobates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .". . 77 Acroceraunia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Acrocorinthus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Acron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 77 Acropolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Acropolita, George . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Acrostic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Act, in law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77 Acta Diurna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78 Acta Eruditorum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Acta Sanctorum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Actaeon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 79 Actian Games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Actinia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 79 Actinism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Actinometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Action, in law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Actions, for piano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Aetium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Active and Passive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Acton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 80 Acton, Burnell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 Acton, Joseph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Actopan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Actors and Actresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81 Acts of the Apostles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Actuary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Acuna, Christoval de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Acuna, Pedro de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Acupuncture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Acute Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Acuto, Giovanni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Ad latus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 83 Ad libitum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Adafoodia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Adagio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Adair co., Ky. .................. . . 83 Adair co., Mo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Adair co., Iowa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Adair, James . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Adair, a. trader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 83 Adair, General John . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 83 Adair, Sir Robert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Adal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83 Adalbert, a missionary . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Adalbert of Prague . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Adalbert, Archvbishop . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Adalbert, Hein. Wilhelm . . . . . . . . . . 84 Adalia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Adam, the ﬁrst man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Adam, Adolphe Charles . . . . . . . . . .. 85 Adam, Albrecht . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Adam, Dr. Alexander . . . . . . . . . . . .. 85 Adam of Bremen. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 Adam, Lambert Sigisbert . . . . . . . . . 85 Adam, Robert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Adam de la Halle ................ . . 86 Adams Apple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Adam’s Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Adam’s Peak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Adamant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Adamantine Spar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Adamawa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Adami, Adam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Adamites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Adams co., Pa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Adams co., Miss ................. . . 87 Adams co, Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Adams co,, Ia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 Adams co., Ill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 87 Adams co., Iowa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Adams co., Wis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Adams, Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Adams, Charles Baker . . . . . . . . . . .. 83 Adams, Hannah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Adams, Isaac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 88 Adams, Jasper, D D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 A ohn. . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..... . . 88 , . PAGE Adams, John mutine.er).. . .. . . . .. 101 Adams, John ouch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Adams, John Quincy ........... . . 102 Adams, Charles Francis ......... . . 110 Adams, Nehemiah, D. D . . . . . . . . . . 110 Adams, Robert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Adams, Robert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Adams, Samuel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 111 Adams, William . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Adams, William . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Adamson, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 115 Adamson, Patrick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 115 Adana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Adanson, Michel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 115 Adar, a month . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Adda, a river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Addington co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 116 Addington, Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 116 Addison co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 116 Addison, Joseph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 116 Adel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Adelaar, the eagle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 121 Adelaide, a city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Adelaide of Salisbury ........... .. 121 Adelaide of Brandenburg ....... . . 121 Adelaide, Amalia Louise Therese. 122 Adelaide, Eugenie Louise ...... ..' . 122 Adelaide, Praxeda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 122 Adelburner Micnael . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Adelgrief, Job. Albrecht ........ .. 122 Adelnau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Adelon, Nicholas Philibet. . . .,. . . . . 122 Adelsberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Adelung, J oh. Christoph . . . . . . . . . . 123 Adelung, Friedrich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Aden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Adept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 123 Adersbach Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Adet, Pierre Auguste . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Adhesion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Ad Hominem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Adiaphora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Adige . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Adipocire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Adipose._. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Adirondac Mountains . . . . . . . . . . . .. 126 Adit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Adjective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Adjutant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 Ad er, Christian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 128 Adler, Jae. Georg Christian . . . . . . . 128 Adler Salvius, Johan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Adlerbeth, Gudmund Joran . . . . . . . 128 Adlercreutz, Karl Johan . . . . . . . . . . 128 Adlerfeldt, Gustav . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Adlersparre, Georg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Admetus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Administrator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Admiral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Admiral, Henri 1’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Admiralty Courts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Admiralty Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Admiralty Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 Admonition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Adobe Houses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 130 Adolescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 Adolphus I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 131 Adolphus of Nassau . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . 131 Adolphus, Frederic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Adolphus, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Adonai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Adonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Adonic Verse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Adonis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 131 Adonists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Adoptiani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Adoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Adorni, Catharine Fieschi . . . . . . . . . 132 Adorno, Gabrielle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132 Adorno, Antonio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 132 Adorno, Prospero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Adorno, Francesco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Adour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Adowa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Adrain, Robert, LL. D . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 A astea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Adrastus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Adrets, Francois de Beaumont. . . . 133 Adria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Adrian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 133 CONTENTS. PAGE Adrian. see Hadrian Adrian (several popes) . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 Adrian the African ............. . . 134 Adrianists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... .. 134 Adrianople . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 134 Adriatic Sea. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Adule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135 Adullam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 135 Adulteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 135 Adultery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 138 Advancement of Science, Associa- tions for the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Adveitam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Advent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Adventure, Bill of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Adventure Bay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Adventurers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 Adventurers, Society of. . . . . . . . . .. 141 Adverb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Advertisement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142 Advocate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Advocates’ Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Advocatus Diaboli................ 146 Advowson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Ady . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 Adytum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 146 Eacus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 jEdiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 ﬂlgaean Sea. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 1Egaeon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 1Egaeus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Egina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 147 Egineta, Paneus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 1Eginetan Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 147 ‘s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Egisthus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 - ic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 .lElia Capitolina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Alllianus, Claudius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 1Emilius, Paulus (consul) . . . . . . . . . 147 Emilius, Paulus (historian) . . . . . . . 147 1Eneas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147 Eneas Sylvius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 .tEneid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148 Emesidemus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 1Enianes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 Eolian Harp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 149 iEolians..... 150 Eolipyle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 1Eolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 150 ﬁilolus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 150 1/Eon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Epinus, Johannes . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 150 Ailpinus, Franz, M U. T.. .. .. . . 150 Aerial Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Aerians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Aerodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 150 Aeroe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 150 Aerolite . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 Aerometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Aerostation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152 Aertgen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 155 Aertsen, Pieter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 155 Eschines, orator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 155 Eschines, philosopher . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Eschylus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 Ziﬂsculapius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 157 1Esop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157 Esop, Clodius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 158 ﬂlsthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Estuary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 Ether . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159 .ZEtl1ri0scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 160 Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 160 Aetius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160 Aetolia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 161 Afer, Domitius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 163 Aifer, a weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Aﬁidavit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Aﬂinity, in law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 163 Aﬁinity, Chemical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163 Aﬁirmation, in law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Aﬁiatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Affogados . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Aﬂre, Denis Auguste . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 Aﬂ’ry, Louis Augustus . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Aifry, Charles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Afghanistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 165 Aﬁoom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Afore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Afra, St . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Afrancesados . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 169 111 raen Afranius, Lucius ................ . . 169 Afrasiab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 Afrcedis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 169 Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 169 African Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 African Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 African Institution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179 Africanus, Leo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Africanus, Sextus Julius . . . . . . . . . . 180 Afrikaner, Jonker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Afshars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Aft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Afzelius, family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 180 Afzelius, Adam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Afzelius, Johan .. .. 181 Afzelius, Pehr von . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Afzelius, Anders Erik . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Afzelius, Arvid Aug . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Aga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Agades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Agadir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Agalegas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 181 Agalmatolite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 181 Agama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Agamemnon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Agamenticus, Mount. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Agami . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 182 Aganippaa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Agapae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 Agapemone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 182 Agapetse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 183 Agapetus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 183 Agapetus, popes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 183 Agar, Jean Antoine Michel . . . . . .. 184 Agar, Pedro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 184 Agard, Arthur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Agardh, Karl Adolf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Agaric, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 184 -Agaric, mineral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 184 Agasias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 184 Agassiz, Louis John Rudolph . . . . . 185 ate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Agatha, St . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 190 Agatharchides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Agatharchus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 190 Agathermus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 190 gathias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Agatho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 190 Agathoclea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190 Agathocles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 190 Agathodaemon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 191 Agathon . . . . . . . . . . ..- . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Agave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191 Agde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 Oeda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Agelnoth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Agend. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . en a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Agenois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 Agesilaus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 Aggas, Ralph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Aggherhuus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Ag mat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 201 Aghrim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Agier, Pierre Jean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 201 Agincourt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 Agincourt, Jean Baptiste . . . . . . . . . 203 Agio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Agis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 204 Agitators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 laia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 2 Aglaophon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Aglionby, John, D I) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 nadello . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Agnano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Agnates ....................... .. 205 Agnello, Andrea...... 205 Agnes of Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Agnes, St ....................... .. 205 Agnes, Sore] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 205 Agnesi, Maria Gaetana . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 Agnew, Sir Andrew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Agnew, James .................. .. 206 Agnoetae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Agnolo, Baccio ................. . . 206 Agnomen . . . . . . . . . . .. . ......... .. 206 Agnone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Agnus Dei. . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Agoa de Pao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206 Agobard .................... . . 206 1V PAGE Agogebic ....................... . . 206 Agonistici ...................... . . 206 Agony ......................... . . 206 Ag0ona ........................ .. 207 Agosta ......................... .. 207 Agostini, Miguel ................ . . 207 Agostini, Leonardo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Agostino, Angolo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Agoult, Marie de Flavigny . . . . . . . . 207 Agouti ......................... . . 207 Agows ......................... .. 208 a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Agram, Zagrab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Agrapho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Agrarian Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208 Agreda, Maria de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Agreeb, Mount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Agreement . . i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Agrell, Olof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Agricola, Cneius Julius . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Agricola, Georg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Agricola, Johann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Agricola, Johann F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Agricola, Rudolf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Agricultural Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Agricultural Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 Agricultural System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Agrigentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Agrionia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Agrippa von Nettesheim . . . . . . . . . . 239 Agrippa, Marcus Vipsanius . . . . . . . 239 Agrippina (three) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Agtelek Cavern of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Agua, Vblcan de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Aguadilla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Aguado, Alexandre Marie . . . . . . . . . 240 Aguas Calientes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Aguo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240 Agueda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 242 Aguesseau, Henri Francois d’ . . . . .. 242 Aguilar, Gaspar de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 242 Aguilar, Grace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Aguilar de la Frontera . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Aguilas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Aguillon, Franciseus . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 242 Aguirre. Jose Saenz de . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Aguirre, Lope de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242 Agujari, Luerezla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Agulhas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Agustina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 ﬁiyniani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 ab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Ahala, C. Servilius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Ahanta. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Ahasuerus (two) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Ahaus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Ahaz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 Ahaziah (two) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Ahead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Ahimelech . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Ahitophel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 244 Ahlefeld, Charlotte Sophie . . . . . . .. 244 Ahlwardt, Christian Vi ilhelm . . . . . 244 Ahmed Shah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244 Ahmedabad. . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Ahmednuggur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Ahmedpoor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 245 Ahmood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Ahr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Ahrens, Martin Friedrich . . . . . . . . . 245 Ahriman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Ahuitzol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ahull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Ahumada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Ahwaz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 245 Ai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 A’Ibek A’zad-ed-deen ........... . . 246 Aiblinger, Joseph Kasper . . . . . . . . . 246 Aiehspalt, Peter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Aide-de-Camp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246 Aide-toi, le eiel t’ aidera . . . . . . . . . . 246 Aidin, or Guzel-Hissar .......... . . 246 Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Aignan, Etienne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 247 Aiguebelle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . 247 Aiguille . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Aiguillon (two) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Aigues Mortes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Alglllf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247 Aiken, William. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 247 Aikin, Arthur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 CONTENTS. PAGE Aikin, John, M. D .............. .. 248 Aikin, Luay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Aikman, illiam ............... . . 248 Ailantns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 Ailly, Pierre d’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Ailmer, or Ethelmare . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Ailred, or Ealred . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Ailsa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Aimaraez . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Aimé-Martin, Louis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Aimoin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Aimon, or Aymon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 Aimon, Pamphile Leopold . . . . . . .. 249 Ain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Ainad, or Ainand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Ain-Madi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Ainmuller, Maximilian E ........ . . 250 Ainsworth, Dr. Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Ainsworth, Robert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 Ainsworth, William Francis . . . . . . 250 Ainsworth, William Harrison . . . . . 251 Aintab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Ainunah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 Ainus, or Hairy Kooriles ........ . . 251 ‘on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Air, in music . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Air, in painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252 Air, or Asben . . . . . . . . . .1 . . . . . . . . . 252 Air-Bladder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Air-Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 Air-Gun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 Air-Pipe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 Air-Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 Air-Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 Ail‘-Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 PAGE Alachua co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 267 Alacoque, Marguerite Marie . . . . . . 267 Alacrane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Ala Dagh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Aladan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Alaghez . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Alagoas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 Airani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Aird, Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 'rdrie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Aire, a river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Aire, two towns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Aire , Sir Richard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 256 Aire a, Angela Veronica . . . . . . . . . . 256 Air , George Biddell . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 Ais e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Aisne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Aissé, M’lle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Aisvarikas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Ait-el-Arba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Aiton, William . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 Aitzema, Lieuwe van . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 Aix, in France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Aix, in Savoy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Aix la Chapell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258 Aix la Chapelle, Treaty of ....... . . 258 Aizani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223 Akbah..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 260 Akbar J elal-ud-deen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Akenside, Mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260 Akerblad, Johan David . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Akerman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Akhalies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Akhalzikh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Akhissar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Akhlat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Akiba, Ben Joseph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 Akimoﬂ’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Akind us, Gregorius . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Akoos a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Akootan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Akoui . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 262 Akron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Aksai, a river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Aksai, a village . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Akshehr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Aksoo, towns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Aksoo, rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262 Alabama River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Alabaster . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266 Alabaster, William . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 Alabat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alain de Lille . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 ais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Alaix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Alajahissar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Alajuela . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Alakananda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Alaman, Lucas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Alaman, Sieard d’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Alamanee co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 Alamanni, Luigi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Alameda co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 269 Alamo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Alamos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Alamos de Babrientos . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Alamundar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Alan, William . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 270 Aland Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 Aland, John Fortescue, Lord . . .. . 270 Alani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270 A1Araf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 271 Alarcon, Hernando de . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Alarcon Mendoza . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 Alard, arie Joseph Louis ...... . . 271 Alaric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Alarm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Alarm, an instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 2 Alarm-Clock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Alarm-Whistle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272 Alary, Barthelemy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Alaseani . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Alasea, a river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 3 Al Ashari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Ala-Shehr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Alatyr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Alava, Miguel Ricardo de . . . . . . . . . 273 Alay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Alb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Alba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Albacete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Alba Longa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Alban, Saint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 274 Albanenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Albani, or Albano, Francesco. . . . . 274 Albania, Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Albania, Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 Albano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Albany co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Albany, N. Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275 Albany, Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Albany, Countess of . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 278 Albarracin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Albasin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Albatenius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Albatross . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Albay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 278 Albayda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278 Albedyhll, Gustaf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 27 8 Albeladory, Abul-abbas-ahmed . .. . 279 Albemarle co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 279 Albemarle Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27 9 Albenas, Jean Joseph . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Albenga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Alber, Erasmus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Alberche . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Albergati Capacelli, Francesco . . . . 279 Alberic, Marquis of Spoleto . . . . . .. 279 Alberic II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Alberic III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Alberic of Romano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Alberic de Rosate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Alberique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2l_ 9 Alberon I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279 Alberon II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Alberoni, Giulio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Albers, Johann F. H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Albert I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 Albert (Alexandre Martin) ...... . . 281 Albert of Brandenburg. . . .. . . . . 281 Albert, Prince . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Albert, Prince of Wales . . . . . . . . .. 282 Albert von Apeldern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 Alberti, Leo Battista . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 Albertinelli, Mariotto . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 Albertini, Francesco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282 PAGE Albertrandy, Jan Ba tist. . . . . . . .. 282 Albertsen Hamilton endrik. . . . . 282 Albertus It/Iagnus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 Albi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 Albigenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283 Albignac, Maurice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Albin, Eleazar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Albini, Franz Joseph . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Albinos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284 Albinus, Bernhard Sigfried . . . . . . .. 285 Albinus, Decimus Clodius . . . . . . . . 285 Albion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Albion, N. Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Albion, New..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 285 Albisola Marina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285 Albisson, Jean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Albitte, Antoine Louis . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Albizzi, Pietro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 286 Albizzi, Tomasso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Albizzi, Rinaldo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Albizzi, Antonio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Albo, Joseph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Alboin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Albon, Andre d’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Albon, Antoine d’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Albon, Claude Camille . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Alboni, Paolo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Alboni, Marietta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 Borak . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 287 Alboran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Albornoz, Gil Alvarez Carillo. . . . . 287 Albouzdjan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Albrecht, ilhelm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Albrechtsberger, J oh. Georg . . . . .. 287 Albret . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Albret, Jean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Albret, Henri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Albret, Jeanne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 Albric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 Albucasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 Albuera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 Albufera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 Album . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 Albumazar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 Albumen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288 Albuminuria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289 Albuquerque, Alfonso d’ . . . . . . . . .. 293 Albuquerque, Aifonso, son of . . . . .. 294 Albuquerque, Alfonso, Gen . . . . . .. 294 Alburnum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294 Alcacoba, Sotomayor Simon . . . . . . . 294 Alcaeus of Mitylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 294 Alcaforado, Marianna . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Alcaics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Alcaide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Alcala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Alcala de Hcnares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 295 Alcara la Real . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Alcalde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 295 Alcamenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Alcamo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Alcantara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Alcantara, Knights of . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 Alcaraz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Alcarria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Alcavala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Alcazar de San Juan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Alcazar, Do Sal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Alcazar, Kebir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Alcazar, (Seville) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Alcedo, Antonio e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Alcester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Alcestis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Alchemy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Alciati, Giovanni Paolo . . . . . . . . . .. 297 Alcibiades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297 Alcides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Alcinous (two) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Alciphron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Alcira . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Alcmeeon (two) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 299 Alcman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Alcmena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Alcock, Dr. John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Alcohol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Alcona co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Alcott, Amos Bronson . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 Alcott, William A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Alcoy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Alcuinus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . 302 Alcyonius, Pietro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302 Aldama,J . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . 302 CONTENTS. PAGE .AI.dﬂn||..nn.... u c n - . - I o I s Q I I ~ nu Aidan, a river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Aldborough, Yorkshire . . . . . .. . . . . 303 Aldborough, Suffolk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Aldebaran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Aldebert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Aldegonde, Philipp van . . . . . . . . . .. 303 Aldeerever, Heinrich . . . . . . . . . . . .. 303 Aldehyde ...................... .. soc Alden, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 303 Alden, Timothy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Aldenhoven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303 Alder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Alderoti, Tadeo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Alderman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Alderney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Aldhelm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304 Aldine Editions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 304 Aldini, Antonio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 305 Aldini, Giovanni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 305 Aldjayhany, Ben-Ahmed . . . . . . . . .. 305 Aldobrandini, family of . . . . . . . . . .. 305 Aldred . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Aldrich, Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 805 Aldridge, Ira . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305 Aldringer, Johann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 Aldrovandus, Ulysses . . . . . . . . . . . .. 306 Aldrudi, Contessa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 Ale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 Ale-Houses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 Aleandro, Girolamo (two) . . . . . . . . . 307 Alecto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 A-Lee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307 Alegambe, Philippe . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 307 Alegre, Yves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Aleman, Louis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Aleman, Mateo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Alemauni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308 Alembcrt, Jean le Rond d’ . . . . . . . . 308 Alembic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Alemtejo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809 Alencon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Alenio, Giulio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Aleppo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 309 Ales, Alexander . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Alesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Alessandri, Alessandro . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Alessandria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Alessio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Alestakhri, Abou Isaac . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Aleurometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 Aleutian Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 310 Alewife . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Alexander co., N. O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Alexander co., Ill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Alexander the Great. . . . . . . . . . . . . 311 Alexander of Aphrodisias . . . . . . . . . 314 Alexander, king of Syria . . . . . . . . .. 314 Alexander J annaeus ............. . . 314 Alexander Severus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 814 Alexander popes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314 Alexander kings of Scotland).. 317 Alexander Nevskoi .............. . . 317 Alexander I. of Russia . . . . . . . . . . . 318 Alexander IL, of Russia . . . . . . . . .. 321 Alexander, Alexander Humphreys 322 Alexander, Archibald, D. D . . . . . . . 324 Alexander of Hales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326 Alexander, James Weddell, D. D.. 326 Alexander, Joseph Addison, D. D. 326 Alexander, Nathaniel, Dr. . . . . . . . . 327 Alexander, Noel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 827 Alexander, Stephen, LL. D ...... . . 827 Alexander, Wm., Earl of Stirling. 327 Alexander, Wm., Major-General. . 327 Alexandre, A. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 Alexandria co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 Alexandria, Va. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328 Alexandria, Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 328 Alexandrian Codex . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 329 Alexandrian Library . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 329 Alexandrian School ............. .. 330 Alexandrine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 Alexandrov (several)1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331 Alexei Michaclowitc ........... . . 331 Alexei Petrowitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 Alexin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 Alexis I., Comnenus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332 Alexis II., Comneuus . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 Alexis III., Angelus . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 333 Alexis IV., Emperor, Constantino- ple. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 333 V race Alexis 'V., Emperor, Constantinople 334 Alexis, Emperors of Trebizond... . 834 Alfani .......................... . . 334 Alfarabius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 Alfatah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 Alfenus Varus, Publius . . . . . . . . . . . 335 Alfergan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335 Alﬁeri, Vittorio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 335 Alfonsine Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 Alfonsp, Kings of Spain and Portu- a g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 Alfonso L, King of Leon.. . . .. 339 Alfonso II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339 Alfonso III., the Great . . . . . . . . . . .. 339 Alfonso VI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340 Alfonso X., the Wise . . . . . . . . . . . .. 340 Alfonso I. of Portugal . . . . . . . . . . .. 341 Alfonso V. of Aragon . . . . . . . . . . . .. 341 Alford, Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342 Alfort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 343 Alfred the Great . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343 Alfreton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 344 Algae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344 Algardi, Alessandro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 Algarotti, Francesco . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 346 Algarovilla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846 Algarve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 Algau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 346 Algazi, Chachini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 Algazi, Samuel ben Isaac . . . . . . . . . 346 Algazi, Salomon ben Abraham. . . . 346 Algazzali . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Algeciras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Algeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 Alghalib-Billah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Alghero . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 351 Alghisi, Francesco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Alghisi, Galeazzo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Alghisi, Tomasso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Algiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Algoa Bay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 Algonquins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 ﬁuazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 akem-ibn-Atta. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 Alhama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 Alhambra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 Alhazcn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 Alhondega . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Ali B cg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 353 Ali ben Abu Taleb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 ii Bey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Ali Pasha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354 Aliabad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 355 lias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 Ahaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 Alibaud Louis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 Alibert, Jean Louis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 Alibi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355 Alicante . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 355 Alicata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 856 Aliconda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Alicudi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 856 Allen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356 Alighur, or Allyghur ............ . . 857 Alignan, Benoit d’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 Aligre, Etienne d’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 358 Aligre, his son . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358 Aligre, Etienne Francois . . . . . . . . .. 358 Aliment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 858 Alimentary Canal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 Alimentus, Lucius Cincius . . . . . . . . 363 Alimony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Alinard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Alipee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 Aliquot Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 Alison, Archibald ............... . . 863 Alison, Archibald . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 Alison, "William Pulteney ....... . . 365 Aliwal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865 Alix, Queen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 865 Al'ubarrota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865 Al ali . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 Alkalimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 Alkalimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865 Alkaloids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 Alkana ......................... . . 365 Alkanet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365 Alkindi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 Alkmaar, a town . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 Alkmaar, Heinrick von . . . . . . . . . . . 866 Alkoran, see Koran V1 CONTENTS. PAGE A11oaI‘Il\.Ol“..l.OllIl.I.l.‘IiI Allobroges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 Allodium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 Allomakee co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 Allopath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381 Allori, essandro ..... . . . . . . . . . . . 382 Allori, Cﬂstofano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 Allotment Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 Alloway Kirk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382 Alloy ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882 Allspice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 Allstaedt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Allston, Joseph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 Allston, Robert F. W . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384 Allston, Washington ............ . . 385 Allut, Jean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 390 Alluvium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39.0 Alma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 A1mack‘s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 Almada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395 Almaden del Azogue ............ . . 396 Almagest . . . . . . . . _ .............. . . 396 Almagro, a city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 Almagro, Diego de. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 Almalee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 Almamoun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 396 Almanac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396 Almanac, Nautical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 Al-Mansoor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 Almaric of Bene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 Almas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 Almasy, Paul von . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 Almeh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 Almeida, Portugal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 Almeida, Brazil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 Almeida, Francisco de . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 Almelo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 Almeloveen, Jan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 Almcndin en, Ludwig H. von. . . . . 399 Almenar, Juan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 Almenrader, Karl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 Almeras, Louis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 Almeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 Almeyda, Francisco de .......... . . 400 Almlof, Nils Vilhelm ........... .. 400 Almodovar, Ildefonso . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400 Almohades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401 Almon, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 Almond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 402 Almondbury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 Almonde, Philipp van . . . . . . . . . . . 402 Almouer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402 Almonte, Juan N epomuceno . . . . . . 402 Almorah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 Almoravides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 Almquist, Karl J. L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 Alms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 Almy, Wilham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 nwick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403 Aloadin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 Aloe, American, See Agave Aloes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 A10 ' .......................... . . 404 Aloides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 Alois, Maria J. J. Franz ......... .. 404 Alom ra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 Aloos ta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 Alopa, Lorenzo de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 Alopecy ........................ . . 405 Alopeus, Count Daniel .......... . . 405 Alopeus, Baron. .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 405 Alost .......................... . . 405 Alpaca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 Alpago, Andrea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 Alpais, la Belle .... . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 Alp-Arslan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 Alpedrinha, Jorge da Costa . . . . . . . 406 Alpena co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 Alpes, Basses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 Alpes, Hautes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 Alpha and Omega . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 Alphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407 Alphen, Hieronymus van . . . . . . .. . 409 Alphery, Mikipher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 Alpheus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 Alpini, Prospero ................ . . 409 Alpnach ........................ . . 409 Alps .......... . . -. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409 Alpujarras .... . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 Alquier, Charles J. M. . . . . . . . . . . . . 412 Alraunen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 Alredus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418 PAGE Alsace.. ............ Alsager, Thomas Massa ......... . . 413 Alsario, Vincenzo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 Al Segno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 Alsen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 Al Sirat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 Alsop, Anthony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413 Alsop, Richard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 Alsop, Vincent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 414 PAGE All-FOUTS...-..-..........-.-.-.. All-Hallows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 All-Hands Aho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 All in the Win ................ . . 366 All Saints’ Bay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 All Saints’ Da ................. . . 366 All Saints’ Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366 All Souls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 366 Alla Breve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 Allah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 Allahabad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 Allamand, Jean . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 Allan, Madame Caradori . . . . . . . . . . 367 Allan, David . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 Allan, Sir William . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 Allantsee, Leonhard and Lucas. .. . 368 Allard, Jean Francois . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368 Allarde, Pierre Gilbert. . . .. . . . . . . . 369 Allardice, Robert Barclay ....... . . 369 Allart, Mary Gay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Allart, Hortense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Allass Strait . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 369 Allatius Leo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Alle ............................ . . 369 Allectus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Allegan co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Alleghany co., N. Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Alleghany co., Pa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 Alleghany co., Md. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 Alleghany co., Va ............ . . . . . 370 Alleghany City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 370 Alleghany College, see Meadville Alleghany Mountains, see Appala- chian Mountains Alleghany River . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . 370 Allegiance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 Allegory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 Allegrain, Christophe Gabriel. . . . . 371 egretto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 371 Allegri, Gregorio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 Allegro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 371 Allein, Joseph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 Allcin, Richard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 Alleluia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 Allemand, Zacharie ............. . . 372 Allen co., Ky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 2 Allen co., Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 Allen co., Ia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 Allen, B0 of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 Allen, Ep raim W .............. . . 372 Allen, Ethan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 Allen, Ira . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 373 Allen, Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 Allen, John, Archbishop . . . . . . . . . . 374 Allen, John, M. D ............... . . 374 Allen, Joseph W ................ . . 374 Allen, Moses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 Allen, Paul . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 Allen, Samuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 374 Allen, Solomon ................. .. 374 Allen, Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Allen, Sir Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 5 Allen, Rev. Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Allen, Rev. William, D. D . . . . . . . . . 375 Allen, William, F. R. S .......... . . 375 Allen, William, chief justice . . . . . . 375 Allen, William Henry . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Allen, William Howard ......... . . 375 Allende J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Allent, ism. A. J .............. .. are Allentown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 Allerstain ...................... . . 377 Allestar ........................ . . 377 Allestree, Richard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 7 Alletz, Pierre Edouard .......... . . 377 Allevard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 Alley, William . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 Alleyn, Edward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 Allgaier, Johann ................ . . 378 Allgemeine Zeitung ............ . . 378 All er . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 Alligation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 Alligator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 8 Alligator Swam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 Allioli, Joseph ranz . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 Allioni, Carlo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 Allison, Francis, D. D. . . . . . ..... . . 380 Allison, Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 Allisonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 Alliteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 Allix, Jacques A. F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 Allix, Pierre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 Alsted, Johann Heinrich . . . . . . . . . 414 Alston, Charles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 Alston, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414 Alston, Willis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 Alstroemer, Jonas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 Alstroemer, Claz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 Alt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 Altai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415 Altamaha river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 416 Alta Mura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 416 Altar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416 Altardjeman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417 Altaroche, Marie Michel . . . . . . . . . . 418 Altdorfer, Albrecht . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418 Alteland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418 Alten, Karl August . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418 Alten, Martin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418 Altena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 Altenburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 Alten aard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 Alten irchen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 Alten-Oetting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 Altenstein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 Altenstein (Baron von Stein) .... . . 19 Alter, Franz Karl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 Alter Ego . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 Alteratives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 tgradisca . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Althzna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Althen, Ehan. . . . .- . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Althorp, Viscount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Althusen, J ohann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 Altieri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 Altin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 Alting, Heinrich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 Alting, Jacob . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 Alting, Menso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 422 Alting, Menso, jr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 Altitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 Altkirch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 Altmuhl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 Alto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 Alt-Ofen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 Alto-Rilievo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 ton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 Alton, Joseph W. E. d’ .......... . . 423 Alton, J ohann S. E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 Alton, Richard, Count d’ . . . . . . . . . . 423 Altona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 Alton-Shoe, Edmond . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 Altoona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 Altorf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 Altoviti, Antomo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Altranstadt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 Alucemas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 Aluin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 Alumina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 Aluminum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426 Alumnus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 Alunno, Nicolo ................. . . 427 Aluta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428 Alva, Duke of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 428 Alva y Astorga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430 Alvar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 Alvarado . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 Alvarado, Pedro de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 Alvarez, Bernardo de . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 Alvarez, Juan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431 Alvarez, Francisco .............. . . 431 Alvarez, Juan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 432 Alvarez Martin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 Alvarez de Castro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 Alvarez de Luna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 Alvarez de Oriente . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 Alvarez y Beena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 Alvensleben, Philipp Karl . . . . . . . . . 433 Alviano, Bartolommeo .......... . . 434 Alvinczy, Joseph, Baron . . . . . . . . . . 434 Alxinger, J ohann Baptist von. . . . . 434 Alym-Guerai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 Alypius of Alexandria .......... . . 434 Alypius of Antioch ............. . . 434 Alypius of Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 434 CONTENTS. PAGE Alzatey 1'tamires................. 434 Amacura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. Amadei, Carlo Antonio . . . . . . . . . . . 434 Amadeus, Counts of Savoy ..... . . 435 Amadis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 Amadis of Gaula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 Amadis of Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 Amadis, son of Agesilaus . . . . . . . . . 435 Amadis of Trebizond . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 Amadiyah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 Amager . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 Amain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 Amakoosa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 Amalaire Symphorius . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 Amalaric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 Amalasontha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435 Amalekites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 Amalﬁ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 Amalgam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 Amalgamation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 Amalia, Anna, Duchess . . . . . . . . . .. 437 Amalie, Marie F. A., Duchess. . . . . 437 Amals, or Amali . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 Amalteo, Girolamo . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 437 Amalteo, Giovanni B . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 Amalteo, Cornelio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 437 Amalteo, Pomponio. . . . . . . . . . . .. 437 Amalthzea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437 Amama, Sixtinus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 437 Amambahi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438 Aman, Johann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438 Amana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 438 Amanieu Des Escas . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 438 Amann, Heinrich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 438 Amanthon, Claude Nicolas. . . .. . . . 438 Amanus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 438 Amer, J. B. André . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438 Amar-Durivier, J can Augustin.. . . 439 Amara Sinha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 439 Amarante . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 Amaranth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 Amarapoora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 Amargura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439 Amari, Michele . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 Amaribo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 Amaroo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 Arnasia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 Amasis, or Amosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 Amathus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 Amati . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 Amatitlan, lake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 Amatitlan, town . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440 Amato, Giovanni Antonio d’ ..... . . 440 Amatus, Lusitanius . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 440 Amaurosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 Amaury, Count of J oppa . . . . . . . . . . 441 Amaury of Lusignan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 Amaury, Patriarch of Jerusalem. . . 441 Amaury de Chartres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 Amaxiehi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441 Amaziah, King of Judah ........ . . 441 Amaziah, Priest in Bethel . . . . . . . . 442 Amazon River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442 Amazonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443 Amazons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443 Amazons of S. America ......... . . 443 Ambassador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 Ambato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 Ambeer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 444 Ambelakia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444 Amber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 444 Amberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 Amberger, Christoph . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 Ambergris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445 Ambergris, an island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 Ambert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 Ambidexter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 mbil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ambiorix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 Amblau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 Ambleside . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 Amblcteuse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 Ambodik, Nestorius M. ......... .. 446 Amboise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 Amboise, George d‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 Ambou, or Arnbau . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446 Amboyna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 Ambracia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 Ambras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 447 Ambrim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 Ambriz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 Ambrizette .................... . . 447 PAGE Ambrogi, Domenico ............ . . 447 Ambrones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 Ambrosch, Joseph J. A. . . . . . . . . . . 447 Ambrose, Saint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 447 Ambrosi, Pododiadov . . . . . . . . . . . .. 449 Ambrosia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 Ambrosian Chant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 Ambrosian Library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 Ambrosius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450 Ambrotype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 Ambryn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 Ambuehl, Johann Ludwig . . . . . . . . 451 Ambukol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 Ambulance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451 Ameilhon, Hubert Pascal . . . . . . . . . 452 Ameland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452 Amelia co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 452 Amelia, a town ................. . . 452 Amelia Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452 Amelot de la Houssaye . . . . . . . . . . . 452 Amelotte, Denis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 452 Amen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452 Amende Honorable . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 452 Amendment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 Ameni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 Amenophis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 Amenta, Nicolo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 453 Amerbach, Johann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 Amergin (two) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453 America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454 American Antiquities ........... . . 463 American River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 Americanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 Ameri o Vespucci, see Vespucci Amers oort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ames, Edward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 Ames, Fisher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473 Ames, Joseph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474 Ames, Nathan P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474 Ames William, D. D ............ .. 475 Amesbury, Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 Amesbury, England . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475 Amestris (two) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 5 Amethyst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 Amga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . 476 Amharic Language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 6 Amherst co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476 Amherst, Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 476 Amherst, India. . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 Amherst Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 477 Amherst, Jeffery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 7 Amherst William Pitt . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 Amherst urgh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 7 Amhurst, Nicholas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 Amice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 7 Amici, Giovanni Batista . . . . . . . . . . 477 Amico, Bernardo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 8 Amicu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 478 Amidshi s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478 Amidas, hilip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478 Amiens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478 Amiot, Father . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478 Amite co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 Amite River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 Amla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 Amlai . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 9 Amling, Karl August . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 9 lwch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 9 Amman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 9 Amman, Jost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 479 Amman, Johann Konrad ........ .. 479 Ammar ibn Yasir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 Amrnar Abdallah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479 Ammianus Marcellinus . . . . . . . . . . . 479 Ammirato, Scipione . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 Ammitok . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 Ammon, or Amon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 Ammon, Christo h Friedrich von. 480 Ammon, Karl ilhelm . . . . . . . . . . . 481 Ammonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481 Ammoniac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482 Ammonio, Andrea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482 Ammonite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 482 Ammonium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482 Ammonius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483 Ammonoosnck, Lower .......... .. 483 Ammunition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483 Ammunition Bread ............. . . 483 Amnesty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483 Amo Anthony William ......... . . 483 Amol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483 Amontons, William. ........... .. 483 V11 rnsn Amood . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... .. 3 Amoor River .................. . . Amoorang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 Amor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 Amoretti, Carlo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 484 Amoretti, Maria Pellegrina . . . . . . . 484 Amorites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 484 Amoros, Francesco . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 484 Amortization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484 Amory, Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 Amos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . 485 Amoske . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Amoureux, Pierre Joseph . . . . . . . . 485 Amoy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 Ampelius, Lucius ............... . . 485 Ampere, Andre Marie . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 Ampﬁng . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486 Amphiaraus .................... . . 486 Amphibia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486 Amphibology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 Amphibrachys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 Amphictyons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489 mphila . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . 490 Amphilochus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 Amphimacer 490 Amphion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490 Amphipolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 490 Amphisbama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 490 Amphitheatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 491 Amphitrite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 492 Amphitrite 492 Amphitryon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 492 Amphora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 492~ Ampliﬁcation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 492 Amplitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492 Ampudia, a town . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492 Ampudia, Pedro de . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 492 Ampulla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492 Ampurdan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 Ampurias, Castello de . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 Amputation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493 Amran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 Amritseer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 Amru ben el As . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494 Amru el Kais . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495 Amru ben Leith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495 Amrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 495 Amsberg, August P. C. T. von. . . . 495 Amsdorf, Nicolas von . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495 Amsler, Samuel . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . 495 Amstel river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495 Amsterdam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495 Amsterdam Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497 Amsterdam, New . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 497 Amtchitka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497 Amuchta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497 Amnck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497 Amulet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497 Amurath (several) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 497 Amusette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 Amussat, J ean-Zuléma . . . . . . . . . . . 500 Amygdaloid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 Amylene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500 Amyot, Jacques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 500 Amyraut, Moyse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 500 Ana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501 Anabaptist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501 Anabara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 503 Anabas Scandens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503 Anabasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504 Anacharsis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504 Anachronism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504 Anaclache . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 504 Anacletus (two) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 504 Anacoluthon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504 Anaconda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 Anacreon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 Anadyomene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 Anadyr, a gulf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 Anadyr, a river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 Anaesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 505 Anagni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508 Auagnosta, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508 Anagoge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508 Anagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508 Anah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 Anahuac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 Analecta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 509 Analog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509 Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510 Analytical Geometry; . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511 Anam, or Cochin C ina . . . . . . . . . . 511 V111 PAGE Anamboe . . . . . . . . ....... .. 513 Anamirapucu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 518 Anamorphosis ................. .. 513 Ananias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 Anapa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 Anapaest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 Anaphora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 Anastomosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513 Anastasi Bratanowski . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514 Anastasia (three) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 514 Anastasius po es) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514 Anastasius lab ot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514 Anastatic Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 514 Anata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 514 Anathema . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 514 Anatolia.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 515 Anatolico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 517 Anatomical Preparations . . . . . . . . . 517 Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 518 Anatomy, Comparative, see Com- parative Anatomy Anava . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 523 Anavelhana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 523 Anaxagoras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 523 Anaxarchus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 Anaximander . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 Anaximenes (two) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 Anazo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524 Anbertkend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 524 Ancach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 524 Ancelot, Jacques A. F. P . . . . . . . . . . 524 Ancelot, Marguerite V . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 Ancestors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 525 Ancher, Peder Kofoch . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 Anchéres, Daniel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 525 Anchersen, Matthias . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 525 Anchieta, J osé dc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525 Anchises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526 Anchor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 526 Anchor Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 528 Anchorets, Anchorites . . . . . . . . . . . . 528 Anchovy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529 Anchylosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 530 Ancients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 530 Ancillon, David . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532 Ancillon, Charles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 532 Ancillon, Jean P. F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532 Anckarstroem, Johann Jakob. . . . 532 Anckarsward, Karl Henrik . . . . . . . 533 Anckwitz, Nicolas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 Ancober . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 Ancona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533 Ancon sin Salida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534 Ancrc, Marshal d’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 534 Ancrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 534 Ancus Marcius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 Ancyra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 535 Andala, Ruard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 535 Andalusia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 Andaman Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 Andante . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 Andaya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 535 Anderab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 535 Anderloni, Pietro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 Andersen, Hans Christian . . . . . . . . . 536 Anderson dist, S. C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537 Anderson co., Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537 Anderson co., Tenn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537 Anderson co., Ky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537 Anderson, Adam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537 Anderson, Alexander . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537 Anderson, Alexander . . . . . . . . . . . .. 537 Anderson, Sir Edmund . . . . . . . . . . . 537 Anderson, Georg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537 Anderson, Isaac, D. D . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538 Anderson, James . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 538 Anderson, James . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538 Anderson, Johann . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 Anderson, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 539 Anderson, Richard . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 539 Anderson, Robert . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 539 Andersson, Charles John ........ . . 540 Andes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540 Andkhoo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 545 Andlaw, Heinrich von . . . . . . . . . . . . 545 Andocides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545 Andorra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 546 Andover . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 546 Andrada, Die 0 de Payva d’ .... .. 546 Andrada, E. ylva, Bonifacio J osé de . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Andra], Gnilluame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546 CONTENTS. PAGE Andrasy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547 André, Christian Karl . . . . . . . . . . . . 547 André, Rudolph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 547 André, Emil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547 André, Johann Anton . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548 André, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548 Andrea, Giovanni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 551 Andrea Pisano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551 Andrea del Sarto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552 Andrew, Jakob . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552 Andreas, Johann Valentin . . . . . . .. 552 Andreas, Laurentius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553 Andréani, Andréa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553 Andreanov Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553 Andreas, kings of Hungary . . . . . .. 553 Andreas, of Naples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553 Andreasberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 553 Andree, Karl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 553 Andreewa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 Andrei, Antoine F . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 Andreini, Giovanni Battista . . . . . . . 554 Andreini, Isabella . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 Andrelini, Public Fausto . . . . . . . . . 554 Andreossi, Antoine F . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 Andres, Juan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 Andres dc Ustarroz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555 Andrew co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555 Andrew, Saint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555 Andrews, Annie M .............. . . 555 Andrews, Ebenezer 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555 Andrews, James Pettit . . . . . . . . . . . 555 Andrews, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555 Andrews, Lancelot . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 555 Andria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556 Andrian-Werburg, Victor . . . . . . . . 556 Andrieux, Francois G. J. S . . . . . . .. 556 Andriscus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556 Andro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556 Androclus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 556 Androides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557 Andromache . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557 Andromeda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 557 Andronicus Comnenus . . . . . . . . . . .. 557 Andronicus Paleeologus . . . . . . . . . . . 558 Andronicus Cyrrhestes . . . . . . . . .. 558 Andronicus Livius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558 Andronicus of Rhodes . . . . . . . . . . . . 558 Andros Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558 Andros, Sir Edmund . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558 Androscoggin co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559 Androscoggin river . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559 Androuet du Cerceau . . . . . . . . . . . . 559 Andry, Charles Louis Francois . . . 559 Andry, Nicolas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559 Andujar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 Aneau, Barthélemy . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 560 Anecdotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 Anegada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 Anel, Dominique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 Anelli, Angelo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 560 Anemometcr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560 Anemone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 561 Anemoscope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 562 Anerio, Felice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562 Anerio, Giovanni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 562 Aneroid, see Barometer Anet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562 Aneurin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562 Aneurism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562 Anfossi, Pasquale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 Angara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 Angaraes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 Angaum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 Angaziya . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 Angel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563 Angel, a coin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 Angeli, Bonaventura . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 Angeli, Filippo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 Angeli, Giulio Cesare . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 Angeli, Giuseppe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 Angeli, Stefano dc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 Angelina co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 Angelic, Pietro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 Angelis, Domenico de . . . . . . . . . . .. 564 Angel], Joseph K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 Angeln . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 565 Angelo, Hen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 565 Angelo Buonarotti, Michel. . . . . . . . 565 Angelo da Caravaggio . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566 Angeloni, Luigi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567 Angelus Domini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567 Angelus Silesius. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567 ram: Angely,Louis......... ....... .. . 567 Anger ......................... . . 567 Angerburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567 Angerman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567 Angermanland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568 Angermemde . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. 568 Angers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 568 Angerstein, John Julius . . . . . . . . . . 568 Anghiera, Pietro Martire d’ . . . . . . . 568 Angilbert, Saint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568 Angina Pectoris . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569 Angiolini, Francesco . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570 Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 570 Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 570 Anglesea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570 Anglcsey, Henry Wm. Paget. . . . . 570 Anglin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 571 Anglo- axons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2'3 Anglo-Saxon Church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 Anglo-Saxon Language and Litera- ture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575 Angola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576 Angora . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577 Angorno . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 7 Angostura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577 Angot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577 Angoulélmc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577 Angoulcme Due d’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577 Angoumois . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . .. 579 Angoy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 579 Angra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 579 Angrab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 Angri, Elena d‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 Anguier, Francois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 Anguier, Michel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 579 Anguilla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 Anguillara, Giovanni A. dell’ . . . . .. 579 Anguinum Ovum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 Anguisciola, Sophonisba . . . . . . . . .. 579 Angus, Samuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579 Anhalt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 57 9 Anhanduhy-Mirim . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 580 Anholt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 Anhydrous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 Anich, Peter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 580 Aniello, Tommaso . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580 Anilic Acid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 580 Aniline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581 Anima Mundi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581 Animal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 581 Animal Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587 Animal Heat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 591 Animal Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 593 Animal Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 598 Animal Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 599 Animal Spirits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 602 Animalcules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603 Anime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608 Aniooy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608 Anise Seed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 608 Anison, family of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 608 Anitchkok, Dimitri Sergivitch . . . . 608 An;ar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609 An_~engo... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609 An;ou., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609 Ankara . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609 Anker, a measure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609 Anker, family of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 609 Anklam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 609 Ankova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609 Anna Carlovna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609 Anna Comnena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610 Anna Ivanovna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610 Annabcrg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610 Annah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610 Annals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610 Annamooko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610 Annan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611 Annapolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 611 Ann Arbor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 611 Annat, Francois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612 Annates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 612 Anne, Queen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 612 Anne Arundel co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 613 Anne of Austria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613 Anne Boleyn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613 Anne of Brittany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 614 Anne of Cleves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615 Anne of Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615 Annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615 Annebaut, Claude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615 Annecy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616 PAGE Annelida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 616 Annesle , Arthur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616 Annett, eter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 616 Annevoye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 616 Anni . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 616 Annius of Viterbo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617 Anniversary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617 Anno, Saint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618 Annobon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 618 Annonay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618 Annette . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 618 Annual Register . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618 Annuities... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 619 Annunciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 619 Anoa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619 Anodyne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619 Anointing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 620 Anolis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . . . .. 620 Anomalistie Year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 620 Anomaly . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620 Anomoeans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 620 Anonymous Works . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 621 Anquetil, Louis Pierre . . . . . . . . . . . . 621 Anquetil-Duperron A. H . . . . . . . . .. 621 Ansaloni, Giordano . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 622 Ansarians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 622 Anscarius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 622 Anselm of Canterbury . . . . . . . . . . . . 622 Ansian , Jean, J. E. A . . . . . . . . . . .. 623 Anslo, einier van . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623 Anson co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 624 Anson Bay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 624 Anson, George, Lord . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664 Anson, George, Gen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624 Ansonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 624 Anspach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 624 Anspach, Elizabeth . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 625 Anster, John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 625 Anstett, Johann P. von . . . . . . . . . .. 625 Anstey, Christopher . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 626 Anstruther . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 626 Ant . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 626 Ant-Eater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628 Antae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629 Antaeus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629 Antagonist Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 629 Antalcidas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 630 Antanaclasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 630 Antang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630 Antar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 630 Antarctic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 631 Antarctic Researches . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631 Antediluvians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 632 Antelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 632 Antenati . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 634 Antennae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 634 Antenor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 635 Antequera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 635 Anteros . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 635 Anthelmintics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 635 Anthem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 636 Anthemius (two) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 636 Anther . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 636 Anthing, Friedrich . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 637 Anthology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 638 Anthon, Charles, LL. D . . . . . . . . . . . 638 Anthony, Dr. Francis . . . . . . . . . . . .. 638 Anthony, Saint, the Great . . . . . . . . 638 Anthony, Saint, of Padua. . . . . . 639 Anthracite . . . . . . . .' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639 Anthropolites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647 Anthropology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 647 Anthropomorphites . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 653 Anthropophagi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653 Antibacchius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653 Antibes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653 Anticaglia . . . . . . . . . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . 653 Antichrist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653 Anticlinal Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654 Anticosti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654 Anticyra (two). . .‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 654 Antidotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654 Antigone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655 Antigonus, the Cyclops . . . . . . . . . . . 655 Antigonus, Gonatas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656 Antigonus, king of Macedon... . . . . 656 Antigonus, king of the Jews... . . . . 656 Antigonus of Carystus ........... . . 656 Antigua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656 Antilegomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657 Anti-Libanus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657 Aritilles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657 CONTENTS. . raen Antillon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658 Antilochus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 658 Antimachus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658 Anti-Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658 Antimilo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 659 Antimon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659 Antin, arqms d’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660 Antinoe . . . . . . . . . . . .4. . . . . . . . . . 660 Anti-nomians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660 Antinous (two) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 661 Antioch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661 Antioch College . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662 Antiochus, kings of Syria . . . . . . . . . 662 Antioco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 664 Antiope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664 Antiparos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664 Antipas, Herod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664 Antipaschia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664 Antipater (several) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664 Antipathy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665 Antiphilus (two) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666 Antiphon, a verse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667 Antiphon, the orator . . . . . . . . . . . .. 667 Antiphony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667 Antiphrasis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 667 Antipodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 667 Antipodes, an island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667 Antipope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667 Antiqua-ry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 667 .AIltlqIl{1l1S, Jan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668 Anti- entism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668 Antisabbatarians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670 Antiscorbutics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670 Antiseptics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671 Anti-Slavery, sec Slavery. Antispasmodics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672 Antisthenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673 Antitaurus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673 Antithesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673 Antitrinitarians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 3 Antium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673 Antivari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 673 Antceci . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673 Antoine de Bourbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673 Antoinette, Marie, see Marie An— toinette. Antoliuez,José . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 674 Antolinez, Francisco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674 Antommarchi, Carlo Fr . . . . . . . . . . . 674 Antonello, Pierre Antoine . . . . . . . . 674 Antonelli, Giacomo . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 674 Antonelli, Leonardo . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 674 Antonello da Messina . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675 Antonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675 Antoniano, Silvio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675 Antonides, Hans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 675 Antonini Itineraria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675 Antonini Vallum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975 Antoninus, Column of . . . . . . . . . . .. 675 Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius . . . . . . 676 Antoninus, Pius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 677 Antonio, Nicolas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678 Antonius, Marcus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678 Antony, Mark . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678 Antosiandrians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 679 Antraigues, Comte <1’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 679 Antrim co., Mich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680 Antrim co., Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680 Antuco . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680 Antwerp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680 Anubis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 680 Anund . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680 An-Ung-Hoy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681 Anuradhapura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681 Anvari . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681 Anvil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681 Anville, Jean B. B. d’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681 Anytus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681 Anzasca, Val d‘ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681 Anzin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681 Anzooan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682 Aonian Mount . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682 Aorist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682 Aorta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682 Aosta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682 Aoust, Jean Marie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682 Aoust, Eustache d’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 682 Aouste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682 Apaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682 Apaﬁ, Michael. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684 Apanage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684 Apathy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684 IX PAGE Apenaslhuolnolaasas - a . . . . - - . .- . Apeak.., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687 Apel, or Apellus, Johann . . . . . . . . . . 687 Apelles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 687 Apellians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687 Apellicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 687 Apennines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 688 Aphek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689 Aphelion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689 Aphis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 689 Aphorism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690 Aphrodisiac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 690 Aphrodite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 690 Aphthart0~Docetee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690 Aphthonius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690 Apianus, Petrus von . . . . . . . . . . . .. 690 Apicius (three) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 691 Apion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691 Apis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 691 Aplanatic Lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 691 Apocalypse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 691 Apocalyptic Knights . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 693 Apocalyptic‘ N umber . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693 Apoerypha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693 Apogee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694 Apollinarians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694 Apollo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 694 Apollo Belvedere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 695 Apollodorus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695 Apollonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695 Apollonius Pergaeus . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 695 Apollonius Rhodius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695 Apollonius Tyanacus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695 Apollos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696 Apologetie Fathers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696 Apologue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 697 Apophthcgm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 697 Apoplexy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697 Aporti, Fcrrante . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 698 Apostasy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698 Apostles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699 Apostles’ Creed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 699 Apostles’ Islands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700 Apostolic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 00 Apostolic Fathers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 00 Apostolici . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 00 Apostool, Samuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 700 Apostrophe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701 Apothecary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 701 Apotheosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701 Apo-Ulmene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702 Appalachee Bay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 702 Appalachian Mountains . . . . . . . . . .. 702 Appalachieola River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707 Appalachicola Bay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 07 Appalachicola, Fla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 07 Appanoose co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 07 Apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707 Apparent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707 Apparition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 708 Apparitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 709 Appeal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 09 Appel Christian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 710 Appellant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 710 Appendini, Francesco Maria . . . . . . 710 Appenzell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711 Apperley, Charles James . . . . . . . .. 711 Appert, Benjamin N. M . . . . . . . . . . . 712 Appert, Francois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 712 Appetite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 712 Appian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714 Appian Way . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 714 Appiani, Andréa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 714 Appiano, Jacopo I., d’ . . . . . . . . . . . . 714 Appiano, Gherardo d’ . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715 Appiano, Jacopo III., d’ . . . . . . . . .. 715 Appiano d’Aragona . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 715 Appiano, Jacopo V . . . . . . . ... . . . . .. 710 Appiano, Jacopo VII . . . . . ._. . . . . . . 715 Appius Claudius, see Claudius. _ Applause . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 5 Apple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 716 Apples of Sodom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 718 Appleton, or Grand Chute . . . . . . . . 718 Appleton, Daniel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 718 Appleton, Jesse, D.D . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718 Appleton, Samuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 719 Appling co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 719 Appodi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 719 Appogiato . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 719 Appogiatura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 719 Appomattox co . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 719 X , PAGE Appomattox River ............. . . 720 Appony . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 720 Appraisement .................. . . 720 Apprentice ..................... . . 720 Approximation ................. . . 721 Apraxin, Fedor ........... .2 .... .. 721 Apraxin, Stephen Fedoromtch. _ . 721 Apricot.‘ ....................... . . 7 22 Apries ......................... . . 722 April . . . . . . .7 ................... . . 722 April Ceremonies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722 A Priori . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722 Aprosio, Luigi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 22 Apsheron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 722 Apsides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722 Apsley River . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 722 Apsley Strait . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722 Apt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722 Apteral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 22 Apthorp, East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722 Aptitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723 Apuleius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .- . . . 723 Apulia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .; . . . . . . . 723 Apure ......................... . . 724 PAGE Apurimac River. ............ .. 724 qua . . . . . . . . ._ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724 Aqua Toiana ................ . . 0,. 725 Aquamboe .................... .. 725 Aqnapim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725 725 Aquarius ....................... . . 725 Aquatic Animals ............... . . 725 . Aquatic Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727 Aquavivarium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 727 Aqueduct . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729 Aquila. ........................ .. 734 Aquileia ....................... .. 734 Aquinas, Thomas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 734 Aquino ........................ . . 735 Aquitania ...................... .. 735 Arabella Stuart ................ . . 735 Arabesque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., .... . . 736 Arabgheer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 736 Arabia ......................... . . 737 Arabian Horse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741 Arabian Language and Literature. 742 Arabian Nights ................ . . 745 ‘ rmsn Arabici, or Arabians ............ .. 747 igaeagi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ca ........................ . . Aracatscha ..................... . . 747 Arachne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747 Araehnida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748 A1-acuahi ...................... .. 748 Arad, Old . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 748 Arad,tNew ..................... . . Arago, Dominique F. J ......... . . 749 Arago, Emmamlel .............. . . 750 Arago, Etienne ................. .. 750 Arago, Jacques E. V ............ . . 750 Arago. Jean. ................... . . 750 Aragon ........................ .. 750 Aragon, Alfonso de ............. . . 752 Aragon, Fernando de ....... . . , . . . 752 Aragon, Giovanna de ........... . . 752 Aragon, Tullia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752 Aragona ....................... . . 752 Araguan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752 Araguay ....................... . . 752 D. APPLETON cf: OOMPANTS PUBLICATIONS. ﬁnals fm: ﬁlrrrlganis. I. 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