sº º, ， ， *** ~3×. £ € º gael ， ！ ！ *** ： «…º.º. ſº z.s. ſ.： ，a' º. � ·· --··（…） ： º， ， ，··* …,···-----&+，-，**） - , : £-ºxº~ : : ș dwāni by Bhim Tál to A.uora, and by the cart-road to Naini Tàl ; (3) the roads to Káládhángi and by Khairma and Rāmgarh to Almora from Naini Tāl; (4) the cart-road from Râmnagar by Ránikhet to Almora; (5) the road by Bhainskhet to Garhwāl; (6) the road by the Someswar valley and Baijnáth to Gwaldam and the Pindar valley; (7) the road by Bagesar to the Milam Pass; (8) the road by Dhol to Lohughāt, and thence to Pithora- garh ; (9) the road by Panuwa Naula to Pithoragarh, and thence by Kela Syālapanth to the Byåns Passes; and (10) the road by Barmdeo and Champhâwat to Lohughât. All these roads are interconnected by village roads, and are well made, bridged, and kept in good repair. 9. The zoology of Kumaun is as varied as the botany, and e - * * would take much more space than I have Wild animals. at my disposal to do it even moderate º justice. Elephants are found in the Bhābar and forests on to the Siwáliks of the Dehra Dún. They are now protected by the orders of Government, and are occasionally captured by means of kheddas organised by the Nawāb of Râmpur and the Rājā of Balrámpur with the permission of Government. Tigers are becoming more and more scarce every year, and deaths resulting from their attacks have decreased fully sixty per cent. Occasionally a man-eater survives for a few years and desolates the tracts he haunts; to one of this class, who occupied the jungle near Râmnagar, upwards of a hundred deaths of human beings were debited during the years 1875-76. He was destroyed by a party of Gürkhas in 1876. 10. Leopards (baghera) are very numerous and destructive to sheep, goats, dogs, and even ponies. Hyenas (lakarbagha), black bears (bhalū, U. tibetanus), and brown bears (bhurji, U.isabellinus) are found in the hills, and a species of black bear in the Bhābar. ful somewhat less KTTE,TETTmºgº. In one year 45 tigers, 124 leopards, and 240 bears were destroyed in the Kumaun district at a cost of Rs. 1,460. On an average of five years, 58 persons perished yearly in the same district from the attacks of wild animals and snakebites. Of the deer tribe, the jarau (Rusa aristolelis), chital or spotted deer (Awis maculatus), pdra or hog- deer (Avis porcinus), kákar or barking deer (Cervulus aureus), máha or swamp deer (R. Duvaucelii), gºral or chamois (Nemor- hodus goral), kastūra or musk-deer (Moschus moschiferus), and the nilgai or blue cow (Portaw pictus) are found in the hills or Bhá- bar. The thar or wild goat (Hemitragus.jemlaicus) is found in the ranges beyond the Katyūr valley, and the sarau or forest goat (Nenorhoºdus bubalina) in the higher ranges. Further north among the snows are found the banchaunr or wild yak (Bos gru- niens), the bharal or wild sheep (Ovis nahura,) and the hyan or Ovis ammon. There is no trade of any importance in the skins of wild animals, though persons occasionally employ shikāris to procure skins for sale to visitors and for the European markets. The skins of the hill pheasants are, however, largely preserved for sale during the summer, and this practice has increased so much of late as to seriously diminish their number, the hillman not being particular as to the season during which he shoots. During the years 1875-76 several thousand pheasants of both sexes and all conditions were shot by some European adventurers for the sake of their skins, with the result that the birds have nearly disappeared from Upper Garhwäl, and although pheasant- shooting has now been strictly prohibited, it will take many years of rest and strict preserving before, the coverts can be re-stocked. 11. Snakes are numerous, though less so than in the plains. Strange to say, the harmless species Snakes, - - º © - are less numerous both in species and 9 individuals than the poisonous species, whilst in the plains the harmless species are far more common than the poisonous ones. In the forests above 10,000 feet the poisonous species Halys Hima- layanus predominates; about Almora, Simotes Russellii, a harmless species, is far the most common, and next to it Ptyas mucosus, and then the cobra. Tropidonotus platyceps, a woodland Snake, is com- mon at Naini Tál, and three species of Trimesurus are frequently found in the neighbourhood. Immense boas measuring up to thirty feet in length are found in the Bhābar, and lizards, Scorpions, frogs and toads abound. A small kind of leech is very common and troublesome ; it does not exceed an inch in length, has a smooth glossy skin of a brown colour, and in a state of rest is exceedingly minute, resembling a mere speck. During the rains, it fastens firmly on either man or beast, and, in addition to pain and loss of blood, causes distressing itching and irritable ulcers of tedious duration. In some instances it makes its way into the nostrils or mouth, and, fastening on the internal passages, causes very pain- ful, and in some cases fatal, effects. Though thus active and annoying when spontaneously attacking, they have invariably re- fused to draw blood when tried to be used for medicinal purposes. 12. In the months of April and May the traveller in Garhwál is much annoyed by a species of small fly The mitra fly. called by the º º This hº hovers in the air for some time before alighting. It then settles, and remains attached to the skin for a considerable time. Its bite is at first painless, but after a short time a troublesome itching is felt, and a small round black spot of effused blood ap- pears on the place where it has inflicted its bite. The black Spot continues distinct for about a fortnight, and as these flies are innumerable, the traveller's face and hands, unless protected by a veil and gloves, are very soon spotted all over. This fly is also met with in Kumaun, especially in the Sarju valley, but it is not nearly so frequent there as in Garhwál. It is probably the same insect as the pipsa fly, described by Dr. Joseph Hooker as occurring in the neighbourhood of Darjíling. 13. The domestic animals are kine, buffaloes, sheep, goats, horses, or rather ponies, and in the Domestic animals. v. * / "º- º Bhotia mahāls, or villages north of the 10 •.” w? and docile. Its price is from 20 to 50 rupees. culminating range of the Himálaya, the sura gai or yak (Bos grunniens) imported from Tartary, and the hybrids between that animal and kine. When the sire is a yak and the dam a cow, the hybrid is called jabu (2hobu); when the parentage is reversed, the produce is called garjo. The jabu is found to be more valuable than the other hybrid, or than either of the pure stocks. It is used for carriage, and will carry from two to three maunds; it is also used for riding in the snows, and is very sure-footed, hardy, Both varieties breed freely together, and with the pure stock; in the former case the race degenerates, but in the latter the offspring resumes the original nature of the breed. None of these will stand the heat of the plains. The beasts of burden most in use in the elevated parts are sheep and goats. The common description of the for- mer carry from ten to sixteen pounds ; of the latter from twelve to twenty-four ; but the taller, stronger, and more active sheep bred in Tibet, resembling the Iceland ram, are equal to weights of forty pounds. The regular day's journey is about five miles, in consequence of the great time they require for pasture, which is their only subsistence. It is by this means that the borax and salt is carried from Händes to the plains in a sort of pack made of worsted with a pair of pockets called karbaj (phancha in Garhwāl) slung over the backs of the goats and sheep. The pockets are covered with leather to keep out wet and damp when piled on the ground. This pack is girthed underneath the body; a band round the chest and another under the animal's tail ren- der it perfectly safe. Goats are chosen from their superior boldness and activity as leaders of the flock, and are furnished with bells. It is marvellous to observe the business-like way in which these little beasts of burden carry their loads. Coming upon them on the very narrowest, steepest, and slippiest ascent, or on the brink of a precipice, they seem intent only upon pursuing their way, not turning aside for any one or anything, their obstinacy often causing the traveller uneasiness and teaching him patience. And not the less curious is it to observe flocks of them, numbering many hundred each meeting, each going the contrary way, and yet none make a mistake, but persist in following their own leader, and patiently overcome all obstacles to their doing so. Be good enough to add the following to the list of crops culti- vated in Kumaun, given at para. 15 of the Imperial Gazetteer notice of Kumaun, of which a copy has been forwarded to you. E. T. A. English º • * * Ila, Oſ) 6. - Native name. Scientific name. Season. Wheat (red), Lál gehán (bearded) ... Triticum vulgare ... | May. 52 (white) Safed gehän, Daúdkhāni 33 0 O & 39 (beardless). Barley ... Jau tº o º ... Hordeum hexastichon... 33 -- Celestial bar-| Ua jau ..., tº wº ,, . coeleste ... October in ley. Bhot. Rice ..., | Dhán tº º º ... Oryza sativa ... End of Sep- tember. Millet ... | Manduwa ... ... | Eleusine corocana ... | Middle of October. 92 ..] Mundira, ... Panicum frumentaceum, Beginning of Sep- tember. 99 scº Roni 0 e º 0 00 32 Italicum 0 0 tº 3 y 35 ...] China Jºrº Q tº oº 92 miliaceum ... End of Au- gust. 99 be e Ganara o e G Q & Q 35 uliginosum 0 e º April. Maize • Bhūta, Makai ... Zea mays tº e Q 39 Prince's fea-| Chúa e e Q ... Amaranthus,anardana..., | Beginning ther. of Octo- - ber. Love liesl Kedari chūa e G & 95 caudatus ... 39 bleeding. - Buckwheat...] Ogal © tº Q ... Fagopyrum vulgare ... End of Sep- - tember. 3 J. ...| Pháphar ... Q & C 39 tataricum... October. Pea ... Kulon • Q & ... Pisum arvense .., | April. Vetch ... Masūr tº oº ... Ervum lens ... Jy Gram ...] Channa ... ... Cicer arietinum Q Q Q 39 Pulse ... Urd tº e Q ... Phaseolus radiatus ... October. 93 ...] Müng © e Q tº e ºs }} mungo ©tº a 33 25 ...] Gurullsh ... to º e 53 torosus tº e ºs y? 32 ...] Arhar - ... ... Cytisus cajanus ... November. 55 Gahat tº e º ... I Dolichos uniflorus ... October. 3 y Riansh tº e º 0 0 & $ 2 catjang Q & Q $9 32 ... Bhut tº e e © tº e 3D Soja © Cº. 3 y 25 ... Chimi tº º º •e a 99 lignosus ... Rains. y; .., | Lobiya tº e G tº e e 3 * simensis tº e tº 53 3) ... Shiuchanna, baküla .., |Phaseolus vulgaris April. 11 14. The ordinary agricultural cattle in use in the district are imported from the Bhábar, where they are bred. A pair of light bullocks will cost from 20 to 40 rupees, and a large pair up to 80 rupees. Bulls were imported from Hissar, but they did not succeed, owing to the climate and the flies in the Bhābar and Tarái. The people themselves object to them as too heavy for their purposes, and that it requires more care than they can give to rear up the young calves. The gúnt or Bhotia pony is im- ported from Tibet. The Chamurti is the favourite breed, but is seldom met with, owing to its higher price. They are clumsy, rough, and small, but sagacious, strong, active, and very sure- footed. The price ranges from 100 to 300 rupees. The banjára pony, bred in the Tarái, is a useful, hardy, small sized animal, worth from 10 to 25 rupees. Grass, gram, barley-meal, and tird are used as fodder for ponies and cattle. There are two varieties of the domestic dog—the Tibetan, which is large and strong, with a shaggy coat, very fierce, and well adapted to defend flocks against robbers and beasts of prey ; and the shikäri or hunting-dog, differing little from the pariab of the plains: both are much subject to hydrophobia. 15. The following list of the crops cultivated in Kumaun, with the English, native, and scientific name, and the season when ripe or gathered, as also of the edible fruits, wild and cultivated, will serve for both Rumaun and Garhwál :— - Crops. English Ilā, Ille. Native name. Scientific name. Season. Spinach ... Pálang e tº 0 ... Beta? Spinacea oleracea 7 June, largely. Cress ... Hálang º Q ... Lepidium sativum } % Rhubarb ... Dolu (red) wild at Rheum hybridum ... April. 11-16,000 feet. Methi © p & ... Trigonella foe n u m- 3 D t groecum. Poppy ... Posht. tº º ºr ... Papaver somniferum ... April, May. Sugarcane Rikhu, pinda ... Saccharum officinarum April, very little. Karela e Q ſº ... Momordica Charantia Rains. Torya * * * ... Luffa acutangula & a tº } % Ghiatorya ... tº e Q ,, pentandra & © tº 3 tº Chichinda ... ..., | Tricosanthes anguina ... 8 p. * Batten's report, 12 --~ *- English ative name. Scientific name. {lSOD1. I\8,DOl'C, TNativ Season Cucumber | FChira e tº º ... Cucumis sativus Rains. 3 * Kakri * * * • tº º ,, utilissimus ... 5 y Gourd ... Lauki, Tumri (not edible). Lagenaria vulgaris ... Pumpkin ... Asparagus Mustard $ Linseed ..., $esamum ... * * * Hemp Cinnamon... #ed pepper Cardamom Turmeric ..., Ginger ... -Carraway ... Coriander ... Tobacco ... Cotton ... Reed tº º e Plantain ... Mango Guava, ... Apricot Peach Damson Plum Quince Orange Lemon ... Lime Citron 99 Walnut Filbert ... Gadúa Tarbhuj ... Bhuja • * º Kairua, {º & So to g tº a tº tº ſº º Lāi, Dain, Jariya JRára, Sarson Rái Banrái * e & tº º º Tori, Bhotia lái tº º e Alsi Til Bhangjira ... * e G Jhatila, ... * @ a Bhang ; cloth, drug, oil tº e º tº tº Tejpat, wild Lał mircha, khursyān Ilāychi 1 dº º º Haldí * * * Adrakh, Ādā Saunph, jíra. º'o gº Dhaniya ... tº & wº Pipalmor, pipali tº ºr Tamáku ... tº º & Kapás º e º tº º º Motha. a º in ºn tº Kela, plentiful Am, in valleys Amrūd, Scaree tº tº º Kūshmaru, Zard a rā, chüaru. Arū tº e tº ſº tº º Badam, scarce Walechu, do. Bei, do. Naringi, do. • gº º Nimbu, plentiful * * * Kāghazi nimbu, Scarce, Jamíra. * & tº ſº Matkakari... * @ 9 Akhrot, Bh. kas-shin Cucurbita maxima ... 5 y 99 tº ſº tº ye pepo Asparagus officinalis ... Sinapis dichotoma , glauca. ,, erysimoides , , Tam OS8, tº @ e tº e a ,, rug OS8. tº e º Tinum usitatissimum ..., Sesamum orientale ... Perilla, ocimoides Prinsepia utilis Cannabis sativa & © & tº G & Laurus cassia. - Capsicum frutescens ... Cardamomum aroma- ticum. Curcuma longa. Zinziber officinalis tº º q Anethum foeniculum ... Coriandrum sativum ... Piper longum silvaticum Nicotiana tabacum ... Gossypium herbaceum Papyrus pangorei ... Musa paradisiaca * * * Mangifera Indica Psidium pyriferum Prunus adenophylla 22 99 5 y Pyrus cydonia Citrus aurantium Citrus acida 5 p. y) J uglans regia tº e g largely 3 y 93 April a n d rains. April, May. 2 3 - October. 39 May, rare. | August. * * June. November, beginning. 99 November. Jy y? ,, for ex- port. May. 53 ,, for home very little. for mats. E x c e p t winter. July. June. A u gu St, plentiful. | July, do. May, June. September. December. July. 5 ſº 99 October. Novedmber. Pomegran- ate. * * > Kapási 8-10,000 feet ... Anār, sweet; Darím, Sour, 2 p. Punica granatum Jul y. 13 English Native name. Scientific name. Season. In 8 Iſle, Fig ... Timla, large and sweet, Ficus ...) ... June, July. Raspberry Jogía hisälä, red ; hisālū, Rubus e e - ... May, black yellow, 4-6,000 feet ... and yellow 9,000 feet. August. Ground Ganda kaphal, Bh. Sin- || Rubus nutans April. Raspberry, jang ~3 Blackberry Kalía, hisálū ... Rubus X # Strawberry | Kapalía ; G. bhuila, 3 p. June, July. 7-10,000 feet. Gooseberry | Lepchat at 11,400 near 99 September passes. Ribes glaciale J tº º º 9 O Red Currant Külkúlia, kunkūkurái, Ribes acuminatum ... 3 y 10-13,000. Black ditto Darbúi, do. ... R. acuminatum ... October. Crab Apple Kaphal ... Pyrus baccata tº - 35 Barberry ... Chotra, Bh. náchishin, Berberis aristata ... September. 8,000 kilnora. -* 16. The quantity of land calculated for cultivation as afford- ed by nature is within the hills extremely small, and in order therefore to remedy this deficiency, the sides of the mountains admitting of such an operation have been cut down into terraces rising above each other in regular succession, and having their fronts supported by slight abutments of stones. These terraces necessarily vary in breadth and length, according to the form and slope of the mountain on which they are situated, but as a great portion of every mountain, more particularly near the summit and ridges, is not sufficiently productive to warrant the expense and labour of the operation, those spots are clothed with grass, and gene- rally covered with forest, consisting chiefly of pines, oaks, and rhododendrons, whilst some parts, from their rocky and preci- pitous nature, are wholly barren, or only partially sprinkled with tufts of rank grass. Even on the ridges and sides of the mountains the soil is generally poor and stony, while the depth of earth is seldom great, and rock is commonly to be met with at a few feet from the surface ; in such situations the aid of frequent supplies of manure is required to renew the fertility of Agriculture, 14 the land. In the valleys, which consist almost entirely of allu- vial soil deposited by the rivers, or washed down from the moun- tains by the rains, the land is tolerably productive, though not to be compared with that in the Tarái and the plains. Irriga- tion, where practicable, is always had recourse to, but is, owing to natural difficulties, comparatively little used. 17. A single plough drawn by two bullocks is supposed to be able to cultivate three acres of land in Implements. the hills. At a first ploughing one pair of bullocks can turn up about one-seventh of an acre in a day, at the second ploughing one-fourth, and at the third one-half in the hills, and about twice as much in the Bhābar and Tarái. The cost of the implements and stock of four cows, two bullocks, and eight sheep or goats for a farm of three acres would be about Rs. 60 in Garhwál, and between Rs. 50 and Rs. 60 in Kumaun. The common standard of land-measure in the hills is the bisi, which is just forty square yards less than an acre. 18. A holding of five acres would require a pair of bullocks in the hills, and after deducting all ex- penses ought to bring in an average season Rs. 80. In the Bhābar a holding of that size would be twice as valuable. In the hills five to six acres would be consi- dered a large holding, two to four an average one, and from a quarter of an acre to one acre a small holding. In the Bhābar eight acres make a large holding, six an average holding, and four a small one. The prevailing custom of dividing all immovable property equally among the sons, together with the tenacity with which hillmen cling to their hereditary landed property, has had, and still must have, the effect of diminishing the size and multiplying the number of holdings. But there is no doubt that these influences have also caused a large increase in the cultivated area; and as there is still plenty of waste land, they are not likely to have any prejudicial effect on the people for a long time to come. Ordinary holdings. 19. The greater part of the land being held and cultivated by the proprietary body, the rent will cor- Rents. º respond with the Government revenue. 15 At the recent settlement, stra, or irrigated land, was assessed at twice, and first-class unirrigated at one-third as much as second-class unirrigated land. The rent paid by tenants-at- will is usually in kind in the hills, and amounts to from one- half to one-fourth of the produce, but the rule for all other tenants now is money payment. The proprietor often lets out enough of his holding to pay the revenue, and tills the rost himself. In the Bhābar three rupees an acre pays for the land and water-supply. . 20. The better kinds of rice, wheat, and tobacco are usually sown in stra land, which generally pro- duces good crops and can hardſ y fail, as it is always well manured and highly cultivated. First-class un- irrigated land yields everything except tobacco and the better kinds of rice, and its productive powers are often not inferior to stra land, while it has to be left fallow only after every third Crop. Still the crops are always liable to damage by drought, and where manure is not freely given the soil becomes poor and unproduc- tive. The small strips on the edges of the better land, or where the hill side is steep and stony, form the third class. This is usually sown with barley, buck wheat, and the Coarser grains If manured a little, or after it has lain fallow, it yields in a favour. able season a fair return, but in a bad season it hardly repays the labour expended on it. & Irrigated land. 21. From an experiment made in 1863 it appears. that the average outturn per acre in Bhábar land © Was 480 seers of grain, which at 20 seers per rupee yields 24 rupees per annum. If the rent or three rupees be deducted from this sum, the balance is a very fair return for labour and investment in stook and implements. Outturn per acre. 22. There were in 1874 nineteen tea plantations in fee-sim- Tea cultivation. º tenure, º grants and thirty-nine gº Villages assessed in the usual way belong- ing to tea-planters in this district. The prospects of º cultiva. tion, long so gloomy and disheartening in these provinces, have 16 of late years been more promising, owing to the opening up o the Central Asian market through Afghān traders, who come to each plantation themselves and take away the tea. The Kau- sāni and Katyár Companies have changed Katyár from a very desert into a really fruitful garden, and only men and money are required to extend the existing gardens. The Dunagiri plan- tation has done much for Dwóra Hát and its neighbourhood, as Jalna has done for the eastern suburbs of Almora, Beninăg for Gangoli, and the small gardens of Lohughât for that station. The great sums of money expended on tea plantations within the last twenty years have produced permanent effect in the im- provement noticed in the persons and houses of the people in the neighbourhood, and hitherto have resulted only in unmixed benefit to the country. 23. There are very few forest trees containing valuable tim- e ber in the upper hills, though there are a Timber. tº a tº great many varieties. The most useful are the chºr, or three-leaved Himálayan pine (Pinus longifolia), cedar (Cedrus deodara), cypress (Cupressus torulosa), weeping fir (Abies Smithiana), long-leaved black fir (Picea Pindrow), and white-leaved black fir (P. Webbiana). Tăn of two varieties is found, the common one or tún proper (Cedrela toona), and the bastard tân known as dala in Garhwál (C. serrata). The wood of the latter is much lighter in colour and less valuable. The walnut (Juglans regia) is much prized for its hardness, and also a species of sumach called kakura (Pistacia integerrima), which is hard and tough. The alder, udesh (A. Nepalensis), is used for tea boxes: the wood is light and rather brittle, and appears when polished like satin-wood. The people towards the Snows use the bark of the silver birch (Betula bhojpatra), which grows in great quantities at the highest elevations, for writing paper, for which purpose it is peeled off in layers as thin as very fine paper. Sál (Shorea robusta), the most valuable of all woods, grows in the valleys stretching down to the plains, which are strictly preserved by the Forest Department. Saindan (O. dal bergioides) grows in considerable quantities in the low hot valleys, but the trees are very stunted, and a straight piece of timber of any length is almost unprocurable. It is used on 17 account of its great hardness and weight for ploughshares, and pestles for pounding rice. - 24. Village houses in the hill districts of the Kumaun division Building materials and are built of stone laid in mud, and roofed houses. - withmica chlorite, or clay slates, or, where these are not obtainable, with thatch. In the European stations sheet-iron is largely used for roofing purposes. The wood most generally used in buildings is chár, and occasionally deodar. The former is cheap and possesses considerable tensile strength, and is durable for internal work ; the latter, though not so strong, stands exposure very well, and is useful for bridges and external decorative work, as in Srinagar. The cost of sawing planks 12" x 1' × 1" is about seventeen rupees per 100. Tún is a favourite with the natives for making the elaborately carved fronts to their houses, but it is perishable, and requires therefore protection by coatings of coarse paint. The people do not con- sider a house properly made which has not doorposts of this wood. Where the forests are not preserved by Government, the cost of timber in Kumaun is merely its cutting and carriage to the building sites. The cost of stone, too, is merely its quarrying and carriage. The cost of burning lime in Kumaun varies from 10 to 30 rupees per 100 maunds, to which should be added six annas per maund for each ten miles it is carried : in Garhwál the cost is about the same. Skilled labour being required for extracting flags and large stones, those measuring 15 feet by 5 feet and from one to two inches in thickness often fetch 12 to 15 rupees each in Almora. Common slates two feet by two inches sell at the rate of two annas each, brought into Almora from a distance of one mile and a half: in Garhwāl the price is about 10 rupees per 100, while stone varies from 24 to 48 annas per 100 cubic feet, according to distance. The usual charge is 10 rupees per 100 superficialf eet measured on the roof, and includ- ing coping stones or ‘topis.’ The labour in constructing a house is usually performed by the proprietor and his family, occasionally assisted by the village mason, and as the materials do not cost anything, the substantial solid appearance of a Kumáuni's house is no fair criterion of his position. Where labour is employed 18 the cost may be from Rs. 50 to 100, though, as in Páta village, in the Rāmgarh valley, houses are found which cannot have cost less than Rs. 500. The houses of the wealthier natives at Almora, Champhâwat, Râmnagar, &c., are often three and four stories high, with elaborately carved fronts, but differ little in their inter- nal arrangements from those of the humbler classes. At a distance' villages in Kumaun present a neat appearance, an impression which, however, is effaced on a closer inspection, from the quantity of filth which is found everywhere. Hindu temples dating from the Katyāra râj abound throughout the district. Tradition explains their number by the story that a certain Rāja only ate every day on hearing that a temple (lāt) had been built. It was also a custom then to mark the progress of a Rāja by erecting a small templo of cut-stone at each halting-place 25. “Within the comparatively small section of the Himá- Geology. layas occupied by Kumaun proper the mountain features exhibit much regularity, and may be noticed in successive zones parallel to the main range, but the Tarái and Bhābar tracts along the base of the outermost hills also belong administratively to Kumaun, and require some notice. They constitute the two uppermost belts in the great sur- face curve of deposition by rivers and rain-wash, from the foot of the steep mountain slopes to the sea. The Bhābar, or forest tract, is made up chiefly of the coarse conglomerates and gravels accumulated by the torrents at the base of the hills, and its slope varies from fifty to seventeen feet per mile. Except in the rainy season, the stream courses in the Bhábar are dry, the water having sunk into the gravel soon after issuing from the gorges. The Tarái, on account of its constantly marshy condi- tion, used to be thought an area of actual depression. In fact, however, it has a considerable slope, averaging ten feet in a mile, and the moisture is due to the re-appearance of the under- ground water from the Bhābar. t 26. “The outermost fringing zone of lower hills is formed of tertiary sandstones. The true Siwáliks, The outer ranges. * g formed of the upper members of this tertiary series, are very poorly developed on the Kumaun border, 19 and one has to go west of the Gange” "º" these in any perfec- tion. The flanking hills of Kumaun correspond and are continu- ous with those inside and north of the Düns to the west, and are formed of the lower beds of the series; massive sandstones with subordinate clays, often highly ferruginous, as at Dechauri, and sometimes containing small nº" of lignite. The beds, as a very general rule, dip steeply towards and against the old rocks, the plane of contact often underlying inwards. One small patch has been observed in Garhwál of still older tertiary rocks, on the ridge about the village of Bán over Rikhkhes on the Ganges. It consists of crumbling brown clays and earthy limestone, an outlier of the num mulitic group of Subathu, on the directextension of which it occurs, and forms a remnant of eocene deposits that once occupied this ground in force. Immediately inside the boundary of the tertiary sandstones the mountains rise steeply to a much greater clevation, forming the face of the lower Himálayas. 27. “ This region, some fifty to sixty miles wide between the line of snowy peaks and the plains, is a constant feature of the Himálayas east of the Satlaj. For long distances, too, its structure is uni- form. All through Kumaun and away to the Satlaj there is an outer belt, formed of a continuous band of rocks differing from those to the north. The most conspicuous of these is a limestone to which is due the more picturesque character of this first range, as at Naini Tāl and Mussoorie. It is known as the Krol limestone, and is supposed to be of Triassic age. It over- lies a great thickness of flaggy slates. The northern boundary of the limestone and slate zone is not very regular. Sometimes it is sharply defined, as north of Naini Tâl, elsewhere the slates seem to coalesce transitionally with the metamorphic rocks form- ing the main mass of the lower Hilmālaya up to the snowy range. Inner range. ( e © 28. “As a rule, the ridge of the semi-metamorphic rocks is considerably higher than a broad band of the metamorphic area to the north of it Gneiss and gneissic schists are the prevailing rocks in the \ atter grou "H --> w º © . - • ** * * * * gro nd. * There are some strong courses of granite and trappean intrusions. The latter occur also in force in the lime- The suowy range. 20 stone and slate region, as about Naini Tàl. The main range of peaks occur on the chief line of granitic intrusion, very numerous veins penetrating the schists and gneiss mostly along the line of strike and also massive expansions of granito, as that forming the Kamet peak. High along the northern flank of this granitic and gneissic axis there rest the bottom beds of the sedimentary basin of Tibet. The summits of the passes occur mostly on these rocks which run up into high peaks. Only a narrow fringe of then occur within Kumaun, consisting of the azoic slates resting upon the gneiss and penetrated granite veins. They are overlaid by a tolerably full series of palaeozoic and secondary formations, forming a long narrow synclinal trough, with crystalline rocks again to the north of it. One of the most interesting geological features of the Tibetan plateau is the immense accumulation of undisturbed deposits in the old valleys through which the rivers have again cut gorges 3,000 feet deep. Remains of extinct nammalia have been found in these old valley deposits.” . 29. There are numerous mines of iron and copper scattered throughout the district, but they are not thoroughly worked, and very often their practically inaccessible position, combined with the absence of coal, renders any idea of a profitable outturn impossible. Ilead, salaíº gypsum, asbestos, limestone, slato, and graphite are also found among the mineral products of Kumaun. The history of the Kumaun Iron Works Company is instructive as to the success that awaits the efforts of mining companies in this district. As the success or otherwise of such companies depends to a great extent on the fuel supply, I offer no apology for giving the fol- lowing extract from a paper by Mr. H. Medlicott, the present head of the Geological Survey :- Minerals. “There are two groups of rocks, in which supposed coal discoveries have been repeatedly made, in the sandstone rocks of the lower 4–4. and in the black, shaly rocks occurring beneath the lirnestones of the fringing zone of the higher hills. I have From a note by ſ1, Medlicott, Esq. . 21 seen a great deal of both these rocks, and I think that the prospect of a useful deposit of coal being found in either is very unpromising. The nests and strings of lignite that occur, sometimes close together, in the sandstones are manifestly the remains of isolated trunks or roots of trees, which were rollet or floated into these positions and became buried in the sand, There is, of course, the chance of a great local accumulation of such matter; but such has not been the mode of origin of useful coal-seams. The carbonaceous shales of the infra- krol band offer at first sight a more promising field of re- search. Without an extensive exploration of these shales, I should not have relinquished all probability of success. In the many scores of sections I have examined in these beds, within the region from the Ravi to Naini Tà), I have never found a single grain of true coaly matter. The case seems to be somewhat different far to the north-west, if my con- jecture be correct that the shales of Dandeli are the re; re- sentatives of the infra-krol beds. At that place there are strings of anthracite coal in the slaty shales, but the condi- tion of the rocks is very discouraging to a prosecution of the enquiry.” 30. In 1872 the population of Kumaun Comprised 425,963 Hindús and 5,569 Musalmāns, out of a total of 433,314 souls, or an increase 119 per cent. Over the census of 1865. The Musalmans are chiefly recent settlers from the plains, or the descendants of the do: ^ a * ſº -y- * > keepers, huntsmen, and sweepers of the Rājas of Kumaun. The Hindús number almost 99 per cent, of the entire populati by position and descent are the real inhabitants of these hº They may be broadly divided into three classes, the Bhorivss or Population. people of the northern parganas on the borders of Tibet, the Khasiyas or mass of the original hill Population, and lastly, ºs settlers from the plains. The distribution, character, and Eski. of all three classes have been more or less aftected by the phy circumstances of the tracts which they inhabit. The tract sº the range of highest elevation and the plains is in its main charss- teristics Indian, while the country which lies between ºssº Peaks and the Tibetan watershed is, on the other hand, Tibetan in - 22 its character. These facts are more especially true of the inha- bited portions of the two regions. The mass of the population of the first named tract is found in the valleys and the lower slopes of the mountains below an elevation of 6,000 feet, where the climate is thoroughly Indian. A well-marked winter, almost without snow, is succeeded by a summer of nearly tropical heat, and followed by a season of periodical rain. The vegetation is semi-tropical in its character, and the common agricultural products are those of the plains of Northern India. In the Bhotiya valleys beyond the snowy peaks a different set of conditions arise. The heavy falls of snow in the winter months give the climate even more than a Tibetan rigour. The summer is always temperate, and the periodical rains fall only as moderate showers. The vegetation is scanty and Alpine in its character, and the late spring and early autumn restrict cultivation to one precarious summer crop of a few of the productions of northern climates. Brecisely thus as the climatic conditions of the Himálaya ap- proach those of India on the one hand, or of Tibet on the other hand, so do we find that the Hindu or Tibetan element prevails in its population. 31. The mass of the population on this side of the snows be- longs to the great Hindu tribe of Kha- siyas, a name which comes down to us from Pauranik times, and which has left its traces from the Caucasus on the west through the Caspian, Kashgār, Kashmir, to the Khasiya hills on the east and the valley of the Brahmaputra. Their country is even to the present day known as Khasdes, or the country of the Khasas, as distinguished from Hundes, the country of the Huns, and Bhot, the country of the Bhotiyas. There is every reason to believe that these Khasiyas are identical with the Khasas, a race of Hindus inhabiting the hills, and somewhat lax in the practice of their faith, who were mentioned by the Hindu lawgiver Manu some 2,500 years ago, a theory which is strengthened by all the facts, so far as known, which have any bearing on the question. The language of the Khasiyas is a purely Hindi dialect without any foreign admixture, and is equally Hindi in the archaic form found in documents of the fourteenth century, as it is in the spoken language of the present Khasiyas. 23 day. That the features of the hillmen differ somewhat from the features of the men of the plains is acknowledged, but the differ- ence is no greater than what may reasonably be attributed to climatic influences and the absence of the leaven of Musalmán immigrants, which has so materially influenced the appearance of the population in many of the districts of the plains. The Khasiyas of Kumaun are now, to all intents and purposes, Hindu in religion, in language, and in customs. Such differences as exist amongst the mass of the Hindu population are due to the successive immigrations of settlers from the plains, who accom- panied the Chand Rājas in their first settlement, or were invited by them from time to time either as courtiers, soldiers, or priests. For many years a struggle went on between the new-comers and the Khasiyas, but in the end the former absorbed all power and gradually imposed their stricter notions of Hindu observances on the subject race. Hence we find a spurious caste system in existence, based upon the village from which the parent stock sprang, and not on the tribal system as in the plains, and a curious admixture of laxity and strictness in all their religious customs, which fully supports the theory of the dual origin of their present religious system, partly that of the ancient Khasiyas, and partly due to the teaching of settlers from the plains. In the lowest state of the Khasiya society comes the Doms with their numerous subdivisions, who correspond to the Chamars of the plains, and were until the British occupation the predial slaves of the Khasiya landholders. The Khasiyas are Compara- tively a fair-skinned race, whilst the Doms are dark and swarthy, and are probably the remains of a conquered race recruited from time to time by prisoners taken in war or obtained by purchase. What little religion they possess is Hindu in its origin, though largely tempered with the superstitious belief in demons and sprites, which seems common to all mountaineers. Every crag and summit almost has its sylvan deity, and usually a tiny temple devoted to its worship. On feast days and holidays processions take place, and a kid is slaughtered in honour of the deity. In the larger temples and on great occasions a buffalo calf is slain by severing the head from the neck by means of a kükri, or curved knife, a sacrifice which has taken the place of the human 24 offerings which tradition says were formerly made to the great goddess Káli in these hills. It would be out of place to notice the great mass of castes amongst the Khasiyas in a short notice like the present. Suffice it to say that most of the great tribes of Northern India have their nominal representatives amongst the hill communities, for in practice a Gaur or Kanaujiya Brahman of the plains will not eat or drink with his namesake in the hills, and, as a rule, the hill castes are looked down upon as impure in blood and careless in matters of religious observance. Strange to say, the Joshis or astrologers, who are looked on as belonging to the lowest class of Brahmans in the plains, have in the hills succeeded in obtaining by intrigue as officials of the Chand Rájas a position and power which long placed them at the head of affairs in Kumaun. 32. To the north of the great snowy peaks we get among a The Bhotiyas. different people, the Bhotiyas. Bod, the called by the Musalmán historians, has been corrupted by the Khasiyas into Bhot, which has given the name Bhotiya to the border tribes between the two countries, and as used in Kumaun is rather an ethnographical than a geographical or political term, the word Hundes being applied to Tibet proper, and the term Huniya to its people. These latter are also mentioned in the Pauranik records under the name of Hunas. As distinctly as the Khasiyas are of Hindu origin, is it seen that the Bhotiyas are of Tibetan origin. Their dialects, which vary in Mána, Niti, Milam, Dárma, and Byåns, are all closely allied to the Tibetan In OW spoken in #. and the unmistakable peculiarities of feature that belong to the Tibetan family are as strongly marked in the Bhotiyas as in the people of Tibet itself. The Bhotiyas themselves are little inclined to admit this Tibetan origin, and, especially in the Juhár valley, have adopted the language, cus- toms, and habits of their Hindu neighbours, though, if report be true, when once across the border, they act as the Tibetans do, and are there good Buddhists. On the boundary line between the Khasiyas and the Bhotiyas we find a considerable admixture of the two races, especially in the tract known as Munsiyāri, but the two pure races themselves now in existence can alone be Tibetan name for Tibet or Tibbat, as it is 25 % * considered the representatives of the original inhabitants of these hills. 33. The paramount property in the soil of Kumaun, both in theory and practice, has ever been vested in the state. The occupant landholders possess a heritable and transferable property in the soil, but their rights were never indefeasible, and have ever been revocable at the hands of the grantor of the rights, the sovereign of the state. Property in land is here called thkāt, and a proprietor is a thkit- wan, not a zamindår, which latter term is here apparently synony- mous with cultivator, whether proprietor or tenant. The pro- prietary right is in a state of extreme subdivision, each hamlet or village being shared commonly amongst many petty proprietors. At the conquest, Traill found the greater portion of the district cultivated by proprietors who owed their rights to purchase, grant, or long-established hereditary occupancy. Whenever the state exercised its rights over land already occupied, the occupant pro- prietors, if they remained, sank into the state of tenants of the new grantee, who, moreover, by custom took one-third of the estate into his own cultivation. The original occupants retained the remaining two-thirds and took the name of khayakars, or occupants as distinguished from thbátwán or proprietor, and paid rent to the grantee, usually in kind, or according to some invari- able rate fixed at the period of the grant. Where the proprie- tary and occupancy rights are vested in the same individual, the cultivating tenants under him possess no rights in the soil, and are mere tenants-at-will. Tenures. 34. These petty proprietors hold in severalty, and exercise an unrestricted right over their respective t shares, subject to the Hindu law of in- heritance, and to the joint responsibility of all the sharers, in an estate for the punctual payment of the Government demand assessed thereon and the authorised dues. In such a state of pro- perty the character of landholder and farmer are naturally united, as the former cannot afford to part with any portion of the profit of his petty property : accordingly fully three-fifths of the arable lands are cultivated by the proprietors themselves, ./ Proprietors. 26 who may be termed th/dtrón cultivators. Of the other two- fifths one-half may be assumed for the estates which are culti- wated by resident tenants having no claim to property in the soil, and in the remainder are comprised the lands cultivated by pahikāsht or non-resident cultivators. The proprietors simply pay the Government demand ; the occupancy tenants the Go- vernment demand plus a money payment in commutation of certain fees formerly demanded. The proportion of proprietors, including co-sharers, to permanent tenants and tenants-at-will in Garhwál is as 2% to 1 of the former and 4 to 1 of the latter, There are three permanent tenants to two tenants-at-will. In the Bhābar and Tarái the Government is, with few exceptions, sole proprietor. 35. When the proprietors, from absence or other cause, are unable to cultivate, they let out their land to other cultivators, who, if they reside on the land, pay in kind commonly one-third of the produce, or in money, as may be agreed upon. Where there is little demand for the land, it is usually let for a moderate money rate, which tenure is usually termed sirtón, that is, the renter pays merely sirti or hak zamíndāri. When there is no offer for the land by any of the resident cultivators, the owner lets it to any inhabi- tant of the neighbouring villages ; this is known as pahikāsht cultivation. The rent is paid in money or kind, as may be agreed upon, but most commonly in money. Each pahikāsht tenant usually makes his own bargain with the landlord, and as the com- petition for cultivators is much in excess of the demand for land, he usually has the better bargain. The rent is commonly paid in money, and is somewhat less than that paid by the khayakar, In Garhwāl, at least, his rights are hereditary and transferable, and differ in no way from the khayakar. Both are equally pro- tected by having their rights recorded with the amount of the holding and demand. Tenants. 36. The sirtán cultivator, on the other hand, is a mere tenant- at-will, whose name does not appear in the record of rights. He has no permanent rights of any kind, usually arranging with the landlord for one Tenants-at-will, 27 crop, and pays his rent in money or in kind. Tenants-at-will are rare in Garhwál. Occupancy tenants frequently rent in sirti some fields adjoining their own. The sirtán tenant pays the rent agreed upon, and is exempt from all cesses and dues. Under the former Governments these amounted to three-fourthe of the public demand, and fell upon the proprietor. In former times Brahmans and the principal landowners cultivated as much of their lands as practicable by means of their haliyas, domestic slaves or servants, principally Doms or outcasts. This state of servitude has, however, gradually been abolished during English rule. 37. The revenue code is very simple; no one can be ousted & 1 & - unless for arrears, except the tenant-at- Condition of the people. will, who can always be excluded at the end of the agricultural year. Suits for ouster in default of pay- ment of arrears are very few in number. The principal kinds of claims that come before the courts are suits for possession of shares in land and for partition of shares. The agricultural class is com- posed of all castes from Brahmans to Doms, and all handle the plough themselves. All the cultivators are very well off, and can make enough from their land to feed and clothe themselves and their families. They are now so well off that it is found very difficult to procure free labour at reasonable rates, their condi- tion precluding the necessity of attempting any extra occupation. The khayakars are for the most part as well off, if not better, than the proprietors, to whom they only pay a small proprietary allowance. Tenants-at-will are for the most part khayakars and small proprietors, who have not sufficient land for their own wants, or are village servants. Of late years the cultivating commu- nity has everything in its favour–light assessments, a high price for grain, good markets, and fair roads. 38. There are no classes of landless unskilled labourers in the hill districts. Doms and other low castes Fabourors. - º * sometimes work for hire, but they usually have in addition a small plot of land which they cultivate as tenants-at-will. When employed, the return is usually food for the day and half a seer of rice. The wives and children of the 28 cultivator are his main support, and usually perform all the duties of a labourer except ploughing and sowing. The children are largely employed in tending cattle both in the hills and Bhábar. 39. The average death-rate per one thousand of the popula- Medical statistics. tion has been eighteen for the years 1869 to 1875. In 1875, in the 4,606 villages in the district, 8,750 deaths were registered, or 20:21 per thousand. Of these deaths 12 were due to cholera, 5 to small-pox, 4,052 to fevers, 2,061 to bowel complaints, 285 to injuries, and 2,335 to all other causes. There were 43,864 vaccine operations during the year 1875-76, of which 18,705 were successful, the result of 3,930 was unknown, and 21,229 were unsuccessful. There are dispensaries at Almora, Naini Tâl, Haldwāni, Káládhángi, and Râmnagar supported by Government, and in other places dispen- saries supported by the American Mission. In connection with the same society was a medical School, through which between 1869 and 1871 nine young women and four young men passed and received certificates enabling them to practise, but the idea has since been abandoned. During the year 1877 the mahámari or plague devastated large tracts of country towards Garhwal, its first appearance here since 1848. The climate of the Bhābar enjoyed an even more deadly reputation than that of the Tarái, but the immense clearings and other improvements of a similar nature that have been effected of late years have already had a marked effect on the climate. The Bhābar is now no longer ab- solutely deadly, and though most persons leave it for the hills from May to November, yet many, and amongst them the native officials, are able to live there the whole year round. 40. The management of the police in the interior of Kumaua is entrusted to the tahsildars, and the only establishments exclusively devoted to this duty are those already mentioned. The general Police Act is not in force in the Kumaun division, the police administration being guided by the principles of Regulation XX of 1817. In 1876 there were six cases of murder, one of robbery, four of burglary, eight of cattle theft, and ninety cages of common theft. Police. 29 Out of 679 &ases cognizable by the police, 643 cases were pro- secuted to conviction, including six cases of murder ; and out of property valued at Rs. 6,931 stolen during the year, property valued at Rs. 3,435 was recovered. Altogether crime is light, and any increase takes place chiefly in the cantonments of Naini Tál and Ránikhet during the season. 41. The trade of Kumaun may be described under two heads: first, that in the hands of the Bhotiyas with Trade. Tibet ; and secondly, that with the plains. 42. The Bhotiyas turn all their attention to the carrying trade between Händes and Kumaun, and the little cultivation that they undertake is en- tirely subservient to this their principal occupation. The Juhári Bhotiyas alone enjoy unrestricted commercial intercourse with Gartoh, where the great annual fair is held in September. The trade of the Mána Passis confined to Chaprang; of the Niti to Daba (called Dappa by the Bhotiyas of Niti) and to Gartoh for ponies, of the Dārma Passes to Kuinglang, and of the Byåns Passes to Takla Khar (or Taklakot), beyond which the Bhotiyas cannot pass without special license. Yaks, jabus, sheep and goats form the means by which the merchandise is carried. From Händes the principal articles of import are salt, borax, gold, wool, drugs, coarse precious stones, chaunrs' tails, ponies and animals for carriage for the trade, as yaks and goats, and coarse woollen cloths and Chinese silks. The principal exports are grain, cotton, and broad cloth, quilts, hardware, coral, pearls, tobacco, gúr and other preparations of sugar, spices, dyes, wooden cups for tea, a small quantity of Kumaun tea, and timber for house- building. The trade is an exclusive system of monopoly and restriction, which appears to have been originally established for the encouragement of local and particular interests, and is now pertinaciously adhered to, partly from a reverence for ancient forms, and partly through the influence of the Chinese power. The intercourse to which the Bhotiyas are admitted is considered as a measure of sufferance, and a formal permission is requisite for its annual renewal. During the official year 1876-77 the val of the imports by Lilam from Juhár amounted to Rs. 1,26,0 Tibetan trade. U163 00, 30 and that of the exports to Rs. 41,000, and by Relágar from Dárma and Byåns the imports were valued at Rs. 85,000, and the exports at Rs. 55,000. 43. In addition to the Tatar produce already mentioned, the Kumaun division supplies the plains marts with grain of all kinds, such as basmati rice, buck wheat and manduwa, and also ghi, tea, ginger, tur- meric, and red-pepper, of which vast quantities are grown in the southern parganas, cardamoms, caraway, chiraita, salajit, tejpat or the leaf of wild cinnamon, drugs, bhang, charas, hill paper, hempen cloth and ropes, the bark of the ilex oak for tanning, lichen and wild turmeric for colouring, jungle produce, including timber, bamboos, wax, honey, dried fruits, hawks, gum, catechu, Bhabar grass, ropes, mùnjgrass, &c. Of metals produced in the hills in 1869-70, about 155 maunds of iron, valued at ten rupees per maund, and five maunds of copper were sold at Haldwāni and Ramnagar. In 1869, 1,977 maunds of ganda biroza (lissa) were exported from Garhwäl, but this has since been stopped owing to the destruction caused to the chir forests by extracting it. It used to sell at about five seers the rupee. No article of commerce has undergone such a change as copper pice. In Mr. Traill's report it is stated 176 were equal in value to one rupee. Of late years these shapeless pice have been exported in large quantities to the plains; and, when very cheap, not more than eighty pice can be now bought for a rupee. The present price is sixty-six to seventy. Trade with plains. 44. The imports consist for the most part of European cotton goods, broad cloth, silk goods, and hardware ; sugar and its pre- parations, tobacco, spices, indigo, drugs, copper in sheets, iron, lead, brass utensils, kansa which is an alloy of copper and zinc, gold and silver lace, pearls, coral, salt, and gunpowder. Salt is imported from the Panjāb and Sambhar lakes. Lahori (Panjāb) salt is generally most esteemed, and is considerably whiter than the others. It averages from 2 to 3% seers per rupee in the Almora bazar, whereas the Bhotiya and Sambhar salts (of similar value) sell at from 4 to 6 seers per rupee, the fluctuations depending upon the amount available. The total 31 amount of Indian salt imported in 1869-70 appears from the local statements to have been about 21,000 maunds, but this is probably below the mark, as no mention of it is made in the Garhwäl returns. 45. There are no manufactures of any note in the division : * coarse kind of serge called pankhi is made in Kumaun, and bhangela, a hempen cloth, and hempen rope and bags in Garh- wal, which are exported to the amount of about 8 to 10,000 pieces yearly, value 12 to 20 annas each. The manufactures of wooden vessels, cups, mat-work, brass and copper are very insignificant, It may, however, be noticed that the Garhwāli goldsmith uses the spirit blow-pipe; this instrument is composed of iron and filled with spirits distilled from rice, and when used it is placed on a brazier of burning charcoal. 46. There can be no doubt but that trade has improved very much of late years in the Kumaun divi- sion. The establishment of the marts at Barmdeo, Haldwāni, Káládhángi, and Râmnagar in Kumaun, and Dharon, Kotdwāra, and Chaukighâta in Garhwäl, have aided much in its development, as well as the good roads now con- necting those places and the plains. The cart road from Rām- nagar to Almora should reduce the cost of hills and plains articles fully twenty per cent., the difference between the cost of cooly carriage and that by carts. The opening of the station of Ránikhet, in addition to the existing one at Naini Tál, has already in itself had a marked effect on the condition of the people in the southern parganas. Twenty years ago all Garhwális purchased their clothing, sugar, &c., at Srinagar ; now, owing to improved communications, they go in large numbers to all the marts at the foot of the hills, and also away into the plains, taking down hill produce for barter, and bringing back not only what is required for home consumption but also extra articles for trade. A class of pedlars and bankers also have sprung up, who go from village to village selling coarse cloths, beads, &c. There are now good roads to all the bill marts at the foot of the hills, and there is no doubt but that trade is rapidly developing, while the wants of the people are increasing. Progress made. 32 47. The three great markets of Almora, Ránikhet, and Naini Tāl alone consume more than the hills can supply, and at the two latter places there is a constant demand for labour, which is so remunerative that a man can pay the whole of his quota of the land-tax by carrying a load from Almora to Naini Tál and back, or by working a week at either of the European stations, or a fortnight on a tea plantation. The villages near Ránikhet can pay their revenue by the sale of their surplus chaff and straw, and milk, vegetables, and fruit are eagerly bought and have a good market. The great Bhotiya fairs at Bageswar in January and at Thal in April are the means of exchanging the produce of the lower hills for those of the Alpine valleys, and with Rām- nagar and Barmdeo are still the great outlets for the Tibetan trade. 48. The public revenue under the Rājas of Kumaun and Garhwál arose from duties on commerce, cultivation, mining, law proceedings, mak- ing ghí or clarified butter, grazing cattle, weaving, and the produce of land. All these dues, except the land-tax, mining royalties, and grazing dues, were given up by the British and a regular settlement of the land was made. These land assessments were at first temporary, but Batten's settlement in 1846 was for twenty years, and Beckett's settlement recently completed is intended to last for thirty years, after which a revision on equitable terms will take place. This last assessment was based on a regular survey of the terraced land, in which every field was demarcated and its quality and value recorded, with the result that a rate of Re. 1-3-11 per bisi (4,800 square yards) was imposed on the cultivated and Rs. 0-13-10 on the cultivated and culturable area, as compared with a rate on cultivation of Rs. 0-12-7 in Garhwál. The land revenue by this settlement has risen from Rs. 1,27,115 to Rs. 2,37,536 in 1876-77, reaching its maximum in 1887–88, at which sum it continues until the end of the settle- ment. Parganas Mahryári and Katoli, yielding a land revenue of Rs. 5,800 a year, with parganas Dasoli and Painkhanda in Garhwál, yielding a revenue of Rs. 3,585 a year, are dedicated to the maintenance of dispensaries on the pilgrim roads to Badrináth Revenue. 33 and Kedarnáth. Over 3,000 bisis, nominally assessed at a value of Rs. 3,412 a year, are held free of revenue by individuals, while 9,476 bisis, yielding Rs. 8,447 a year, are assigned in support of temples. Every village almost has its water-mill for grinding corn, on which a small tax of from Re. 1 to Rs. 3 per mill is levied, 49. Of the early history of Kumaun we know very little, but History. the few facts that have been recorded would lead us to believe that at a very early period these hills were inhabited by a distinct race, and that they were then the recognized home of the gods and an object of veneration to the Hindu tribes of the plains. The Pandavas are said to have retired here after the great battle of Kuruk- shetra, and the Kumaunis have transferred the site of the battle from the Jumna near Delhi to the valley of Lohaghat, where the river Lohávati ran red with the blood of the slain, while. Debi Dhāra was the place where the great game of chess was played, and the granite boulders lying there were the pawns used in the game. This localisation of the great story of the Hindus is not peculiar to Kumaun, as we have it also in Gorakhpur and Bun- delkhand. Ptolemy records that the upper valleys of the Jumna and Ganges were inhabited by a race called Xulindas, and that a great colony of hermits existed near the sources of the sacred river. We next have the travels of the Chinese H wen Thsang, who proceeded in the seventh century from the king- dom of Mandawar, lying in the north of the Bijnor district, to the kingdom of Brahmapura in the hills, and thence to the kingdom of Govisana, identified with Käshipur at the foot of the hills, but the true site of Brahmapura has not yet been satisfactorily estab. lished. The notice, however, shows that in the seventh century there existed in western Kumaun a recognized government with considerable pretensions to civilisation as then understood. 50. Tradition gives the name Katyura to the dynasty which was supplanted by the Chands. They are the earliest known to history to have reigned in Kumaun, and originally held Joshimath in the val- ley of the Alaknanda in Garhwál, whence they emigrated to Baijnáth in the Katyūr valley near Bageswar. The ruins of Raty dras. 34 imany old buildings are to be seen there, and there seems no reason for doubting that this was really the old capital of the country, and that the present pargana of Katyūr derives its name from the dynasty that reigned there. To the Katyūras are attributed the old temples, wells, and chabūtras which are so common in central Kumaun. How and when the power of the Katyūras began to decline there is little evidence to show, but their once extensive dominions seem to have been gradually broken up into a number of petty states until little remained to them but the tract around Katyār itself. The family of Chand, under which Kumaun was at length re-united into one state, first rose to importance in Káli Kumaun, the most eastern portion of the province bordering on the river Kāli and on the Doti district of Nepāl. The founder of this dynasty was Som Chand, a Chandrabansi or Sombansi Rajpit. He is said to have come from Jhusi near Allahabad into Káli Kumaun, where he married the daughter of the Katyńra Rāja of the country, called Sri Brahm Deo. With her he received as dowry the petty kingdom of Káli Kumaun, and established his seat of government at Cham- phâwat. Soºn Chand, 51. According to some authorities the change of dynasty hap- The Chand Rājas. pened in the twelfth century, but accord- ing to the genealogical lists of Kumaun the date of this occurrence is declared to be 757 Sambat, corres- ponding to 700 A.D. : a mean between the two dates will per- haps be nearest the truth. Vikram Chand, who lived in the begin- ning of the fifteenth century, is said to have been the thirty-fourth in succession from Som Chand, According to one of the cur- vent stories, Som Chand was the brother of the king of Kananj. On the death of the eighth Rāja of the Chand dynasty, by name Bina Chand, the Khasiyas are said to have “lifted up their heads,” to have expelled their Chand rulers from Cham- phâwat, and to have established the Khasiya rāj. The names of fourteen Khasiya Rājas are given, and they are stated to have ruled for about two hundred years in Kāli Kumaun, acknowledging, however, the supremacy of the Rája of Doti, as their Chand predecessors and successors are said also to have 35 done. The Khasiyas expelled the Brahmans and Rajputs from Káli Kumaun, a sign probably that this Khasiya rāj was the result of a national movement, not only against the foreign dynasty, but generally against the intruders from the plains. At length Bir Chand, one of the descendants of the former Chand Rájas, who was living in the Doti Tarái, determined to make an attempt to recover the country. He collected a force, attacked the Khasiyas, and killed their king Soupál, and estab- lished himself as Rāja in Káli Kumaun. This is said to have happened in A.D. 1065. Bír Chand recalled the Brahmans and Rájputs, and gave to them all the chief offices of the state. The possession of the Chand family, which was thus re-estab- lished at Champhâwat, went on gradually extending until the end of the fifteenth century, when Rāja Kirati Chand com- pleted the conquest of the greater part of Kumaun from the petty chiefs among whom it was divided. In 1563 A.D. Rāja, Bálo Kalyān Chand transferred the seat of government fron, Champhâwat to Almora, which has ever since remained the capital of the province. The son of this Rája was Rudr Chand. He was a contemporary of Akbar, and his visit to the emperor at Lahore in 1587 A.D. was recorded in characteristic terms by the Musalmán historian of the times:—“Neither he I] Ol' his ancestors (the curse of God on them () could ever have expected to speak face to face with an emperor.” Up to this time the ancient Katyura family is said to have retained its power in Katy ſir. The last of its Rājas, Sukhal Deo was killed by Rudr Chand, and Katyūr was annexed to the other possessions of the Chands. Shortly afterwards the Kumaun state, though harassed by frequent revolutions and petty wars with its neighbours in Garhwál and Doti, seems to have attain. ed the highest point of prosperity under the Chand dynasty. It comprehended the whole of the hill country, from the Kãli to the borders of Garhwál, and from Tibet to the borders of the present plains districts of Moradabad and Bareilly, including the Tarái district. x- 52. The rise of the Rohilla power in the first half of the eighteenth century not only disturbed the Rohilla invasions, - © * possessions, which had seldom been very 36 peaceable, of the Kumaun Rāja in the Tarái, but brought for the first time a Musalmán invasion of the hills. In 1744 A.D. Ali Muhammad Khān sent a force to invade Kumaun. The re- sistance of the Rāja Kalyān Chand was weak and ineffectual. The Rohillas captured and plundered Almora, and “though their stay in Kumaun was short, its ill results to the province are well and bitterly remembered, and its mischievous, though 2ealously religious, character is still attested by the noseless idols and trunkless elephants of some of the Kumaun temples.” The Rohillas remained in the hills for seven months, when, disgusted with the climate and the hardships that they were forced to suffer, they accepted a bribe of three lakhs of rupees and returned to the plains. But Ali Muhammad Khan was not satisfied with the conduct of his lieutenants, and three months after their retreat, at the commencement of 1745, the Rohillas returned. Their second invasion was less fortunate. They were defeated at the very entrance of the hills near Bara- kheri, and made no further attempt on Kumaun. These were the first and last Muhammadam invasions of these hills. The f)elhi emperors never exercised any direct authority in Kumaun, although it was necessary for the Rāja to admit their nominal supremacy for the sake of his possessions in the plains. These events were followed by disturbances and revolutions in Kumaun, and within the next thirty years the hill Rājas had lost all the country which they had held in the plains, except the strip of forest called the Bhábar, immediately at the foot of the hills. 53. We have now reached the time when the Chand dynasty, that had so long ruled in Kumaun, was finally to be destroyed. In the middle of the eighteenth century the Gārkha tribe, under their chief Prithi Narāyan, had made themselves masters of the most impor- tant part of the present kingdom of Nepāl. The successors of Prithi Narāyan carried on the conquests that had been thus com- menced, and in 1790 A.D. Rāja Ran Bahádur Sáh determined to attack Kumaun. The Gürkha forces crossed the Kāli under Chauntra Bahádur Sáh, Amar Singh Thápa, and other chiefs, and advanced upon Almora through Gangoli and Kāli Kumaun. They were completely successful. The titular Rāja of Kumaun The Gärkhas, 37 fled to the plains, and the whole of his country was annexed to the other conquests of the Gürkhas. In 1799 they invaded Garh- wäl. The Raja of that country was defeated and he himself killed, and pushing on their conquests, the Gurkhas had soon subdued the whole of the hill states as far as the Satlaj. 54. For twenty-four years the Gürkhas retained possession of Kumaun under the Gár. Kumaun. Their government was most khas. cruel and oppressive, and the reputation they earned for themselves will not for many generations be forgotten in Kumaun. Their tyranny has passed into a proverb, and at the present time, when a native of these hills wishes to protest in the strongest language in his power against some oppression to which he has been subjected, he exclaims that for him the Company's rule has ceased, and that of the Gürkhas has been restored. 55. For several years before the commencement of the Nepa- r e lese war in 1814, the Gürkhas had been The Nepāl war. making a series of petty encroachments on the British territories at the foot of the Himálayas. Most of these aggressions were without excuse, and being succeeded onl by weak remonstrances, or, still worse, demands, the fulfilment of which were either forgotten or not enforced, encouragement was given to further encroachments, until in 1812, when the conduct of the Gürkhas on the Gorakhpur and Tirhüt frontier became so outrageous that the attention of our Government was at last drawn to them. The Marquis of Hastings, in April, 1814, ordered the occupation of the disputed pargana of Butwal in the Gorakhpur district, and by November in the same year a general war broke out. As a part of the general movement, a body of irregular troops was assembled at Moradabad and Káshipur under Lieutenant-Colonel Gardner, whose brother, the Hon’ble E. Gardner, had civil charge of the force and di- rected the mode of its employment. In December, 1814, it was finally resolved to attempt to wrest Kumaun from the Gürkhas, and if the operations were successful to annex it to the British possessions, as there was no legitimate claimant on the part of the Chands then in existence. Harakdeo Joshi, the minister 38 of the last legitimate Chand Rāja of Kumaun, warmly espoused the British side, and lent his weighty aid to gather adherents to our cause within the hills. 56. At the end of January, 1815, everything was ready for the attack on Kumaun. The whole force consisted of 4,500 men with two six- pounder guns, and it was determined to send the main body under Colonel Gardner by Chilkiya direct on Almora, while a subsidiary force under Captain Hearsey was to move by Pili- bhit up the Kāli by the Timla Pass and cut off the communica- tions with Nepāl. On the 9th February 500 men were sent to Rudrpur to co-operate with the main column by advancing on Almora by the Bhim. Tål route, as soon as the main body ad- vanced sufficiently far to admit of their joining. The main body arrived at Dhikuli on the Kosi on the 15th February, and drove in a party of Gürkhas and captured a stockade. The stockades at Chukam, Kath-ke-nau, and Ukhaldhunga were evacuated at the approach of our troops, who eventually occupied a position near Kumpur (Ránikhet) opposite to a stockade recently erected by the Gūrkhas to oppose the march on Almora. For almost a month the forces remained encamped close to each other, both sides awaiting reinforcements, until operations recommenced by the occupation of Siyāhi Devi by the British force on the night of the 22nd March. This was a strategical movement intended to turn the flank of the Gūrkha stockade, and was entirely success- ful, as was shown by the retreat of the Gürkhas on Almora, after setting fire to their stockades on discovering that their posi- tion was threatened. The British force followed the same road, and on the 26th reached the village of Riáni, and on the 28th occupied the post of Katármal above Hávalbagh on the Kosi, whilst the enemy held the Sitoli heights on the other side of the river. March on Almora, 57. Nothing could have been more judicious than the manner in which Lieutenant-Colonel Gardner had carried on the whole of his opera- tions. It must, however, be admitted that the success of the British was brought about more by the weakness of the enemy Aid from the people. 39 than by any skill and courage of their own. There are no means of discovering the amount of the force which the Gūr- khas were able to bring against us in Kumaun, but it is proba- ble that the number of men actually opposed to us never ex- ceeded 1,500, and of these not much more than half were true Gūrkhas. By the time that Lieutenant-Colonel Gardner was fairly established in the hills, the greater part of the natives of Kumaun in the Gürkha service had deserted, and this loss it was quite impossible to supply by new levies, so that the whole available force could not have been more than 1,000 men. The greatest source of weakness to the Gūrkha cause was the uni- versal disaffection of the people of the country. Nothing could exceed the hatred which the tyranny and exactions of twenty- five years past had created, and no sooner had the British forces entered the hills than the inhabitants began to join our Camp and bring in supplies of provisions for the troops. The same causes made it easy for us to obtain information regarding every movement of the enemy, and gave us every facility for obtainin £ a knowledge of the localities of the country, a knowledge which in mountain warfare such as this, and in the absence of all trustworthy maps, was almost essential to success. We thus possessed every advantage which an invading force could desire, and the Gurkha chiefs appear to have been devoid of the ability and energy which might have helped them as it had helped others of their nation elsewhere to withstand the adverse circumstances under which they were placed. 58. While these events were passing in central Kumaun, Captain Hearsey was invading the pro- Vince on its eastern side, and his Opera- tions were at first attended with equal success. He left Pilibhít with a force of 1,500 men in February, and met little Opposition until he reached Champhâwat, the old capital of Kumaun. He was then directed to do all in his power to prevent the junction of a force which was being raised in Doti by Hastidal, the brother of Bam Sāh, who commanded at Almora, with the garrison at Almora. As a means to this end he patrolled the Kali and laid siege to the fort of Kotolgarh, but thus so broke up his force that when Hastidal did cross the river, Captain Hearsey had Hearsey defeated. 40 nºt proper means to resist him. He marched, however, with What force he had to Khilpati, where he met the Gārkhas and Yaº wounded and taken prisoner to Almora, his men having fled after a merely nominal resistance. The Bhim Tal expedi- tion merely occupied the forts of Barakheri and Chhakhāta- garhi, and took no further part in the operations. 59. Seeing the importance of the movement towards the occupation of Kumaun already commenc- ed, Lord Hastings deemed it wise to assist the irregular levies under Lieutenant-Colonel Gardner by the despatch of three regiments of native infantry and twelve guns. These were placed under the orders of Colonel J. Nicholls, who joined the camp at Katármal on the 8th April and assumed com- mand of the entire force, while the Hon’ble E. Gardner remained, as before, in charge of the civil affairs of the province, and the direction of the diplomatic transactions with the Gūrkha autho- rities. Negotiations were opened without result, and on the 22nd April Hastidal pushed forward with a portion of the Almora force to occupy Gananáth, an eminence about fifteen miles west of Almora in the valley of the Kosi. His design apparently was to hold this position as a means of communication with the Gūr- kha forces to the west, and above all to keep the expedition a secret. The movement was, however, soon discovered, and the British pursued without loss of time. A little to the south of the temple of Gananáth in one of the beautiful turfy glades among the pine-groves the Gürkha and British forces met. The contest was a short one. Hastidal was killed by a musket ball, and his fall was the signal for the flight of his followers. Attack on Gananáth. 60. Colonel Nicholls resolved to follow up this success, and on the 25th the British forces advanced to Attack on Almora. the attack on Almora. The main body of the Gūrkhas under Angad Sirdár was stationed a little above the village of Pándekhola in a position protected by stockades, on the ridge called Sitoli, about two miles west of Almora, and between it and the Kosi; a detachment under Chámu Bhandári held the Kálimatiya hill in order to protect the right flank of the position, while the remainder under Chauntra Bam Sāh occupied Almora itself. The British crossed the Kosi, and 41 advancing up the Sitoli ridge carried by assault one after the other four of the enemy's stone stockades and drove the defenders into Almora. On the night of the 25th the headquarters were established at Pokharkhāli, whilst the troops occupied Haridºri- gari. During the night Chámu's party from Kälimatiya, in conjunction with a sortie party from the fort, attacked the British position on Haridungari. Chámu's force was at first successful. They carried our most northerly post, though stockaded and de- fended by a picquet of a regular regiment, and it required the aid of a party of the flank battalion of the same regiment and a body of irregulars under Lieutenant-Colonel Gardner himself to recover the post, and even then the British succeeded not without a hard struggle. The enemy was finally repulsed on all points, though not without considerable loss on our side. Natives of Kumaun, who were present at the time, declare, however, and very probably with truth, that a considerable part of our loss on the occasion was due to the fire of our own men, in the confusion which was caused by the first successful attack of the Gūrkhas. Our loss in killed and wounded on the 25th amounted altogether to two hundred and eleven men. The next morning, the 26th April, 1815, the mortar batteries opened on the fort of Almora, and the fire continued till about 10 A.M., when the Chauntra sent a flag of truce to Colonel Nicholls, requesting a suspension of hostilities, and offering to treat for the evacuation of the province. Lieutenant-Colone! Gardner was deputed to hold a personal conference with Bam Sáh, and on the following day the negociation was brought to a close by the conclusion of a convention, under which the Gūr- khas agreed to evacuate the province and all its fortified places. It was stipulated that they should be allowed to retire across the Kāli with their guns, arms, military stores, and private property, the British providing them with the necessary supplies and carriage. As a pledge for the due fulfilment of the conditions the fort of Lälmandi (now fort Moira) was the same day surrendered to the British troops. Captain Hearsey, who had hitherto been imprisoned at Almora, was released at the same time. 42. 61. The Gürkhas were escorted across the Kāli by our troops, and the British took possession of Kumaun *nd Garhwál. The Hon’ble E. Gardner was the first Commissioner of Kumaun, and in August, 1817, he W 3 S succeeded by Mr. Traill, who had been his Assistant since May, 1815. Traill ruled absolutely in Kumaun until 1835. He was followed by Colonel Gowan and Mr. S. T. Lushington, under whom Mr. J. H. Batten carried out the first regular settlement of the Province, and in 1848 succeeded Mr. Lushington as Com- missioner. In 1856 Captain (now Major-General Sir Henry) Ramsay was appointed Commissioner, and still manages the affairs of Kumaun. Traill, Batten, and Ramsay are the names best known to the people as those of the men whose indefati- gable industry, talent, and zeal have brought Kumaun and Garh- wāl from a state of desolation scarcely paralleled elsewhere in India to a height of material prosperity and security never be- fore enjoyed by them. I close this short notice with an extract from Mr. P. Whalley's report on the laws of the non-regulation provinces:—“The administrative of history Kumaun divides itself naturally into three periods—Rumaun under Traill, Kumaun. under Batten, and Kumaun under Ramsay. The régime in the first period was essentially paternal, despotic, personal. It re- sisted the centralising tendencies which the policy of the Govern- ment had developed. It was at the same time, though arbitrary, a just, wise, and eminently progressive administration. Mr. Traill's incumbency terminated in 1835, and there followed an interval of wavering uncertainty and comparative misrule. The system of government,” as was observed by Mr. Bird, “ had been framed to suit the particular character and scope of one individual,” or, as he might have said, had been framed for himself by that individual. “Traill left the province orderly, prosperous, and comparatively civilized ; but this machinery was not easily worked by another hand. There was no law, and the lawgiver had been withdrawn. The Board of Commissioners and the Government, which had remained quiescent while the province was in the hands of an administrator of tried ability and equal to all emergencies, found it necessary to re-assert their control, and to lay down specific rules in matters that had hitherto been left to the judgment of the Commissioner. British administration. 43 “Mr. Batten was then only Assistant Commissioner of Garh- wál, but he was a man eminently qualified both by training and disposition to second the action of Government, and to as- sist in the inauguration of the new era. His talents had already been recognized, and from this period he was consulted in every step, and it was his influence, more than that of any single offi- cer, which gave its stamp and character to the period which is distinguished by his name. Its duration covered the years 1836-56. It was marked in its earlier stage by an influx of codes and rules and a predominancy of official supervision, which gradually subsided as Mr. Batten gained in influence, position, and experience. Thus the second period glided insensibly into the third, which, nevertheless, has a distinctive character of its own. In General Ramsay’s administration we see the two cur- rents blended, the personal sway and unhampered autocracy of the first era combining with the orderly procedure and obser- ance of fixed rules and principles which was the chief feature of the second.” NAINI TAL, E. T. ATKIN SON. The 31st August, 1877. 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Rºž - & ºf rº - - - --- º -- - - --- --- ºn lºmº - -- --" - -- __ --~~~~ - ------ º º º Nº. 3 Aſº º Tºº Nº º ly sºn - º A: sº --- - º - º I Zºº - - ºf ºf ºzºſº Sºº 4 º' - - - ***, *ſ--- sº -- -- º --- O º, º.º. - Fºsſ' 30 / §etunos * Q- - - - * *. - * * - > * ~...~...~ f ! 3 ---> --> • Patra, ºr " - REFERENCES - District, Boundaries are shewn thus – ...— ...— Parganah Do: Do: Do: ------- - Patti Do: Do: Do: - - - - - Patwaris Stations Do: Do: Báb, Scale 1 Inch = 6 Miles or sº lo 20 o Miles º 3. - ad 736 7586 - 800 | C. DYSON. Photo. - Prepared for Mr. E. T. Atkinson's Gazetteer, under the orders of Colonel J. T. Walker, R. E. F. R. S., &c. Superintendent of the Great Trigonometrical Survey of India, by Mr. G. W. E. Atkinson. The details are all taken from the Great Trigonometrical Survey of Garhwäl with the exception of the N. E. portion of Paikhanda Mallá Patti which is derived from the map of Kumaun and British Garhwal compiled in the Surveyor General's Office, Calcutta, in 1850, and from information supplied by Mr. E. T. Atkinson - The spelling of names is in accordance with a list supplied by Mr. E. T. Atkinson. -- Photozincographed at the ºffee of the Superintendent, Great Trigonometrical Survey, Dehra Dún, November 1875. - GARHºw AL GARHWAL, a district of the Kumaun division, in the North- Position and area Western Provinces, is bounded on the north by Chinese Tibet, on the west by the native state of Garhwál and the Dehra Dún district, on the south by the Bijnor district, and on the east by the Ku- maun district. It lies between north latitude 29° 26' 157 and 31° 5' 30", and east longitude 78° 18′ 457 and 80° 8' 0", with an area of 5,500 square miles, and a population in 1872 numbering 310,288 souls, or 56 to the square mile, comprising 308,398 Hindús, 1,799 Musalmāns, and 91 Christians. For administrative purposes this area is divided into 11 parganas, which are further subdivided into 86 pattis, and in 1874-75 yielded a land revenue of £9,558. The district comprises mountain ranges separated by nar- row valleys which are almost ravines (the broadest, at Srinagar, being barely half a mile wide, with an elevation of 1,820 feet above the level of the sea), and a narrow strip of Bhábar or waterless forest about two to three miles in breadth on the south, where it adjoins the Physical features. plains. The Alaknanda and its tributaries drain the entire district - and form the valleys. The course of the Alaknanda itself marks the great cen- tral line of lowest elevation, receiving rivers on either side, which in turn receive minor streams, and these again rills and rivulets, until the great dividing ridge is met which forms the watershed between the head waters of the Kāli or Ghágra system on the east and the Alaknanda or Ganges system on the Mountains. *For the greater portion of the notes on which this article has been based I am indebted to Captain Garstin, Assistant Commissioner. The article has been prepared to afford information required for the Imperial Gazetteer.—E. T. A. 2 west. The entire drainage of Garhwál proper flows into the Ganges. With the exception of parganas Bārahsyūn and Chaundkot, the entire district is thickly covered with forest, form- ing in many places an almost impenetrable jungle. To the north the mountains are a part of the great Himálayan chain, of which the principal peaks in this district are Tristil, 23,382 feet ; East Tristil, 22,342 feet; Nanda Devi, 25,661 feet; Dúnagiri, 23,181 feet; Kamet, 25,413 feet; Badrinath, 22,901 feet; Náli- kānta, 22,388 feet; and Kedarnath, 22,853 feet. From the main range to the north-west the slope inclines to the elevated plateau of Tibet, and the valley of the Săraswat or Bishnuganga rises gra- dually from 6,200 feet at the confluence of that river with the Dhauli to 18,000 feet at the Mána pass into Tibet. Between this valley and the valley of the Dhauli on the east is a ridge of great elevation, bounded by a peak having an altitude of 22,093 feet on the south and Kamet on the north. The Dhauli valley comes next, and leads to the Niti pass into Tibet, which has an elevation of 16,570 feet above the level of the sea. To the south of the main range the hills are spurs running from it, generally in a direction from north-east to south-west and parallel to each other, with cross spurs at intervals and occasional ridges of greater elevation, such as Tunganáth (12,071 feet), Dudu-ke-toli (10,188 feet), and Dobri (9,862 feet.) South of the river Nyār, however, the ranges run more parallel to the plains, and are no- where more than 7,500 feet above the level of the sea. Most of these hills are rugged and densely wooded up to between ten and eleven thousand feet, steep towards the ridges, somewhat flatter about the middle, and end in abrupt slopes towards the valleys. Along the larger rivers the hills usually present a gradual slope at their base, and end in a succession of narrow terraces or flats, which are all dry, and are also as a rule cultivated. The strip of Bhābar from Kotdwāra on the west to Bhamrauri on the east is separated from the plains by a continuation of the Siwálik range, which is crossed by numerous passes. The re- mainder of the southern boundary to the east and west of these points is entirely open to the plains. The Bhābar is but partially cultivated, and for the most part consists of forests of sál (Shorea robusta), Sissu (Dalbergia Sissu), and bambus. 3 The forests are of such extent and are so broken up by patches of cultivation that it would be useless to enumerate them. Generally the southern portion of the district is still covered with primeval forest. The largest forest tract in the centre of the district is the tiger-haunted jungle of Chandpur, which is still some 25 to 30 miles long by 12 to 15 miles broad. Year by year the jungle is encroached on by cultivation and people are encour- aged to settle by the grant of land at nominal rents. Hitherto the scanty population and the presence of wild animals have retarded the progress of reclamation, but these obstacles are gradually being removed, and a comparison of the state of cultivation in 1815 with that now existing shows a marvellous and steady increase in prosperity. Much of the forest land is now held by the Forest Department, and is rigidly conserved for the sake of the timber. Forests. As already noted, the Alaknanda with its tributaries mark Rivers the distinguishing physical features of vj W. C. J. Nº . the district and show the direction of the great valleys. This river is one of the sacred streams of India, and each of the places where it meets a consi- derable affluent (called prayaga or confluence) is esteemed holy and forms a station in the pilgrimage which all devout Hinduis make to Himáchal. The first confluence is at Bishnu- prayåg, where the waters of the Dhauli from the Niti pass unite with the waters of the Săraswat or Bishnuganga from the Mána pass and thence onwards to Deoprayág the stream is known as the Alaknanda. At Nandprayåg is received on the left bank the Nandakini, which drains the western slopes of Tristil. At Karnprayåg on the same bank is received the Pindar, which drains the southern and eastern slopes of the great Tristál group. At Rudrprayåg the Mandākini is received on the right bank and drains the entire tract along the southern slope of the Kedarnāth and Badrináth peaks. At Deoprayåg the Bhāgirathi joins the Alaknanda, and henceforward the united streams are known as the Ganges. The Bhāgirathi rises in the Native State of Garhwál from the Gangotri peak, 4 and though popularly considered the chief branch of the Ganges, is inferior in importance and volume to the Alaknanda. The only other important tributaries are the Nyār and Hiunal, which join the Ganges below Deoprayåg. The only river of any size in Garhwál which does not join the Ganges within the district is the Rāmganga, which rises near Lobha and flow- ing through Kumaun and the plains only reaches the Ganges in the Farukhabad district. All these rivers, owing to their great velocity and the existence of rocks, shoals and rapids, are useless for navigation ; several, however, are used for rafting timber. Wherever culturable land occurs near their beds they are used for irrigation, and are also made available for giving power to mills for grinding corn. The beds of all the rivers are hard rock and gravel with a little sand, and little erosion takes place. Srinagar, the only place in the district approaching a town, lies on the right bank of the Alaknanda. Diluvion, owing to sudden floods, takes place, but alluvion is not known. There are four small ferries on the Alaknanda, the boat being formed out of a hollowed log. On the rivers rising in the snowy range fords are rare, but all the other rivers are fordable except during heavy rain. Before the conquest one-half of the town of Sri- nagar was swept away by flood, and again in 1868 great loss occurred from a sudden rise in the Alaknanda. The only canals in the district are two small ones irrigating some 1,300 acres of Bhábar land near Kotdwāra, and the only lake of any consider- able size is Deori Täl, near Tunganāth, which is about 400 yards long by 250 yards wide. The nearest railway-station to Garhwál is at present that of Saháranpur, which is about 100 miles from Pauri. The district is well intersected by hill roads varying from 10 to 12 feet in width, nearly all of which are bridged. The total length of roads is 1,000 miles. The principal roads in a commercial point of view are, (1) that from Srinagar to Niti, 125 miles long, which serves the Bhotia and Tibet trade; (2) from Srinagar to Kotdwāra, 55 miles long, which serves the traffic with the plains ; (3) from Kainur to Râmna- gar, 40 miles long, which takes a considerable amount of hill Counmunications. à articles to the great trading mart." Râmnagar; and (4) from Pauri to Almora, which connects the head-quarters of the two districts, and also forms the Government postal line ; 99 miles of this road lie in Garhwál. There are also small marts along the foot of the hills, where fairs are held weekly; these are all accessible by roads from different parts of the interior. Very few new roads are now required, and attention is chiefly given to improving those that already exist. The passes through the Himalayas from Tibet to Garhwal are the Mána and Niti. The passes to the plains are the Bilasni, Bhori, Sigdhi, Choki, Kotdwāra, Pálpur, Babli and Kan- gra. Besides these there are many chor ghâts leading to indivi- dual villages and seldom used except by the neighbouring inhabi- tants. The roads here as in Kumaun are kept up by labour sup- plied by the landholders and covenanted for in their agreements with Government regarding the land-revenue supplemented by a Government grant. The climate of Garhwál for six months in the year, i. e., the rainy season and the months of January and February, is damp. For the remain- ing half of the year it is dry and bracing. But owing to the in- fluence of the natural features of the country there general statements regarding the climate are subject to great variations. Towards the Niti and Mána passes, where the Bhotias reside, there are no periodical rains, while in the hottest weather it is cool. In the portions bordering on and to the south of the snowy range it is always cool, but more moist, while on the rest of the hills the temperature varies, and in the valleys it is intensely hot and feverish during the hot weather and rains, and bitterly cold during the nights and mornings in the cold season, although warm in the day time. Under such circumstances the readings of the thermo- meter would be no criterion of the actual temperature. The average rainfall at Pauri is about 484 inches, and at Srinagar about 37.1 inches. - &D Climate. The wild animals found in the hills and in the forests at their base are noticed in the article KUMAUN. º During the year 1875 thirty-seven persons perished from the attacks of wild beasts, or died from snake bites. Animals. 6 A considerable trade in the skins of the rarer game birds, and those of the barhal or wild sheep and the musk deer used to be carried on, and even still exists, but owing to the reckless way in which birds were destroyed, and which rendered their total extinction not improbable, measures have recently been taken for their preservation, consequently the trade has somewhat de- creased. Musk deer are still eagerly sought for, and their pods fetch a high price, a heavy one selling at from ten to sixteen rupees. There is a breed of horned cattle indigenous to the hills known by their small and stout build and usually black or red color. As the people have become richer, they have purchased plains cattle, for crossing purposes and there is now a mixed breed in the greater portion of the district. Hill cattle sell for from eight to fifteen rupees each, and a pair of ploughing bullocks can be purchased for from twelve to twenty-five rupees. The people prefer small sized ones for ploughing, as owing to the narrowness of the fields, large bullocks do not work so well. In the Bhotia villages there is a breed called jabu which is described in the arti- cle KUMAUN DISTRICT. Hill sheep are small with wiry brownish grey wool. They are short tailed, and have large horns. They are not good for the table and are kept for the sake of their wool, out of which coarse blankets are made. Attempts are being made by the introduction of English and Tibetan rams to improve the breed, but the results are not yet perceivable. The hill goat is a small animal useless for milk-giving purposes, but kept in large numbers for food, and for offering up at religious ceremonies and festivals. The Bhotias and those hill men who trade with them use sheep and goats imported from the Chamba district as beasts of burden. Thousands of these are brought down yearly, but in order to keep the trade in their own hands, the Kangra people never bring either rams or ewes. Salt, borax, and grain are car- ried by these animals in two small bags called “phanchas” swung over the back, and kept on by a breast-band and crupper. They are driven only in the early morning, and never over six miles. A sheep carries from eight to twelve sers, and costs Rs. 3-8-0, while a goat usually carries from ten to sixteen sers, and costs from four to five rupees. Hill ponies are not indigenous, but are imported from Tibet, and only in Small numbers, into Garhwāl; a few 7 ponies are also brought from the Tarái. Buffaloes are kept in considerable numbers for milk and manure. Several minerals of economic value are found in Garhwäl. Copper and iron are the chief, but lead and a little silver are also found, and there are two sulphur springs. Asbestos of good quality has also been lately discovered. The copper mines, which lie chiefly in the Dhānpur and Nāgpur Pattis, used to be largely worked, but of late the shafts have been sunk so deep that the miners find it dangerous going into them, while the profits have become so small that agriculture pays them better. There is no doubt plenty of copper to be found, but it requires money and energy to get at it, as new shafts would have to be sunk. Iron is found in many parts of the district, but excepting at the Semalkhet mines in Lohba and in Bachhansylin, it is not of very good quality. The last named is famed for its hardness, and tools and other imple- ments are preferred when made of this iron. The lead mines are two in number, one of which is in the snowy range, but has been closed by a landslip, the other is not at present worked, as there is no demand for lead. The asbestos mine lately discovered is near the village of Ukhimath, but is too far inland to be useful. Asbestos is used by the people medicinally for wounds, also as wicks in oil lamps. Gold is washed in some of the rivers, but the return is very poor indeed; gold to the value of four annas a day being considered a good yield. • Minerals. Slates of good quality are found all over the district, and are universally used for roofing. Lime is found in large quantities. There are three distinct ranges of limestone hills, the first north of the Alaknanda in Nágpur, the second running from the Lohba Patti to the Pindar, and again to the Alaknanda in Patti Bachhansyûn and the third running parallel to the plains and south of th. Nyār river. There are also small patches of limestone else- Where, but not in such large quantities as in the abovementioned ranges. Stone of various kinds and suitable for building is found *Verywhere, and is always used for this purpose. The average Building materials. 8 price of the several metals per rupee is iron ten pounds; copper one pound, and lead three pounds. Lime sells at four annas a maund at the kiln, and stone at rupees one and a half to three rupees per 100 cubic feet, according to the distance it has to be transported. Slates vary greatly in price according to size, some are quarried as large as six to eight feet square, and these are greatly sought after, but the ordinary slate is about two feet square, and sells at ten rupees per hundred. The wood most commonly used for building purposes is deal made from the chir (Pinus longifolia). The people usually cut and transport it for themselves, and there is no fixed rate. The ordinary rate for planks cut by contract is rupees seventeen per hundred, measur- ing twelve feet long, one foot broad, and one inch thick. Deodar (Cedrus deodara) is in great demand where procurable, but it is very scarce. In Srinagar a great quantity of this wood floated down by the river in the rains has been used in building. Tün (Cedrela toona) also is greatly sought after and doors are chiefly made of it ; as the people do not consider a house properly built which has not door posts of this wood. Several kinds of fruits, both cultivated and wild, flourish in the hills, the principal varieties are as follows:—Cultivated—Peach (a) (); apri- cot, (zard-arú, chuárú and kusmãru); plums (ulecha and alſº buk- hdró); plantain (kelá); mango (4m); guava (amrūd); orange (narangi); lemon, (nimbu); lime (kāghazi-nimbu); citron (já- mira, mad kākarī); walnut (akhrot); pomegranate (andr, dórim); fig (timla, beru); raspberry (hisãlu) and a fruit called kāphal. In addition to the above the following English fruits are found at Pauri, where a nursery has been established with some success for spreading them in the district, apples of kinds, pears, cherries, and damsons. The wild fruits are—the cherry (padam puya); hazelnut (kapāsi); fig (timla); raspberry (hisalu and jogia hisã- lu); ground raspberry (ganda kåphal); blackberry (kaleri hisó- lu); strawberry (kiphalia bhyula); gooseberry (lepcha); currant (kalkaliya), and wild pear (mehal). A crabapple and a wild med- lar are also seen, but rarely. The hazelnut is only found bearing fruit in one strip of jungle in Painkhanda, about nine miles Fruits and trees. 9 south-east of Joshimath ; it bears every third year, and the fruit is gathered in large quantiies and sent to all parts of the district. Wild strawberries grow in quantities in all grass plots near the snow above 9,000 feet. The gooseberry and currant are only found inside the snowy range, both are very inferior to the culti- vated varieties though not badly flavored. Wild rhubarb of the red species grows in immense quantites in the snowy range at heights above 11,000 feet, and is of very good flavor. There is every reason to believe that English fruits would flourish in the hills, and as the people are getting anxious to obtain grafts, it is hoped that in a few years they may be found in all parts of the district. Though there are a great many varieties of forest trees in - these hills there are very few which afford - - valuable timber ; the most useful are the chir (Pinus longifolia), deodór (Cedrus deodara), and tân (Cedrela toona) of two kinds, the common one and the bastard tºn called dalla, the wood of which is of a much lighter color than that of the real tºn. Walnut wood is also prized, and a species of ash called kakura, which is hard and tough : the wood of the alder called atts, is used for making tea boxes, it is very light, but rather brittle, and has the appearance of satin wood. Of the coniferous trees with the exception of the two named before, the cypress alone is of any value, but it is scarce and the little that exists grows in inaccessible spots. The people towards the snows use the bark of the silver birch which grows in great quantities at high elevations, for writing on in lieu of paper, and also for packing with, as it can be peeled off the tree in layers as thin as verythin paper. Sál can hard- ly be said to be used by the hill people, to any great extent,except by a few villages lying near the sal forests, which are nearly all strictly preserved, but the people look on it as the wood of woods on ac- count of its durability. Sákin grows in considerable quantities in the low hot villages, but the trees are very stunted, and a straight piece of this timber of any length is unprocurable; it is used, on account of its great hardness and weight, for plough-shares. Forest trees. There has been a marked improvement in the condition and tº ºn - e. prospects of the Garhwál peasantry since çal l e - Fiscal history 1840, the date of Mr. Batten's settlement. 2 * 10 Extensive clearings have been effected, roads have been made, the number of wild beasts has been reduced, education has spread among the people, and they now freely resort to the Bhábar marts to exchange their produce, an occupation which formerly was left to middlemen. The following statement shows the land revenue and its incidence at four periods during the last 50 years:– Year. sº | “..."|Hºt Fºr bísig.1 pees. & RS. as." 1822 © & © gº gº tº 2,929 57,432 58,511 I 3 1824 e Q & & O & tº tº tº 76,340 66,361 0 1 4 T 840 •,• tº C G 4,103 89,653 68,682 0 12 1864 tº e & tº º tº 4,395 149,379 95,546 0 1 1 1875 a e Q & sº º 4,417 135,758 95,559 0 1 1; The area of 1824 includes 30,135 bisis of waste, and from the revenue of 1840 that of the Bhotia mahāls is excluded. The saddbart, or charitable assignments, amounting to Rs. 4,213 at the recent settlement for charitable purposes, were in 1850 placed under a local committee by whom the revenues are administered. From these funds seven dispensaries have been founded along the pilgrim road to Kedarnāth. Günth or temple lands amount to 8,078 bisis, of which the revenue is Rs. 7,139. The present settle- ment is practically a peasant settlement. In Garhwál revenue and rent are synonymous terms, and the great mass of the cultivators may be considered to be the proprietors of the small plots of land they hold, subject to the payment of the revenue plus the fee for collection payable to the Padhān (sadr-malguzar) or representa- tive of the village community in their engagements for the land revenue. The khayakar or hereditary tenant corresponds to 1See Garhwál Settlement Report (Allahabad, 1866.) The bisi as fixed by Traill is equal to 20 nális (12 X 20=240 yards) or 4,800 square yards, being only 40 square yards short of an acre. The nálí is further sub-divided into sixteenths or ann&S. : 11 the ‘maurási kadimi of the plains, and the sirthdn to the tenant- at-will. A patwāri (or village accountant) cess of four per cent. was imposed in 1864, and the patwāri's circles were re-arranged and rendered more com- pact. A dék or post-office cess of three per cent. in lieu of per- sonal service renders this branch of the service much more efficient as well as equally distributes the burthen and prevents unnecessary exactions on the part of peons and others engaged in laying daks. A school cess of three per cent. has also been imposed which will enable the inhabitants of every village to avail themselves of the rudiments of knowledge at least. The patwāri cess amounts to Rs. 5,578 and the post-office and school cesses to Rs. 3,238 each. Mr. Beckett made the existing settlement, which is based upon a regular village survey in which the maps show the smallest fields. The previous settlements subsequent to 1823 were based on the gross measurement-book, then formed which rather over estimated the area under cultivation at the time. The terraced land only was measured in 1864, and the old boundaries, as far as possible, retained. Water power for private mills was charged by private proprietors at the rate of one-sixteenth of the grain ground, and on these a royalty of one rupee per mill for those liable to interruption and two rupees per annum for those in constant work has been imposed. The tenure of land for the most part is that known as imper. fect pattidari, where each proprietor is answerable for the revenue assessed on his actual holding and for his share of that assessed on the common land. At the late settlement in 1864, some land in almost every village was made common, thus giving rise to this tenure, but owing to disputes regarding it, partitions are taking place in the majority of villages, and before long bhāyachóra, where possession is the measure of liability, will be the tenure of the district as it was when Mr. Batten made his settlement. In some few instances the descendants of the former Thokdārs and Sayánas, who were Cesses. Tenures. 12 frominal proprietors of numerous villages, have still retained the proprietorship. Where these descendants are few in number, they have divided the villages in whole amongst themselves, and their tenure may be considered zamíndāri, but they do not hold sir land i.e., land in their own cultivation as proprietors, and only re- ceive malikána or an allowance in lieu of proprietary right. In these villages the cultivators, called elsewhere khayakars, are almost sub-proprietors. They are conjointly answerable for the rent of the village. They can make their own arrangements for cultivating common or waste land, and can claim the holding of a tenant dying heirless. They pay 25 per cent on the Govern- ment demand as malikána, and this cannot be increased during the currency of the settlement. In all other villages tenants with permanent rights of occupancy called khayakars hold on certain defined terms. They pay a malikána of 20 per cent. on the Government demand to the proprietor, and their holding is hereditary in the direct male line, but they cannot alienate it. They may improve it as much as possible without rent being enhanced during the current settlement. Tenants-at-will are called sirthäns. No length of occupancy gives them a claim to become khayakars. They pay sometimes in money sometimes in kind. In the former instance two to three times the Govern- ment demand, in the latter one-third to one-fourth of the produce, and they are liable to ejection at the end of each agricultural year. Thokdārs in some places called Sayónas are the descendants of those persons who formerly farmed the Government demand of a certain number of villages. In the early days of our rule they held considerable power, but they abused it, and it was gradually taken out of their hands; they are now only bound to report heinous criminal offences occurring within their thokdārī. They used to receive dues of Several kinds, but these have all been commuted to money payment varying from three to ten per cent. on the Government demand, The number of proprietors registered at the late settlement is 31,118; while the Khayakars or hereditary tenants amount to 17,399, and the sirthdºns or tenants-at-will to 11,703. Padhān is the term used to denote the person who engages direct for the revenue on behalf of the 13 village community, and represents the Lumberdar and Sadr-maſ- guzăr of the plains districts. The office of Padhān is hereditary except in special cases, when from the son of the former Padhān having been a child at his father's death, a relative had been appointed to the duty, that man's possession was not disturbed at the recent settlement, but it was declared that on the occurrence of a vacancy the succession may revert. The Thokdārs and Sayānas in the exercise of their police functions were found to be in the habit of taking bribes to let off a criminal, so that in 1856 on the joint recommendation of the Senior Assistants in both districts of the Kumaun Division, they were relieved of all police duties. Agriculture is carried on with considerable skill and great labour. The implements used are a light wooden plough, which does not penetrate more than four inches into the ground, and two harrows, one peculiarly for harrowing and the other also for pounding the earth. For weeding, a kūtla alone is used. The plough is drawn by a pair of small bullocks and the soil is usually turned up two or three times, after which the harrow is drawn over it, and it is pulverised. Manure is used as largely as it is procurable, and is of two kinds ; that of animals mixed with leaves, and that pro- cured from the ashes of burned jungle. Common rice and sathſ millet and mandwa are always harrowed once when the plants have attained three or four inches in height. The rabi crops are usually cleaned once, but the kharff crops, notably rice, are oonstantly cleaned. When the very steep nature of the country is considered, it is wonderful how the people have been able to terrace it in the way they have, seeing that in places the fields formed are not three yards wide. The principal grains exported are rice, wheat, barley and buck-wheat. The three former are taken by the Bhotias into Tibet, while the last with til, pepper, turmeric, cardamoms, ginger and potatoes, in small quantities are taken to the plains. Very little grain is imported, the country producing sufficient for the wants of its inhabitants. Since our rule commenced the cultivated area has doubled at least. At the expiration of the 20 years settlement in 1840, Agriculture. 14 it was found to have increased 66 per cert, while since the cur- rency of the present settlement, owing to enhanced rents and the effects of the famine of 1868-69, the cultivated area has in many villages increased by one-fourth, and it is yearly increas- ing, as there is still a large margin of culturable but uncultivated land in almost every village. Within three years 93 new villages have been applied for and settled. Considering the great increase of the land-revenue (39 per cent. on the for- mer demand and the occurrence of several bad seasons, there has not been any marked change in proprietary rights. In some villages where there was a large amount of common land the community have given or sold portions to tenants, and there have been some private sales. The old families of Thokdārs have, owing to our system, become impoverished, and have now very little influence, but there never have been and never will be any rich proprietors in Garhwál. The average revenue paid by them is from Rs. 3 to 5 per annum ; while a man holding land paying a revenue of Rs. 15 a year is considered a large proprietor. The agricultural class is composed of all castes; from high Brahmans down to Dúms all handle the plough, and Brahmans do not consider it at all derogatory to do so. There has been no change in the distribution of the population of the district of late years. It is, as it always has been, exclusively agricultural. There are no old towns nor any new centres-forming to attract the people from their hereditary pursuits, nor does there seem any likelihood of the occurrence of such a change. The consequence is that the rural population increases in a greater proportion than the urban. Every village has its panchâyat or local committee, consisting usually of the Padhān and one or more of the influential proprietors. They decide petty disputes and common questions, they also apportion any common receipts or expenses which are usually divided according to shares. When any important matter, such as the expulsion of one of the commu- nity from the caste, has to be decided, the whole village, aided by the Thokdār, if there be one, and some influential men from the neighbouring villages sit in conclave. These panchâyats, Village communities. 15 however, have not the influence that they possessed in former days a change which is apparently due to the facility with which access may be had to our courts and to the fact that the people themselves have become more intelligent and do not place trust in the decisions of their panchâyats. The Dúms perform all the offices of village menials and get certain dues from the residents. One of them is always the pāhri or watchman, though he has very little watchman work to do, being chiefly employed in carrying messages and reports for the headman (Padhān). There is also a sweeper in each village for sanitary purposes, who gets paid two sers of grain from each crop per family for his labour. The old local officers of most repute and influence were the Sayānas or Thokdārs des- cribed before. These were answerable for the revenue of certain tracts or had other powers chiefly judicial. They were, before our rule commenced, all powerful within their thokddris and were seldom interfered with. Since we took over the district, their power has been gradually lessened, and their duties are now almost nominal. Chaudhris are unknown in Garhwál. There is no trade of impor- tance or with a sufficient number of members engaged in it to call for the appointment of these officials. Patwāris are quite a distinct class from those bearing the same name in the plains. Here they are both fiscal and judicial officers; and each has one or more pattis embracing tracts of various extent under his charge. One or two of these tracts are 60 miles long with a breadinor from 15 to 30 miles. The number of villages under one patwari varies from 70 to 100. They have to report everything of im- portance occurring in their pattis, they collect the Government revenue, and are, also, registrars of life statistics. They are paid by Government, chiefly from a cess of 4 per cent. on the land revenue. Every patwāri is expected to become acquainted with surveyor's work, and is occasionally employed to measure land when any dispute arises. Village menials. Old local officers. The staple food of the lower classes is mandica (Eleusine corocana) which they vary with junjera. Food and its price. Q or kauni and other common grains. Rice 16 and wheat are only eaten by them on festive occasions. In ordinary seasons the price of food per diem of the several classes of inhabitants is as follows:—Lowest classes, half a ser of mandwa, one-third of an anna ; half a ser of kauni or junjera (the same); vegetables, dél, salt, oil, wood, seven pie, or a total of 1+ annas. Petty traders and the better class of agriculturists substi- tute red wheat and inferior rice of the same quantity at a cost of about two annas, while the better classes of traders and well-to- do persons add clarified butter and milk, which cost about 3} annas a day. Officials and the higher classes use the flour of white wheat and good rice, both of which are much dearer. - During the last few years there has been but little change Improvement in staple or improvement in the staple crops crops. grown. These are still wheat, rice, and mandwa, and are the same as were chiefly grown twenty years ago. There is a little more wheat grown than used to be, as a greater demand for this cereal has sprung up. The most marked improvement is that the people having grown richer, are able to keep more cattle and put more manure on their land than they could formerly. Cotton is rarely sown, as it does not give a produce sufficient to yield a profit and the people can purchase it elsewhere at a cheaper rate than they can grow it themselves. The chief object to be aimed at now is to grow a sufficient quan- tity of food-grains to meet the demands of the Bhotias and the tea plantations. The staple crop in Garhwál is mandwa, which forms the chief food of the agricultural and poorer classes. It gives a greater yield than other crops and also increases in bulk when ground, and on these accounts is in more general use, for in itself it is a poor and very coarse food-grain. It has but one name from the time it is sown till it is threshed out, when it is ground and made into unleavened bread, or into a kind of porridge called bari. It is also manufactured into a kind of liquor called ‘dāru.’ The ordinary price of the grain is from 30 to 40 sers per rupee, while the liquor sells at from three to six annas per bottle accord- ing to its strength. Cotton. The staple crop, mandwa. 17 There is abundant uncultivated pasture land ; in parts ex- tending for several marches along ranges of hills without a single intervening patch of cultivation. Towards the snowy range up to heights of fourteen thousand feet, there are magnificent pastures, where large herds of goats and sheep with a few ponies and cattle graze during the rains. In the Düns and Bhábar at the foot of the hills there is unlimited grazing land, but it is all preserved by the Forest Department, who allow very few cattle to enter, and levy dues on those that do enter. It is impossible to give the extent or situation of the pasturelands, as with few exceptions they exist in every parganah and form the greater portion of the district. Beyond enabling the people to keep larger herds of cattle, and thus improve their cultivated land, no di- rect benefit is derived from them. There are no people in this district who live solely by pasturing cattle ; indeed there are no persons who possess large herds of cattle. But large herds come for grazing from the western parganahs of Kumaun, where there is scarcely any pasture land. Pasture lands. In Garhwál, under the terms cultivators and peasantry are Cultivators and their included not only tenants, but almost all status. proprietors of land. The chief cultiva- tors are the petty proprietors, and there are very few of this class who do not cultivate their own land. Next in numbers and importance come tenants with permanent rights called khayakare, and lastly tenants-at-will or strthdns. Speaking generally, all are well-to-do. They can all make enough from their land to pay the rent, and keep themselves and their families in food and clothing, and even to put by money. The proof of their being well off is that it is a most difficult matter to procure free labour, the fact being that the people do not require to work at any extra occupation to support themselves. Tenants with permanent rights, as before described, have their land on terms little inferior to those of a proprietor, and frequently they are far better off than the proprietor himself. Indeed the worst off of this last class are those who have most of their land held by permanent tenants, who only pay them a small malikána. Te- nants-at-will are chiefly small proprietors and khayakars, who have 3 18 not sufficient land for their own wants; or the menials of the vil- lage. Of late years everything has, in spite of indifferent seasons, been in favour of the cultivating community. The price of grain has risen greatly, and does not seem at all likely to fall to any great extent. Many marts for the sale of agricultural produce have arisen ; and the assessment of the land revenue is light, and cannot be raised for a number of years. A cultivator having six to eight acres of land is held to have a large holding ; an average one is from two to four acres; while there are some so small as from one-quarter to one-half an acre. The prevailing custom of dividing all immoveable property equally amongst the sons, together with the tenacity with which hill men cling to their hereditary landed property, has had, and still must have, the effect of diminishing the size and multiplying the number of holdings. But there is no doubt that these influences have also caused the large increase in the cultivated area, and as there is still plenty of waste land, they are not likely to have any prejudicial effect on the people for a long time to come. A single plough in this district is supposed to cultivate three acres of land. The imple- ments and cattle required in aid are worth about sixty rupees. A holding of five acres in extent would require two ploughs, and after deducting all expenses, it ought, in an average season, to bring in eighty rupees profits : or something like seven rupees a month. The peasantry are not, as a rule, in debt: when they are so, it has generally been incurred in procuring wives for them- selves and their sons, or in purchasing or redeeming some here- ditary land to prevent an outsider getting it. The proportion of proprietors including co-sharers, to permanent tenants, and ten- ants-at-will, is as 2% to 1 of the former, and 4 to 1 of the latter, while there are three permanent tenants to two tenants-at-will. There is no such thing as a landless unskilled labourer in this district. Every man, who has no land, has some distinct occupa- tion, indeed many artisans such as Smiths and tailors combine their trade with cultivation. Women and children are largely employed in field labour, but they work for their own families alone and not for wages. The women do the greater portion of the agricultural Holdings. 19 work, in fact everything but ploughing and sowing. Children also are employed in weeding and reaping,but chiefly in tending cattle. In assessing the demand in 1822, 1824 and 1840, no distinc- tion was made in the kinds of soil. Tak- ing into consideration that the measure- ments were made by guess, “nazar andazi,” the rates per bisa— forty square yards less than an acre and the standard measure to this time—were as follows:–in 1822, nineteen annas; in 1824, fourteen annas; and in 1840, twelve annas. At the late settle- ment, completed in 1864, the land was properly measured, and as there were a great number of varieties of soil, for sim- plicity they were divided into three kinds :—irrigated; unirri. gated, first quality; and unirrigated, second quality. In fixing the rate on these, the unirrigated first quality was assessed one third higher, and the irrigated at twice as much as the unirrigated, second quality. The average rate per bisa on the whole district was eleven annas. Irrigated land is chiefly cultivated with the better kinds of rice, wheat and tobacco, and though it generally produces good crops, and they can rarely fail owing to the unfail- ing water supply, still it has to be left fallow oftener than the other kinds of soil. Unirrigated first quality is the most useful soil; it produces every thing except tobacco, and the better kinds of rice ; and its productive powers are often not inferior to that of irrigated land, while it has to be left fallow, but every fourth season, still the crops are always liable to damage by drought, and where manure is not freely given, the soil becomes poor and un- productive. Unirrigated second quality consists of the small fields (khets) on the edges of the better land, or where the hill side is very steep and stony ; it is generally sown with barley and the several millets and buck-wheat. If manured a little, or after the land has been left fallow, it gives a fair return in a fa- vorable season ; but in a bad season, it hardly repays the labour expended on it. Soils. There is one other kind of cultivation called khil or kandala, Temporary or a khil " meaning temporary cultivation ; for this cultivation. the people cut down a strip of jungle on 20 the hill side, burn the felled timber on it, take one or two crops off it, and then leave it waste for ten years. They usually sow the hardier kinds of grain, such as buck-wheat, amaranthus, and mandwa on such land ; but in parts near the plains, til is also sown and yields largely ; this land is of course unassessed. Rents are generally paid in money: prior to the current settle- ment, a large proportion, notably those - assessed on temple lands, were paid in kind, but almost all have now been commuted for cash. The only tenants who now commonly pay in kind are tenants-at- will. The rate varies from one-third to one-fourth of the crop realized, but it is usually the latter. Manuring is largely practised, the people procure manure from their own cattle sheds, and by bringing leaves from the jungles ; it cannot be purchased and costs them nothing beyond the labour. Irri- gation is practised in all the low valleys, and where water is easily procured. The only labour is the making of the water channel, and this is given by the whole village community, so that irriga- tion really costs very little. In the Bhābar khám estate, where Government has paid for making the small canals, the water rate is two annas per kuchcha bigha, or twelve annas per acre. Lands are usually left fallow after three crops have been taken off them : but only for one season. This even is not always done, as after a bad season the people cultivate all they can for the follow- ing crop. The rotation of crops is as follows: first rice, then wheat, and lastly mandwa : after which the land is left fallow till the next rice crop. This system is seldom varied except by substituting barley for wheat, and some other millet or a pulse for mandwa. The lands of a village are always divided into two sárhs, one called the wheat sérh, the other the rice sarh, and these are changed every second year. Though there is an immense amount of waste land in Garhwäl, it may be held that almost all tracts having - an elevation exceeding 8,000 feet above the level of the sea are useless except for pasture, while a great portion of their area is too preci pitous even for grazing. There are Rents how paid. IRotation of crops. Waste land. 21 very few villages so high as 8,000 feet, while for tea planting it is considered that, though the flavor of the tea may be finer, plants grown above 6,500 feet do not give produce sufficient to yield a remunerative profit. Many planters have purchased land at a greater elevation but they have come to the conclusion that it was a waste of money. For tea plantations too, intending settlers have other points to look to in taking up land. Land destined for a tea-garden should have easy and near communication to the plains : should be near a populous district ; should have a favourable aspect and a good water supply and timber for fuel and boxes and grazing land should be available in the vicinity as the cost of carriage of timber alone would amount to a consider- able sum. There are not many plots of waste land which supply all these requirements while some which have them, are for reasons, to be hereafter noted, unattainable. There are numerous places however which would suit a sheep or cattle breeder, whose only difficulty would be wild animals, while this is one that might easily be overcome. There are stretches of jungle which would afford pasturage to thousands of sheep, where water is abundant, and the climate cool and healthy ; and now that European troops are stationed in these hills, sheep breeding ought to prove remunerative. Some of the waste lands are being taken up for villages, but as hill men are averse to settling far from their fellows, and only extend cultivation by small degrees as their num- bers increase, it must be many years before the area of useful waste shews visible signs of decrease. Under the village tenure which we found obtaining when we took possession of the hills, each village had a certain defined boundary, extending in many instances for miles and miles into dense jungles, and to the tops of high ridges. These boundaries have never been altered by us, and though Government is the absolute lord of the soil and has reserved to itself certain rights beyond the cultivated and mea- sured area, there is some difficulty in dealing with land, though waste, within a village boundary. For the people adhere tena- ciously to their old boundaries and look upon any attempt to abridge them as an interference with their rights, and on any Waste for grazing. 22 one who steps in as an enemy and interloper. This feeling has caused much annoyance to and disputes with planters, who cannot understand the community of grazing rights existing amongst the people around them, as all grazing lands, except when mea- sured, are common. This question has not, up to the present, given much trouble, but as cattle increase, it will be a source of dispute and will have to be provided for. During the hot weather and rains, many of the pasture lands, furthest removed from all habitation, are used for feeding herds of buffaloes and cattle which are driven up there, and housed in rough huts made of branches thinly roofed with grass. These places are called “kharaks,” and the same spot will be used year after year by one herd. A few men attend on each herd, and they collect the milk, and turn it into ghi or clarified butter for future sale. It has never been thought worth while to levy any grazing fees, indeed the expense of levying would almost equal the receipts, while it would also be interfering with an old established right. Still there is ample room for persons who would wish to rent farms for sheep or cattle breeding. The most extensive waste lands lie on either side of the Düdü-ke-toli range, the Badhangarh range, and in pattis Cha- prakot, Chauthan Iriakot and also in the Dhānpur range. In all these places there are large tracts of waste land, though not many fit for tea plantations owing to their distance from the plains. Mr. Beckett, in his Garhwál settlement report (1865), gives a list of sites available for tea plantations. The crops produced in the district are usually sufficient for its wants, but little is left for export. Indeed none is exported, except wheat, which the Bhotias carry into Tibet. Coin is accu- mulating, but not so much from trade as from carrying and supplying the wants of the thousands of pilgrims, who come yearly to visit the shrines of Badrináth and Kedarnáth. The planters too have spent large sums of money in cultivating tea ; a great por- tion of this money is expended in purchasing wives, and building better dwelling houses. Some is turned into ornaments, but very little is expended in improving the land, except by purchasing cattle, the number of which is yearly increasing. Coin and interest. 23 The ordinary rate of interest is 25 per cent, but in addition thereto, a certain sum, usually 5 per cent., of the money is deducted at the time of łending it; this is called ghant kholdi, so that in reality the rate of interest is much higher than that nominally taken. Pawning is hardly known and very seldom practised. Mortgages of moveable property are infrequent, and the same rate of interest is taken as on money. Mortgages of immoveable property are common. They are of two descriptions ; one, when pos- session of the property is given to the mortgagee and no interest is charged ; the other, where the land is merely security for the debt, and interest is charged at the usual rates. Land is hardly ever purchased as an investment, but merely to satisfy the craving that all hill men have to become proprietors. Rates of interest. The administration of the district is entrusted to an Assistant Commissioner, who resides at Pauri, and has criminal and revenue jurisdiction. He is now a military officer in civil employ, and is assisted in his work by a tahsildár, who resides at Srinagar. The latter place is also the head-quarters of the native Civil Judge. There is no regular police except at head-quarters, and there is little crime of any kind. The revenue laws of the plains districts are not in force here, and the existing laws and customs are much more fa- vourable to the tenant than those which obtain in the plains. The rules of procedure in revenue cases are very simple, and as the tenures are well defined and permanent tenants cannot be ousted during the currency of a settlement, except for default, there is very little litigation between this class and the proprietors. Te- nants-at-will can always be ousted at the end of the agricultural year, and thus any quarrel is avoided. Considering the large number of rent-payers, there are very few suits for rent. The principal litigation arises between sharers in the proprietary right for possession and for partition. All long-term prisoners are sent to the Almora Jail, and there is merely a lock-up at Pauri, the head-quarters. Administration. 24 The average death-rate per one thousand of the population has been nineteen for the last eight years. In 1875, in the 4,023 villages in the dis- trict, 8,750 deaths were registered, or 20:21 per thousand. Of these deaths 587 were due to cholera, a number far above the average ; 16 were due to small-pox ; 2,769 to fevers; 2,376 to bowel complaints; 285 to injuries, suicides and accidents; and 2,335 to all other causes. There were 35,085 vaccine operations during the year 1875-76, of which 26,662 were Successful, the result of 1,300 was unknown, and 7,123 were unsuccessful. There are dispensaries at Pauri, Srinagar, Mahal Chauri, Karn- prayåg, Ukhimath, Chimoli, and Joshimath, and during the same year 7,710 patients were treated, of whom 6,290 were cured, 73 died, and 45 remained at the close of the year. These dispensa- ries cost Rs. 7,482, of which Rs. 7,142 were defra yed from local sources, and Rs. 600 by Government. Small-pox formerly ra- vaged the district, but owing to the admirable arrangements made of late years, what was once an annually recurring scourge, is now practically unknown. The year 1877 has been marked by a recurrence of the mahámari or plague but as yet the progress of the disease has not been marked in Garhwál. Medical statistics. The present wages of an ordinary coolie is two annas per diem. Up to about 1850 it was six pice. While up to 1864, coolies employed to carry loads along the roads for Government officials were only paid two annas a march, they now receive four annas. There is no such person as an agricultural day-labourer in Garhwál. Smiths, brasiers and carpenters up to 1850 used to get two to three annas a-day, according to the quality of their labour, while they are now paid three to six annas per diem. Wages, &c. The hills are never subject to disastrous floods. Here and F 1 o o d s, b light S, there in the rains damage is sometimes droughts. done to small portions of land, but it is never serious. Blights and droughts occasionally occur, but these never affect the whole district at once. Blight generally attacks the crops in the low villages and shrivels up the grain, rendering 25 it light, though rarely unfit for food. Droughts also occasionally occur, but as there are high ranges of hills through the district which attract the clouds and bring them to the villages in their vicinity, the drought is never general, although it may extend to so large a portion of the district as to render its effects felt all over it. The last great drought was in 1867, when the rabi crops of all the lower and most fertile half of the district almost entirely failed. Government advanced Rs 10,000, and grain was purchased in the Bhābar and carried up by the people themselves to certain centres where it was sold. There was no great scarcity of money at the time, so that the majority of purchasers paid ready money, a few giving labour in exchange for food. This famine was only temporary, as the kharif crops of the same year were excellent. In the great famine of 1868-69-70 the district suffered very little, and was in the end a gainer, for measures were taken to prevent the export of grain, while the ingress of pilgrims was forbidden; and as the crop in 1869 turned out better than was expected, when export was permitted in the cold season of 1869–70 the people sold large quantities of grain at very high rates to the people of the Bijnor district. This last famine also acted as an incentive to them to increase cultivation. It not unfrequently happens that the crops are damaged by an excessive fall of rain which rots the wheat, and if in the rains prevents the ears of rice and millet filling. In 1872, the people suffered somewhat from this cause. Want of carriage is the great difficulty in relieving famines in the hills, for they can only draw their supplies from the Bhābar and adjacent plain districts, and to reach these places a very hot and malarious jungle has to be passed. When wheat sells at eight sers and mandwa at ten sers for the rupee, we may feel sure that famine prevails. Much has been done by General Sir H. Ramsay to prevent the recurrence of famine by his settlements in the Kumaun Bhābar, where the land is excellent and wellirrigated, but the capacities of the Garhwál Bhābar in this direction are not so good. There are six and a half miles of canals in Garhwāl, and, in addition, the people everywhere make use of the large water supply available by turning small channels from the streams to every place which the limited means for cutting 4 26 and levelling at their disposal will allow them. As irrigation chiefly takes place in low and damp situations devoted to the cul- tivation of rice, it must increase the unhealthiness of the climate and though the natural drainage of the country does lessen its ill effects, they are plainly visible in the appearance of the inhabi- tants of villages where irrigation abounds. The only industries carried on under European supervision are the several tea estates. They employ rºº about 400 permanent and 600 short ser– vice labourers. The latter being employed during the tea picking season. The annual expenditure on these estates amounts to about Rs. 45,000. Formerly it was larger, but the planters have learned to economise labour, and some estates have had to reduce expenditure, for with the exception of one estate none have yet yielded a fair profit, and that one has only lately begun to do so. There are no large banking establishments. The richest money lender in the district does not own Rs. 15,000, and the average wealth of this class does not exceed five to seven hundred rupees. The people never lend amongst themselves largely without taking bonds or charging interest. The Bhotias are the largest borrowers, as they are very reckless and impro- vident, and from their being for the most part uneducated, they are greatly imposed upon by their creditors. There are no written records procurable by which to trace back the history of Garhwál, and it can only be gathered partly from tradition, and partly from conjecture. It is a known fact that some five centuries ago Garhwál was split up into 52 petty chieftainships, each chief having a garh or fort of his own, many of which are still in exis- tence. Some say that this gave rise to the name of the district. Garh-wól, the ‘land of forts.” Others with more probability derive the name from ‘gadh' or ‘garh, a stream, and explain the name as the ‘land of streams.” Between four and five centuries ago Ajaipál, chief of Chandpur, reduced all these petty chiefs, and bringing their territories under himself, formed the kingdom of Garhwál. He became the founder of the Chand dynasty, having History. 27 Srinagar for his chief city, where he built a palace, the ruins of which are still in tolerable preservation. The Rajas of this line ruled over the district, in which was included the territory now known as the Native State of Garhwál or Tehri till they were ousted by the Gürkhas. The succession seems to have been almost un- interruptedly hereditary. They first added the affix ‘Pál’ to their names, then that of ‘Deb,” and finally that of “Sóh,’ which title as Rajas of Tehri they still bear. One of the line, Pritambar or Pritam Sáh, was chosen Raja of Kumaun, but on his father's death he preferred ruling in Garhwál to the uncertain tenure of the Ku- maun throne, which rested chiefly with the party in power at Almora. The Rajas of this line are said to have on the whole ruled justly, and the country was in a fairly prosperous state under them. They had twice to repel an invasion of the Rohillas, once when those raiders came in through Kumaun, and once when they attempted to enter the hills by Dehra Dún : on both occasions the invaders were turned back. There was always a constant feud with the people of Kumaun, each party making forays into the other's country when opportunity offered, and plundering all that came in their way, and to this day there is a slumbering hatred between the inhabitants of the two districts. The Gürkhas did not conquer Garhwál until 1803 when Pri- dhiman Sáh was Raja and they held their conquest only until 1815, when they were expelled by the British. The then Raja fled to the plains, but on our conquering the country was given the Tehri territory which his grandson Partāb Sáh now holds. During the short period the Gürkhas held power, they utterly impoverished the country by their exactions and tyranny. They divided the district into a number of petty military commands,and each commandant made all he could in excess of the Government demand. The consequence was that villages were left waste, the inhabitants fled into the densest and most impenetrablejungles, and to this day the Gürkhas are hated by the people and their name is held up as a synonym of all that is cruel and tyrannical. It took years of our rule to enable the people to recover the effects of this invasion, which threw them back at least a quarter of a century. The Gürkhas. 28 Of the races and castes who inhabit the district, very little is known. They cannot, with a very few ex- ceptions, tell when they settled in it, or where they came from, and on this point a great deal must be pure conjecture. There are, however, three distinct races, first, the Dúms; second, the Khasiyas ; third, the higher class Brah- mans and Rájputts, and they appear to have settled in the country in the same order. The Dúms seem to be the descendants of the original inhabitants, and Mr. Traill in his notice of Garhwál ap- parently comes to the same conclusion. They now form the me- nial class, and in features, manners, habits and religion, differ totally from all the other castes by whom they were brought into bondage when their country was conquered. The Khasiyas evident- ly came from the plains of Hindustán, but their immigration took place so long ago that they cannot tell when they came or where they came from. They comprise many castes of Brahmans, lùj- púts, &c., but are regarded by the orthodox castes as Sudras. They reside principally in the central and northern parganas, and are more ignorant, dirtier in their habits, of much stronger physique, and of a different physiognomy to the third class ; they much more resemble the Gūrkha in appearance, and like him make. good soldiers. The third class comprises all the higher ſºrah- mans and Rºjputs in the district, into which they came from time to time, and for the most part aſtor a permanent Government had been established. Some of them, especially the Brahmans, can trace back their residence to the time when Ajaipál founded his dynasty. The Brahmans are now divided into so many branches that the majority of them cannot point out the place from which they came and the namos of thore branches appear to be derived usually either from the name of the founder or from the village in which the branches originally settled. Those few who have kept up any record, can trace back their origin from the time when they left the plains. Many of the Brahman sub-divisions are of the Gaur, Adhigaur, Kanauj and other important clans, whilo others are probably off-shoots from them. When Ajaipál settled in Srinagar, he named those Brahmans who came with him Sarotas, while those who settled aſterwards were called Gurgåris, . The people. 29 and these are the two chief branches to this day, the former being esteemed the highest of all. Of the Rájptits whose sub-divisions are also innumerable from the custom of naming by villages, many can trace their descent from Chauhāns, Rajbansis, and other high Rájput families of the Duáb, while others say that they came from the west, from Kangra and its vicinity, but as a rule, the majority can tell nothing of their history. These are a much more intelligent and more civilised class than the Khasiyas. They reside chiefly in Bárasyun, Chaundkot and the Salán parganahs, but are also to be found scattered all over the district. The heads of many of the Rájput families were in the time of the Tajas and Gūrkhas called Thokdārs or Sayānas. They had the power of collecting the revenue of certain tracts, and had great authority which has since been altogether taken from them. There is one other distinct race of people who inhabit the portion of the district lying in the snowy range. These are the Bhotias, who divide themselves into two clans, Marchas and Tolchas. The former have most Tátar blood in them ; all must originally have sprung from Tátars from Tibet, but from intermixing with other races, they have partially lost that peculiar physiognomy, though it still shows itself espe- cially in the women. They talk the Hünia or Tibetan language as well as Hindi, and have also a patois of their own. Their total number is but 3,030, they are the traders with Tibet, to which place they carry grain, gºr, cloth and tobacco and and bring back salt, borax, wool, a little gold, precious stones, and ponies. They are a more powerful set of men than the hill men, but dirty in their habits and greatly addicted to drink, the women forming no exception, All that they know of their history is that they were originally descended from Tibetans, who first settled in Kumaun, and thence emigrated to Garhwäl. The Tolchas have more of the Hindú in them, and though they allow their daughters to marry Marchas, will not take the daugh- ters of the latter in marriage. In writing a brief notice of Garhwál, mention must be made of the sacred shrines of Badrináth and The temples. y- . 1 a º p Kedarnáth, which must have had much 30 influence on the history and manners of the people. Of these Badrináth, dedicated to Badrinarāyan, an incarnation of Wishnu, is the more sacred. It is situated in pargana Painkhanda on the Vishnuganga below the village of Máná, and at an elevation of 10,400 feet within the snowy range. The existing temple, not a very imposing building, is said to have been erected some 800 years ago by Sankara Swāmi, who brought up the figure of the deity from the bottom of the river after diving ten times. The Rāwal is a Brahman of the Nimburi caste from Kirat Malwār in the Dakhin. There are always three or four men of this caste in attendance, who are aspirants for the Râwalship. The Rāwal and priests officiate from May to October at Badrináth, and then retire to Joshimath for the winter. At this place there is a temple to Nära Sinha, another incarnation of Vishnu. The idol in this temple has one arm much thinner than the other, and it is said to grow thinner yearly and there is a prophesy to the effect that when this arm breaks off, the road to the present Badrináth will be closed and the place of worship removed to a spot near Tipuban called Bhabishya Badri. At both this and the present temple are hot springs. In conjunction with Badrináth are four other temples called Pandukeswar, Bha- bishya Badri, Animath or Bridh Badri, and Dhyan Badri. These compose the Panch Badri. The income of the temple is derived from offerings by pilgrims, which amount sometimes to a large sum : and the revenue of a large number of villages in Kumaun and Garhwäl, set apart for the purpose, which amounts to Rs. 3,943 per annum. Next in sacredness is the temple of Kedarnāth in par- gana Nágpur, immediately below the Snowy peak of Mahapanth, and at an elevation of a little over 11,000 feet. It is dedicated to an incarnation of Sudashiu, or Sibh, or Siva, and is supposed to be built on the spot where that divinity, after fighting his numerous battles, being pursued by the Pandavas, who wished to touch or worship him, attempted to dive into the earth, but left his lower limbs above the surface, the upper part of his body going else- where. Close to the temple is a precipice called Bhairab Jhamp, where in former times devotees used to commit suicide by throw- ing themselves down. This practice was stopped soon after our 31 rule commenced. With Kedarnāth are included the temples of Kalpesvar, Madmaheswar, Tungnäth and Rudrnáth, the five form- ing the Panch Kedar. The Râwal of this temple is a Brahman of the Jangam caste from Maisür. He does not officiate at Kedar itself, but at Gupt Kāshi and Ukimath, which are branch temples, his adopted son or chelagoing to Kedar. The revenues are derived from the same sources as those of Badrináth, but are of less amount. In addition to these two there are innumerable temples of lesser magnitude and sacredness scattered all over the district, but they are entirely of local importance. There is no doubt the number of these, added to the influence of the priests attached to them, have made the people more superstitious and bigoted. Though the influence of thousands of pilgrims yearly has also added materially to the wealth of the district. Of the social customs of the people of Garhwál the most common and demoralizing is polygamy. Every man who can afford it keeps two or more wives, and the result is that a great deal of immorality exists amongst the women. The custom probably arose from the great difficulty there was in tilling the large amount of waste land available. Wives were procured to help in field-work and were looked on as beasts of burden: indeed, up to the present day they are treated as such, consequently many desert their husbands, while yearly a number commit suicide. Children are contracted at an early age, and marriages are very expensive owing to the sum which is paid as dower. The amount ranges from Rs. 100, among the poorer classes to Rs. 800 and Rs. 1,000 amongst the more wealthy. Widows are sometimes re-married ; but it is a civil contract made before the patwāri, and is not held to be very binding. Most widows take up their residence with other men as mistresses, but this is not viewed as disgraceful, and illegiti- mate children have by custom obtained,in almost every family equal rights with legitimate ones. A very few families of the highest castes are an exception to this rule. Another very pre- valent custom is that of deciding quarrels and disputes by oath. This has several forms. It may be on a son's head, but this is very uncommon, or on a lump of the land in dispute, or by one Polygamy. 32 side cutting in two a piece of bambu placed on the disputed land by the opposite party; but the most common is for the form of oath to be taken to be written on a piece of paper called banda, which one party leaves in the temple where he worships, and which the opposite side takes up. These oaths are considered most binding, so much so that a dispute settled in this manner is hardly ever heard of again. The parties however so deciding are usually out of caste as regards each other. Besides Hindu- ism no other religion has any firm footing in Garhwál. There is a Christian Mission at Chapra, one mile from the head-quar- ters' station of Pauri and near a village, but it is in its infancy and has made but few converts, its efforts being chiefly directed to education at present. The Brahmo Samājis altogether unknown, while Muhammadanism has no power, the number of Muhamma- dans being very small and at the same time they are so scattered as to have no influence local or otherwise whatever. E. T. ATKINSON, 47 T A R A. I. TARAI, or Tarái parganas," a separate charge subordinate to the Commissioner of Kumaun, is bounded on the north by the Kumaun Bhábar ; on the south by the British districts of Bareilly and Moradabad and the native state of Râmpur; on the east by Nepāl and the Pilibhit subdivision of the Bareilly district; and on the west by Bijnor. The district has an area of 589,359 acres, or 920:8 square miles, and a population of 185,813. The gross revenue for the year 1876-77 amounted to £39,364. Area, &c. 2. The headquarters of the district are at Naini Tál, where the European officers reside from May to November. The civil courts are those of the Superintendent and his Assistant, from whom an appeal lies to the Commissioner of Kumaun in certain cases, and that of the tahsildar of Rudarpur. The same officers have criminal powers under the Indian Penal Code and Code of Criminal Pro- cedure, and the Rājā of Käshipur is a Special Magistrate for pargana Káshipur, and Muhammad Abdul Aziz Khán for par- ganas Bāzpur, Gadarpur, and Rudarpur. t District staff. 3. The district comprises parganas Kāshipur, Bázpur, Gadar- pur, Rudarpur, Kilpuri, Nánakmata, and Bilhari, and appears as a long narrow strip of country running for about 90 miles east and west along the foot of the hills, with an average breadth of about 12 miles. The northern boundary is well defined by the commence- * I am indebted to Messrs. J. C. Macdonald and F. Kilvert for the greater portion of the notes on which this article has been based. It has been pre- pared by me for the Imperial Gazetteer.-E. T. A. General appearance. 2 ment of a series of springs which burst from the surface where the Bhābar or waterless tract ends, elsewhere the boundaries present no marked natural features. The general surface of this tract presents the appearance of a plain with a slope towards the south-east, covered either with patches of forest which grow thicker and larger towards the east, or with savannahs of luxu- riant grasses and reeds which flourish towards the west. To the north the jungle is thick and unused, except for grazing pur- poses; but towards the south cultivation has been extended much of late years, and little useful timber is found in the few patches of forest that still remain. The whole of the Tarái is cut up by numberless streams and nålas, the former bringing down the drainage of the hills, and the latter the spring water which rises at the head of the Tarái itself. The banks of these streams and nálas are in places covered with a low and thick scrub forest, the favourite resort of wild animals, such as tiger, deer, and pigs. The general slope of the plains has here an average fall of twelve feet per mile. They undulate from east to west, rising and falling as they leave and meet the river beds. Towards the north these undulations are small and decided, while towards the south the country becomes level and the distance between the rivers increases. The spring level varies with the undulations; in the hollows stiff clay land is met with, whilst the rising and upper land contain both sand and loam. The culturable area may be set down at 463 square miles, of which about 271 square miles are cultivated. 4. The water system of the Tarái consists of, first, those streams which flow direct from the Himálaya; and secondly, those fed by springs rising in the Tarái itself. Beneath the shallow soil and deep gravelly bed of the ſkhar bhūmi or waterless forest immediately to the north of the Tarái the drainage of the lower hills of the Himá- laya flows at a great depth, exceeding in some places 300 feet ; the point of re-appearance of water in the river beds and the rush- ing out of the multitudinous springs being determined by the thinning out of the porous, gravelly detritus and the approach of Drainage system. 3 the clay or impervious stratum to the surface, as illustrated in the accompanying sketch.* Sozz/J. ſomer Jºhabar Upper Norðhy Ukhar Bhwarzz. Bhabaz. Aşazzo’szazzez žZZs ) O7" &’ y - Zozoe? p Z Water/ess Forest - * 9) zazz ge Plains Tará. Fº: º Aº Żº: ---- s: s * - + Claey ++z, -- razz ce/ Zºzzł of 7%2 =/rppearazz.ce. - 'Pozzzzº º Ce 24važe?: - gy’ awazºv” It is these springs that increasing and uniting in their progress form the numerous streams that intersect the Tarái. The general direction of the course of all the streams is from north to south. Of the rivers that take their rise in the lower hills of the Himálayas we have the Saniha, which forms the north-eastern boundary to its junction with the Sárda or Ghágra, whilst the Sárda thence forms the eastern boundary. Between the Saniha and the Deuha or Dyoha are numerous small streams, such as the Tanora, Badora, Sarsutiya, and Lohiya. The two latter unite at Kua Khera, and the two former after their junction join the Kaman, which again becomes a feeder itself. In fact the position and appearance of the streams resemble the reticulations of a leaf, the rills on the edge of the moist country unite to form a streamlet, streamlets unite to form a stream, which in its turn becomes a feeder of the main arterial line of drainage. The Deuha, which forms the eastern boundary of Nānakmata, is the great river of the Tarái proper. It flows by the mart of Pilibhit and possesses sufficient water to allow of large boats and timber rafts passing down it, and is the principal line of traffic for the stil trade in the eastern part of the Tarái. It is subject to violent floods in the rains, when its channel becomes broad and deep, although in the * H. Batten in Stat. Acc., 184. # hot weather barely carrying 150 cubic feet per second. Between the Deuha and the Sukhi are numerous torrents of no use for navigation, and the Sukhi itself is dry during the hot season, though in the rains it brings down at a rapid pace a considerable volume of water surcharged with silt and sand. The Bahgul, rising in the Tarái itself, is connected with the Sukhi, and toge- ther they give rise to the canal system known as the eastern Bahgul mentioned hereafter. To the west of the Sukhi the more important streams are the Kichaha or Gaula, Bhakra, Kosi, and Phíka. The Kichaha receives the surplus waters of the Naini Tàl and other lakes, and forms the arterial line of drainage for the lower hill and Bhābar waters between the Deuha and the Kosi. It is subject to heavy floods, and the rise is often so high as from 14 to 17 feet, and much damage is frequently caused to the low- lying lands in its course. Between the Kichaha and the Kosi are numerous streams which take their rise in the Bhābar close to the Tarái frontier, and join either the Kichaha or Kosi or their feeders. The principal are the Påha, Bhakra, Bhaur, and Dabka. The Kosi flows through pargana Käshipur, and is more particu- larly noticed under Kumaun, whilst the Phíka forms the western boundary. All these rivers except the Sárda eventually join the Rāmganga, which falls into the Ganges in the Farukhabad dis- trict. The beds of the rivers are, as a rule, broad, and consist of a sandy loam without rocks. The slope of the country, as al- ready noticed, is about twelve feet per mile, and in consequence the streams take sudden bends to avoid such a rapid fall, and thus reduce their average fall to two and a half feet per mile. The smaller streams, like the larger, flow from north-west to south- east; their discharges varying from fifteen to forty cubic feet per second, with a velocity of from one to two feet per second, and supporting a tolerably constant flow during the whole year. The banks are usually abrupt, and the beds present a line of narrow swamps, so that they are for the most part impassable, except by bridges or on an elephant. All these streams are used for irrigation. 5 5. The first attempt at regulating the water system used for irrigation was made by Captain W. Jones in 1851. The mutiny supervened, and weightier matters attracting attention, it was not until 1861 that the present system of canals was thoroughly taken in hand. Under the present arrangements the Irrigation Branch of the Public Works Department has control over all waters between the Sárda on the east and the Baraur in pargana Rudarpur, comprising parganas Bilhar), Nánakmata, Kilpuri, and a great part of Rudarpur. In the two first parganas irrigation is not carried on directly by the department; there is plenty of water and the people are allowed to help themselves, provided they do not interfere with the natural drainage and thus create swamps. The eastern Bahgul system of canals provides for the irrigation of the Kil- puri pargana and the Maina Jhāndi portion of Nánakmata, and is then carried on into the Bareilly district. Next comes the Kichaha or Gaula system and the Pāha system, both of which are in full operation. To the west of the Baraur, the Tarái marches with the native state of Râmpur, and the waters of the various rivers passing from the Tarái to Râmpur are managed under an agreement effected with the Nawāb of Râmpur. Where the land is owned by Government as landlord the rental and the water-rate are consolidated, there is, therefore, no need for an expensive separate measuring and collecting establishment, and the irrigation is supervised by the revenue officials as a part of their regular work. The principal works are those on the Bhakra and Bhaur rivers and their affluents. In Bázpur water is taken from the Gandli and the Naya and its heads which lie in the Kosi khádir. In Jaspur irrigation does not appear to be necessary, and in Kåshipur the efforts made are entirely local, and an efficient regular system is now being developed. Canals. 6. The principal road is that which runs due east and west from the Nepāl frontier to Káshipur, connecting all the parganas, and in length about 90 miles ; next comes the line from Moradabad to Naini Tál by Kālādhāngi, which runs through pargana Bázpur. Roads. § Mundiya or Shafakháná is on this road, at a distance of 33 miles from Moradabad and 15 miles from Kālādhāngi. The Bareilly and Naini Tàl road passes through the Rudarpur pargana for 13 miles; another line much used for local traffic connects Moradabad with Káshipur and the hill mart of Rām- nagar, whence there is a good road to Almora. Running north and south are the Pilibhit and Naini Tál and the Pilibhit and the Barmdeo lines. These are all first-class unmetalled roads partly raised and partly bridged, and are under local manage- ment. There are also numerous cross-roads of more or less importance and of a similar description connecting the main line of roads with those running north and south. The nearest line of railway is the Oudh and Rohilkhand, with its stations at Bareilly and Moradabad. The communications are fairly suffi- cient for the stage to which civilization and population have reached in the Tarái, and year by year some further advance is made. 7. The wild animals found in the district are the elephant, an occasional wild buffalo and rhinoceros Animals. º ºve, tigers, bears, leopards, hyenas, wolves, pigs, and several kinds of deer, as the jarau, swamp deer, spotted deer, hog-deer, nil-gai, antelope, and four-horned deer. Although rewards are given by Government for the destruction of wild animals, about thirty persons perish every year from their attacks or from snakebites. There is no trade in the skins of wild animals. Bullocks and buffaloes are used in agriculture, and are purchased in Rohilkhand at from Rs. 40 to Rs. 80 the pair. An effort was once made by Government to improve the breed by introducing Hissar bulls, but the climate was against them and they soon died. Indeed the malaria that causes fever amongst the plains people that come to the Tarái does not spare their cattle, which have also to become acclimatized before they can endure the moist heat of the rains. The cultivator himself is too much oc- cupied with his duties as pioneer in breaking up the j ungle to devote much attention to the breeding of cattle. He provides him- self with that class of cattle which he finds sufficient for his 7 purpose, and is a source of no great loss, should sickness attack and destroy it. Where the soil comprises a stiff clay he employs buffaloes, and elsewhere is satisfied with the ordinary small but wiry bullock of Rohilkhand. A few colonies of Banjáras breed ponies, which find ready purchasers in the hill-men at from ten to fifty rupees each. Some camel owners endeavoured to keep their camels in this district throughout the whole year, but the loss of stock, however, was so great that now, after the month of May, none remain. Large flocks of sheep and goats arrive about the end of October for grazing purposes, principally eves, and as soon as their lambs are sufficiently strong they are again removed to the plains. 8. Fish abound in the streams of the districts and are caught for food principally by the Dhimar caste, who are not numerous. Other castes when they have leisure from agricultural employment occasionally fish. Amongst these are the Thárús and Bhuksas, the so-called aborigines of the tract, who frequently assemble by whole villages during the winter time for a fishing expedition. All classes except a few Brahmans and Baniyas eat fish, though it is not a favourite or coveted article of food with any large class. The selling price is from a penny to twopence a pound. Fish, 9. The following crops are grown in the district :—wheat, barley, rice, gram, peas, maize, bajra, jodr. sesamum, mustard, linseed, castor bean s ginger, turmeric, red pepper, potatoes, melons, cucumbers, plantains, pineapples; hemp, cotton, tobacco, and sugarcane. As might be supposed from the moist nature of the climate and the country itself, rice is the staple crop and the chief article of daily consumption. It occupies about 60,000 acres of the culti- vated area and yields on an average 1,120 pounds per acre. There are three seasons at which rice is sown, the gaja, bijhua, and rasauta. The gaja sowing commences in April and May, when the finer kinds of rice are planted; the reaping takes place in Septem- ber, and the average yield per acre is about 640 pounds of the Crops. 8 finer kinds, and 480 pounds of the coarser; 40 pounds of seed are generally sown per acre. The bijhua sowing commences in May and June, when other sorts of rice are sown, which are reaped in October, with an average outturn per acre of 1,120 pounds from 48 pounds of seed per acre. The rasauta sowing takes place in June and July, when only the finest rice, such as hansråj, basmati, and sonkharcha, are sown, and the reaping goes on from the end of October until the end of November, the outturn being about 880 pounds per acre. 10. In this district, as might be expected, the husbandry is ruder than elsewhere. A very large area of waste land exists, which, though under a most imperfect system of cultivation, yields, from its natural fer- tility, a satisfactory outturn. Manure is hardly ever thought of; in fact the soil would not bear it. A large holding for a peasant may be placed at fifty acres, a middling sized one at twenty acres, and a small one at six acres. Taking the average stock of a peasant, he will possess two ploughs, employing four to six oxen, and will cultivate, exclusive of two-crop land, twelve acres of kharff'orrain crops and four acres of rabi or cold weather crops. The gross value of produce (an average of five years’ prices having been struck) is as follows: khar{f crop, Rs. 163: rabi, Rs. 68; or a total of Rs. 231, from which must be deducted an expenditure on seed, implements, rent, &c., of Rs. 126, leaving a net profit of Rs. 105 a year. The work of weeding, watching, cutting, and threshing the crops will be done by the family, the value of whose labour cannot be estimated. Mode of cultivation, 11, The Tarái forests contain no valuable timber or any worth preserving beyond the occasional patches of khair (Acacia catechu) and sist, (Dalbergia sissoo) found in Bilhari and the islands of the Sárda. The timber that chiefly abounds is the haldu, which, though of a fine appearance, is useless as a building or cabinet wood. The sal-covered patches, some of which run several miles into the plains, are as timber-producing reserves worthless, as the Timber. 9 º young trees, in common with all săl grown in the plains, becomes rotten at the core before arriving at maturity. The only 84 exported is cut either immediately at the foot of the hills or more generally on some small eminence. It was doubtless owing to these considerations that the Tarái forests were removed from the administration of the Forest Department in 1865 and placed under the Superintendent. A small tax is now levied on the export of all forest produce, and the proceeds of this tax are ap- propriated to the general improvement of the district. The levy of these dues has been recognized and declared at successive settlements to be vested in Government. 12. With the exception of bricks, all building materials have to be carted from the foot of the Kumaun hills, and are therefore expensive ; labour, too, having to be imported, the cost of all buildings is much enhanced. Bricks which are made throughout the district cost for the nine-inch brick Rs. 750 per lakh, and for the small native brick Rs. 100. Nearly all the structures are of brick, though stone has in a few instances been used ; but the distance that stone has to be brought from makes its cost so great that its use has been discontinued. All the wood requisite for any large work is obtained from the Kumaun forests, and consists either of haldu. (Adina cordifolia) or sāl (Shorea robusta). The cost of wood, including that of working it up, is Rs. 3 per cubic foot. Two kinds of limestone are used in the district, the one obtained from the quarries at the foot of the Kumaun hills, which give by far the best kind of lime, the other obtained in the small nálas of the district itself; the latter, however, is of very inferior quality. First-class lime costs from ten to twelve annas per 80fbs., second-class Rs. 25 per 8,000tbs. Good kunkur is not obtainable in the Tarái, and all that is used has to be brought from the adjoining districts of Rohilkhand ; the average cost of 100 cubic feet is from Rs. 15 to Rs. 17, and the cost of metalling one mile of road Rs. 4,500 to Rs. 5,000. Broken stone as metalling can be supplied, in some places, at nearly the same rates, but there is greater difficulty in the consolidation. Building materials. 10 13. This district cannot be said to be subject to either blights, floods, or droughts. Mildew of wheat sometimes shows itself, but to no great extent. Hail, too, occasionally does damage. Drought is to a very great extent prevented by natural causes, such as the proxi- mity of the tract to the Himálaya, getting thereby the rain from the first showers of the rain-clouds which collect in those mountains, whilst the country lying further south remains parch- ed. The climate being naturally humid, the nearness of the spring water to the surface keeps the soil moist and causes the wheat to germinate readily even in the driest year; and in addition to these causes irrigation, which is very largely carried on, makes the country less liable to the effects of drought. 14. During the famine of 1868 scarcity and want were alone felt in those villages where irrigation was impracticable, and in which the cultivators with a blind persistency would sow nothing but rice ; thus when the drought came on they lost their only crop. Actual distress was averted, however, by the neighbouring villages, who were more fortunately situated as regards water, coming to the assistance of those whose crops had failed. No relief works were necessary for the cultivators of the district itself; it was only in the capacity of landlord that Government gave relief by advancing sums of money for the purchase of seed lost. Relief works were started for the purpose of employing such destitute people who had whilst wandering from other famine-stricken districts reached this tract ; these were employed on roads and on irrigation projects. From the 16th to the 28th of February, 1869, there were over 15,000 people thus employed. Others found their way to the forests to seek there a scanty subsistence from the wild fruits and berries, as well as to procure pasturage for the flocks which they brought with them. The district itself became the highroad between the famine-stricken districts and Oudh, so that the main road running east and west was for some months lined with carts and cattle conveying grain. It was estimated that from the middle of December, 1868, to the middle of April, 1869, upwards of 10,000 carts, 5,000 herd of oxen, and 2,500 mules Blights and floods. Famine of 1868. 11 laden with grain, computed to have amounted to nearly 5,000 tons, passed by this road. The failure of rain in the more south- ern districts, as well as the attraction of plentiful irrigation, brought large numbers to seek in the Tarái a new home; these, however, were not starving people seeking merely food, but those who had left their old homesteads in search of more favoured spots. The wandering poor were entirely discouraged from settling in the Tarái ; they were merely relieved and passed on their way. On the whole, a year of drought may be said to be beneficial to the Tarái ; prices range higher, thus giving the cultivator a better return for his produce ; labour becomes cheap, and the health of the community at large is greatly improved by a dry year. The means of external communication with other parts of the coun- try are amply sufficient to avert any extremity from famine. 15. There are only two towns in the district, Káshipur and Jaspur. By the census of 1872 the popu- lation of the former was 13,113, and of the latter 6,746. With the exception of these towns the whole population is scattered over the country in small villages. At the time the census of 1854 was taken, the parganas which now belong to the Tarái district formed part of the Moradabad, Kumaun, and Bareilly districts; the population in 1854, exclusive of Káshipur pargana, which was annexed in 1870, was 67,187, in 1865 was 91,802, and in 1872 was 114,365, or, inclusive of Káshipur, 185,813, of whom 122,657 were Hindus and 62,977 Musalmáns. From these figures it will be seen that the popula- tion increased from 1854 to 1865 by 36 per cent, and from 1865 to 1872 by 24 per cent. It is impossible to compare any difference of castes with reference to the census of 1854, as the whole of the records do not now exist. The marked increase of population, as above indicated, is entirely due to the policy as laid down by Government having been strictly carried out, viz., to encourage the introduction of settlers by giving them low rates, liberal treatment, and assistance when necessary. The whole tendency of the population is to agricultural, and not to urban life. Population. 12 16. The kinds of grain used for food by the labouring mass Food. are barley, millets maize, and the species º of rice known as stºri and sati. The aver- age daily requirement for each person may be placed at one and a half to two pounds of grain, at a cost of about half an anna. Wheat is used, in addition to the other grains, by Baniyas and the classes immediately above the agriculturist ; while the more well-to-do classes, such as mahājans, &c., consume the finer kinds of rice and flour, and also generally indulge in simple luxuries of some kind or other which vary with the taste and means of the individual. 17. The style of houses for dwelling prevailing throughout the Houses. greater portion of the district is the ordi- - nary mud hut of Rohilkhand. It is built at a cost of about seven rupees, i.e., the walls three rupees and the grass roof four rupees. The Thárús, however, build their houses of mud and wattles, and take particular care in their con- struction ; damp is much less felt in such structures than in the usual mud hut. A Thárú village has a straggling appearance, the houses being built separately at some little distance from one another, and owing to this peculiarity when a fire does break out it is generally confined to one or two houses at the most. The whole work of construction is done by the owner and his own family, the cost of whose labour cannot be estimated. In the towns of Käshipur and Jaspur alone are there any brick-built houses. The larger of these belong to wealthy bankers or shopkeepers, and often large sums are expended in their outward adornment; they are generally two or three stories high, and are built round an open courtyard with terraced roofs. The cost of construction depends entirely on the means and taste of the owner. The average number of occupants to each house among both urban and rural inhabitants may be placed at four persons. There is nothing peculiar in the style adopted for buildings of worship ; that which prevails so generally throughout the North-West Provinces prevails also here, both as regards the Hindu mandir and the Muhammadan masjid. 13 18. No dialects which can be called peculiar to the district exist. Although the Thárús have a patois and accent entirely their own, it is not sufficiently marked to be called a separate dialect, and people of other classes easily understand them. Language. 19. In connection with the subject of tenures of land in this district it is necessary to remember that the parganas which now form the Tarái have been at various times separated from the adjoining districts of Rohilkhand. In 1823 these parganas were all subject to the regular revenue authorities. The settlements made by these autho- rities up to the year 1842 resulted in over-assessments, and gradu- ally landlords, farmers, and grantees, either of their own free will or from inability to manage their properties, relinquished their rights, and Government became, with fifteen exceptions, the sole landlord in parganas Bāzpur, Gadarpur, Rudarpur, Kilpuri, and Bilhari. As landlord it has been the object of Government by fixity of rent and tenure to encourage tenants and improve their status. In the pargana of Käshipur may be read a similar his- tory. A series of settlements characterised by a series of over- assessments compelled the Revenue Department in 1840 to fix the Government demand for a period of thirty years at a reduced rate. There were only two parties with whom the settlement officer at the time found himself prepared to make a settle- ment : first, the hereditary mukaddams, and, secondly, the of ficial mukaddams; but both of these parties were quite un- prepared for the rights and duties which were forced upon them. As was natural to expect, many of them fell into ar- rears, and their estates were sold; while others, having borrowed money at high rates of interest, finally succumbed to civil court decrees. This was the state of things in existence when Government on a large scale stepped in and assumed in many instances the responsibilities of landlord until a rise of prices might allow it to transfer its rights to others. Under these changes the pargana of Käshipur, with some slight reduc- tions, pays the Jand revenue as assessed ; the persons invested Tenures. 14 with the proprietary right, however, have changed. In some cases the mwkaddam or headman who was never Zamīndār or land- holder has entirely disappeared; in others, again, the heirs of those with whom the settlement had been made held their villa- ges in pure zamindári. The general tenures of land are co- parcenary, subdivided into Zamīndāri, pattidéri, and imperfect pattidiri tenures. 20. The status of the tenants must be held to be a fair one, although as a body they scarcely understand their positions or their rights. As in the rest of the Tarái, the large amount of waste land is the chief protection of the cultivator. The zamindár is forced to treat his tenants with consideration, otherwise he finds him- self left without regret ; his neighbour, it may be, being only too glad to obtain new tenants to work up land lying idle for want of labour. There remains only the pargana of Nānakmata to notice. There are two divisions, Nánakmata proper and Maina Jhāndi. The tenure is peculiar in the former, owing to the views held by the revenue officers in 1835. It was imagined at that time that a community in full possession of the superior rights in the soil had been discovered, and it was held that the Thárás were the people entitled to those rights. The Thárú cosharers elected from their body four men who were called sadr mâlguzărs; they collected the Government demand, receiv- ing 74 per cent. for their trouble. The right of pre-emption in cases of transfer by sale, &c., exists among this class. In default of payment of revenue the mode of duress has been that of transferring the defaulting share to a solvent cosharer. This has tended to throw the estates into the hands of a few successful cosharers, and the smaller men have in many instances quite disappeared. In the other division, viz., that of Maina Jhándi, the villages are generally what is termed ‘khánah khálē’ or “must- djiri,' the farmers hold on a certain assessment, and, as far as the land will permit, they make the best of their bargain. There are a few tenures scattered over the district which may broadly be termed revenue-free. Cultivators. 15 21. The position of a cultivator in a district of this nature Condition of the culti- must be a peculiar one, and does not Vator. admit of any regular comparison with other districts, the element of chance in the character of the landlord being eliminated. From the fact of the cultivator being eagerly sought after, and brooking no interference, his position becomes a law of itself, and many years must elapse ere the fine distinctions drawn by the Rent Law in the other districts of the North-Western Provinces can be made here. The greater portion of the land is held by the cultivator direct from Government. As a rule, the poasantry amongst the Thárús cannot be said to be involved in debt. The custom is to take ad- vances from traders, repaying such in produce on the crops being reaped ; these debts seldom remain unsettled after the year in which they are incurred ; formerly debt was almost the normal state of both Thărăs and Bhuksas. Assisted, however, by the dis- trict officers, the prices of produce having risen too, they have now got clear of the money-lender. Coming as the plains cultivator does without stock of any kind, he is obliged, to enable him to make a start at all, to go to the money-lender ; and it remains a mere matter of good or bad crops how long it may be before he can extricate himself. Government as landlord assists to the extent of eight or twelve rupees new cultivators, and no interest is taken. Large tracts of land to the north of the district, running east and west parallel to the Kumaun Bhábar, are used for nothing but pasturage; their extent may roughly be estimated at 350 Square miles. Upwards of 60,000 head of cattle graze in these tracts, and from Rs. 8,000 to 12,000 are yearly collected as grazing dues. The cattle are watched by men of the Ahir and Gujar caste, who form rather a lawless community. The cattle are the property of the landowners of the adjacent district of Rohilkhand. There are but few unskilled daily labourers in the Tarái, and those that exist almost entirely belong to the Banjára, Beldar, and Chamár castes. Of these, the latter generally hire themselves out for field la bour, being paid both in money and in kind. When in money, they receive two and a half to three rupees a month, with a blanket and one pair of shoes each crop; when in kind , they receive one-half of the 16 produce, after deductions of rent and village expenses. Women very seldom work for hire, but when they are employed it is at husking and grinding grain; a small share of the grain so prepared being given them in payment for their labour. Children are usually employed in tending cattle. At harvest time, however, they assist in the field operations. In the Taráithere are three kinds of soil– dámat, mattiyár, and bhūr, but the second class largely predominates. 22. Rents are paid both in money and in kind, and are taken in the following ways: (1) in the crops known as nijkári, such as the cereals, where actual division of produce prevails, and crops known as nukshi, such as cotton, maize, and sugarcane ; and (2) where nijkári crops are divided by estimate of the produce (kankiſt), at money rates : (3) money rates all round ; (4) halbandi. In the first class one-fourth to one-sixth is taken, and the money rate on cotton is rupees three, maize rupees four and a half, and sugarcane rupees six per acre. In the second, when the crop is assessed, one-fourth to one-sixth, with deductions of one-fifth for errors, is taken, and the value of the produce is fixed according to harvest prices. The money rates as given obtain in the third class. The fourth class is peculiar to the Bhuksas, being, as its name implies, a fixed rate per plough. This class of people pay ten rupees per plough, with one rupee in lieu of cesses, and are at liberty to RentS. cultivate whatever amount of land they are able. The Thărăs pay only at money rates, which vary from eighteen to thirty-six annas per acre. Irrigation is extensively practised, the cost of which, except in Kåshipur, Rudarpur, and Kiipuri, is included in the rent. In the above parganas the charges are as follows:-- Table of water rates. - RS. a. RS. a. I. Garden and orchards per crop tº e ſº 2 0 1 0 *II. Sugarcane, tobacco, opium, first a 0 8 b 0 4 - watering. - III. All cereals, pulses, oilseeds, ditto ... c 0 4 d o 2 a. Increasing 4 annas every subse- ". quent watering. - - b. & c. Ditto. 2 n ditto ditto. d. Ditto 1 , ditto ditto. 17 As a rule, lands are not allowed to lie fallow; when they are, it is from sickness or loss of cattle preventing the cultivator working them, but no system of rotation of crops is now practised. 23. In 1876 there were 2 burglaries and 159 thefts; pro- Police perty valued at Rs. 9,927 was stolen, & and Rs. 3,976 recovered. Of 251 cases cognizable by the police 134 were enquired into, and in 110 cases conviction followed : 258 persons were tried and 202 were con- victed. The crime of the district is low, consisting principally of petty thefts, cattle thefts, and such like, and the criminals are the wandering clans of Ahirs, Gájars, and Mewatis. With Rām- pur on the border, and villages isolated by tracts covered with high grass, police have little chance of success if their aid is called in a day after the theft occurs. By that time the thief is across the border, and so many bad characters from other districts come up as cowherds, or servants at cowsheds, who cannot be suspected for some time, that it is almost a necessity that many cases occur which cannot be prosecuted to conviction. In the same way others come up under the garb of poverty or seeking for employment, and commit petty thefts and make off; the owners, when they have time, merely report their loss at the police station, so that it is difficult to obtain an apparently good return for police adminis- tration in this district, - 24. The average death-rate per thousand of the popula- - is a º tion has been 33 during the eight years Medical ** 1869–1875. In 1875, 5,897 deaths were registered, or 31.76 per thousand of the population ; of these deaths 31 were due to cholera, 88 to small-pox, 5,197 to fever, 429 to bowel complaints, 56 to injuries, suicides, and accidents, and 96 to all other causes. There were 4, 186 vaccine operations during the year 1875-76, of which 2,991 were successful, the result of 266 was unknown, and 929 were un- successful. There is a dispensary at Käshipur, and during the same year 2,779 patients were treated, of whom 565 were cured, 18 22 died, and 15 remained at the close of the year. This dis- pensary cost in 1875-76 Rs. 1,747, of which Rs. 1,424 were defrayed from local sources and Rs. 323 by Government. Malarious fevers of the intermittent type are endemic, but much improvement has been noted in many places of late years, due doubtless to the drainage of swamps, increased cultivation, the cutting down of forest, and other sanitary efforts. Cattle epide- mics are frequent, and are attributed to the effect of the cli- mate and the custom of assembling vast herds for pasturage. The most common is that called chira, which begins when the rains cease, and continues until January ; in 1867 the mortality amounted to 9,000 head of cattle, out of a total of 48,000 head in the district. 25. Grain is largely exported, and in a few instances there - are evidences of an accumulation of coin in consequence of the balance of trade being in favour of the district, chiefly so, however, in the pargana of Rāshipur. Such accumulations are employed in building, in the purchase of ornaments for women, and in lending out money on interest. The current rates of interest in (a) small transactions is 12 per cent. ; (b) in large transactions with mortgage on mov- able property, 24 to 30 per cent. ; (c) in loans with mortgage on a house or land, 18 to 24 per cent. ; (d) in petty agricultural advances upon personal security, 36 per cent. ; (e) and in the same with lien on crops, 12, 18, and 24 per cent. Twenty years' purchase on the land revenue is considered a fair investment. In Kåshipur there are two or three large native bankers, and in the rest of the Tarái loans are conducted by Kumáonis, who come down into the district during the cold months ; and by Banjárás who advance money on the crops and take the produce in return, which they carry to the neighbouring marts for sale. The exports are usually grain and cloth, goods of the coarsest kinds ; the imports salt, brass and iron vessels, and the finer kinds of cloth goods. There are no manufactures worthy of notice. Coarse cotton cloth is made in Kåshipur, but merely Trade. 19 affords a comparatively small portion of the inhabitants a scanty living. 26. The total land revenue of the district as it stood in 1872 was Rs. 1,74,017. The incidence on total area was four annas and nine pie, on the cultivated area Re. 1-3-3, and on the culturable area Re. 1-2-3. No comparison can be made with former assessments for the greater portion of the district, as the present is the first settle- ment which has been made. Save in the parganas of Käshipur and Nánakmata, the proprietary right is held by Government alone, and there have therefore been so very few sales of land under assessment that no data that can be relied upon for estimating the value of land are available. Land revenue, 27. It has been stated that there was a time when irrigation was unknown in the Tarái, when no dams existed on its numerous streams, and when the health of the inhabitants is said to have been better than it now is. However this may be, long before British rule the people had commenced stopping up the rivers and streams for the purpose of employing their water in irrigating the crops, There was nobody to regulate the dams so erected, or to de- termine what waters should be drawn for the use of this village, and what waters naturally belonged to that village. The re- sults were that swamps were formed along every stream, and quarrels arose between every neighbouring village in regard to their respective rights to water. Under the rule of the farmers and grantees there was no regular system of irrigation, so that the country became by the backing up of the water a place fit only for tigers, deer, and pigs to dwell in. Some tribes, however, whose constitutions by habit could stand the climate, remained in these dreary wastes. On the failure of payment of the revenue demand the attention of Government was drawn to the subject, and an officer was deputed to visit the country. Under instructions from Government a new system was introduced, swamps were partially , drained, and Irrigation. 20 the country began to return to somewhat of its former state, and parganas Rudarpur, Gadarpur, and Kilpuri ceased in a measure to deserve the title of “the tract of the deadly swamp,” the name they had hitherto been known by. Not only have those who have come to the Tarái from other districts taken to the cultivation of rice as the most profitable employment, but the Thăru and Bhuksa community also consider the growing of rice their hereditary occupation, and almost en- tirely depend upon it for their support. In many parts the soil, too, is well adapted for the propagation of the finer kinds of rice, and is capable of yielding no other sort of crop. To cultivate this crop water in large and constant supplies is absolutely necessary, and the great problem in the Tarái is to so control the use of the abundant water-supply at hand that every one may get his fair share without unnecessary waste, and that there may be as little left to form swamps as possible, Should irrigation be abolish- ed in the Tarái the health of the people would doubtless im- prove, for there is a marked difference in this respect between the people of the swamps and those who live where very little irrigation is carried on. But here you have a rich soil, a cer- tain crop, light rents, and, chiefest of all, an unfailing system of irrigation to attract settlers; and the result is that they come in large numbers, and immigration fills up the ranks when thinned by fever. There is no doubt but that irrigation is the greatest attraction of all ; to it the cultivators look for an increase in the produce and a constant full crop. Land that has been accus- tomed to receive water rapidly falls off in productiveness if the water fails, and where a constant supply can be had continues for many years to give good crops. It thus becomes in the Tarái a matter of profit compared with health, and unfortunately the cultivator considers a good rice crop, though accompanied by malarious fever, more to be desired than health and a poor crop. All that can now be done is to regulate the supply of water, and as far as possible discountenance the introduction of canal irrigation in those parts where it is still unknown, The spring level varies from seven to fourteen feet from the surface, \ 21 and wells can in most places be constructed without any great labour or expense, and should be encouraged. 28. The only section of the inhabitants of the Tarái proper that has resided in it for any length of time is the Thăru and Bhuksa portion. These tribes have inhabited the moist country at the foot of the hills from time immemorial, but know very little of their own coun- try or its history. The Bhuksas call themselves the descend- ants of one Jagdeo, a Panwār Rajptit of Dāranagar, the home of the celebrated Bhoja Rāja, and say that on account of family disputes they emigrated towards the rising sun, and finally settled in the Tarái. The Thárús too claim to be of Rajpit origin ; they say that they are descendants of the followers of one of the Ranas of Chitor with whom they fought in the great fight in Lanka (Ceylon), but terrified at the din and confusion of war, they trembled (tharthardya), and hence their name. Ashamed of their conduct, they left their homes and settled down in the wilds of the Tarái many centuries ago. The other inhabitants of the Tarái are recent settlers. There are traces, however, of a very early civilisation in various parts of the tract lying along the foot of the hills, which the people attri- bute to the Pāndavas, and especially mention the Pāndava tutor Drona as the architect of several large excavations for holding water which exist near Käshipur. History. 29. We have fortunately, however, Some better materials than local tradition to rely upon in giving a sketch of the early history of this tract. There is little doubt that so early as the seventh century of the Christian era the Tarái formed a portion of the kingdom of Govisana, which was visited by the Chinese traveller Hwen Thsang, and the ruins in the neighbourhood of Käshipur have been identified by General Cunningham with the capital of that kingdom. Govisana was subsequently absorbed in the king- dom of Kumaun at a time of which we have no record. From the earliest dawn of traditional history in Kumaun we find the Early times. 22 Tarái forming an integral part of the Kumaun rāj, though sub- ject by its position to the incursions of the lawless tribes of Katehir, and once for a very short time almost independent, during the usurpation of Nandrám. These interruptions, how- ever, were never sufficient to sever entirely the intimate connection with the hill state which has continued down to the present day. 30. In the reign of Akbar (1556–1605 A.D.) the Tarái was known as the Naulakhia or Chaurási Mal; the former name was given from its nominal revenue of nine lakhs, and the latter name from its presumed length of 84 kos. The earliest record of the actual assessment, and the items of which it was composed, is found in a document of the reign of Kalyān Chand giving the assessments of the year 1744 A.D., which amounted to Rs. 4,25,251 of the currency of the time. The cess on the spring and rain harvests amounted to Rs. 3,55,000, and was almost equally divided be- tween them. In addition we have dues paid on holidays and festivals of the nature of a benevolence, a gambling tax, pre- sents to officials, miscellaneous taxes, and dues on fruit trees and timber. All reports make the revenue something over four lakhs of rupees in 1744 A.D., but at the time of the Rohilla irruption in that year the actual collections had dwindled down to two lakhs. It is doubtful, however, whether any portion of this sum ever reached Almora, as the tract was then given as an assignment in lieu of pay to a body of mercenaries from the Kangra valley known as Nagarkotiyas. In the hands of Sib Deo, the clever minister of Dip Chand, the revenue recovered a little, though the Rohillas subsequently seized and kept posses- sion of a portion of Sarbna and Bilhari, and in those parganas the Rājā of Kumaun was only nominally jägirdár. Even then the Rājā's share of the rental amounted to only Rs. 1,32,000, and of this sum but Rs. 40,000 found its way to Almora, the remainder being swallowed up in the expenses of management and in the pay of the Nagarkotiyas. The other part of the rental was absorbed by Brahmin grantees and the headmen of the hereditary chaukidars or watchmen of the Tarái who had been Under the Kumaun rāj. 23 gradually introduced into the territory since the days of Báz Bahadur Chand. 31. In the south-eastern extremity of the Tarái the Barwaiks, The chaulidars of the and in the same direction towards the hills Tarái, the Luliyas, and in the western parga- mas the Mewatís and the Heris (Musalmāns), performed the duties of policemen and guards. A system of levying black- mail was thus introduced, the evil effects of which remained for many years, and which during its continuance rendered the sub- montane tract the general safe resort of banditti and the lurk- ing-place of the worst of criminals. Owing to this state of things and the general weakness of the hill state, torn as it was by the feuds of the Joshis, Nandrám, the kiladar or gover- nor of Káshipur, rebelled, and having murdered the governor of Rudarpur, took possession of the whole tract, which he handed over to the Oudh Nawāb and held from him in fief as 'jāradár. He was succeeded by his nephew Sib Lál, who retained it till 1802 A.D., when the British took possession of Rohilkhand. 32. Batten thus sums up the character of the native admin- istration :-" The rule of the Oudh - Nawāb in the Tarái was on the whole beneficial, but chiefly in a negative point of view. The bad government of districts naturally more adapted for culture and habitation, drove large colonies of people from the south to a region where the background of the forest and the hills could always afford a shelter against open oppression ; where the nature of the climate was not such as to invite thereto the oppressors into whose hands a whole fertile and salubrious land had fallen ; and where also on this very account the rulers who did exist found it their interest to conciliate and attract all new- comers.' The management of the territory in question by Nand- ram and Sib Lal is generally well spoken of, except in the matter of police ; but even in this latter respect the mismanage- ment was not more injurious to society than the state of affairs in regard to the forest banditti became in times not far distant Patten om native rule. 24 from our own. I believe that it may be confidently stated that at the commencement of the British rule in Rohilkhand there existed in the Tarái a greater number of inhabited spots than there existed thirty years afterwards in the same tract ; that more and more careful cultivation was visible in every direction; that the prairie, if not the forest, had retreated to a greater distance; that the grils or canals for irrigation were more frequent and better made ; that more attention was paid to the construction and management of the embankments on the several streams; and that, finally, on account of all these circumstances, the naturally bad climate, now again deteriorated, had somewhat improved. While recording this statement, I must not omit to add that I myself possess no positive separate proofs that my assertions are correct, but that I write under the influence of almost universal oral testimony, supported, nevertheless, by this circumstance, viz., that the revenue statistics of the tract under discussion show a descending scale in regard to the income of the state, a product which under general rules bears an approx- imately regular proportion to the prosperity of a country. “I must not omit to mention the fact that the Bhuksa and Thárú tribes are extremely migratory in their habits, and are peculiar in requiring at their several locations more land for their Effect of earlier settle- periodical tillage than they can show ment. under cultivation at one time or in one year. To these tribes is in a great measure now left the occupation of the Tarái territory; so that now (1844) for every deserted village there may be perhaps found a corresponding newly cultivated one within the same area, and large spaces of waste may inter- vene where under the present system no room for contempora- neous cultivation is supposed to exist, the periodical waste or fallow also in that peculiar climate presenting as wild and jungly an appearance as the untouched prairie. In the times, on the contrary, which I have advantageously compared with our own, the fickle and unthrifty races whom I have named were not the sole occupants of the soil; all the number of contemporaneous settlements was therefore greater, and the extent of land required for each was less. I therefore come round in due course to the 25 next fact (the obverse of that first stated), that as bad govern- ment in the ordinarily habitable parts of the country introduced an extraordinary - number of ploughs into the borders of the forest tract, so the accession of the British rule, by affording a good government to Rohilkhand, re-attracted the agricultural resources to that quarter, and proportionately reduced the means of tillage in the Tarāi. Such is my general position, but local circumstances also added to the deterioration, and amongst these an allusion on my part is all that is necessary or proper, to the hasty and perfunctory mode of settlement adopted in the earlier years of the British rule; to the disputes, in and out of court, concerning zamíndāri rights between Sib Lal and Lal Singh, and again between the latter and his nephew Mahendra Singh's family; to the continued bad police management; and perhaps more than all, to the neglect and indifference of the English reve- nue officers, who were scared away from the tract by the bad repu- tation of its climate, and were only occasionally attracted thither by its facilities for sport. In fact the sum of the whole matter is in my opinion this, --that even long neglect in other quarters can by a change of system be speedily remedied, but that, in the peculiar region of which we are treating, a very brief period of neglect or bad management is sufficient to ruin the country.” The above extract is given as showing the opinion of a man well qualified from long experience to judge of the necessities and capabilities of the Tarái. It is not, however, to be Supposed that this state of things was entirely due to British mismanage- ment. The elements of disorder and destruction came down to us as a legacy with the district itself, and the chaukidárs turned into banditti became the terror of the industrious, and eventually led to the depopulation and desertion noticed by Mr. Batten in 1844. 33. Owing to the commotions in Rohilkhand from 1764 A.D. the Tarái became filled with emigrants from the lower country, who had fled from the extra taxation and the multiplied masters which the wars of that period had created. This was the first great recent Causes of emigration, 26 immigration into the Tarái. The next extensive influx of low- landers occurred immediately after the accession of the ruler of Oudh to the sovereignty of Rohilkhand, and continued till the tyranny of the new reign had somewhat overpast, and till (after the second Rohilla war with Faizullah Khán, who himself brought large numbers of people to the jungle where his entrenchments were formed) the lower districts became again fit for the habitation of a peaceful and industrious people. Thus, at first tolerable good government at one place and intolerably bad government at another contributed to the occupancy of the waste lands of the Kumaun Bhábar and Tarái by natives of other districts; and, a few years subsequently, the Gürkha invasion of Kumaun, and the civil wars which preceded that event, drove down numerous mountaineers to the same quarter, and made Käshipur, Rudarpur, Kilpuri, and other frontier towns and villages the emi- grant settlements of numerous individuals whose political im- portance or wealth rendered them peculiarly obnoxious to the evil of a revolution, and whose stay on the hills had become in- compatible with their safety. We may date at this period the planting of some of the mango groves in the Tarái, which are now within spots where wild beasts occupy the place of human inhabitants, and swamps lie over what may have at one time been the site of the village. The greater portion of these settlers, however, fell victims to the deadly malaria of the more swampy tracts, whither the Gürkhas on the one side and the Marhattas on the other had driven them to take refuge. Jones speaks of a case where 4,000 inhabitants of a single immigrant settlement near the Sárda perished in one season from Tarái fever, 34. As already noticed, the British obtained possession of the Tarái in 1802, and it was with Sib Lál, the nephew of Nandrám, that the first settlement, or rather temporary arrangement, was made. This was made for the years 1803-4 to 1806-7. The revenue rapidly increased until the fourth settlement for four years—1809-10 to 1813-14—when it as rapidly began to decline. In 1823 the Tarái parganas were transferred to the plains authorities, and The British. 27 during the same year some attention was paid to the manage- ment of the forests, and portions were demarcated for Govern- ment use. In 1824 the boundaries between the hills and plains were laid down by Messrs. Halhed and Traill after a long and warm controversy, during which Mr. Traill is said to have fought for every inch of ground as if he had been a hillman himself and had a personal interest in the matter. Mr. Holt Mackenzie’s review of the sixth settlement, which extended from 1823-24 to 1828–29, discloses a tale of ruin and depopulation arising from over-assessment, careless supervision, and bad management, which was most disgraceful to the officers concerned. Mr. Boulderson revised the settlement and did much to alle- viate the evils which existed, and in 1831 a settlement of parga- nas Rudarpur and Gadarpur for fifteen years was made on an apparently equitable basis. In 1835, however, these parganas were handed over to Rājā Gumán Singh on a fixed annual revenue of Rs. 28,270. This was supposed to leave a large margin for reasonable profits, but the Rājā paid little attention to his estate, and on his death in 1836 it came under the Court of Wards. In 1841 the present Rājā of Käshipur, Shiuráj Singh, assumed the management of the estates, but under him they fell into only deeper disorder, and became little better than huge swamps, the home of wild pigs and deer. Although assisted by the Nawāb of Râmpur, the Rājā drew so little advantage from the parganas that in 1848 he was unable to pay his revenue and resign- ed his lease of Rudarpur and Gadarpur and also that of Kilpuri which he had held since the cession. s 35. Some temporary arrangements were made until 1851, when the parganas were made over to Captain W. Jones with full directions as to their management and a liberal establishment to aid him. He did much for the improvement of the country and devoted himself especially to the reclamation of swamp, the discouragement of the habit of erecting embankments across the streams wherever any one wished for the purposes of irrigation, the training and distribution of water actually required by the cultivators, and the Captain W. Jones. 28 elaboration of a system of canals. Owing to the disturbances during the mutiny, the unsettled state of the country in 1858, and the change of officers in charge of the irrigation works during this period, and also probably to some faults of construction, the greater portion of the works carried out by Captain Jones were much injured, and all had to be re-aligned and freshly provided for. - - . 36. Immediately after the mutiny the Tarái was attached to Kumaun as a temporary measure, and in 1861 was formed into a separate district, except pargana Käshipur, which remained attached to Morada- bad until 1870. By a resolution of Government under Act XIV. of 1861 the Tarái was removed from the control of the Regulation Courts and their procedure, and separate rules for the guidance of the Superintendent in revenue, civil, and crimi- nal matters were drawn up and sanctioned by Government." The preamble of the resolution relating to the revenue administration describes the Tarái as having “boundless resources in the natural richness of its soil and in the abundance of its water; and it required only an industrial population, fair roads, and skilful drainage to convert what is now a pestilential prairie into a prosperous district.” It was not hoped that its regeneration should be made through the Bhuksas and Thárus, or that a settlement could be made with the migratory populations who had hitherto resided in it. Existing settlements were allowed to stand, but, in the words of the resolution, “it is thought that the best hope of bringing the Tarái into cultivation lies in a judicious system of direct management, and in the appropriation of the proceeds, as sanctioned by the Home authorities many years ago, in respect of the Bhābar tract, to the drainage of swamps; to the construction of dams and channels of irrigation; to the opening-up of communciations; to the settling and hutting of immigrant cultivators, and generally to the improvement of the tract. In this view there will be obvious advantage in regarding all the parganas comprising the Tarái district as one undivided - ... s. * G. O. No. 2666A, dated 10th October, 1861. Tarái since the mutiny. Z 29 estate, and in authorizing the Superintendent to regulate his expenditure without reference to the proportion of khám collec- tions from each pargana. “In the improvement of communications all the parganas New principles of ma must be interested. From the drainage nagement, of swamps, the excavation of irrigating channels, and the extension of cultivation advantages accrue to all indirectly in the improved salubrity of the surrounding country, which always follows clearances after the first two or three years. The Superintendent will therefore be guided in his appropriation of khám collections, having for their object the improvement of the Tarái, by a consideration of what will tend in the largest degree to benefit the whole tract. The Superintendent of the Tarái has the power, subject to the eonfirmation of the ‘Sudder Board of Revenue, of conferring proprietary right in land on cultivators who may have formed villages in the Tarái and been settled upon the lands for a period not less than ten years, and may have brought under cultivation not less than half the culturable area assigned to them. It is thought that the object to be aimed at in giving proprietary right will be as surely attained in the end by holding out hopes of such rights at the next settle- ment to those who had earned them by their industry, and of maurºsi rights to others having lesser pretensions and more slender claims to favour. The Superintendent will bear in mind that the object with which all these parganas have been formed into one district, and placed under his direct charge, is the reclamation of the Tarái. The introduction of a simple and uniform adminis- tration, adapted to the rude nature, the social backwardness, and the primitive customs of those who form the greater part of the population, will assist the furtherance of this object, but success will depend chiefly on the temper, the direction, and the energy of the Superintendent.” With these instructions Mr. Elliott Colvin, of the Covenanted Civil Service, was placed in charge of the Tarái, with Mr. Macdonald as his Assistant. The Tarái was at first placed in the Rohilkhand 30 division, but in 1870 was transferred to Kumaun. The Superin- tendent was invested with primary authority in all matters relating to the administration in all departments, and power to assign such duties, executive, fiscal, or judicial, within certain defined limits, to the Assistant as he might be deemed qualified to discharge. Rules for the guidance of both officers in all matters were drawn up. The police in the Tarái are not organised under Act V, of 1861, as in the rest of India, and the duties of supervision are performed by the revenue officers. There are but seven police stations in the Tarái, and there seems to be no need for more, owing to the little crime existing among the scattered and quiet popu- lation of the jungles; and altogether we may now reasonably hope that the Tarái is entering upon a time of prosperity, moral and material, which it has not known for centuries. NAINI TAL, } E. T. ATKINSON, The 5th July, 1877. - - QUESTIONS ON THE UNREPEALED CIRCULAR ORDERS OF THE BOARD OF REVENUE, NORTH WESTERN PRO WIN CES', FROM 1848 TO 1867. COMPILED AND ARRANGED AT THE DESIRE OF THE BOARD OF REVENUE N. W. P. BY EDWIN T. ATKINSON, B. A. BEN GAL CIVIL SERVICE. BEN ARES : PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY E. J. LAZARUs AND Co. -esº-sº 1867. r r -: º w -º- - —--- - K Žeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeº BENARES: PRINTED BY E. J. LAZARUS & Co. (D ãº, NOTICE. -42 &ssº- The arrangement into ‘Headings' of the printed Circulars has been retained. The questions have been divided into sections ac- cording to subjects; the words printed in italics giving as far as possible the subject of the section. The references given are to the paging of the printed Circulars, the word ‘para.' referring to the paragraph which bears the number on the page referred to, where there are two paragraphs of the same number on the same page, the number or letter of the circular order is given also. When there is no number, the line at which the answer will be found is entered. E. T. A. February, 1867. $f ��№ ºppº QUESTIONS ON THE UNREPEALED CIRCULAR ORDERS OF THE BOARD OF REVENUE. gºv/º/vv^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^er PART I. Y. LAND REVENUE. 1. What are the provisions for enforcing the joint responsibility of sharers in undivided mehals (p. 1) { Name the Butwarrah law (p. 347) : Who may claim separation (p. 347)? What proceedings impair the joint responsibility? May they ever be adopted! How should defaulting sharers in an undivided putteedaree estate be proceeded against, and how pro- prietors of a separate estate (p. 1, 2, 347) 2. In sale for arrears of Revenue what bids may be accepted What discretion has the Collector in accepting a bid less than the arrears? How far does the purchase by Government relieve the defaulter in person and estate? When must the property be purchased by the Collector? How alone can an irrecoverable balance be adjusted (p. 2)! 3. What procedure should be followed in sending a Revenue de- faulter to jail (p. 2)" When should this mode of coercion be resorted to (p. 7)? What returns are required (p. 6)" re-entry of defaulter on condition of payment of arrears may be deemed 4. In cases where transfer to a putteedar of a defaulting puttee and necessary, what are the arguments for and against the measure! What general principle should be observed? When only should repayment be enforced and when only can it be ignored (p. 3)? 5. In Sales, when should the entry of sale be made in the Sale Register and Supplemental memo: of sales and when in the Account Sale Statement (p. 4, para. 6)? In filling up column 3 of the latter statement “names of proprietors and nature of tennure,” when must the names of all the proprietors be entered (p. 5, para. S)? When should these statements be forwarded (p. 4, para. 4)? § ſ f § | : 6. When should instalments for repayment of Tuccavee for works of permanent utility commence! Within what period should the whole advance be repaid (p. 8, para. 6)? For what special object will Tuccavee be granted (p. 45, para. 6)? . :^----- [ 6 7. What procedure is enjoined in annulment of engagements? Name the Law. What period of grace is allowed 7 Can this be extended. What grace is allowed to payers into the Sudder Treasury? Does this make the mehal “Huzoor Tehseel?” What are the privileges of “Huzoor Tehsee!” mehals (p. 9)? What are the causes of variation in the Land Revenue Demand Roll (C. O. 7, 1867 para. 11)? What directions have been given for its preparation (do, paras. 12, 13)? What directions with regard to the Land Revenue Balance sheets (do, paras. 1–10)? 8. On whom should dustucks be issued for recovery of malgooZaree, and to whom only should Dakhilas be given How should the detail of credits of Putteedars be kept and by whom (p. 9, 10)? II. SETTLEMENT. 9. What preliminaries must have been observed in order to render the award of a sooltanee punchayat legal and conclusive (p. 11)? 10. What cesses are leviable? At what rates (p. 80)? Should they be separately engaged for (p. 80)? In maafee estates and resumed or lapsed patches, how, and by whom, should they be paid! In mokururee and obaree tenures, what will be taken as the basis of calculation (p. 36, p. 65, No. 20, Pt. II, p. 18, para. 4)? 11. In Re-measurements why cannot one standard beegah be adopt- ed? What should be considered the local standard beegah (p. 36, No. 2, paras. 6. 11)! When may the dimensions of each field in local kutcha beegahs be omitted from the khusreh, and when must they be retained (p. 37, paras. 7, 8)? What rule should obtain in cases where the re-mea- surement beegah differs from the beegah of settlement (p. 37, paras. 12, 13)? 12. What should be considered the standard for the kami! or last full jummah on assignments of Waste Land (p. 38, paras. 2, 8) ; How may materials for fixing this standard be obtained (paras. 3, 7)? Does this alter the mode of preparing the graduated jummah already prescribed (para. 8)". In what cases may this standard be exceeded (p. 38, paras. 2, 9, p. 39, line 7)? + 13. Why is the previous preparation of a rent-roll (Jumahbundee) an object in the settlement (p. 40, para. 6, p. 42, paras. 3, 4)? What are the objections to drawing up the Jumahbundee before the assessment of Jummah (p. 40, paras. S, 10)? In what cases may it be taken up as one of the early proceedings and why (p. 41, para. 11)? When it cannot be so taken up, how should the Khuteonee and Teerij be treated (para. 16)? Who is responsible for its accuracy (para. 13)? What measures should be adopted to ensure this accuracy, and how ought these measures | | 7 | make it practically a settlement record (paras, 14, 15, Pt. II, p. 3, A. A p. 8, para. 3, p. 10, line 13)? Who are entitled to extracts from the Jumahbundee and khewat? Who should furnish these? Are they liable to fees (p. 66, No. 25, Pt. II, p. 10, No. 11)" (see Sec : 50, 51). 14. Describe the modified khusreh How should the Shujreh be mounted? Where should the shujreh and khusreh be deposited (p. 45, paras. 2, 3, 4)? How are compasses to be obtained for the purposes of surveying? How can jureebs be tested (p. 39, No. 17)? By whom should | the Field maps and Indices of districts under settlement be prepared! What are the advantages of this plan. (Cºr : 5, 1867)? i5. Under what condition should the right of the ryot to sink | wells be stipulated for in the Wajib-ool-wrz Ż How may this be encouraged (p. 45)? What measure has been taken to afford data for determining the | capabilities of a district for well-irrgation (p. 45, B.)? How should the | cesses leviable under the chowkeedaree Acts be stipulated for in the settle- | ment engagement (p. 69, para. 8, p. 80, paras. 2, 5, 7)? How and at | what rate is putwarries dues provided for in the Wajib-ool-urz (p. 80, para. 4, Pt. II, p. 18, No. 7)? What stipulation as to the right of passage for private canal works should be made (p. 165. not : 3)? In temporary | settlements what stipulations as to Alluvion and Diluvion should be | made (p. 137, I.)? 16. What are the probable causes of the extensive alienations of | lands during the currency of the settlement (p. 49, para. 5)? Under what law is the Revenue officer invested with some control in sales of | land in execution of decrees (p. 53, para. 5, p. 265, para. 8, Pt. II, p. | 117, Z. p. 125, para. 6)? What instructions have been issued on the sub- |ject (p. 383) ; What allowances are permitted to Tehseeldars and Peshkars | employed in field operations at Settlement (p. 47)? 17. What sole change has the Seharumpore Instructions introduced | in the procedure to be used for calculating the Government demand (p. 47, | para. 2)? What principles to be followed in fixing the Government demand have they affirmed? What materials for this purpose would be | available (paras. 3, 4)? When does the Settlement year end? Name the | Act which fixes this date (p. 48, line 1, Pt. II, p. 123, No. 5)? 18. Why should baghs be assessed! What caution should be exercis- ed (p. 48)? What proportion may be exempted from assessment (p. 72) , How will this rule apply to pure Zemindaree and how to estates held in | Severalty (p. 79, paras. 1, 2)? In settlement of lapsed maafee tenures with other than the zemindar, in what cases should the latter be allowed a percentage for the risk and trouble of collection ? At what rate (p. 60, No. 3)? When should land in Civil stations be excluded from the | 8 || district rent roll! At what rate should such land ordinarily be assessed (p. 61, No. 12)? At what rates should Talookdaree allowance be calcu- ated (p. 48, N.)? 19. What is the object of Settlement Statements II and III (p. 58, p. 61)! In filling up the column for “average rent rates” in divisions containing tracts of varying fertility how should you proceed (p. 58, paras. 3, 4)? Generally what data should form the basis of these entries (para. 5, 11, p. 60, paras. 3, 4, 5)? How should that data be obtained (p. 59, para. 11)? What should the report contain (p. 58, paras. 5, 9, p. 70, para. 4)? Why is the correctness of the result now more than ever a matter of moment (p. 59, para. 12)! At what stage of the settlement should this report be made (p. 60, para. 5, p. 66, No. 28) : In filling up the statement of rights and liabilities page. 3. statements II, III, what rules should be followed in regard to the entry of sharers and local sub- divisions, (p. 61, No. 3)' Why can no form be prescribed for the assess- ment statement (p. 67, No. 26)." In irrigable mehals, in what cases must the tabular statements in II, III, be supplemented in detail (p. 66, paras. 7, 8)? What measures should be adopted to test the accuracy of the Settlement Records (p. 46)? In a village where the net assets amount to Rs. 1000, for how much will engagements be taken from the proprietors? Under what heads will this be credited, give an exemplar (p. 80, paras 5. 6). | 20. What principle should guide the settlement officer in assess ing the jummah in districts where artificial irrigatºon has been provided at the cost of the state (p. 42.) | What are the grounds of this principle, who should collect the water-rate (p. 43)? Will this alter the general basis of assessment in such cases (p. 54, para. 2)? How will the increased revenue due to irrigation be determined (p. 54, para. 3, p. 66, para. 3) However in calculations based on the difference between baranee and Arrigated rates, what limitations must be considered (p. 66, para. 4)? To what uses will this estimate of Canal Revenue be put (do, para. 6)? What other considerations connected with irrigation influencing the assessment must be detailed in the Assessment Statements II, III, (do, para. 7, 8) 21. When the permanent Settlement is in progress what stipulations should be entered in the durkhast of engagement. (p. 65, p. 67, No. 29. para. 4)? What special ones in estates artificially irrigated at the cost of the state (p. 165, Not. 3)? What stipulations as to mining royalties should be made the subject of engagement in lands of which the pro- prietory right belongs to (a) the state (b) private parties (p. 68, No. I, p. 73, para. 9)? In the preparation of assessment statements ii, iii, in estates irrigated at the cost of the state, how should the Canal Revenue - rº-sºº . =-mº - - — . | 9 | be estimated (p. 66, para, 3)? What limitations must be considered (para. 4)! Why must these limitations be carefully considered by reason of the use to which the calculation may be put (para. 5, 6)? What other consi- derations require a more detailed explanation than the tabular statements afford (paras. 7, 8)? In estates subject to fluvial action, how may the pro- cedure of the permanent settlement be applied (p. 67, No. 29) : What divisions should be made? When may enhancement on account of fertiliza- tion of area and abatement on account of deterioration be claimed (p. 67)? In the latter case what is the practice in estates not perma- mently settled (p. 6, 8, para. 7)! Into what classes may districts be di- vided for the purposes of the permanent settlement (p. 72)? To which of these classes may the permanent settlement be extended (para. 3) What is the standard entitling an estate to permanent settlement (para. 4)? When such standard has not been reached, when and under what restrictions may a permanent settlement be still formed (p. 73, para. 5)" Is a russudee jummah allowable (paya 6) . In estates not open to a permanent settlement, how long will the settlement last (paras. 7, 8)? 22. Name the Chowkeedaree Acts (p. 80, para 8) ; What Act. provides for the watch and ward of towns and bazaars (p. 80, para. 8) ; What cesses are leviable under the Chowkeedaree Acts (p. 68, para. 4)? At what rate, when and how should the House tax be levied (p. 69, paras. 5–11)? How should this be stipulated for in the settlement durkhast (p. 69, para. 8, p. 80, paras, 2, 5, 7)? When should the detail of liabilities under the Act be entered (p. 69, para. 9) By what process is it leviable from the Collectors, and by them from the cess-payers (paras. 7, 11)? What would be considered a separate house under the Act (para. 12) . When the jummah has already been revised, what rules should be observed Give an exemplar (paras. 14, 15) At what rate should the municipal cess be levied (see sec: viii, of the Act) . To what purposes may it be applied (p. 80, para. 7) : III. MAAFEES. 23. On what terms, and subject to what proviso, should the heirs of maafeedars be admitted to settlement (p. 105, No. 12, paras 2, 4)? Will the death of an ex-maafeedar, with whom the land has been settled, disturb the arrangement (para. 3) . In summary settlements of resum- ed maafee and other similar patches of land, how will the jummah at half assets rate be calculated (p. 105, 1, paras. 3, 4)? When the land is settled with other than the zemindar of the village, in what cases only should the latter be allowed a percentage for the trouble and risk of *~---- ~ *=--" 2 **-*-*== [ 10 | ,--—r collection, at what rate (p. 60, No. 3) # In cases of lands released for certain specific purposes, what caution should be inserted in the certificate (p. 107, para, 3) | Name the laws which apply to mutations of registry of these holdings (paras. 4, 6)? With whom should an in crease by alluvion to a maafee estate be settled (p. 136, para 5)? IV. AL.LUWION AND DILUWION. 24. In mºhals subject to fluvial action at the annual inspection, in- to what classes should those found to require alteration of assessment be divided (p. 133, para. 5)? How should the inspection be conducted (p. 33, paras. 2, 3, 4,)? What percentage of increase will entail a re. settlement (p. 134, para. I) What is the object of this rule (p. 136, paras. 3, 4,)? In cases of alluvion, what option in the settlement is allowed to the Zemindar (p. 134 para. 1, p. 136, para. 4) . How should new formations be treated (p. 134, para. 3) : And how the entire loss of a mehal. (para. 7) : Describe the quinquennial system of inspection (p. 134, S. 2, 3) # What advantages does it offer (paras. 7, 8)? h what cases and subject to what provisoes may this arrangement be in. terfered with (paras. 4, 5)" Is increase of area by alluvion in Maafee estates liable to assessment (p. 136, para. 3) . With whom should the settlement of increment be made, the maafeedar or the zemindar (para. 5) - - 25 When may abatement on account of Diluvion be claimed. (p. 134, II, p. 135, para. 6) In future settlements, what new stipulation in regard to Alluvion and Diluvion has been prescribed (p. 137, I.)? Under this arrangement, when only can Diluvion be considered (do.) . In the re-settlement of estates subject to fluvial action, what lands should be separated from the parent mehal, and how should they be treated (p. 137, II, III, IV.)? Name the law for Boundary disputes (p. 138, para. 7)! How should these summary settlements be reported (p. 138, para. 4) . | W. CANALS. | 26. Name the Canal Disricts in the N. W. P. (p. 163) : What spe. cial powers over rivers and streams have Canal officers in their districts (p. 163, para. 2, p. 164, para. 4, and Batarct. G. O.)? By what agency will the water-rate be collected (p. 42, para. 13, p. 166, J.)? By what agency the navigation dues (p. 167, P.)? How far will losses sustain. ed by the action of canal works undertaken for private interests he borne by Government, and by the promoter respectively (p. 165, not; 3) How must, the right of passage for private works be provided for (do) Describe the procedure in respect of accounts to be rendered of Canal Collections (p. 167, F. F.)? - — [ 11 27. Who is the controlling officer in casses of default in payment of canal dues (a) from want of assets. (b) from objection as to liability, failure of water &c. (p. 168, para. 4)? Who will actually collect the rate (p. 42, para. 13, p. 166, J. p. 168, para. 5)? How will the accounts be kept by the persons collecting (p. 168, paras, 5, 6, 8) : Name the Law under which proprietors and farmers of estates may be appointed lumberdars for the collection of the water-rate (p. 170, No. 4) . In what case will this not apply (p. 172, No. 5) How should the record of irrigation for each fussil be compiled (p. 170, paras. 4, 11)? What | agency will be employed, detail the duties of each (do)? In complaints | regarding canal matters generally, what jurisdiction has the tehseeldar (p. | 171, para. 15, p. 172 not )? How will his acts be supervised (p. 171, | para, 16)? Are petitions on Canal matters to bear a stamp (p. 172, not.)? For the purpose of fixing the rates to be levied, into what classes are | Crops divided (p. 172, 3) . What proportion do the “Dal” rates bear to the “Tor” rates (p. 173, No. 17)? On what measure of area will they be calculated (p. 173, No. 20)? WI. APPROPRIATION OF LAND FOR PUBLIC PURPOSES. 28. Name the Law (p. 220, para. 11)? When should the Jummah of Malgoozaree land taken up for pub’ic purposes, be retained on the Touzee and when struck off (p. 199. No. 6) In the former case how should it be represented in the accounts (do.) . What two registers of such lands should be completed in each District (p. 199, F. O. p. 213, para. 4)? What explanations should the register of appropriations by Government for its own purposes contain (p. 212, para. No. 5, 2, p. 213, paras. 4, 5, 8) ; How should relinquishments be noted (p. 213, para. 6)? | Explain the rule which fixes the amount of compensation at ten per cent. above the jumma rates on the cultivated or malgoozaree area [as the Case may be] (p. 200, para. 34, p. 201, paras. 6, 9, 13)? If the owner consents, what should the razeemamah contain (p. 200, para. 5, p. 212, No. 13)? But if he refuses how should the Collector proceed (p. 200, paras. 5, 6)? In all cases what explanations must be entered in the remark | Column (p. 200, para. 7, p. 201, Remarks)? In negotiating for the perma- | nent possession of rent free land, what rule should be adopted (p. 202, line 15, p. 207, para. 26, p. 211, para. 8)" 29. In the adjustment of claims to compensation on account of lands appropriated for Railway purposes, what are the duties of the Tehseeldar (p. 204, Not. 11, paras. 1, 6, 12, 13, 20, 29) : The Engineer (do, para. 4). The Surveyor (do, para. 6). What records should be made | 12 on the spot? Describe each and their object (do, paras. 611)! What modes of compensation are authorized by law (do, para. 12)? Describe the pro- cedure in each mode (do, paras. 13, 17)." After appropriation and regis- tration of the land, how may the amount of the Government demand to be suspended be calculated (do, para. 18) . By what law has Govern- ment the power of determining the account of compensation due to the malgoozaree for loss of profits (do, para. 19, see Act VI, 1857, Sec: 1)! What will this be under existing rules'! Should a larger compensation be awarded, how will it be given (do, para. 19) . In compensating for loss of profits what other interests besides those of the proprietors may be concerned, how should they be compensated (do. paras. 20, 21) What distinctions, among non-proprietary cultivators should be taken into consideration (do, para. 21) 30. In cases of formal arbitration where parties dispute, (a) as to the amount of their shares, (b) as to their right to participate, by whom will the case be decided (p. 206, Not : 11, para. 22) . Where the dis. pute is, as to what particular person the compensation should be given, | to what rule should obtain (do. paras 22, 23 see Act VI, 1857, Secs. xiv, xv) In co-parcenary estates in what cases should the compensation be retained in deposit (do, para, 23) | What distinctions must be taken into consideration in “lakhiraj" and “mokurruree” holdings (do, paras. 2, 25) As to the mode of compensation for maafee lands, what general rule is given (p. 20, line 15, p. 207, para. 26, p. 211, para. 8) ; w what compensation is a non-proprietary Maafeedar entitled, to what a Maafeedar who is also proprietor, to what a Mokurrureedar, to what an ex-maafeedar with whom the estate has been settled at favorable rates on resumption (p. 207, para. 26) What is the rule for “nuzool” land, for Houses on (a) ccoupier's own land (b) nuzool land (c) in bazaars on the land of others for trees and orchandi, for spontaneous produce la- waris, bagha and absorbed jheels (p. 207, para. 27) * What are the rules to be followed in calculating the amount of compensation for cul- turable waste (p. 221, No. 5)" Where temples or other places of worship must be removed, what procedure should be followed (p. 208, para. 28)! When appropriations may afterwards be relinquished, how should they be treated (do, para. 32) , 31. Detail the principles to be followed in calculating a fair com: pensation in the case of (1) Proprietors (p. 210, para. 2). (2) Talookdars and Biswahdars. (do, paras. 3, 8, p. 231, note). (3) Tenant contracting year by year. (p. 210 para. 9). (4) Tenant with permanent right of occu. pancy at full rates (p. 211, para. 10), (5) Tenant with permanent right | of occupancy at privileged rates (do, para. 11). (6) Minhyedar (do, part | 13 12, 14). If the Minhyedar be a rural police-man or such like who enjoys the land in lieu of service, and his services be retained, how should the compensation be distributed (do, para. 14) . To what approprations have the principles prescribed for compensation in Railway appropriation been extended (p. 211, No. 2) . To what case has the ready money compen- sation principle been extended (p. 211, para. 8) ; 32. Into what classes are lands taken up for Railway purposes to be divided (p. 227, para. 1) . Describe the lands which each of the four | classes A. B. C. D. will comprise (do, paras. 2, 5)" In cases of tempo- rary appropriation, who will determine the period of occupation (do, para. 3, 4) . Which classes of land are provided by Government free of cost (do, | para. 1) . In cases of permanent occupation of lands comprised in class C. what considerations should influence the fixing of the rent (do. para. | 4 and p. 226, A. A.) . In these cases, why has the rent paying and not | the purchase system been adopted (p. 228, para. 6) What should the | plans filed with the applications for appropriations contain (do. paras. 8, 10) | Through whom should they be presented and by whom checked (p. 228, para. 11, p. 222, paras. 5, 6) How will the District authorities be furnished with copies of them (p. 228, para. 12) . What are the | duties of the consulting Engineer and Revenue authorities respectively (do, paras. 11, 13) : 33. On what basis should the register of appropriations both past and present be compiled (p. 214, F.) | What items should the English and | Vernacular statements submitted with appropriation reports respectively | contain (p. 213, N.) | What rules have now been adopted for obtaining a full record of all Railway lands, who will keep these books (p. 222, M.)? | Within what period should adjustment of compensation be made (p. 208, paras. 29, 30, p. 226, paras. 2, 3, p. 230, No. 3) . What sanction is | required before taking up lands for public purposes (p. 211, para. 2, p. 226, para. 4, 5) What dates should schedules of appropriation and resumption bear, to whom should they be sent (p. 226, Q. p. 230, A.) . VII. LAND LORD AND TENANT. 34. What classes of suits are cognizable under Act X, 1859, and Act XIV, 1863, (p. 257, 8, p. 264)? Where local investigation may be deemed necessary, to whom may a commission be issued (p. 258, para. I 1, p. 268, para. 3)? What procedure is enjoined, give the form (p. 26s, para, 3) . In cases of abatement how may the information obtained be tabulated (p. 269, para. 4) . Give the Board's opinion as to the gene. ral construction of Sec : 1, Act XIV, 1863, (p. 264, , ara. 3) . How should the word co-sharers in cl: 2. Sec : 1, Act XIV, 1863, be construed *-- | 14 ) (p. 268, No. 10) How are the povisions of Act X, 1859, to be applied to Act XIV, 1863 (p. 264, para. 3) . What pleas and issues will and will not oust the jurisdiction of the Revenue Courts (do, para. 4) . To what courts are decisions of courts of first instance under Sec. 1, Act XIV, 1863, appealable (p. 274, No. 11) . How should the institution stamp in suits relating to (a) Khalsa lands (b) Lakhiraj lands be calculated (p. 264, para. 2) . Name the law for determining the value of a suit (p. 265 para. 6); What new rule as to process of execution has been introducd by Act XIV, 1863, (p. 265, para. 7) . How has the power of the Reve. nue anthorities to avert the sale of land in execution of decrees been ex- tended by the same Act, name the laws (p. 265, para, 8)? In what case is provision for taking security from a party arrested made under Act XIV, 1863, (p. 265, para. 12) . What powers have been given by the same Act to officers employed in making or revising settlements (p. 265, para, 13, p. 266, No. 11) : Name the arbitration law; in applying it, what pre- cautions should be observed (p. 265, para. 10) In what class of cases is a recourse to arbitration peculiarly appropriate (p. 270, para. 6) How has the power of distraint been extended by Act XIV, 1863 (p. 265, para. 9); 35. In applications under Secs. Xxv, xxviii, Act X, 1859, what procedure is enjoined (p. 263, No. 7, para. 2) # In applications under Sec, xxviii of the same Act, what issues should be laid down (do. para. 3) How is the limitation classes in Sec : xxviii, to be construed (p. 261, No. 416) ' What law governs it (p. 262, para 4)? What are the only excep- tions to a 12 years laches extinguishing all right to assess (p. 262, para, 7)? How should the amount of assessment be determined (p. 263, No. 7, para. 3) . What change has this section introduced in the law (p. 267, para. 2) To what class of non-rent-paying holdings do the sections of regulations cite a in Sec : xxviii, Act X, 1859, refer (p. 267, para. 3) . To what class do they not refer, and how should both be treat- ed by the Settlement officer (p. 267, paras. 4, 9) : What other exceptional case may sometimes occur, and how would this be treated (p. 268, para. 10) | Who should conduct sales in pursuance of process of the Revenue courts (p. 260, not : No. 3)? What remunera. tion is prescribed (p. 263, No. 365) . What jurisdiction has an officer invested with powers under Act X, placed in charge of a sub-division of a district (p. 261, F.)? What fees are allowed to translators, what regis. ters should be kept (p. 274, No. 13)? - 36. Has the stamp law made any alterations in the appeal stamps required by Act X, 1859 (p. 268, No. 5)? At what stage of a case should the issues be laid down (p. 268, No. 13, para. 2) . How should the evi. i dence be noted (p. 270, paras. 9, 10) What should the judgment and —" sº----- [ 15 A. decree contain (do, paras, 11, 12)? How and under what sections of Act X, 1859, may a ryot with rights of occupancy be ejected (p. 270, para. 8)? In suits of what value are the copies of decree and judgment ex- empted from stamp-duty (do. 7...ara. 13)? What endorsment should the | former contain, why (do, para. 14)? What decrees may be executed | within three years only (p. 273, No. 2)? VIII. RECORDS AND REGISTRATION. 37. What system has been laid down to render the records of the collector available to the public (p. 299)? What procedure should the par- |ty applying follow (p. 299, para. 4)? What fees are to be charged (a) | for search (do. para. 5,) (b) registry (do, para. 9) When papers are | called for by proper authority, how should the Mohafiz Dufºur act (do. | para. 8) ; What is the object of the fly-indew (p. 300, A. para. 2) . How | should it be prepared (do.)? What cases should be entered in the kooleat | register (p. 303, para. 8, p. 305, para. 27)? Where should registers of per- | manent utility be deposited (p. 304, para. 21, p. 316, app. 4) : Name | Some of them and their object (p. 305, paras. 29, 31) . What should be | the basis of mutations in the Lumberdaree register and khewat (p. 301 | No. 2)? Who are responsible for the timely furnishing of notifications | required in these cases (p. 301, paras. 2, 5)? How should they be promulgated (do. paras. 6, 7) : In what class of cases should the provi- sions of Act XXXIII, 1854, be observed (p. 302, line 1) . What is the object of the Act (p. 301, No. 4) . In these cases, why is a copy of the decision in English neccessary, at what rate should it he charged (p. 320, No. 7)? 38. How are the Offices of current bussiness and record respectively | styled, what records are kept in each (p. 302, No. 9, para. 3) # Should the distribution of business be according to subject or territorial division, which is preferrable and why (p. 303, paras. 9, 10) What re- | gisters should be kept up in each department (do. paras. 1, 12, 14) . Of what use are they (do. 7 ara. 13) : What record is made of the contents of a misl (do, para. 15) ' What should the fly-leaf and “kyduk” contain (p. 304, para. 16)? How many “bustahs” should be kept by each depart- mental mohurrir (do, para. 17)? What should each contain (do) What should the “maskhubar” contain (do, para. 18) When only should cases be handed over to the record-office from the moonshee-kanah (do. para. 19) . What records require special arrangement (do, para. 20)? } When only and under what sanction can the authorized headings of the | Report be altered (p. 304, para. 23) # What proceedings should be ex- | cluded from the statement of business (p. 304, para. 24, p. 320, No. 228) T- | 16 || | —s How should useless records be disposed of (p. 305, No. 10, p. 313, para. 22) # Under what descriptions will records to be retained or removed after certain periods fall (p. 311, No. 4) . How may the proceeds from the sale of waste paper and useless records be applied (p. 313, paras. 17, 22, 23) : What mislounds are required where the distribution of busi- ness is (a) territorial, (b) according to subject (p. 320, C. G.). 39. What is the groundwork of the arrangement of English record and correspendence (p. 306, para. 2) # What bundles may be made, and what rule will obtain in placing correspondence in these bundles (do) How will the correspondence regarding a transaction be treated, and in the file of what month will it be deposited (do, paras. 3, 4) . In order to carry out this plan in its integrity, what care must be taken in correspondence (do, para. 5) / Give a general view of the arrangement of the Commissionors Office (p. 306, 309)? What correspondence, record and indices should be kept up in the Collectºr's Office (p. 399, I, II)? Into what monthly bundles will the file regarding a transaction be deposited (do. III) / Into what bundles may the correspondence be divided, what entries should the fly- indices to these bundles contain, so as to ensure the discovery of the en- tire correspondence (do. III, p. 310, WI, p. 321, No. 19) : Name the eight general headings under which the correspondence may fall (p. 309, para. 5) What Registers are enjoined, who should have charge of the Indices and Registers (p. 311, VII, XII) . 40. In cases mouzahvar and kooleat, how should the papers of a misl be arranged so as to be able at once to distinguish those which it is necessary to keep (p. 311, paras, 1, 2)? Who should make this arrange ment (p. 312, para. 3) . Give a general list of papers in a misland dispose them under each head (p. 314, app. 1)? What general rule as to time and subject should obtain (p. 312, paras. 4, 5) What papers in cases mou- Zahwar and kooleat should be retained permanently (p. 314, app. 2, A.) . In all cases what papers must invariably be preserved (p. 312, para. 8, p. 313, para. 19) . How should the terms for destruction with reference to these rules be computed (do, para. 9) : Into what special departments may periodical statements, registers books and accounts be distributed (do. para. 11)? How will the list of these records be kept (do. para. 10)? What must be permanently retained (do, para. 12, p. 316, app. 4)? And what periodically destroyed (p. 312, para. 4, p. 317, app. 5)? Who will control the revision of the records; what discretion is given (p. 313, paras. 13, 15)? Generally what records should be retained (p. 312, para. 8, p. 319, para. 19)% What rules should be observed in the Tehseeldars Canoongoe's and Putwarie's offices (p. 313, paras. 21, 25)? What papers should be kept by the latter (p. 314, para. 25)? - ==º-º – - | 17 | 4 º j | tain (do, para. 4)? What preliminary notification should be issued (do. | 41. In what cases under Act X, 1859, should a memorandum ac- cording to Act XX, 1866, be sent to the office of the District Registrar, (p. 321, not : 12, para. 1)? When should sale deeds be registered (p. 322, para. 3)? What instruments executed on the part of Government or the Court of Wards should be registered (p. 323, Not : Wo. 23) IX. PARTITIONS. 42. Name the Partition Law (p. 347, Wo. 11, para. 1) . How far | does it oust the jurisdiction of the Civil Courts (do, para. 9)? Who may . claim Partition (do. paras. 6, 13, 21)? What should the application con- | para. 5)? In serving this notice what caution should be observed (para. | 5)? When and how should the power of rejection be exercised (paras. 4, 6, |20)? What rules as to procedure should the Collector follow (para. 7) : | When should the parties be referred to the Civil Court (para. 7)? What cases are appealable to the Civil Court, and what to the superior Reve- |nue Authorities (do. para. 8)". After settlement of preliminaries, what is |, the next step (para. 10) | Who are invested with powers under the Act. 1 | (para. 11)? Under what conditions has the Collector power to hand over a | case to a subordinate officer (para. 11)? What law regulates the fees of ſ the Ameens and arbitrators employed (para. 12) : Who should provide these fees, and how, and in what proportion may he be reimbursed (para. | 12, p. 352, No. 23) 43. When should the measurement and rent-roll be prepared (p. 349, para. 14)? What papers may be accepted as a basis for partition, when | (para. 14)? When only should an Ameen be appointed (paras. 15, 16)? | When should attachment be resorted to (para. 17)? What are the rules : for partition of Putteedaree villages (para. 18) When only can posses- | Sion be altered and transfer inforced (para. 19) . In putteedaree villages and Talooks, when may sanction to partition be withheld (para. 20)? How should the apportionment of the Government Revenue be determined (para. 22) What principles should guide the partition- ing officer in cases where he may consider that any land should be left undivided (para. 24) : Is the act applicable to Maafee villages (para. 27) : Determine the distinctions in form and liability between “But- wara Canoonee” and “Tukseem Putteedaree,” and how far are each affect- ed by the Act (paras. 30, 31) { X. CIVIL SUITS AND ORDERS OF COURTS. 44. What rules should be observed in the management of lands attached by orders of the Court (p. 378, No. 3) . What supervision is pro- T-------- 3 | 18 vided (do. 7 ara. 3)' What particulars as to time of sale should be entered in a sale notice (p. 377, No. 4, S. D. A. Circulars p. 225, Sec; coxlix, Act VIII, 1859)? Where may the sale proceeds be deposited (do. No. 14, p. 387, 7 art. 1 2)" What course should be followed on the occur. rence of a vacancy in the office of Government Wakeel (do. No. 2) What course is prescribed before re-sale after an adjournment (p. 378, line 6, see Sec : 11. C. O. S. D. A. 26, 1862) What is the object of the provisions of Sec : 244, Act VIII, 1859 (p. 49, para. 5, p. 53, 7 ara. 5, p. 382) What instructions have been issued on the subject (p. 383)? 45. In suits brought against the Collector as representative of Go. vernment, how should the Collector proceed (p. 379, para. 2) . What papers should accompany his report to the Commissioner (do, para. 2) What rules should guide the preparation of the reply (do. 7 ara. 3)] With what exception is the discretion of appeal allowed to the Commis sioner, and under what circumstances to the Collector (do. paras. 5, 8)] What exclusive action is retained by the Board in suits by and against Government (p. 379, para. 6, p. 380, paras. 9, 10, 14) . In regular Appeal to the Sudder Dewanny Adawlut, what paper and records should be sent with the report of the Collector (do, para. 13, 14, 16) . See sche. dule Act X, 1861, (Cºr: B. 1867)? In special appeals, what papers alid records should be forwarded (p. 380, para. 15)? How should the cases be classified in the returns (p. 382, p. 385, c. c. p. 390, para. 3) . What || should be considered a separate suit (p. 390, paras. 5, 6) . According | to what year should the return be prepared (p. 389, No. 17, para. 2)" | What index and memoranda should be attached to each suit for facility of reference and preparation of report (p. 390, paras. 6, 9)? In cases of damages on account of Railway works who are liable for the same, how far should the Collector interfere (p. 389, No. 25)? - 46. On what dates should sales of lands or of rights and interests in lands in execution of decrees of Civil Courts be held (p. 386, 1)! Whº procedure should the Civil Courts follow in ordering attachment or sale (do. II, III) . On receipt of requisition by the Collector, how should he proceed (do. iv)? What discretion has he in selecting the property in the inventory of sale (do. iv)? How should any errors in the entry be recti fied (lo. iv) 7 On the sale day, what information should be afforded to the public by the Collector (do. v)? How should objections against the proposed sale be treated (p. 387, vi). When only can the Collector postpone a sale (do, vi) What offences at Sales are punishable under the Penal Code (do. vii)? In what cases may the right of pre-emption be exed, ed (do. viii)? How much of the purchase money must be deposited at | _--T | 19 | the time of sale (p. 387, ix) || Within what period must the whole be made good (do. x) { What ensues on default (do. x) { In what cases only can the Collector disburse it (p. 388, xv) 7 Where difficulties arise in | giving possession under a sale-certificate, how should the Collector proceed | (do. xv)? What are understood to be the liabilities of the purchaser | and rent-payer in estates sold from the day of sale (do. xvii, xviii) ' XI. PAUPER SUITS. 47. What claim has the Government in pauper suits (p. 418, No. 1, para. 3, see Sec : xccix, Act VIII, 1859) ; How must the claim if irre- Coverable be adjusted in the accounts (do.) . With what authority will the power of striking out such claims as appear irrecoverable rest (p. 4.17, C. p. 418, No. 1, para, 3, p. 422, No. 5)' Describe the forms of return and report enjoined (p. 418, paras. 5, 12)? What percentage on recoveries is allowed as fees, to whom (p. 418, J. p. 422, Wo. 13)? What class of fines is recoverable in the same manner as Government due in pauper suits (pt. ii, p. 76, Wo. 16, para. 2)? XII. COURT OF WARDS. 48. What returns and reports have been enjoined to afford the Board the means of supervising the accounts of estates under the Court of Wards (p. 447). With whom lies the appointment of tutors to male minors (p. 448, No. 17, No. 7)? What schemes for their education has now been adopted (p. 4501)? To whom has the control of the Wards Institution been given (p. 451, 7 dras. 4, 5) { egºs | 20 PART II. XIII. PUT WAREES AND LUM BERD ARS AND PUTWAREES' ACCOUNTS. 49. What should be held the minimum qualification for the office of putwaree (p. 1, para. 2) . How should this standard be enforced (do. para. 3, 5)" What means of instruction are open to Putwarees (p. 7, para. 5) Under what proviso may the means of instruction be pro- vided at the expense of the Putwarees (p. 8, para. 4) . How will they be provided with surveying apparatus (p. 3, ZZ. Pt. 1, p. 39, No. 17) Who is to examine putwarrees and grant certificates (p. 2, para. 6) In carrying out this measure, what provision is made in favour of present incumbents (p. 1, para. 4, p. 2, para. 6) { - 50. Where and by what agency should the Putwarees annual pa- per be prepared (p. 7, para. 2, 3) . In what character and language should they be written (do. 7, para. 4) . What character and language should ordinarily be used (p. 7, para. 4)? What should be the basis of the Putwarees yearly papers, and what alterations from this basis should they exhibit (p. 9, para. 2, p. 3, para. 5) What is the great object of these papers, and what measure should be adopted to ensure the attain ment of this object (p. 9, para. 3, p. 7, No. 8, para. 2, Pt. I, p. 41, para, 14, 15) ' What are the main points for enquiry at the yearly inspec. tion (p. 10, line 1) By whom should it be conducted and how (p. 3. para. 3, p. 8, para. 3, p. 10, line 13) : What is the object of the “tull- meenah” made in the Allahabad District (p. 6, paras. 1, 5) . What orders have been issued with regard to it (p. 7, para. 8) ; By whom should the Shujrehs and Indices of districts under settlement be prepar. ed, what are the advantages of this plan; will the preparers be re munerated (Cir. 5, 1867) : | 51. What papers make up the new “ Huftaganah,” what addition has been made (p. 12, Wo. 16, paras. 10) How many copies will the Putwaree prepare, where will they be deposited (p. 13, para. 14) . How far does the change relieve the putwarees (p. 13, paras. 13, 16)." Describe the Jumahbundee, give the headings (p. 12, paras. 3, p. 14, Wo. 1) the Milan Jumahbundee (p. 14, No. II), the Teerij Wasil-bakee (p. 15, No. iii), the Wasil-bakee Bakaya Schsala (p. 15, Wo. iv), the Jumma- Wasil bakee, kastkarar Shikwa, (p. 16, Wo. v.) the ſumma khurch (p. 12, pard, 8, p. 16, No. vi.), the Tabdeelee nam (umberdaran, aur Hissa-daran (p. 17, No. vii). What is the object of the “Bajharut Iſissa-daran,” how | 21 J - is it compiled (p. 12, para. 10, p. 17, Wo. viii) . How far are all tenants entitled to a copy of the Jumahbundee (p. 10, No. ii, para. 1, Pt. I, p. 66, No. 25) What should the tenants copy contain (p. 10, No. 1 1, | para. 5)? When should a new copy be given (do, para, 6) Who will have the copies and how will the expense be defrayed (do. para. 2, Pt. 1, p. 66, No. 26, para. 2) . 52. Name the Putwarees Law (p. 11, O. para. 2) Enumerate the offences and punishments made cognizable by it (do.) . How are | minor offences and breach of the Boards' rules made punishable under it (do. para. 3) . What would be considered a suitable punishment in such cases (do. para. 4, 5, p. 12, para. 12) . In what cases should Putwarees be made to reimburse parties for the expense they have been put to in prosecuting their rights (p. 11, paras. 6, 8) ; What punish- ment follows on non-payment of fine (p. 11, para. 4) . In charges of incompetency, what procedure should be followed (do.) . What arrange- ment for the payment of putwarees was made in the Scharumpore district settlement of 1855 (p. 18, No. 7, para. 2) . How has this been modi- fied (do, and Pt. 1, p. 48, No. 4) . At the revision of settlement | in the same district, at what rate and through what agency were the | Putwarees fees collected and paid (p. 8, para, 7, do. No. 7, para. 2, p. 18, | para. 3) . How have they been graded, on what account and in what | limits are they promoted (p. 8, No. 7, 1 ara, 3) . What principle as to their pay was adopted (p. 9, para. 5) When may these arrangements be introduced (do, para. 6) . How may the surplus Putwaree's fees be expended (do, paras. 4, 7) : What discretion has the settlement officer in fixing the mode in which the Putwarees dues are to be calculated (p. 18, para 2, p. 8, para. 2, Pt. 1, p. 80, para. 4) . How often should they be paid (p. 8, para. 7, p. 18, para. 3)? Why should the proprietors of maafee patches in khalsa estates contribute (p. 18, para. 4) . 53. Define the title “Lumberdar” (p. 4, para. 5) What quali- fications may a Lumberdar be expected to possess (p. 2, para. 8) ; Can the qualifications of Lumberdars always rule their appointment; in what cases may their appointment rest on other ground (p. 2, para. 7)! In appointing Lumberdars, what principle as to numbers should pre- Vail (p. 4, para. 3)? When this principle has been overlooked, what mea- Sures should be adopted to rectify the error, and where may the basis | of a correct calculation be found (p. 4, para. 4, 7)? How have the Se- harunpore rules made attention to this principle a matter of primary importance (p. 4, para. 3) . In carrying out these measures, what state- ment may be prepared and how may this statement otherwise be made use of (do, paras. 4, 5, 9)? When should separate Lumberdars be allowed | 22 ) (do, para, 5) What procedure should be adopted in cases (a) where seve. ral distinct puttees claim each its own Lumberdar (b) where the Lum- berdars title has been extinguished by sale &c. (p. 4, paras. 5, 6)? XIV. ESTABLISHMENTS. 54. What transactions have been forbidden to public servants gene. rally in the districts in which they are employed, what rules have been prescribed for adoption (p. 43, No. 2, do not ; line 18, p. 49, No. 10, p. 50) Should the security bonds of Treasurer be stamped and registered, how often should they be renewed (p. 44, No. 11)? What procedure should be followed where an increase or change of establishment may be deemed necessary (p. 47, No. 5, p. 78, S.) | What pension-holders in employ can draw the full salary of their office (p. 43, not: line 25)? For the appointment and removal of what grade of officers should the sanction of the Commissioner be obtained (p. 44, No. 8, p. 48, para. 2, C. O. 2, 1867, para. 3) . What allowances should be made during the period of (a) suspension reading enquiry and (b) suspension for punishment (p. 49, para. 9)? In the former case, how should the balance of pay held in deposit be distributed (do, paras. 6, 7)? When substitutes have been employed, how should their remuneration in case of (a) acquittal and (b) conviction, be calculated (p. 49, paras. 4, 6)? In punishing what officer by fine must a report be made to the Commissioner (p. 43, No. 3, p. 48, para. 2)? Who alone has power to take cognizance of offences “suo motu" (Cir: 2, 1867)? 55. Name the Canoongoes Law (p. 46, para. 1)? Who are eligible for the office (p. 46, para. 3, Cºr: 4, 1867, para. 5)? Under what restric. tions may Gomashtas be employed by them (p. 46, para. 4, Cºr 4, 1867, para. 6)? Define the relations of the Canoongoe to the Tehseeldar (Cºr: 4, 1867, paras. 4, 7)? What are the duties of the Canoongoe as Pergunnah Registrar (p. 46, para. 7)? What are his duties as Official attestor (p. 57, para. 8, Cºr: 4, 1867, paras. 2, 3) . | | XV. ACCOUNTS. 56. In what class of accounts should fractions of a rupee be omit ted (p. 75, No. 15)? Describe the “Register of suits other than pauper suits,” what is its object (p. 75, G.)? What memorandum should accom- pany contingent bills which require the counter-signature of the Com- missioner only and those which require the counter-signature of both the Commissioner and the Board (p. 76, No. 5, paras. 2, 3) . What certi. ficate should accompany an application for sanction to extra expenditure (p. 78, S.) Under what procedure will fines under Act XIX, 1853, be -* | 23 levied (p. 76, No. 16, , aras. 2, 7)? Who has power to remit all those hopelessly irrecoverable (do. para. 5)? On whom will devolve the com- pilation of the statement of Demands, Collections and Balances required by the Board (p. 79, B. para. 2)? What will form the basis of this state- ment (do.)? According to what year should it be kept (p. 81, No. 4) . In the Budget Estimate, how should proposed remºssoms of demand on ac- count of Revenue be provided for (p. 81, Y. paras. 2, 4)? how refund of sums already collected (do. paras. 3, 4) . In both cases what certi- ficates must accompany the report (do. para. 4) . In the latter, to what year must the certificate refer (p. 82, para. 2)? In what cases of cash payments for Government may the certificate be dispersed with (do, para. | 3)? Under what head of the Budget should Surplus Tulubana be credit- | ed (p. 82, No. 28) : XVI. ANNUAL REPORTS. 47. Under what heads should the annual report of the Col/ector be arranged (p. 115, para. 30, p. 119, Wo. 22) What should the General | Remarks contain (p. 115, para. 30) In order to censure the timely sub- | mission of the report, what arrangement as to the preparation of tabular | statements should be adopted, to whom should they be forwarded (p. 120. | D, paras. 2, 3, p. 124, v, para. 2, p. 125, para. 9)? What statatements | should the appendºw contain, briefly describe each (pp. 107, 114, 119, 120, 123)? What notice should be taken of alienation of lands public and private, why (p. 107, para. 1, p. 113, para. 21)? How far does Sec : 244, Act VIII, 1859, affect compulsory sales (Pt. I, p. 49, No. 42, p. 382, M. Pt. II, p. 117, Z. p. 125, para. 6) . On what dates do the offi- dial, Revenue, and agricultural years respectively commence (p. 123, Not: 6, para. 2, Cºr 7, 1867, para. 1)? What returns, reports and remarks in reports will be drawn up according to each of these years (p. 123, not: 5, p. 125, paras. 2, 3, Cºr: 7, 1867)? Under what headings should the settlement report be arranged (p. 126, para. 3)' Explain each (do. paras. 4, 8)? What matters must be excluded from these reports (p. 125, No. 19, para. 2)? To what other reports will these instructions apply (p. 126, para. 9) XVII. NUZOOL. 58. How only can “Nuzool” lands be granted away or sold (p. 151, para. 9)? Distinguish between Wulf and Nuzool lands (p. 151, paras. 4, 5)" How may each be applied and how should their accounts he kept (p. 151, 2)? What is the rule of compensation when Nuzool land is taken up for Public purposes (Pt. I, p. 207, para. 27)? *------— | 24 | XVIII. PRICES-CURRENT. 59. Who is primarily responsible for the accuracy of the prices. current (p. 180, No. 9, para. 3) . By what officer should they be com. piled (do. p. 179, line 7)? Of what articles only will the wholesale price be given (p. 177, Rule 5, p. 180, para. 3)? What will be considered the market price (p. 179, line 11) . What days transaction will appear in the return (p. 177, para. 2, Rule 5) What weights and coins will be entered in the return (p. 178, Rule 6) ; What should be entered under the head of “sugar (red.)” (p. 180, Office Memo.) . XIX. RAIN-GUAGES AND RAIN-RETURNS. 60. Describe the rain-guage in use (p. 214, W.)? How are obser. vations taken and recorded (do.) . When especially should the registers from out stations be examined (p. 208, para. 7)? How are the rain. guage stations to be arranged in the returns (p. 208, para. 7, p. 211, para. 4, p. 206, para. 6) What should be shown in the accompanying map (p. 206 para. 7, 8) ; To whom will the returns be sent, on what days? How will out-station registers be forwarded (p. 213, Not : No. 1) { XX. PENSIONS. | 61. At what rate may hereditary and all other personal pensions of an hereditary mature be commuted for Cash payments (p. 241, para. 3. In what cases may allowances to religious objects be so commuted (do) || In each case, what sanction is required (do.) . What life-pensions may be commuted for cash-payments, at what rate (p. 243, No. 6) What regis. ter to prevent fraud is enjoined (p. 242, paras. 3, 4) . What certificate must be signed by the disbursing officer at the time of payment (p. 243, - No. 761)! What pensions are transferable from one place to another with in the Bengal Presidency, subject to what provisoes (p. 244, C. para. 2)! XXI. RULES OF PRACTICE. - 62. How are appeals to be presented to the Board (p. 270, Rule I) What stamp is necessary (do. Rule II) . What papers should accompany the memo of Appeal (do. Rule II, p. 276, para. 8) ; How will the cast be prepared in the office (p. 270, Rule III) ' What are grounds for ad mitting a special appeal (p. 270, ſºules IV, VI) On the admission of a appeal, what procedure should be followed (do. Rules VII, VIII) . How will the final order be made known to the parties (do. Rule IX) / Whal class of circular order, now rules and forms should not be issued without the consent of Government (p. 270, No. 12) . What should they contai and how be published (p. 270, No. 12, para. v)" What general rule tº to distribution of business to subordinate officers should be adopted () 271, anºerure)" | 25 63. In cases of suspension of demand, levy of suspended balances attachment for default, claim to renewal of a lease with petitioner as heir, Tuccavee payment of authorized malikanah, default in payment of Canal Toll and Transfer of funds, what authority is given to the Commissioner and what is reserved by the Board (p. 272, Wo. 9, Rules I, IX) In Imperfect Partitions, Civil suits by or against Government and adjustment of diet allowance of revenue defaulters, how far will the Commissioners order be final (p. 273, Rules X, XII)". In investigation of maafee cases matters connected with the Court of Wards, Repairs of Pub- | lic Buildings, abkaree, and continuance and payment of pensions, how far does the Board's authority extend (do. Rules, XII, XX)? In all these cases | even where the Commissioners order may be considered final, what power of revision is retained by the Board (do. Rule XXI) / When the decid- ing officer in each grade may be dissatisfied with the decision of his superior, to whom may a reference be made (p. 274, Rule, XXII)? What rule of practice as to distribution of business between the two members of the Board obtains (p. 27.5) / And what cases is the concurrence of the two members necessary (p. 275, Rules VI, VII, X) What Act regu- lates the procedure of Revenue officers when acting judicially (p. 276, No. 4, para. 1) Enumerate the cases in which judicially (do, paras. 3, 4) . What time is allowed for an appeal from the decision of the Collector to the Commissioner (p. 276, para. 3, Cºr: 6, 1867) : From the Com- missioner, to the Board (do.) XXII. GOVERNMENT BUILDINGS, 64. What record of lands in Tehseeldaree enclosures should be kept (p. 327) : For what purpose, in what form (p. 327) : XXIII. TREASURE AND TREASURIES. 65. What kind of bowes should be used for the conveyance of Treasure (p. 329, No. 705, para. 5)" What will the larger hold and Weigh (do, paras. 3, 4) . When should Treasury cash be forwarded to the Sudder Station (p. 331, No. 18, para. 2)? What check should be kept by the Tehseeldar (p. 331, No. 18, paras. 3, 4) . How often should the cash be counted (do, para. 3, p. 333, No. 16, para. 3) When may the Tehseelee cash balance amount to more than Rs. 10,000 (p. 331, paras. 6, 7)? What Treasury letters should be registered (p. 331, E.)? In what respect does the Head Quarters Tehseelee differ from the others (p. 332, para. 2)? Where should the Revenue due in such Tehseelees be paid (p. 333, para. 4) # Under what restriction may ºfficers other than Collectors be placed in charge of Treasuries, how * -— — 4 | 26 only can this restriction be removed (p. 333, No. 16, para. 2)" Does this alter the responsibility of the Collector (do, para, 3) . Within what time of joining his first appointment, and for how long must an assistant Collector have charge of a Treasury (C. O. 1, 1867) XXV. REVENUE AGENTS. 66. Name the Revenue Agents Act (p. 391)? What "papers must accompany an application for enrollment under the Act (do, para. 1)! What qualifications are required from (a) matives of India, (b) Europeans (do. parts. 2, 3)? In what subjects will the applicants be examined, how will the examination be conducted (p. 391, paras. 4, 5) / What number of marks will entitle a candidate to a certificate (do. 6, 9)] What certificate-stamps are required (p. 392, para, 4) . What fees are allowed to a Pleader and Revenue Agent respectively under rules of the Board, in (a) suits and applications under Act X, 1859, and Act XIV, 1863, where the value is known, (b) in suits where the value cannot be defined exactly (c) where the suit is decreed in part (d) and where dis missed in toto (p. 392, No. 8, paras. I, 4)? What fees are allowable to defendant, where a suit for damages under the Rent Laws is only de- creed in part for plaintiff (do, para. 5)" When several defendants make a joint defence and where their defence is made separately, how are the fees to be calculated (do, paras. 6, 7)? What scale of fees are leviable in the Courts of the upper appellate authorities, the Collectors, and Deputy Collector's Courts respectively in miscellaneous cases (do, para, 8)? What is the rule for undefended cases and revivals or re-hearings (do, paras. 9, 10) How far will the rules as to fees in original suit apply to Appeals (p. 394, paras. 11, 13) : In all cases what discretion is allowed the presiding officer in granting fees (p. 394, para. 14) --- XXVI. MISCELLANEOUS. 67. Who has a right to the ſunkur and Koora found in an estate (p. 419, No. 730, para. 2) . How may kumkur required for public pur- poses be taken possession of (do, parts. 5, 9) How will koora be prosid: ed (do, paras. 6, 10) : What carriage is allowed to officers on circuit (p. 421, W. W.) : Who may be left in charge of the Sudder Station dur- ing the winter tour (p. 420, F. F.) . When should boundary pillars on the frontiers of Native States be kept in order by the land-holders in our territories, and when by the Government (p. 421, No. 1, paras. 6, 7) In what form should the mortuary register be kept (p. 425)? Who will pre- pare it in villages and who in bazars and towns (p. 424, line 36, p. 425 line 14, p. 426, No. 6)? By what agency will the reports be made to the | 27 Registrars (do.)? To whom will the reports be forwarded by the Regis- trar (p. 425, lines 4, 10, 16, 17, 18, 20)? What are the subjects require- ing notice by the Tehsee/dar in his weekly report during the dry and rainy seasons (p. 426, No. 4) # What orders have been issued in regard to the working of Government officials on Sundays (p. 423, No. 11, Cºr: 3, 1867)? Can Civil processes be transmitted by post on the public service (p. 424, line 4)? What fees are allowed to copyists for transcription of Records in the Revenue offices (p. 422, x) { At what rate will an English copy be given with the vernacular copy of the decree (p. 277. No. 7) Who only has power “suo motw” to take cognizance of offences committed in the district (Cir. 2, 1867, para. 2) For the suspention of what grade of officers must the sanction of the Commissioner be obtained, what rule is laid down for the guidance of the Collector in such cases (do, para, 3).” PROPOSED LIST OF THE DUXB FAUNA, IN drawing up the following lists of the animals, birds, reptiles and fishes found in the Duáb, the northern portion of the Saháranpur District has been excluded, as the fauna of the Sub-Siwálik and the Tarai country can hardly be consi- dered as part and parcel of the Duáb proper. It is, however, quite impossible to draw a hard-and-fast line regarding birds, and as the Duáb, zoographically speaking, has no claims to any peculiar fauna, and is not coincident with the boundary of any marked zoological province, the list now prepared will stand for the plains of North-Western India generally (as above restricted), including the southern districts of the pro- vince of Oudh, as well as Bundelkhand. The vertebrata pe- culiar to Bundelkhand have been separately noticed. As re- gards nomenclature, it has been deemed expedient to follow, as far as possible, the scientific names, as well as general arrangement of Jerdon's well-known manuals. In cases however where wrong names have been applied, or species have been admitted in to the Indian list by mistake, the neces- sary corrections have been made. Rectifications of synonymy as generally adopted (but not by every one) by more recent authors have been added in brackets. In the matter of birds he letter A. indicates that the species resides in the country hroughout the whole year; the letter B. denotes that the species is a cold-weather migrant, arriving during the au- umnals months and departing again in March and April; he letter C. denotes that the species is a hot-weather migrant, oming to this part of the country for the purpose of breed- ng, and leaving again before the cold-weather sets in (this ncludes very few birds and these undergo a very partial migration); while the letter D. stands for rare and occa- ional stragglers. Recent additions have been introduced as is, tris, under the numbers in Jerdon's Birds of India, to which the species is allied. s March 15th, 1875. ( 2 ) JERDON's Nos. Aves. Raptores. 1 B.-Vultur monachus, Linn., 2A.—Otogyps calvus, Scop., • * * 3B.-Gyps fulvus, Gmel., tº 0 ºn 3B bis-Gyps fulvescens, Hume, 4B.—Gyps Indicus, Scop., 5A.— Gyps Bengalensis, Gmel., 6 A.—Neophron ginginianus, Lath., ... Great brown vulture. Black vulture. Large tawny vulture. Bay vulture. Long-billed vulture. White-backed vulture. Indian scavenger Vulture. [It has been shown that Jerdon's term percuopterus, Linn., applies to the African race]. 8.B.—Falco peregrinus, Gmel, ... Peregrine falcon. 9B.—Falco peregrinator, Sund., ... Shahin falcon. [Falco atriceps, Hume is only on accidental variety of this falcon). ll A. - Falco Lagger, Gray, 12D.—Falco Babylonious, Gurney, 12D. bis.—Falco barbarus, Linn., © Q @ 16A.— Hypotriorchis chicquera, Daud, 17B. --Tinnunculus alaudarius, Briss.,... 23A.—Micronisus badius, Gmel., tº e e 24B.—Accipiter nisus, Linn., © 2 & 25D.—Accipiter virgatus, Temm, .... 27B.-Aquila mogilnik, Gmel., Laggar falcon. Red-headed falcon. Barbary falcon. Turnhotee. Kestrel. Shikra. European sparrow hawk. Besra sparrow hawk. Eastern Imperial Eagle. [There has been so much confusion amongst these Eagles that it is necessary to distinguish this bird by its proper name]. 27B, bis.-Aquila bifasciata, Gray and Hard, 28A. - Aquila naevia, Gmel., 29 A.—Aquila vindhiana, Franklin, Bifasciated eagle. Spotted eagle. Indian tawny eagle. [It has been shown that Jerdon's term fulvescens, Gray, has been wrongly applied to this bird], 29D. bis.—Aquila fulvescens, (vera), Gray, Rufous Eagle. [The true fulvescens, and as rare as the preceding one is common]. 30A.—Aquila hastata, Less., ... Long-legged eagle. 31B. - Aquila pennata, Gmel., ... Dwarf eagle. 33A.—Nisaetus Bonellii, Temm., ... Crestless hawk eagle. 38A.—Circaetus Gallicus, Gmel., 39B.-Spilornis cheela, Daud, 40B.—Pandion haliaetus, Linn., tº e 0. 41D. bis.-Polioatus plumbeus, Hodg., ... 42A.—Haliaetus fulviventer, Wiell., ... Serpent eagle. Crested serpent eagle. Osprey. Lesser fish eagle, Ring-tailed sea eagle. [= H. leucoryphus, Pallas, and most probably H. Macei, Cuv.]. 42D. bis.-Haliaetus albicilla, Linn., & © Q European white-tailed Sea eagle. ( 3 ) JERDON's Nos. A ves. Raptores. 45B.-Buteo cavescens, Hodg., ... Long-legged buzzard. [= B. ferow, Gmel.]. 48A.—Poliornis teesa, Franklin, ... White-eyed buzzard. 51B.—Circus Swainsoni, A. Smith, ... Pallid harrier. =C. pallidus, Sykes]. 53D.—Circus melanoleucus, Gmel., ..., Pied harrier. 54B.-Circus aeriginosus, Linn, ... Marsh harrier. 55A.—Haliastur Indus, Bodd., ... Brahminy kite, 56A.—Milvus govinda, Sykes, ... Common kite. 56B. bis.--Milvus melanotis, Temm., and Marsh kite. Schl., [This is M. major of Hume]. 57A.—Pernis cristata, Cuv., ... Crested honey buzzard, 59A -Elamus melanopterus, Daud, ... Black-winged kite. [= E. caeruleus, Desf.]. 60A.—Strix Javanica, De Wurmb, ... Indian screetch owl. [= S Indica, Blyth.]. 65A.--Syrmium sinense, Lath., ... Mottled wood owl, [= S. ocellata, Iless.]. 68B.—Otus brachyotus, Gmel, ... Short-eared owl. 69A.—Urrua Bengalensis, Franklin, ... Rock horned owl. 70A.—Urrua coromanda, Lath., ... Dusky horned owl. 72A.--Ketupa Ceyloneasis, Gmel., ... Brown fish owl. 74A.—Ephialtes pennata, Hodg., ... Indian Scops owl. 74.A. bis.-Ephialtes Sunia, Hodg., ... Red scops owl. 74.A. tris.-Ephialtes griseus, Jerdon, ... Common scops owl. 76A.—Athene brama, Temm., ... Spotted owlet. 77 A.—Athene radiata, Tickl., ... Jungle Owlet. 81 A.—Ninox scutellatus, Raffl., ... Brown hawk owl, 82B.—Hirundo rustica, Linn., ... Common swallow. 84A.—Hirundo filifera, Steph., ... Wire-tailed swallow. =H. ruficeps, Licht.]. 85 A.—Hirundo erythropygia, Sykes, Red-rumped Swallow, [The bird described by Jerdon is not H. daurica Lian., but H. ery- thropygia Sykes, which latter is a permanent resident. 85B, bis.--Hirundo daurica, Linn., ... Migratory red-rumped swal- IoW. ( 4 ) 2 c. J ERDON’s Av Es, Nos. Raptores. 86 A.—Hirundo fluvicola, Jerdon, 89A.—Cotyle sinensis, Gray, to c tº 90A.—Cotyle concolor Sykes, 100A.—Cypselus affinis, Gray, Indian cliff swallow. Indian bank martin. Dusky crag martin. Common Indian swift. [=C. Abyssinicus, Streub.]. 102A.—Cypselus batassiensis, Gray, ... 107A.— Caprimulgus Indicus, Lath., ... 109A.—Caprimulgus albonotatus, Tickl.,... 1 12A, Caprimulgus Asiasticus, Lath., ... 113B.-Caprimulgus Mahrattensis, Sykes, 114A.-Caprimulgus monticolus, Franklin, 117A.—Merops viridis, Linn., 118A.—Merops Philippensis, Linn., 120B.-Merops AEgyptius, Forsk., 123A.—Coracias Indica, Linn., tº º 0. 129A.—Halcyon fuscus, Bodd, tº e G tº 9 º' Palm swift. Jungle night-jar. Large Bengal night-jar. Common Indian night-jar, Sykes' night-jar. Franklin's night-jar. Common bee-eater. Blue-tailed bee-eater. Egyptian bee-eater, Indian roller. White-breasted kingfisher [=H. Smyrnensis, Linn.]. 134A.—Alcedo Bengalensis, Gmel., 136A.—Ceryle rudis, Linn., 144A.—Meniceros bicornis, Scop., tº e 9 147D.--Palaeornis eupatrius, Linn., ... Common Indian kingfisher. Pied kingfisher. Common hornbill. Red-shouldered parakeet. [The term Alexandri, apud Jerdon, has been wrongly applied to this species.] 148A.-Palaeornis torquatus, Bodd., ... 149A.-Palaeornis purpureus, Mull., ... Rose-winged parakeet. Rose-headed parakeet. [The term rosa, apud Jerdon, has been wrongly applied to this species]. 160A.—Picus Mahrattensis, Lath., 164A.-Yungipicus Hardwickii, Jerdon, 180A.—Brachyptermis aurantius, Linn., 18813.—Yunx torquilla, Linn., to O & 193A.—Megalaima caniceps, Franklin, 197A.—Xantholaema Indica, Lath., Yellow-fronted woodpecker. Southern pigmy woodpecker. Golden-backed woodpecker. Common wryneck. Common green barbet. Crimson breasted barbet. [=X. Hamacephala, Mull.]. 199B.—Cuculus canorus, Linn., 205A.—Hierococcyx Varius, Wahl., ... 212C.—Coccystes melanoleucos, Gmel.,... European cuckoo. Common hawk cuckoo, Pied crested cuckoo. [=E, jacobinus, Bodd.]. 214C.-Eudynamys Orientalis, Linn, ... Indian koel. ( 5 ) Common coucal. Bengal sirkeer. Purple honeysucker. Flower-pecker. Chestnut-bellied nuthatch. European hoopoe. Indian hoopoe. Indian grey shrike. Rufous-backed shrike. Bay-backed shrike. Pale brown shrike. Common wood shrike. Black-headed cuckoo-shrike Dark grey cuckoo-shrike. Large cuckoo-shrike. Short-billed minivet. Small minivet, Common drongo-shrike. Long-tailed drongo. White-bellied drongo. Paradise flycatcher. Black-naped blue flycatcher White-browed fantail. Jeb don’s Nos. A ves. Raptores. [=E. honorata, Linn.]. 217A.—Centropus rufipennis, Linn., ... 220A.—Taccocua Sirkee, Gray, 234A.— Arachnechthra Asiatica, Lath., 240A.—Piprisoma agile, Tickl., 250A.—Sitta castaneoventris, Franklin, 254 B.-Upupa epops, Linn., 255A.-Upupa nigripennis, Gould, 256A.—Lanius lahtora, Sykes, & e e 257 A.—Lanius erythronotus, Vigors, ... 260A.-Lanius Hardwickii, Vigors, tº e tº [= L. villatus, Dam.]. 262B.—Lanius arenarius, Blyth, tº tº 0 265B.—Tephrodornis pondi ce ria na, Gmel. 268B.—Volvocivora Sykesii, Strickl., ... 269B.-Volvocivora melasch is tus, Hodg. 270A.—Graucalus Macei, Less., 273B.—Pericrocotus brevirostris, Vigors, 276A.—Pericrocotus peregrinus, Linn., 278A.- Dicrurus macrocercus, Vieill.,... =D. albirictus, Hodg.]. 280B.-Dicrurus longicaudatas, A. Hay, 281E-—Dicrurus coerulescens, Linn., ... 288 A.—Tchitrea paradisi, Linn., tº e ºa 290B.—Myiagra azurea, Bodd., 292A.-Leucocerca albofrontata, Frank- lin. [=L. aureola, Vieill.]. 295R.--Cryptolopha ciner e o capilla, Vieill. 298B.-Alseonax terricolor, Hodg., ... 301B.-Eumyias melanops, Vigors, 304B.-Cyornis rubeculoides, Vigors, ... 310B.-Musicapula superciliaris, Jer- don. - 3.14.D.-Niltava Sundara, Hodg., Grey-headed flycatcher. Rufescent flycatcher. Virditer flycatcher. Blue throated redbreast. White-browed blue fly- catcher. Rufous-bellied fairy blue- chat, - ( 6 ) JERDON's Nos. Avrºs. Raptores. 323 B.-Erythrosterna hyperythra, Cab., [=E. leucura, Gmel, apud Jerdon,-E. White-tailed robin flycatch- er. albicilla Pallas : this bird does not occur in the North-Western Provinces, but in Bengal]. 343D.—Myiophonus Temmiackii, Vigors, 345B.-Pitta Bengalensis, Gmel., tº e º 351D.—Petrocossyphus cyaneus, Linn., 353D.—Orocetes cinclorhynchus, Vigors, 355D.—Geocichla citrina, Lath., tº $ tº 356.D.—Geocichla unicolor, Tickl, 361D.—Merula bouboul, Lath., 365B.-Planesticus atrogularis, Temm., 3711).-Oreacincla dauma, Lath., 385A.—Pyctorhis sinensis, Gmel., 432A.—Malacocircus terricolor, Hodg., e-dºo Yellow-bellied whistling thrush. Yellow-breasted gro un d thrush. Blue rock-thrush. Blue-headed chat-thrush. Orange-headed gro und- thrush. - Dusky ground-thrush. Grey-winged blackbird. Black-throated thrush. Small-billed mountain-thrush Yellow-eyed babbler. Bengal babbler. [=M. canorus, Horsf.]. 436A.-Malacocircus Malcolmi, Sykes, 438A.—Chatarrhaea caudata, Dum., ... 441 A.—Chaetornis striatus, Jerdon, 459 A.—Otocompsa leucotis, Gould, 460A.—Otocompsa jocosa, Linn., e s - [= O. emeria, Shaw]. 462A.— Pycnonotus haemorhous, Gmel, ... [= P. pusillus, Blyth.]. 465B.—Phyllornis aurifrons, Jerdon, ... 466 B.-Phyllornis Hardwickii, Jerd. and Selby. 467 A.—Iora zelonica, Gmel., 468 A.—Iora typhia, Linn., tº tº tº 470A.—Oriolus kundoo, Sykes, tº p & 47 l. D.—Oriolus Indicus, Briss., 772.A.-Oriolus melanocephalus, Linn., 475A.—Copsychus Saularis, Linn., ... 480A.-Thamnobia cambaiensis, Lath., 481 A.—Pratincola caprata, Linn., 483B. --Pratingola Indica, Blyth, Large grey babbler. Striated bush-babbler. Grass babbler, White-eared bulbul. Red-whiskered bulbul. Common Madras bulbul. Gold-fronted green bulbul. Blue-winged green bulbul. Black-headed green bulbul. White-winged green bulbul Indian oriole. Black-naped oriole. Black-headed oriole. Magpie robin. Brown backed robin. White-winged black robin. Indian bush-chat. ( 7 ) JERDON's ER AVES. Nos. Raptores. [Most probably identical with P. rubicola, Linn.]. 485D. Pratincola insignis, Hodg., ... Large bush-chat, 486D.—Pratincola ferrea, Hodg., ... Dark grey bush-chat. 488D.—Saxicola leucuroides, Guerin, ... White-tailed stone-chat. [=S. opistholeuca, Strick.J. 489B.—Saxicola picata, Blyth. ... Pied stone-chat. 491 B.-Saxicola Isabellina, Rüpp. ... Isabelline chat. [The term ananthe. Linn., has been wrongly applied to this species]. 492B.—Saxicola deserti, Riipp,. ... Black-throated wheat-ear. 494A.—Cercomela fusca, Blyth, ... Brown rock-chat. 497B.—Ruticilla rufiventris, Vieill, ... Indian redstart. 507B —Larvivora cyana, Hodg., ... Blue woodchat. 512B.-Calliope Kamtschatkensis, Gmel, Common ruby-throat. 514B.—Cyaneula Suecica, Linn., ... Indian blue-throat. 515B.-- Acrocephalus brunnescens, Jer- Large reed-warbler. don. 516.B.—Acrocephalus dumetorum, Blyth, Lesser reed-warbler. 517B.—Acrocephalus agricolus, Jerdon, Paddy field-warbler. 520B. - Locustella Hendersonii, Cass.,..., Lesser reed-warbler. [The term corthiola, Pallas, has been wrongly applied to this species]. 520B.bis.-Iluscinola melanopogon, Temm., Moustached warbler. 530A.—Orthotomus longicauda, Gmel, Indian tailor bird. 535A.—Prinia Stewarti, Blyth., ... Stewart's wren-warbler. 536B.-Prinia gracilis, Franklin, ... Franklin’s wren-warbler. 539A.—Cisticola Schaenicola, Bonap., ... Rufous grass-warbler. 543A.- Drymoipus inornatus, Sykes, ... Common wren-warbler. 544B.-Drymoipus longicaudatus, Tickl., Long-tailed wren-warbler. 544B. bis.-Drymoipus rufescens, Hume, ... Rufescent wren-warbler. 550A.—Burnesia lepida, Blyth, ... Streaked wren-warbler. [Said to be identical with Malurus gracilis, Rüppl. 551A.-Franklinia Buchanani, Blyth, ... Rufous-fronted warbler. 553B.-Phyllopneuste rama, Sykes, ... Sykes' warbler. 553B. bis.-Phyllopneuste ditto, te e Q Ditto. [A larger and greyer bird than P, rama]. 554B.-Phylloscopus tristis, Blyth, ... Brown tree-warbler. 556B.—Phylloscopus magnirostris, Blyth, Large-billed tree-warbler. 559B.-Phylloscopus nitidus, Lath., ... Bright green tree-warbler. 560B.-Phylloscopus viridanus, Blyth, ... Greenish tree-warbler. 561B.-Phylloscopus affinis, Tickl., ... Tickell's tree-warbler. ( 8 ) JERDON's Aves. Nos. Raptores. 562B.—Phylloscopus Indicus, Jerdon,... 562D. bis.-Phylloscopus Tytleri, Brooks, .. 563B.-Reguloides occipitalis, Jerdon, 565B.—Reguloides supercilosus, Gmel., Olivaceous tree-warbler. Slenderbilled tree-warbler. Large crown-Warbler. Crown tree-warbler. [The term proregulus, Pallas, applies to No. 566]. 565B. bis.-Reguloides sub-viridis, Brooks, 581B. – Sylvia orphea, Temm., tº e 0 582B.-Sylvia affinis, Blyth., 589A.—Motacilla maderaspatana, Briss., 590B. bis.— Motacilla personata, Gould, 591B.—Motacilla dukhunensis, Sykes,... 592 B.-Calobetes melanope, Pallas, tº e Q Allied crowned tree-warbier. Black-capped-warbler. Allied grey-warbler. Pied wagtail. Black-backed wagtail. Black-faced wagtail. Eastern-grey-and-yellow- wagtail. [The term sulphurea, Bech, does not apply to the Indian bird]. Grey-headed field-wagtail. Cinerous-headed, field-wag- tail. Black-headed field-wagtail. [Wagtail. Yellow-headed black-backed Yellow-headed grey-backed- Wagtail. Indian tree-pipit. European tree-pipit. Indian titlark. Large titlark. Stone pipit. Brown rock pipit. Vinous throated pipit. Water pipit. White eyed tit. Flame-fronted flower-pecker. Indian grey tit. Indian corby. 593B.—Budytes flava, Linn., 593B. bis.-Budytes cinereocapilla, Savi, ... 593.B. tris.-Budytes melanocephala, Licht., [Under the name viridis Jerdon and many others have confounded the above three very distinct species]. 594B.-Budytes calcaratus, Hodg., © & © [The bird described by Jerdon is not citriola, Pallas, but calcaratus, Hodg]. 594 B. bis, Budytes citriola, Pallas, 596B.--Pipastes maculatus, Hodg., t;97 B.-Pipastes arboreus, Bech., tº tº º [The terms agilis and trivialis apply to this species, and not to No. 596]. 600A.—Corydalla rufula, Vieill, tº º º 60) B.-Corydalla striolata, Blyth, 602B.-Agrodroma campestris, Linn., ... 604B.-Agrodroma Jerdoni, Finsch, [The term sardida has been wrongly applied to this species]. 605.B.—Anthus cervinus, Pallas, 605.B. bis.—Anthus spinoletta, Linn, 631A–Zosterops palpebrosus, Temm, 633B.-Cephalopyrus flammiceps, Burt, 645B. — Parus cinereous Vieill., is a o 660A.—Corvus culminatus, Sykes, ... [=C.—levaillantii, Less.] 663A.- Corvus splendens, Vieill., ... Common Indian crow. ( 9 ) J tº a pon's A ves. NoS. Itaptores. [=C.—impudicus, Hodg]. 674.A.—Dendrocitta rufa, Scop., tº º º 681 B.-Sturmus vulgaris, Linn., 682B.—Sturnus nitens, Hume, Common Indian magpie. Common starling. Glossy startling. [The term unicolor, Marmora, has been wrongly applied to this bird]. 683A.—Sturnopastor contra, Linn., 684A.-A cridotheres tristis, Linn., ... 685A.—Acridotheres ginginianus, Lath., 687 A.—Temenuchus pagodarum, Gmel, 688B.—Temenuchus malabaricus, Gmel, 690B.—Pastor roseus, Linn, • * * 694A.— Ploceus baya, Blyth, Q & Q 695A.— Ploceus manyar, Horsf., © e Q 703A.— Munia malabarica, Linn. • * * 704A.—Estrelda amandava, Linn., ... 706 A.—Passer Indicus, Jard. & Selb.,... 707 B.— Passer salicarious, Vieill., 711 A.—Passer flavicollis, Frankl., ... 716B.-Emberiza Hottoni, Blyth, tº e e 718 B,-Emberiza Stewarti, Blyth, 7 18.R. bis.--Emberiza striolata, Licht., 722B.—Euspiza luteola, Sparr., 724 A.--Melophus melanicterus, Gmel., 738B.--Carpodacus erythrinus, Pallas, 754A.—Mirafra Assamica, McLell, ..., 756 A.—Mirafra erythroptera, Jerdon,..., 758B.—Ammomanes phoenicura, Frankl. 760 A.—Pyrrhulauda grisea, Scop., ... 76 B.—Calandrella brach y d a c ty la, Temm. 761B. bis.-Melanocorypha torquata, Blyth., 762A.—Alaudala raytal, B. Hamilton, 765 A.—Spizalauda deva, Sykes, • * * 766 B.—Alauda dulcicox, Hodg., tº º º Pied starling. Common myna. Bank myna. Black headed myna. Grey headed myna. Rose coloured starling. Common weaver bird. Striated weaver bird. Plain brown myna. Red wax-bill. Indian house sparrow. Willow sparrow. Yellow necked sparrow. Grey necked bunting. White capped bunting. Striped bunting. Red-headed bunting. Crested black bunting. Common rose-finch. Bengal bush lark. Red-winged bush lark. Rufous-tailed finch lark. Black-bellied finch lark. Short-toed lark. Bastern calandra lark. Indian sand lark. Small crested [ark. Himalayan skylark. [The term triborhyncha, Hodg., apud Jerdon,--Gulgula Franklin]. 767A.—Alauda gulgula, Franklin, © tº a 769A.-Galerida cristana, Linn., e e e Gemitores. 722A.-Crocopus phaenicopterus, Lath., 723A.-Crocopus chlorigaster, Blyth, ... Indian skylark. Large crested lark. Bengal green pigeon. Southern green pigeon. ( 10 ) JERDON's * Nos AVES. Raptores. Gemitores. 787B.—Palumboena Eversmanni, Bonap., 788A.-Columba intermedia, Strickl.,... 792.A.—Turtur rupicola, Pallas, 794B.-Turtur Cambayensis, Gmel, ..., 795A.—Turtur Suratensis, Gmel. ... 796A.-Turtur risorius, Linn., 797 A.-Turtur humilus, Temm., Ičasores. 799A.—Pterocles arenarius, Pallas, 802A.- Pterocles exustus, Temm., 803A.—Pavo cristatus, Linn., e tº e 818A.—Francolinus vulgaris, Steph., ... 822A.—Ortygornis prondiceriana, Gmel., 826A.—Perdicula Cambayensis, Lath.,... 827A.— Perdicula Asiatica, Lath., e tº a 829 B. - Coturnix communis, Bonap., .. 830C.—Cortornis coromandelica, Gmel., 83 l D. - Excalfactoria chinensis, Linn., 832A.—Turnis taigoor, Sykes, 834A.—Turnis dussumjerii, Temm., ... Indian stock-pigeon. Blue rock pigeon. Ashy turtle dove. Little brown dove. Spotted dove. Common ring dove. Red turtle dove. Large sand grouse. Common Sand grouse. Common peacock. Black partridge. Grey partridge. Jungle bush quail. . Rock bush quail. Large grey quail. Rain quail. Blue-breasted quail. Black-breasted button quail. Larger button quail, [=T. tanki, B, Ham.]. Indian bustard. Haubara bustard. Bengal florican. Lesseri florican. Indian courier-ployer. Large swallow-plover. Small swallow-plover. Asiatic golden plover. Grallatores, 836D. -Eupodotis Edwardsii, Grey, ... 337 D.—Haubara Macquenii, Grey, 838D.—Sypheodites Bengalensis, Gmel., 839 D.—Sypheodites auritus, Lath, 840A. —Curs or i u S Gmel. 842 A.—Glareola orientalis, Leach, 843A —Glareola lactea, Temm., © e Q 845B.-Charadrius longipes, Temm, ... e e e Coromandelicus, [=C. fulvus, Gmel.]. 848B.—Agialtes cantianus, Lath, * * * 849A.—Aigialtes Philippensis, Scop, ... 850A.— AEgialtes minuta, Pallas, tº e is 851 B. –Venellus cristatus, Meyer, tº & 852.B.—Cehtusia gregaria, Pallas, • * * Kentish ring-plover. Indian ring-plover, Lesser ring-plover. Crested lapwing. Black sided lapwing, ( 11 ) 5 º S Av B's. Raptores. 853B.—Chetusia leucura, Licht., ... White-tailed lapwing. 855A.—Lobivanellus goensis, Gmel., ... Red-wattled lapwing. [= L. Indicus, Bodd.]. 856 A.—Sarciopherous bilobus, Gmel., ... Yellow-wattled lapwing. 857 A.—Hoplopterus malabaricus, Bodd., Indian spur-winged lapwing. [The term ventralis, Cuv., apud Jerdon, applies to the European bird.] 858 A.—Esacus recurvirostris, Cuv., ... Large stone-plover. 859A.—CEdicmenus crepitans, Temm., Stone-plover. 863 A.—Grus antigone, Linn., ... Sarus crane. §64B.—Grus leucogeranus, Pallas, ... Siberian crane. 865B.—Grus cineria, Bech., ... Common Crane. 866B.—Anthropoids virgo, Linn., ... Demoiselle crane. 867 ſ),-Scolopax rusticola, Linn., ... Woodcc.ok. 870B.—Gallinago Stenura, Temm., ... Pintailed snipe. 871B.-Gallinago scolopacinus, Bonap, Common snipe. 872B.-Gallinago Gallinula, Linn., ... Jacksnipe, 873A.-Rhynchaea Bengalensis, Linn., Painted snipe. 875B,-Limosa agocephala, Linn., ... Small godwit. 877 B.-Numenius arquata, Linn., ... Curlew. 878B.-Numenius phoeopus, Linn., ... Whimbrell. 880B.-Philomachus pugnax, Linn., ... Ruff, 883B.—Tringa cinclus, Linn., ... Dunlin. 894 B.-Tringa minuta, Leis., ... Little stint. 885B.—Tringa Temminckii, Leis, ... White-tailed stint. 891.B.-Actites glareola, Gmel., ... Spotted Sandpiper. 892B.—Actites ochropus, Linn., ... Green sandpiper. 893B.—Ac ites hypoleucus, Linn., ... Common Sandpiper. 894B.--Totanus glottis, Linn., ... Greenshank. 895 B.--Totanus stagnatalis, Bech., ... Little greenshank 896B.—Totanus fuscus, Linn., ... Spotted redshank. 897 B.-Totanus calidris, Linn., ... Redshank. 898A.-Himantopus cauditus, Bonap., ... Stilt. The Indian bird has been separated under the term intermedius (Blyth), but doubtfully soj. 899 B.-Recurvirostra avocetta, Linn.,,.. Avoset. 900 A.—Metopodius Indicus, Rath., ... Bronze-winged jacana. 901 A.—Hydrophasianus chirurgus, Scop., Pheasant-tailed jacana. - [= H. sinensis, Gmel,]. 902A, -Porphyrio poliocephalus, Lath, Purple coot. 903B, - Fulica atra, Linn., ... Bald coot. ( 12 ) JERDoN's Aves. Nos. Raptores. 905A.-Gallinula chloropus, Linn., ... 907 A.-Gallinula phoenicura, Penn, ... 90SA.—Porzana akool, Sykes, 909A –Porzana maruetta, Briss., 910A.— Porzana pygmaea, Naum., tº gº tº 912 A.—Porzana Ceylonica, Gmel., 915 B.—Leptoptilos argala, Linn., 916 B.-Leptoptilos Javanica, Horsf., ... 91 7A.— Mycteria, Australis, Shaw, ... 918 B.-Ciconia nigra, Linn., © e Q 919.B. - Ciconia alba, Belon, & © º 920A.—Ciconia leucocephala, Gmel., ... Water-hon. White breasted water-hen. Brownrail. Spotted rail. Pigmy rail. Banded rail. Gigantic stork, Crested stork. Black-necked stork. Black stork. White stork. White necked stork. [= Melanopelargus episcopus, Bodd.]. 923 A.—Ardea cineria, Linn., 924A.—Ardea purpurea, Linn., ſº 925 A.—Herodias alba, Linn., * tº º 926A.—Herodias egrettoides Temm, .. 927 A.—Herodias garzetta, Linn., tº ſº tº 929A.—Buphus coromandus, Bodd., ... 930A.—Ardeola leucoptera, Bodd. ... * * * & Blue heron, Purple heron. Large egret. Smaller egret. Little egret. Cattle egret. Pond heron. [= A. Grayii, Sykes]. 93 l A.—Butorides Javanica, Horsf., 932 D.—Ardetta flavicollis, Lath., © tº º 9330.-Ardetta, cinnamomea, Gmel., ... 936B.-Botaurus stellaris, Linn., e is tº 937 A.—Nycticorax griseus, Linn. ſº e gº 938A.—Tantalus leucocephalus, Gmel., 939A.—Platalea leucorodia, Linn., 940A.—Anastomus oscitans, Bodd., 941A.--Threskiornis melanocephalus, Linn. 942 A.—Geronticus papillosus, Temm.,... 943B.—Falcinelus igneus, Gmel., Natatores. 944B.-Phoenicoperus roseus, Pallas, ... Little green heron. Black bittern. Chestnut bittern. Bittern. Night heron. Pelican ibis. Spoonbill. Spell ibis. White ibis. Black ibis. Glossy ibis. Flamingo. 944B, bis.--Phoenicopterus, ... Flamingo. [A larger and less rosy coloured bird than No. 944, about to be described as P. Andersoni, Brooks]. ( 13 ) JERDON’s AYES. NOS. Itaplores. 945B.-Anser cinereus, Meyer, ... Grey goose. 946.D.—Anser brachyrhynchus, Baill., ... Pink-footed goose. 948D.—Amser erythropus, Linn., ... Dwarf goose. 949B.—Anser Indicus, Gmel, ... Barred-headed goose. 950A.--Sarkidiornis melanonotus, Pen, Black-backcd goose. 951 A.—Nettapus c oromandelianus, Cotton teal. Gmel, 952A.—Dendrocygna awsuree, Sykes, ... Whistling teal. [= D. arcuta, Linn.]. 954)3.—Casarca rutila, Pallas, ... Ruddy shelldrake. 956.D.—Tadorna vull a ser, Fleming, ... Shelldrake. . 957 B.-Spatula clypeata, Linn., ... Shoveller. 958 B. — Anas boschas, Linn., ... Mallard. 959 A.—Anas poecilorhyncha, Penn., ... Spotted-billed duck. 960 D.—Anas caryophyllacea, Lath., ... Pink-headed duck, 961B.—Chaulelasmus streperus, Linn, Gadwall. 962B.—Dafila acuta, Linn., ... Pintail duck. 963B.-Mareca Peneelope, Linn., ... Wigeon. 964 B.—Querquedula crecca, Linn., ... Common teal. 965B.—Querquedula circia, Linn., ... Blue-winged teal. 965D.bis.-Querquedula angustirostris, ... Marbled duck. Ménét. [One specimen procured in the Fatehgarh district in January, 1875]. 967B.-Brauta rufina, Pallas, ... Red-crested pochaul. 968B.—Aytha ferina, Linn, ... Red-headed pochaul. 969B.-Aytha myroca, Gulden, ... White-eyed duck. 971B.-Puligula Cristata, Ray, ... Tufted duck. 972D.—Mergus castor, Linn., ... Mergauser. 974 B.-Podiceps cristatus, Linn , ... Crested grebe. 975 A.-Podiceps minor, Linn., ... Little grebe. [The Indian Dabchick is identical with the European bird]. 979B.—Kroikocephalus ichtthyaetus, Great black-backed gull. Pallas, 980B.-Xema brunnicephala, Jerdon, ... Brown-headed gull. 982B.—Sylochelidon Caspius, lath , ... Caspian tern. gll. 983B.--Gellochelidon, Anglicus, Montague, Gull-billed term. 984 A.—Hydrochelidon Indica, Steph.,... Small marsh term. 985 A.-Seema aurantio, Grey, ... Large river term. 987 A.—Sterna Javanica, Horsf, ... Black-bellied tern. ( 14 ) JERDON's Nos. A VEs, Raptores, 988A.—Sternula minuta, Linn., ... Little term. 995A.—Rhynchops albicollis, Swain., ... Indian skinner. 300 l B.-Pelicanus onocrotalus, Linn., ... Duropean pelican. 1002B.-Pelicanus mitratus, Lich., . ... Lesser pelican. 1003B.-Pelicanus Javanicas, Horsf., ... Lesser pelican. 1004B.-Pelicanus Philippensis, Gmel., ... Grey pelican. 1004B. bis.-Pelicanus crispus, ... Crested pelican. [It is doubtful whether P. mitratus and P. Javanicus are distinct from P. onocrotalus]. 1006A.—Graculus sinensis, Shaw, ... Lesser cormorant. 1007A.—Graculus Javanicus, Horsf, ... Little cormorant. 1008A.—Plotus melanogaster, Gmel., ... Indian Snake bird. Additional list of Birds found in Bundelkhand. 41 A.—Polioaetus ichthyaetus, Horsf., ... Indian white-tailed sea eagle 52B.--Circus cineraceus, Montague, ... Montague's harrier. 257bis.-Lanius caniceps. 646B.-Parus nuchalis, Jerdon, ... White-winged black tit. . 757A.—Mirafra cantillaus, Jerdon, ... Singing bush-lark. 800 A.—Pterocles fasciatus, Scop., ... Painted sand-grouse, 814A.—Galloperdix spadiceus, Gmel ... Redspur fowl. 819A.—Francolinus pictus, Jerd, & Selby, Painted partridge. Low ER, GANGEs cANAL. THE Lower Ganges canal' is intended to completely provide for the irrigation of the southern portion of the country lying between the Ganges and the Jumna rivers, as the Ganges canal proper has already provided for the northern portion. The source of supply is the same, and the head of the new canal has been established at Narora on the border of the Aligarh district, about four miles below the Rájghât station of the Oudh and Rohil- khand Railway. (See GANGES CANAL.) The main line of canal crosses the river Kāli at Nadrai, and running down the duáb between the Kāli and the Isan, crosses both the Isan and the Cawnpore branch of the Ganges canal proper. Thence it turns the head of the Pándú river, and keeping between that river and the Rind to a short distance below Cawnpore, follows a course south of the railway to Allahabad. The committee appointed in 1866 to examine into the various projects for strengthening the irrigating power of the Ganges canal, and the means to be adopted for providing water for the tract lying between the canal and the Ganges, recommended Rájghāt, in the Bulandshahr district, as the point from which water should be drawn, either for a separate canal, or to supplement the Ganges canal, It was proposed to construct a weir 4,500 feet in length, to raise the low water-level 8 feet, of which 5% feet should be effected by a masonry weir, and 24 feet by a movable board, thus raising the flood level estimated at 300,000 cubic feet per second about 1% feet, and giving a velocity of 12 feet per second over the weir in high floods. The project provided for wells and the use of block kunkur in the works, and for a channel capable of carrying 5,000 cubic feet per second. The discharge at Rájghât on the 10th April, 1866, was only 5,630 cubic feet per second, and at Cawn- pore, on the 5th of April, it was 5,438 cubic feet per second ; so that with the Ganges canal at Hardwār drawing its full supply, History of the canal. ‘Prepared for the Imperial Gazetteer. I am indebted to Mai ‘. . . o jor Jeff f * Valuable note on the progress of the works from 1873 to 1877 ,—E. T. º s tot 2 it was thought that this canal could not always be relied upon to receive more than about 3,000 cubic feet per second. The cost was estimated at 192 lakhs of rupees, and the return at eight per cent. on the outlay, or with a reduced volume of water at five per cent. In November, 1869, the Government of India forwarded a proposal by Colonel Strachey, C.S.I., to the Government of the North-Western Provinces for the construction of this canal. The inquiry into the merits of the work was entrusted to Mr. R. Forrest, who submitted to Government in 1870 four alternative projects for lines to be constructed from alternative heads. His work was never completed, but to him is due the credit of having selected from amongst many alternatives the best position for the weir and head of the canals, of effecting a large saving of expense by projecting a passage across the khādir of the Ganges, and of designing an arrangement of the various lines, which have been substantially adhered to in the ultimate project. The design was completed by Major Jeffreys, R.E., and Colonel Brownlow, R.E., arranged for the distribution of the water from a discharge fixed at 3,500 cubic feet in the cold weather and 6,500 cubic feet in the rains,—the same quantities that are allotted to the Ganges canal. The water will be raised to fill the canal by a weir rising 64 feet above the cold-weather level of the river, which is also the level of the sill of the canal entrance. Shutters will be used on the weir to increase the depth of water to ten feet when required. The main canal commences with a bottom width of 216 feet, a slope of six inches per mile, and a full supply depth of ten feet. A branch, intended as a distributary, will be thrown off at the 26th mile to water the Kāli-Ganges duáb in the Fatehgarh dis- trict ; and at mile 39 a supply channel will be thrown off to feed the Cawnpore and Etáwah branches of the Ganges canal, which are intersected by the new canal on the 29th and 37th miles respectively of their course below Nánu. Henceforth the demands on the stream entering the Ganges canal at Hardwār will cease at these points, and the upper canal will be relieved of irrigation from 128 miles from Cawnpore on the Cawnpore branch, and on Revival of the scheme. 3 130 miles of the Etáwah branch. The Lower Ganges canal will then pass on through the Etah and Mainpuri districts, and will cross the valleys of the Isan and Káli rivers by aqueducts at miles 34 and 112, and the Cawnpore branch of the Ganges canal at mile 115 in its own mile 94. Then heading the Pándu Nadi, the line will pass through a corner of the Etáwah district, and will intersect the Cawnpore district, running on a narrow water- shed between the Pándú and the Rind to the Fatehpur district, which it will traverse in close proximity to the railway. Through this portion of its course it interferes little with the natural drain- age of the country, and on approaching the Sasūr Khaderi Nála skirts the right bank to the Jumna, to which the surplus waters will find their way by a dry ravine. From the Etáwah branch will be taken the Bhognipur line, to water the tract between the Sengar and the Jumna, and lower down the Ghātampur rājbaha, and to supply these two important channels with water it is in- tended to lead a second feeder, to be called the Jhinjhak branch, into the Etáwah branch. A still-water channel will go on to Alla- habad itself, and the main line will be navigable to this point. The supply branch to the Cawnpore and Etáwah branches will be made navigable, while the Cawnpore branch is already navigable, and the Etáwah branch will be made so. A still-water channel will connect the town of Fatehgarh with the main line, and the tail of the Cawnpore branch will be linked on to the line by a channel crossing the Pándú river. The original scheme embraced in all 555 miles of new main e canals, and the total cost was estimated at Cost of the undertaking. Rs. 1 ,82,58,451, or about one and three- quarters million sterling, and if we add to this sum the original cost of the Cawnpore and Etáwah branch channels which the pro- ject now absorbs, the capital amount would rise to Rs. 2,22,65,232. The gross income was estimated at Rs. 25,80,000, and the net income at Rs. 19,50,000, which would give a direct profit of 8.8 per cent. From these estimates and the actual cost of the Ganges. canal proper, it would appear that the ultimate cost of the whole of this great system of protective irrigation works will not exceed. five millions sterling, . . . . . z A 4 Three divisions (Narora, Kásganj, and Bhongaon) were started during 1873-74, and comprised the works necessary for 107 miles of main canal and 24 miles of supply channel. The workshops at Narora formed a separate charge. The great work on the upper portion of the canal is the weir and head-works at Narora. The weir is intended to control the supply in the river and render it available at all times for irrigation. It consists of 3,800 The weir. feet of solid wall, with a section of ten feet by nine feet, founded on 341 square blocks ten feet in length, breadth, and depth. Below this wall is an ashlar-paved floor, laid at three feet below the level of the water in the cold weather (575 feet above mean sea-level), and resting on four feet thick- ness of brickwork and concrete. The down-stream side of the floor abuts on to a line of 366 cylinders, twenty feet deep, of which the fifty-six nearest the under-sluices go down to the clay (32 feet). A talus of loose stone or kunkur in blocks extending to 100 feet in width and having an average depth of four feet complete the section of the weir proper. The weir-sluices are on the right flank, and have been built for the purpose of keeping open the channel leading to the canal-head, which immediately adjoins. There are forty-two sluices of 7’ 3” in width, all founded on four rows of great square blocks. The two revetment walls on either side rest on forty-seven wells going down to a firm stratum of clay fully 32 feet below the surface of the water in the cold weather. The line of curtain wells to the floor are sunk to the same depth, and the floor itself is paved with ashlar, resting on foundations similar to those described for the weir floor. Progress of the work, The canal-head has thirty openings of seven feet each founded in blocks. The two revetments rest on cir- Canal-head. cular wells which reach to a depth of 18 feet below the cold-weather surface datum. The entrance lock with its chamber of 150’ x 20' is at a distance of 850 feet from the canal-head, and the river wall which connects these two works extends fully one thousand feet up-stream. The entire work, with the exception of the upper six feet of the weir drop- wall and the superstructure of the head-lock, has been completed 5 within four years from the time that the work actually com- menced, and what remains to be done will be completed in 1877. The principal difficulty experienced in the building of the weir was the absence of stone or other material which could be substituted for it on the works. All the stone used had to be brought from a long distance, and the quantity of mate- rial of this description actually required was considerably in- creased by the adoption of deeper foundations here than had hitherto been employed in similar works in other parts of India. The anicut of southern India had to be replaced by a structure of which the chief material was brick, and the form which this necessarily took, of a vertical fall flanked by an ashlar-paved floor, has but few examples on any large scale. In these pro- vinces the absence of anything resembling a tidal backwater, which often protects the floors of such works, necessitated the placing of the entire work at a very low level and the construc- tion of deep rows of curtain wells for its protection. All this largely added to the cost. Upwards of 34 millions of bricks were burned at a distance of a mile and a half from the site, the lime was burned eleven miles away, and the block kunkur" had to be carried thirty-six miles. Tramways were made for this service which worked in connection with the Oudh and Rohilkhand Rail- way, and steam-power was used for shunting, lime-grinding, draw- ing water, pumping, and removing of earth. Twenty steam- engines were at work at one time, and close upon 5,000 full-laden trains have been run in connection with the works. The entire work is estimated to cost Rs. 31,64,955, of which Rs. 24,37,000 were expended up to the 1st April, 1877. A most important measure in connection with the head-works ! has been the training of the river channel Approach tº * * between Rájghāt and Narora. By means of Spurs and groins, with their heads pro- tected by a horse-shoe arrangement of piles and crib-work, and intended to be more or less permanent, the channel which formerly took a very distinct bend has been turned into a .* An impure carbonate of lime occurring in veins of about one foot in thickness. The materials used were—bricks, 109,000 tons; lime, 93,000; concrete ballast, 60,000; block kumkur, 124,000; sandstone, 12,000 ; and fuel, 22,000. 6 fairly straight course between the railway bridge across the Ganges at Rájghát and the weir. In accomplishing this, the river has been diverted one and a half mile out of its former COUII’Se. The excavations of the main line of canal for the first 107 miles of its course, as well as of the supply - channel, 22% miles in length, are almost completed. One heavy piece of cutting occurs near Rāmghāt, comprising from thirty to forty-five feet of excavation, for a dis- tance of nearly 2% miles. The excess earth is removed by wagons drawn by locomotives and tipped either into the low-lying land within the bed of the river, or into the river itself, where it is washed away by the current in the freshets. An embankment over one mile in length, with a maximum height of 27 feet, carries the canal across the river Káli. The earth for this embankment w As ºf e has been brought from an escape some Crossing the Kāli. 450 feet distant, or from the adjoining up- lands, by metre gauge tip-wagons pushed by men or drawn by cattle, and thus the dangerous system of outside borrow pits, which are productive of such weakness and percolation, has been avoided. Cores of best puddled clay have been built in the banks on either side, while the earth forming the bulk of the em- bankment has been put down in layers, and each successive layer has been flooded with water pumped up from the excavations below. The aqueduct across the river itself is of brick, and has five bays of 35’ span each, and a superpassage for the canal of 192 feet in width. It is founded on brick cylinders going down to a depth of 20 feet below the bed of the river, and has been completed at a cost of about Rs. 4,28,000. The main line of the canal. Amongst the other completed works are a double regulator at the crossing of the Cawnpore branch, Other works. twelve large bridges, and three syphon cul- verts for cross and country drainage. Amongst the works under construction are the scouring sluices on the second mile, syphons on the fourth and twenty-seventh miles, the head of the Fateh- garh branch, a masonry fall into the Kāli Nadi escape, and a fall at the junction with the Upper Ganges canal. 7 The outlay up to the 1st April, 1877, has been, as close as can be estimated, about Rs. 1 1,48,000, and a further expenditure of about Rs. 17,00,000 will allow of water being admitted by the supply channel to feed the two terminal branches to Cawnpore and Etáwah. It is pro- posed to open these branches by the 1st June, 1878, and in the following cold weather the first small return in the shape of revenue may be expected. The original estimate of cost has been increased owing to changes in plan] and other causes, and now amounts to Rs. 2,29,64,820, exclusive of indirect charges for interest. The revised scheme will bring under irrigation 462,706 acres in the kharf and 739,620 acres in the rabi harvest as a maximum attainable in course of time. Pending orders on the recast project, all works on the lower portion of the canal are suspended. Cost. * The changes proposed and the causes of increase are fully discussed in the reports of the Irrigation Department. ALLAHABAD : E. T. ATKINSON, May 10, 1877. G-ALISTG-TES C.A.TST ALT 1. THERE are two canals in the North-Western Provinces known by this name, the Ganges canal proper or Upper Ganges canal, which has been opened since 1854, and the Lower Ganges canal, which is now in process of construction. The following notice is concerned with the Ganges canal proper. The first idea of this canal was due to the success which attended the Eastern Jumna canal, and the still periodical recurrence of seasons of drought over the large area unprotected by it. Attention was thus directed to the Ganges as affording a constant and efficient water-supply for a canal designed to irrigate the eastern half of the Duáb from the Siwáliks to Cawnpore. Captain Debude had, in 1827, proposed a plan for utilising the waters of the West Káli Nadi along an old and imperfect canal line known as the Abu Nála for the irrigation of the Meerut, Bulandshahr and Aligarh districts, but this project was soon shown to be deficient in supply and certainty. The united streams of the Hindan and West Kāli Nadi were found not to be able to give more than 180 days' supply during the dry months, and during the rains the works would be subject to excessive flood action. Colonel John Colvin, C.B., recommended the examination of the Ganges in the neighbourhood of Hardwār, where it emerges from the gorge in the Siwáliks, and on his departure from India in 1836 a series of levels was taken. These levels showed that a plan proposed for drawing the waters from the Bäuganga, an offshoot of the Ganges similar to the offshoot of the Jumna known as the Budhi Jumna, from Which the Eastern Jumna canal draws its waters, was impracticable owing to the sudden rise of the uplands on the west of the Solāni river. The famine of 1837-38 again devastated the Duáb, and notwithstanding a cost by remission and otherwise of revenue to the amount of one and a quarter million sterling, the people perished in tens of thousands from Ganges canal.” 1 Prepared for the Imperial Gazetteer.-E. T. A. 2 starvation, the loss of cattle was equally great, the fields re- mained untilled, and a total stagnation of trade and manufac- tures ensued. Major Proby Cautley, who had succeeded Colonel Smith on the Eastern Jumna canal in 1830, was deputed in 1839 to examine closely the low-lying land adjoining the Ganges near Hardwór, Major Cautley first attempted to connect Debude's project for a dam on the West Káli Nadi at Ránipur, the head of the Abu Nála, with the proposal to draw the waters for the new canal from the Bán- ganga at Bādshāhpur. It was soon found, however, that in the forty miles between these points the fall in level of the surface of the water was only 12.75 feet, whilst the high banks of the West Káli Nadi at Ránipur were thirty feet higher than the initial level at Bādshāhpur. For the first ten miles from Bădshāhpur to the edge of the upland cliff, the land for nine miles is tolera- bly level, but it then suddenly rises until it gains an elevation of 83:225 feet near the village of Kambhira, from which place there is a slope towards Ránipur of about 2% feet in the mile. Thus a second and closer examination of the proposed site en- tirely removed this project from the list of those to be attempted. Major Cautley next examined the triangular patch of khádir lying between Rürki and Hardwār, and discovered two lines through which a canal might be taken. The first had a very extended circuit stretching far to the west, and much interrupted by forest and drainage lines; the second was more direct, but necessitated the construction of an aqueduct across the Solāni. He gave in an estimate for a canal on a minimum scale amount- ing to 26 lakhs of rupees, and providing for 256 miles of main canal and 73 miles of branches, with the necessary appliances for converting the main canal into a navigable line. The Board of Directors, in their despatch of the 1st September, 1841, warmly took up the subject, and wrote that, “apart from the consideration of financial results, which we are far from contemplating with indif- ference, there are few measures connected with our revenue admi- nistration in India more calculated to contribute to the general Cautley’s survey. Project sanctioned, 3 improvement of the country, the amelioration of the condition of the people, and to raise the character of the Government, than those of the nature now under our consideration. We concur in opinion with the Government of Agra that a higher ground for advocating these works is found in the security which they afford against famine and its attendant horrors.” On receipt of this sanction, a committee was appointed to report on the efficiency of the proposed works, the probable success of the undertaking, the scale on which it should, in the first instance, be carried on, and the precise measures to be recommended for adoption, the probable effects of the abstraction of the maximum supply of water on the navigation of the Ganges, the probable cost of the exten- sion of the canal to Allahabad, and the probable return from the work. The committee recommended the adoption of the straight line with an aqueduct across the Solāni, and that 6,750 cubic feet per second should be drawn from the Ganges to provide for one main line of navigable canal from Hardwār to Cawnpore, and to supply irrigation to the whole district bounded by the Ganges on the one side, and by the Hindan and the Jumna on the other. On the subject of returns, the committee calculated that irrigation would be provided for 2,303 square mile of 1,024 bighas each, which at ten annas a bigha would give Rs. 14,86,420 indepen- dently of all mill-rents, navigation dues, and the sales of miscel- laneous canal produce. - The works were commenced on the 16th April, 1842, by open- ing the excavation between Kankhal and Hardwór, but were stopped in the follow- ing July, owing to certain doubts entertained by the Supreme Government as to the propriety of proceeding with the works. These orders were subsequently withdrawn, and permission given to expend up to two lakhs of rupees per annum. The principal objection urged against the scheme was one based on a clerica) error in placing the point of a decimal, by which the proportion of surface of the Duáb which would derive benefit from the canal was much exaggerated, but this was soon cleared up. The pro- bable effect of earthquakes was next brought to bear against the construction of the Solāni aqueduct. The injury to the navigation Works commence. 4. of the Upper Ganges and the probable dissemination of malarious diseases were also urged against the canal. “The works, however, had proceeded too far to be violently stopped, and under the restrictions pointed out above, they steadily proceeded with the cordial support of the Agra Government, but with little coun- tenance from other quarters.” Mr. Thomason and Major Caut- ley were the leading spirits of the whole scheme. And early in 1843-44 the levels of the Duáb were completed as far as Allaha- bad, and reported on in 1845. Previous to undertaking this survey, the Supreme Govern- ment had decided upon a total modifica- tion of the original design, and had ordered that the canal “should be in the first place a canal of navigation, and all the water not required for that purpose may be distributed for the purposes of irrigation.” The main line was then directed upon Allahabad instead of Cawnpore, and Major Cautley placed, in connection with it, three projects before Govern- ment, estimates of the cost of each appended to them. The first for a main line ending at Allahabad with a slope of 24 and 12 inches per mile, falls and locks to overcome the superfluous slopes in the northern parts and ascents and descents into the Jumna. Efficient means of irrigation on the main line were provided as far as the boundary of the Cawnpore and Fatehpur districts, and, in addition, projects for a branch line of 160 miles to Fatehgarh ; of 70 miles to Bulandshahr; of 172 miles to Etáwah; and of 43, miles to Cawnpore were submitted, at a cost of Rs. 1,02,36,644. The second scheme differed from the first by continuing the main line from Cawnpore to Allahabad by a system of reservoirs and locks to the Jumna, and extending the irrigation to the neigh- bourhood of the town of Cawnpore, the tail water to be dis- charged into a ravine of the Pándu Nadi. This was estimated to cost Rs. 97,03,558. By the third scheme, the navigable channel turned off at Jar to the south and joined the Jumna opposite its confluence with the Ken. The Cawnpore line was also designed to be navigable and locked into the Ganges, with a branch for irrigation towards the junction of that river and the Pándu. This plan was estimated to cost Rs. 93,39,747. Plans of 1845. 5 Several changes occurred during this time in the administra- changes in the adminis tion of these provinces; Mr. T. C. Robert- tration. son was succeeded by Mr. George Clerk, who was followed by Mr. Thomason, and in the middle of 1844 Lord Ellenborough became Governor-General. Major Cautley went on furlough to England, and was succeeded by Major W. Baker, B.E., in 1845, who with his assistants were obliged to abandon their work to take part in the Sikh war. A committee appointed to report on the influence of the canal on navigation and climate presented the results of their investigations early in 1847, with such a favourable view of the scheme that Government directed the vigorous prosecution of the work. Again irriga- tion became the primary object of the canal, and it was directed, as far as possible, to lead the channel along the natural level of the country, following the watershed and interfering as little as possible with existing lines of drainage. The falls were to be made available as motive power for machinery, and arrange- ments were to be taken in hand for the formation of reservoirs and plantations as on the Jumna canals. It was determined, therefore, to push on the Solāni aqueduct and other masonry works as a first measure, as without them the full supply could not be utilised. The whole line and its branches was mapped out into divisions, and the principal works commenced with vigour, whilst the detailed surveys were carried on during 1847–48. Lieutenant-Colonel Cautley returned and assumed charge of the canal in January 1848. Up to this period the works had been proceeding on the third plan suggested by Colonel Cautley in 1845, and noted above. Difficulties were encountered in the character of the substratum, which was found to be sandy and to underlie the clayey surface soil at depths varying only from three to ten feet. The alignment of the canal had, at this period, been devised so as to best economise the water and to deliver it over to the southern districts, where, from the difficulty of sinking wells and the lowness of the water levels, its benefits would be most appreciated. The main line was carried on according to the original estimate for 180 miles, throwing off Final modifications. 6 from the left, at the 50th mile near Jauli, a branch intended to proceed to Fatehgarh, but stopping at Anūpshahr, and on the right, at the 110th mile near Nidhauli, the Bulandshahr branch. Between the latter and the 180th mile a branch was thrown off to irrigate the country lying to the left of the Karon river and to the right of Kol, which is also at present unused. At the 180th mile, a few miles below Kol, the main line divided into two chan- nels, one on the left bearing directly on the Ganges at Cawnpore, and the other on the right, known as the Etáwah branch, debouch- ing into the Jumna near the boundary of the Fatehpur and Cawn- pore districts. The latter kept to the right of the Rind river, watering the Jumna parganas. These modifications led, with a few exceptions, to the total reprojection, not only of the masonry works, but of the capacity of the canal channel itself. The cut- tings were deepened, superfluous slopes were disposed of, and arrangements made for the supply of water to the new branches in the southern division. The cold weather rains of 1850-51 seriously impeded the manufacture of bricks, but the delay then caused was made up in the two following years, which were marked by an uninterrupted and steady advance in the northern division, on a scale that could not be exceeded. The canal was opened on the 8th April, 1854. At the time of opening the canal, the condition of the works condition of the canal was generally as follows :-Above the in 1854. northern terminus of the Solāni aqueduct the canal was competent to receive and retain safely whatever supply might be admitted. Below the southern terminus to Námù, a distance of 180 miles from the head, the channel was also good, as well as to Ghiror, 57% miles from Náná, on the Eſtáyah branch, and as far as the 81st mile on the Cawnpore terminal branch. Between the northern and southern termini of the Solāni aqueduct lay the works, which rendered the mainte- nance of a continuous supply impracticable. The masonry aqueduct and the left embankment were quite safe, but the right embankment of the earthen aqueduct was throughout incapable of retaining a full supply. The canal was accordingly closed again on the 12th April, and preparations were at once 7 made for completing the earthwork. A light railway and boats were employed to carry the earth to the spot, but in August alarming signs of failure showed themselves in the masonry revetments of the right bank. At a point about 1,000 feet above the masonry aqueduct, the rear wall of the revetment bowed out to a maximum of 2-62 feet over a section of 300 feet. The result of this was that the arches bearing the steps of the revet- ment fell in, and on examination the cone of the embankment was found to consist of a semi-fluid mass. The engineers went to work vigorously, so that the canal was re-opened on the 6th November, 1854. At the same time the precaution was observed of admitting the water very slowly. At first only two feet of water was allowed to flow, but from January, 1855, the volume was increased, and by the 2nd of February the water reached Cawnpore. This second trial led to the discovery that the brick-on-edge floorings of several of the falls had been disturbed, and the masonry aqueduct on the Solāni was not water-tight, so that a second closing of the canal for one month was found neces- sary in March, 1855. It was again opened on the 1st of April, and in one week the water this time reached Cawnpore, and from the 1st May, 1855, irrigation commenced throughout the upper sections of the canal. The knowledge derived from the actual experience in the management of such a large body of water. during the next ten years showed that there were several points in which the existing system of construction might be improved. Suggestions were frequently thrown out on isolated subjects, and these were gathered into a formal plan by Major Crofton, whose proposals became the subject of much minuting and corres- pondence. The result of these discussions was the appointment in 1866 The committee of 1866. of a committee by the Governor-General to decide upon the propriety of proceeding, as previously determined, with Major Crofton's project for remodel- ling the canal, or of stopping its progress, pending the prepara- tion of a detailed project according to the views of Major-Gene- ral Sir A. Cotton, with a comparison of the cost and advantages of the two plans. The committee assembled at Cawnpore and 8 examined the Jumna at Agra, the confluence with the Hindan at Ali, the canal works as far as the Dabauli falls, the Ganges at Rajghāt, and from Garhmuktesar to the Solāni. The result of their deliberations was that the construction of a weir across the Ganges below its confluence with the Solāni was not recommended. The project for opening an additional canal head near Rajghât on the Ganges for bringing under irrigation lands then not watered by the canal was considered feasible, but was recommended to be kept in abeyance “until the probable returns appear more propor- tionate to the outlay than at present.” Major Crofton's plan for remodelling the canal was to be proceeded with, subject to certain modifications. The construction of a permanent weir across the Ganges at Hardwār was judged absolutely necessary, if it were intended to maintain a flow of 7,000 cubic feet per second with- out interruption. Sir A. Cotton contended that it would have been far better to open the canal heads below Shukartar in the Muzaffarnagar district, and that even then, instead of expending large sums on the improvement of the existing line, it would be preferable to open a new head above Shukartar. The committee found the valley of the Ganges there four miles wide, most of which comprised a low bed continually encroached upon by the river, and lying at such a depth below the high bank as to pre- clude the possibility of carrying the water on to the central tracts of the Duáb, unless at a very great sacrifice. Garhmuktesar, too, had the same drawbacks. The great breadth of the river- bed, the unfavourable nature of the banks, combined with the scarcity of good material, rendered it a most objectionable posi- tion for a canal head. The committee then recommended the neighbourhood of Rajghāt, where the Moradabad and Aligarh line now crosses the Ganges, as the point from which the main line might be supplemented or a new line drawn. (See further Lower GANGES CANAL.) The remodelling project embraced the construction of additional falls and the removal of the evils caused by the excessive velocity of the current at the existing falls, besides rendering the main line capable of carrying 7,000 cubic feet of water per second. The head-way under the bridges in many cases was found insufficient to admit of the passage of laden boats, and all these matters are now obtaining 9 their full share of attention. The remodelling project, with certain modifications, has been actively carried out since 1868 as opportunities occurred by the temporary closing of the canal, and the whole of the falls of the canal have been made secure. The history of the next ten years will show the effect of these improvements on the efficiency of the canal. The following statements give all the information necessary for showing the financial and economic work- ing of the canal for a number of years. Five per cent. has been charged on the capital outlay on canals up to 1870-71, and after that the charge is four and a half per cent. Ten per cent. of the outlay on establishments has been charged to the capital account, and the balance has been appor. tioned rateably over maintenance and revenue and the expendi- ture on Works not chargeable to either revenue or capital. Capital and revenue. 3. CAPITAL ACCOUNT. Outlay during the year. Outlay to the end of the year. Year. Ordinary. |Extraordinary. Total. Ordinary. Extraordinary. Total. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. 1854-55 tº e º * * tº gº tº tº º º - 1,51,45,277 1,5 1,45,27 f 1860–61 {º º Q gº tº tº 5,45,433 $ tº 5,45,433 1,91,02,610 tº tº a lºº 1864-65 tº tº º tº º q 5, 10,078 tº g tº 5,10,078 2,23,91,661 0 e º 223,91.3% i 867–68 tº de C. sº tº e 1,58,377 6,78,692 7,37,069 2,32,94,557 5,78,692 2,38,73,249 1869-70 tº tº º tº º º 21,122 5,35,808 5,56,930 2,35,03,169 16:27,840 2.513,009 1872–73 e e Q tº º ve 1,21,625 4,06,103 2,84,478 2,34,65,132 25,86,650 2,60,51,782 i875-76 gº is tº gº tº 5,042 5,82,549 5,87,591 2,35,43,072 47,21,730 2,82,64,802 REVENUE Account—A. During the year. To end of the year. Working expenses. Year. Direct in- || Increased Total Direct in- Increased Totai During the To end of the CODEle. land revenue. & COIn 62. land revenue. gº year. year. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. 1855-56 ...; 17,215 tº º º 17,215 17,215 tº tº º 17,215 2,79,934 2,79,934 1860-61 it tº ſº 4,30,868 7,994 4,38,862 10,08,988 15,988 10,24,976 3.59,165 18,62,880 1864-65 7,66,975 72,315 8,39,290 36,96,329 1,76,964 38,73,293 8, 17,355 4249.6% 1867-68 ... 16, 15,516 1,80,776 17,96,292 79,51,877 6,09,694 85,61,571 7.96.71% 65,65,178 1869-70 ... 25,69,536 1,83,484 27,53,020 1,20,87,453 9,75,342 1,30,62,795 9,23,765 82.88.58% 1872-73 ... 15,89,919 2,76,681 18,66,600 1,72,84,600 16,84,844 1,89,58,944 9,88,713 | 1,10,59,677 1875-76 ... 21,28,819 7,70,439 28,99,258 2,33,01,900 32,18,199 2,65,20,099 10,54,623 | 1,40,09,828 t REVENUE ACCOUNT.-B. __-T Difference between the net Net revenue to end of year. Charge for º: and º for tºº." Year, _ interest to interest to end of year. Exclusive of Inclusive of º: end of Excluding | Including Excluding | Including land revenue. land revenue. e year. land revenue. land revenue. Jand revenue. land revenue. ———------- — º- - tº-sºme *- Rs. . . . R.S. Rs. Rs. Rs. 1855-56 º e º tº º º —2,62,719 – 2,62,719 25,73,609 | – 28,36,328 * - «» – 1: ... 3 e e ſº 1860-61 º ... –$33,392 –$31,904 69,96,914 -- 78,50,806 || – 78,34,818 0°38 O' 42 1864-65 © & • *-*. 5,53,276 3,76,312 1, 1 1,77,772 1,17,31,048 1, 15,54,084 – 23 • 10 1867–68 tº tº º 13,56,699 13.96,393 | 1.45,89,984 1,32,03,285 1,25,98,591 3°53 4'32 1869-70 º, ſº tº 37,98,888 47,74,230 1,70,12,349 1,32, 13,461 | 1,22,38, l 19 6' 69 7'44 ] 872–73 ºr e & 62,24,923 79,09,267 2,0583,302 1,43,58,379 || 1:26,74,035 2:32 3°40 1875-76 - tº g 92,92,072 1,25,10,271 2,41,99,121 : 1,49,07,049 1,16,88,850 3’ SO 6'52 __–T DETAILS OF DIRECT INCOME. __--—T Water-rate. . Miscella- Actual Year |T Assessments Navigation. Mill-rents. | Plantations. Il62OUIS, receipts. e | º | Balances. during the Realized. year. | Hs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. Rs. 2.855–56 e e is - 34,643 3,258 2,644 4,274 6,614 425 17,215 ] 860-6 l 1,37,682 4,91,819 2,77,572 l, 12,757 16,920 11, 118 12,501 4,30,868 ; 864-65 ... 4,43,032 8,95,042 6,73,565 41,248 15,096 26,051 11,015 7,66,975 J 867-68 ... 9,22,710 12,38,490 14,90,482 35,218 26,908 45,721 17, 187 1,65,516 | 869-7 () , . 15,46,237 17,57,573 24, 16,804 33,593 20,77 66,590 31,778 25,69,536 1872-73 , , , 7,70,762 15,72, 198 14,58,581 29,815 19,540 58,294 23,689 15,89,919 l 875-76 20,28, 135 29,033 30,544 58,993 23, 107 21,28,819 11,85,978 19,87, 142 12 From the commencement, the falls along the canal were utilised as motive power for mills for grinding corn, but a tithe of the power available has never yet been made use of. One reason for this is the necessity for allowing the canal to run dry at certain seasons for repairs which would involve the closing of the mills and the enforced idleness of the workers employed. Navigation takes place along the entire course of the main canal, and consists of either rafting timber or carrying merchandise in boats. The rafting is almost entirely confined to the upper portion of the canal, the timber being seldom carried further down than the point nearest to Meerut, though occasionally it reaches as far as Cawnpore. The following table gives the revenue, less refunds, and the number of boats plying on the canal for six years : — Mills and navigation. †: | | 3 # a; 3. d; 3. q; O à || || à | * à | . +. Ö O H Q) C -: KiX O ed P- e & !- * cº P- e Q} Q) O QD Q O Q1) Qt) O P+ Qº Z. P- Cd 2. P+ Cº. 2. Rs. Rs. Rs. 1862-63 ... 46,834 313| 1866-67 ... 38, l 19 597, 1871-72 ...} 59,306] 233 1864-65 ..., ** 243 l 868-69 …lasts. asſ 1875-76 ..., |29,033| 325 The miscellaneous revenue comprises receipts from the sale of grass and fuel, and the rent of small portions of canal lands, besides fines and smaller items. The rain or kharff harvest of 1855 showed only 225 miles of rajbahas or distributaries in actual work over 450 miles of main canal into which the water had been admitted, whilst 633 miles of distributaries were under preparation. The mileage open at the close of the year was 436. The area irrigated during the year amounted to 54,734 acres, whilst about 166,000 acres were placed beyond the risk of serious damage by drought. In spite of the disturbing influences of the mutiny year 1857-58, the area under irrigation trebled during 1858-59. In 1859-60 it had increased to 128,723 acres; in 1861-62 to 372,322 acres, and in 1863-64 to 449,788 Irrigated area. 13 acres. The length of the main canal since 1859-60 has been 519 miles. The following statement shows the details of work done for a number of years :- Year. 1864-65 1865-66 1868-69. Kharīf Rabi Total 1870-7 l. Kharīf Rabi Total 1872-73. Kharíf Rabí Total 1875-76. Kharif Rabí -- ~ *-*- is e e Statement of work done. 3 ad # g; # # w GD Q) • F- -- * 3 3 ## | 3 |5 § tº :: * | 3 5 C4 cº gº! 3. g ..o dº ,-, , , * p -> tº gº • F-4 •- q) - :--> * C.4 º’ Q) Gj r– Ú/2 35 & .5 §§ # ##| | # 5 |## ; + êſ) 80 B | 9 * | * 3 Pºl 3 R. Tº... " ": 9 & . . Sº ; : | < *; S. *|† 90 7| 222 1-58 29.4| 2°21 165|| 2:37 290 l'97 2.85 2.02 172 Total 23 1 14 Water-rates levied since 1867-68. Per acre irrigated by Class. Nature of crop. Per Natural By flow lift (tor.) (dāl.) RS. a. p. RS. a. p. I. Sugarcane e e & tº gº º ... 5 0 0| 3 5 4 Year. II. Rice, tobacco, opium, vegetables, gardens, orchards, and water-nuts ... ... 3 0 0] 2 0 0} Crop. III. All rabi crops, indigo, cotton ... 2 4 0 || 1 8 0 IDitto. IV. All kharif crops not specified above 1 10 8| 1 0 0| Ditto. The following statement shows the relative importance of water to each class of crop by giving the proportion of each class to the total area irrigated : — Year. Class I. Class II. 1864-65 º a ſº 9'20 Ö*05 1867-68 e tº e I ()*36 8'94 1869-70 tº E tº 8-7() 7 25 1872–73 © e & 9'98 6'55 1875-76 tº º º I ‘97 2 92 Class III. Class IV. 84'08 '67 78'29 2°4 l 76'64 7-4 1 8 : ‘90 1.57 80°7 1 4°40 Taking the principal crops for each year, the average actually irrigated was as follows : — Season. Crop. 1865-66. 1867-68. 1868-69. 1870-7 l. 1872-73. 1875-76, Sugarcane 58,416 55,232 60,664 75,288 68,421 76,646 H & Cottom 10,496 5,617| 44,213; 2 1,394 7,96 14,342 £ 3 Indian-corn , ..., | 18,528 1,754|| 31,209 569 578. , 5,263 ź . \| Indigo ... 47,713 75,684 75,506 116,979| 128,780) 169,306 4: I ſtice ...] 23,134 36,365| 43,355 28,469| 26,762 29,821 Miscellancous, 18,254 10,486 89,321| 24,045 14,718 29, l l I Barley ... 110,257 88,156. 242,354 125,635 i 52,66 || 178,839 Gram ... 19,844 13,274 39,985 15,725] 17, 198| 14,488 RA Bº 3 | Wheat ... 252,422, 231,569| 418,228| 333,51 || 242,489 3,29,063 Miscellaneous, 14,06 l 15,729| 33,665. 25,009| 25,607| 49,292 Annual ... b3,416 55,282 60,664 75,288| 68,421 76,646 y ICharif , 118,128 129,906. 203,604. 191,446 78,794. 240,849 ToTAL || 1. ... 306,585| 348,319| 734,132 499,880. 437,956 571,672 Year ...] 573,129. 633,457|1,078,400 766,614 685,170 889,167 - ––. --------- “T __ __- +------~~~~ 15 The facts and figures given above appear to be all that are necessary for the complete understanding of the history of the canal within the compass of a short notice like the present one. E. T. ATKINSON. ALLAHABAD : April 18, 1877. JTJTMITST-A- C_A_NT.A.T. •-rººm- The Eastern Jumna," canal flows through the Saháranpur, Muzaf- farnagar and Meerut districts of the North- Western Provinces. It takes its waters from the eastern or left bank of the Jumna river, whilst a second canal takes its waters from the right or Panjāb bank of the Jumna, and is known as the Western Jumna canal. The Eastern Jumna canal irrigates the western portions of the districts through which it flows, and eventually tails off into the Jumna in the Meerut dis- trict after a course of 130 miles. The frequent recurrence of famines in upper India previous to the accession of the British and during the earlier years of their occupation caused attention to be directed to the construction of canals. After much consultation Lieutenant Tod, of the Bengal army, was sent to survey the country on the left bank of the Jumna, and he finally proposed the present line of the Eastern Jumna canal as one that had many arguments in its favour. He was succeeded by other officers who surveyed the upper Duáb, but owing to the pressure of other equally im- portant measures, it was not until the close of 1823 that the ac- tual work of excavation was commenced by Captain R. Smith, of the Bengal Engineers. The canal was completed in 1830. As being the first considerable work of the kind undertaken in India, some very few changes in construction and detail were subse- quently found necessary, but as a whole the work was executed as planned and reflects the greatest credit upon its projectors. History. From the Jumna head to a point opposite Alampur on the Rāi- pur nåla, the bed is composed of shingle or stone boulders de- creasing in size as Alampur is approached. From Alampur to Sarkāri it consists of sand with beds of clay here and there, but sand predominates. From Sarkāri to Jauli kunkur an impure nodular carbonate of lime mixes with the clay, and from there to the tail of the canal at Salimpur the bed is sand. On the sandy sections erosion has been avoided by the construction of falls, which are also used as motive-power for flourmills. The banks on either side have been planted with sál, Sisu, teak and tân, all valu- l, Prepared for the Imperial Gazetteer. Iº, T. Atkinson. 2 able timber-trees, the produce which now forms a considerable item in the revenue. The following statement gives all the particulars connected with the supply of the main canal and distributaries, the duty it performs and the area irrigated by the whole canal for a series of years : — Statistics of work done. | § * . w; I f is Ph. l 3 : # ## # 4|#3 É Water-rate. .E. Z. à || 5 = 5 § # # P-sº # |##| |#### cº £4 tº g : # B #: th | 8 g . spºt C . Year. 53 # * : ilā , a ... s. *E. * + | So [.59 - || 3 || || 5 || 3 || 3 |& #| 9 S. qo 92 •º a 3 | * 5,.5 5 § 3 tº a 3 || 5 5. 89.3 8 : S ad |, c Q C # = E | E = oš e -- “H 35 ſº U) 92 ºf : g: ‘āā p Cſ) 3.3 cº 3.9 3 || bg.: # = § 3 := | 9. > -º g ## 3|##|: H.H 3 à |# E | #3 - tº-m. ---------- 61 THE SPARROW. SEE them now. The lean-limbed watchman may clat- ter his bird-scare, may lift up his voice in remonstrance from dewy morn to dewy eve, but he will not turn the multitudinous sparrow from the evil tenor of his way. It is Emile Souvestre who calls the sparrow “the night- ingale of the roofs,” and says that “our chimney pots are his forests, and our slates his grass plots;” but we incline to take a less lenient view of the genus Passer than does the kindly essayist. As we resent the likeness to ourselves which the monkey tribes possess, so we feel injured by the communism of the sparrow. He professes, though in another arc, to move on the same plane with man—our chimney pots are his chimney pots, and our slates his slates, but our forest and grass plots are none the less his also. There is, in his deportment, none of the deference of a stranger when he crosses your threshold—the con- scious humility of an interloper. His entry is that of a conqueror into a hostile city or of a king into another's palace. He begins by putting himself on an equality with you but soon arrogates superiority. He is Dar- winian and holds that man by natural selection will develope into the sparrow ; but in his present hybrid stage criticizes him as the fool who builds houses for the wise (sparrow) to live in. Show us a man's house and we will show you a sparrow's castle—point out if you can a stable which the sparrow does not share with the horses. Vos mon vobis midificatis he chirps—and points the quotation by hopping with dirty feet across your verandah. He is the gamin of birds—chief vagabond of the air. He it is 62 The Wolf. who mocks the illustrious stranger, jay or owl, crowds without payment into places of public amusement, dis- turbs divine service by a fracas with his kind on the altar rails, or—irreverent fowl—perches above the Ten Com- mandments and chirps monotonously through the sermon. His cranial development is very poor—flat atop, show- ing a deplorable lack of respect; bulgy behind, typical of gross amativeness and gluttony; and puffy at the sides, where lodge the devils of destructiveness, evil speaking, lying and slandering. This Bohemian communist has broken through—worn out—the resentment of man: we no longer resist his intrusions or retaliate for his rapine. He has acquired a prescriptive right to be iniquitous and go unpunished. But he does not understand this. In his conceit he insolently imagines that he has compelled acquiescence and treats us as a conquered race. He takes alms by force, making charity a requisition; and, to quote Aurifaber's preface to one of Luther's works, “his gorged paunch is puffed up with uncivil pride.” In another world he will be met with strolling in the valley of Jehoshaphat, flower in hand, the badge of one who has benefited his fellow man—will Swagger through the fields of amaranth and molly, and take more than his share of asphodel. ——S-CTX-Sºº S-2-— THE WOLF. As the sparrow possesses himself of the corn fields by day, so do the jackals and the wolf by night. In all their The Wolf. 63 excursions these brigands start from the cover of some high standing crop, returning to them when morning endan- gers or when sudden alarm prompts to precipitate flight. Here now may be lurking the were-wolf, the Ishmael of the pack, who while its kindred are swinging at a gallop —so leisurely it seems, but leaving the horse and his rider far behind—across the dark shadowed ravines and through the black crops that lie like clouds upon the moonlit country, here pulling down a bewildered antelope, there flashing upon some feeble sheepfold and carrying off, slung across its strong back, a speck- led kid or yearling lamb–who, while its kin are fighting round some carcase in the distant jungle, boldly visits the abodes of man himself, roams in his public places and along his roads, loiters in his pleasure- grounds, passes like a lost shadow across his croquet lawn, haunts his verandahs, perhaps even steals into his carpeted rooms. A nurse lies sleeping on the floor, her charge asleep in her arms. The wolf listens. He can hear slumbrous voices mumbling beneath the porch, can hear the guttural hookah answering to the long-drawn breath of the Smoker, can smell the sick scent of the tobacco. The wolf—his grey coat hardly showing against the matting—lies down beside the sleeping pair and pauses. A house dog far away is answering defiantly the maniac jackals sweeping past him in full cry. Then the wolf bends his furred head and with his thick warm tongue licks the baby out of its nurse's arms. The poor woman feels the gentle warmth, unconsciously presses the baby closer for a moment, but her grasp begins to relax. The moist soft touch of the wild beast's tongue, its bated 64 The Wolf. breath, melt her fingers open. One by one they loose their guardian hold, the wrists sink apart, and gently from her bosom the baby slides back against the soft coat of the crouching wolf. It does not wake : the wolf rises. The house is still ; drowsy voices are still mumbling. The house dog has lain down self-satisfied, for the jackals have passed by. The baby is lying on the ground. Again the furred head, the eyes sparkling, is bent down, a sudden snap !—and the cruel teeth have closed in the baby's throat. A feeble cry, and the nurse springs up to hear the rustle of swift feet across the matting, to feel her feet slip in the blood at her side. The terrible truth flashes upon her, a cry, the house is up, but the wolf and the baby are gone. The house-dog wonders if that was really some- thing which passed between him and the garden wall— thinks not—growls angrily, and turns to sleep. But ask the owl sitting on the vinery what it sees, that it turns its head over its back. Ask the wheeling bats. They will tell you that a wolf has just passed beneath them carrying across its back a bleeding child, and that it has leaped the aloe hedge and is gone into that black grain crop beyond. The mother may weep, the servants chatter and the father search, but the baby is gone. The wolf is with it, lying again by its side, but its touch is now rough and cruel, its breath is short drawn and fierce, for the wolf is hungry and the children of men are dainty food. Next harvest a little skull will perhaps be found in the corner of the field under that babool bush—if the jackals have not already rolled it back to its father's door. --- 65 THE JACKALS. THE jackal is the bug, the green parrot, among mam- mals. He has a use we presume, for every thing, they say, was created for a purpose, but it is not an easy one to guess. Muskrats were made, we know, to eat cock- roaches, and very well they understand their raison d'étre; spiders for the suppression of blue-bottles; mus- quitoes for (in their larva state) the purification of stand- ing water and, in their winged state, to teach man humility and to give an impulse to the manufacture of bed curtains. These are all evident, but why were jackals created ? To eat refuse. Then what is the use of the vulture, the kite, the pariah dog, and the multi- tude of necrophagous beetles 2 That jackals do not eat much refuse, or much anything, is evident from their chronic famine. Catch a jackal at any time, and he is hungry. Open his criminal stomach, and what are its contents —the better part of a young curry-fowl and a pair of kid gloves. Now neither of these were “refuse.” His own bowels witness against him. The deceased found the chicken shut out by accident from the hen-house and the kid gloves he picked up at a door in the verandah. It is evident that jackals were not created for the purposes of scavengering,for though they certainly do, when occasion offers, spend a jovial night over a carcase, the carrion birds would have done the job as well, as quickly and more quietly when morning broke. So that at best the jackal is a superfluity, an appendix, a supplement. But he does not admit this. He arrogates to himself a definite mission on earth, and would have himself recognized a I 66 - The Jackals. complete ego. And he succeeds so far in that he renders it impossible for us to ignore his existence. Nobody is afraid of him except Sweet Seventeen and the cat; but everybody loathes him. With a crash of sudden sounds the pack shatters the crystal silence of the summer's night, shivering the star-lit stillness into pieces, splashing, Scattering their demoniac babel round them, each throat a fiend's, each fiend double-throated. We confess to a lofty dislike of the jackal, but he has a grim and dirty humour which sits well upon him. He is always the first to tell us of his presence, bursting out pleasantly in an explosion of hell-sounds from, it seems, under the chair on which we are dozing through our night-cap pipe—just when we were moralizing, maudlin, over nature “hushed in fond repose,” or listening, sentimental, as the “trailing garments of the Night sweep through her marble halls.” We had almost forgotten India—quite forgotten the jackals—when they loosed upon us that swarm of noises. A jackal, we take it, has a wider gamut than any beast, bird, fowl, fish or instrument since Paganini's fiddle. Let the Howling Monkey brag of his os hyoides and fright his native forests with his awful utterances, or the Mock- ing Bird mimic in a breath the voice of all creation, the jackal is their master. With one simple tongue—no 0s hyoides, no powers of mimicry—he will let you have, from his own proper throat, such a variety of hideous sounds that were he long-winded you should curse your god. But our burdens are meted out to us according to the width of our backs, and quick-tongued humanity has been spared this crime of blasphemy by the short wind given to jackals. Not that they cannot run for leagues or Sudhoo. 67 be worried by dogs till they are as limp as Sodden leather and afterwards revive, but they cannot long use both legs and tongue together. Hear them now, they are passing in full cry through that wrhur crop; the first crash, as of brass bands multiplied, is over; one brute tries to rekindle the foul riot, but only gets up a duet, his breath fails—the solo lasts a minute longer —a few snaps, groans, and yells, and the corn-field is as silent as ever: the jackal pack has swept by. These ghastly jesters have another jibe, one which they never tire of playing off. It is to roll bones into your presence. Stuck fast in the muddy bed of a distant nullah is the skeleton of a sheep. Times are hard, watch-dogs are on the alert, and the jackals re-visit the well-picked bones. The skull is dragged out, mumbled across half a field, fought over for another hundred yards, and in the end pleasantly deposited at your bath-room door. SUDHOO. THERE beneath the two jujube trees in the corner of the ield stands Sudhoo's cottage. Its walls are not so strong s those the beaver builds, nor so high as the ant-hills of ^eru, but it is nevertheless the abode of man—and of a nan who has a story to his life. Before the door stands he architect and owner, Sudhoo the stalwart, and this is is story. One day there came by, on an ambling pony, a many-folded blanket for a saddle, a fat and bare-limbed money-lender, who stopped before that cottage door and 68 Sudhoo. called out for his money. “I have none,” said the stalwart Sudhoo, “but my cow will calve next week.” The rich man turned his creased back towards the mud-walled cot- tage, and went off between the high green walls of the dal crop, threatening with much perspiration and blasphemy that peasant with the law. And the honest peasant wondered for a moment whether it could be the will of his gods that he should be insulted thus, and his mind was soon made up. His gods could not wish it; was not his cow going to calve soon?—so he strode after the fat money-lender. But before he went he took from its place where it leant against the wall the long bamboo which, when a lad, he had cut from before the house—the clump was then a bush, and this the longest shoot upon it; but now an ample tope waved high above his cottage. Then he tightened his waistband and strode after the fat money- lender. Between the green walls of the dal crop he came up with him. “Wait for your money till my cow calves!” he cried. The money-lender sneered, and shook his shiny head, and then thwack! across the fat money-lender's creasy back came the long bamboo. “There's your interest I Go to the court and say it was I who paid you,” said Sudhoo with a great laugh to the rich man, as he lay roaring among the dal, and he strode back to his cottage. His pipe was filled, and he sate beneath the jujube trees, staring across the corn-fields to where in the far distance shone white the walls of the Englishman's court-house, whence at nightfall he would hear Buggoo shouting, and whence evil for him would come he knew on the morrow, and he smoked on and wondered that his gods should wish him evil. And the evil came, and the peasant was sent to prison. But before Sudhoo. 69 he went he turned to his wife—“Wife of Sudhoo, water the melon-patch till I come back, and take care of the cow. See that Buggoo does not steal the milk.” A river and many long miles of corn-land—much brick and mortar— lay between him and that mud-walled cottage beneath the jujube trees. But his heart was there, and in the early morning he thought of his wife, alone, pulling up water from the deep well, and he watched the thin stream trickling across the dry ground, and then he remembered—his cow. Was the calf born ? Would that Buggoo steal the milk 2 And in the evening he remembered his pleasant hookah, his wife singing, and the clear moonlight ; and as he thought of them he waxed very angry, and said to himself, “I will go and see if the calf is born.” So he rose, struck his feeble fetters against the stone bench, with the larger fragment forced back the bolt of his door, strode out into the prison-yard, felled the knock-kneed warder, climbed the foolish wall, and before the warder had recovered his senses was running like a quail through the close- growing stems of the high crops—here cowering along the edge of a garden, there leaping a water-course, but straight as the evening bee hive-ward went Sudhoo home. The moon was shining, two little owls chuckled consumedly as he passed to his house, a woman's voice was humming a long tune on one note, when Suddenly a stalwart figure strides out from the black shade of the grain crop—the owls tumble away into the night air with a horrified cluek, the humming ceases, and a man's voice says—“Wife of Sudhoo, has the cow calved ?” “No,” she said—s, it may to-morrow.” And his pipe was filled and he smoked OIN till his wife was asleep. Then he rose, drew the water 7() Sudhoo. from the well till he had filled all the trenches, “she will have little work to-morrow,”—and as the day was break- ing he ate his meal, and with his blanket went out into the dal field, stretched out his great limbs, and was fast asleep, while the officers of the law came to his house and sought him. And so time passed—while he smoked his wife sang to him, and while she slept he worked, through the day lying hid in the thick dal crop. At last the cow calved, and Sudhoo saw the little stranger into the world, and a few nights afterwards he and his wife went off between those green walls which had seen the money- lender smitten from his thin-legged tattoo,and sold the cow and calf; and while he sent his wife with the money to pay the fat money-lender, he went himself back to the prison beyond the river. He climbed back over the foolish wall, spoke kindly to the knock-kneed warder who would have fled from him, strode through the prison-yard, and sate him down in his cell. “Tell the jailor that Sudhoo has come back.” “Why,” asked the Englishman, “did you break away, and why after you had escaped so well did you come back 7" Then made answer the stalwart Sudhoo— “I went to be with my cow while she calved, and now that the calf is born I have come back.” And the story was told and heard, and the Englishmen who honor a doughty deed, let him from his prison, and the stalwart Sudhoo strode home to his mud-walled house beneath the jujube trees. 71 THE CHOW KEY DAR.” AND who was Buggoo ! Buggoo was a chowkeydar and Sudhoo's neighbour. That wigwam is Buggoo's house: his wants are very few. Besides, he seldom sees his house by day-light—the crank walls and the latticed roof look well by night; so Buggoo is contented with his house, and as he sallies forth to his work, he sings his ballad at the pitch of his voice, answering cheerily the owls. The chowkeydar is an animal Swi generis, and the one only species of his genus. The family has but a single order—chowkeydars—and besides them there is no other, neither any varieties. His childhood is a tradition—perhaps in early youth he was a pea-boy, and so acquired a taste for grotesque shouting ; but it is more reasonable to suppose that he never was a boy. He was born an adult. He exists by night, and his days are divided into moonlight and pitchy dark- ness. For one-half his life he has no shadow. He knows of the sun, but is not intimate with it : the constellations he is familiar with, taking his time from the rise and decline of the Hesperids or Orion. For the periods of his working hours nature has provided a chronometer. If when he comes to his work the bats are still fluttering in and out the rafters, he says “I am up betimes, ’tis early ;” the Great Bear is aslope and he says “The day's work is half over;” and when the jackal cries the third time, he says “I feel sleepy, night approaches.” And in this he cuts himself off from his kind, sets him- self apart from humanity, in that at early morn he goes * The night-watchman. 72 The Chowkeyday. yawning home like the beasts of the forest and not forth to his work like the sons of men. He knows what the sun is like—to see a festival he has sat up the live-long day. Besides, he has heard from his priests how every morning the great cyclops King of Day sends out before him his Sunbeams to remove the night stains from the skies and paint them for his proper reception, and how sometimes the Sunbeams are lazy, so that the great King, when he comes, finds his domed audience-hall not hung with crimson and gold, but gloomy and grey, and that then in anger the passionate old monarch veils his face, his great eye looks dimly down through tears of anger, he sighs in wind and sobs in thunder. How when the sunbeams work their hardest the grand old King is right royal, and in a flood of painted glory the Day appears before the up-gazing world, the order of the Rainbow across his breast. More than this Buggoo does not know. Bats are his sparrows and moths his flies: an afternoon is as secret from him as the Feast of Fatima; and of the sun at mid-day he speaks as we speak of the Southerr Cross. He holds it his duty to sleep all day, because hi has been up all night, though he sleeps all night to shirl his duties. Now and again he wakes up and clears hi throat to let the world know it, or yells in answer t some distant friend; but he does little more. Whe he comes first he seizes his iron-shod club of office, an striking it as he goes against the dull ground mak the circuit of the house. Beneath the porch he loite with the servant who is sitting up to see his master hom —saunters round the corner, and as he passes ea bed-room door startles the night with an unearthly c The Chowkeydar. 73 putting the jackals to shame, and breaking off suddenly in the middle to choke in a re-assuring manner. He then coughs defiantly, hiccups, and passes on—tramp ! tramp ! “And Beauty sate in the hall waiting for him and at last she heard him coming, tramp tramp striking his club upon the ground, and suddenly round the corner came—the Beast.” The chowkeydar meanwhile has reached his blanket stretched out in a sheltered corner, has scared away the cat who had taken possession of it, and is asleep. PRINTED BY G. A. SAVIELLE, AT THE PIONEER PRESS, ALLAHABAD. QUESTIONS ON THE UNREPEALED CIRCULAR ORDERS OF THE BOARD OF REVENUE, NORTH WESTERN PROVINCEs. FROM 1848 TO 1867. ÜOMPILED AND ARRANGED AT THE DESIRE OF THE BOARD OF REVENUE N. W. P. BY EDWIN T. ATKINSON, B. A. BENG AL CIVIL SERVICE. BEN ARES : PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY E. J. LAZARUS AND CO. gº-º-º-º: 1867. C\ ^C) &SXC) &Q &YC\ ^C) Ø9% ººººººººº seeeeeeeeeeeeeº ſº w C £: BENAREs: PRINTED BY `-- *-* v-as-a- *-*. NOTICE. -43-6)→-e- The arrangement into “Headings' of the printed Circulars has been retained. The questions have been divided into sections ac- Cording to subjects; the words printed in italics giving as far as possible the subject of the section. The references given are to the paging of the printed Circulars, the word ‘pan'a.’ referring to the paragraph which bears the number on the page referred to, where there are two paragraphs of the same number on the same page, the number or letter of the circular order is given also. When there is no number, the line at which the answer will be found is entered. E. T. A. February, 1867. QUESTIONS ON THE UNREPEALED CIRCULAR ORDERS OF THE BOARD OF REVENUE. PART I. I. LAND REVENUE. | 1. What are the provisions for enforcing the joint responsibility of sharers in undivided mehals (p. 1) { Name the Butwarrah law (p. 347) : Who may claim separation (p. 347) . What proceedings impair the joint responsibility! May they ever be adopted . How should defaulting sharers in an undivided putteedaree estate be proceeded against, and how pro- prietors of a separate estate (p. 1, 2, 347) : 2. In sale for arrears of Revenue what bids may be accepted What discretion has the Collector in accepting a bid less than the arrears! How far does the purchase by Government relieve the defaulter in person and estate? When must the property be purchased by the Collector How alone can an irrecoverable balance be adjusted (p. 2)? 3. What procedure should be followed in sending a Revenue de- faulter to jail (p. 2)" When should this mode of coercion be resorted to (p. 7)? What returns are required (p. 6) ar 4. In cases where transfer to a putteedar of a defaulting puttee and re-entry of defaulter on condition of payment of arrears may be deemed necessary, what are the arguments for and against the measure! What general principle should be observed? When only should repayment be enforced and when only can it be ignored (p. 3)? 5. In Sales, when should the entry of sale be made in the Sale Register and Supplemental memo: of sales and when in the Account Sale Statement (p. 4, para. 6)." In filling up column 3 of the latter statement “names of proprietors and nature of tenmure,” when must the names of all the proprietors be entered (p. 5, para. S)? When should these statements be forwarded (p. 4, para. 4)? 6. When should instalments for repayment of Tuccavee for works of permanent utility commence? Within what period should the whole advance be repaid (p. 8, para. 6)? For what special object will Tuccavee be granted (p. 45, para. 6)? ^ - | 6 | 7. What procedure is enjoined in annulment of engagements? Name the Law. What period of grace is allowed! Can this be extended. What grace is allowed to payers into the Sudder Treasury? Does this make the mehal “Huzoor Tehseel?” What are the privileges of “Huzoor Tehsee!” mehals (p. 9)? What are the causes of variation in the Land Revenue Demand Roll (C. O. 7, 1867 para. 11)! What directions have been given for its preparation (do, paras. 12, 13)! What directions with regard to the Land Revenue Balance sheets (do, paras. 1–10)? 8. On whom should dustucks be issued for recovery of malgoozaree, and to whom only should Dakhºlas be given How should the detail of credits of Putteedars be kept and by whom (p. 9, 10)? II. SETTLEMENT. 9. What preliminaries must have been observed in order to render the award of a sooltanee punchayat legal and conclusive (p. 11)? 10. What cesses are leviable? At what rates (p. 80); Should they be separately engaged for (p. 80)? In maaffee estates and resumed or lapsed patches, how, and by whom, should they be paid! In mokururee and obaree tenures, what will be taken as the basis of calculation (p. 36, p. 65, No. 20, Pt. II, p. 18, para. 4) . /* 11. In Re-measurements why cannot one standard beegah be adopt- ed? What should be considered the local standard beegah (p. 36, No. 2, paras. 6. 11)! When may the dimensions of each field in local kutcha beegahs be omitted from the khusreh, and when must they be retained (p. 37, paras. 7, 8)? What rule should obtain in cases where the re-mea- surement beegah differs from the beegah of settlement (p. 37, paras, 1% 13)? 12. What should be considered the standard for the kami! or last full jummah on assignments of Waste Land (p. 38, paras. 2, 8)} dow may materials for fixing this standard be obtained (paras. 3, 7)? Does this alter the mode of preparing the graduated jummah already prescribed (para, 8)? In what cases may this standard be exceeded (p. 38, Pº" 2, 9, p. 39, line 7)! * 13. Why is the previous preparation of a rent-roll (Jumahbun object in the settlement (p. 40, para. 6, p. 42, paras. 3, 4)? are the objections to drawing up the Jumahbundee before the * 38 of Jummah (p. 40, paras. S, 10)? In what cases may it be taken up ot one of the early proceedings and why (p. 41, para. 11)" When it º: be so taken up, how should the Khuteonee and Teerij be treated º:0S 16)? Who is responsible for its accuracy (para. 13)? Whº" . | should be adopted to ensure this accuracy, and how ought these með. dee) an What ment | 7 | make it practically a settlement record (paras, 14, 15, Pt. II, p. 3, A. A p. 8, para. 3, p. 10, line 13)? Who are entitled to extracts from the Jumahbundee and khewat? Who should furnish these? Are they liable to fees (p. 66, No. 25, Pt. II, p. 10, No. 11)" (see Sec : 50, 51). 14. Describe the modified khusreſ, How should the Shujreh be mounted! Where should the shujreh and khusreh be deposited (p. 45, paras. 2, 3, 4)? How are compasses to be obtained for the purposes of surveying? How can jureebs be tested (p. 39, No. 17)? By whom should the Field maps and indices of districts under settlement be prepared? What are the advantages of this plan. (Cºr. 5, 1867)? i5. Under what condition should the right of the ryot to sink wells be stipulated for in the Wajib-ool-urzº How may this be encouraged (p. 45)? What measure has been taken to afford data for determining the capabilities of a district for well-irrgation (p. 45, B.)? How should the cesses leviable under the chowkeedaree Acts be stipulated for in the settle- ment engagement (p. 69, para. 8, p. 80, paras. 2, 5, 7)? How and at what rate is putwarries dues provided for in the Wajib-ool-urz (p. 80, para. 4, Pt. II, p. 18, No. 7)? What stipulation as to the right of passage for private canal works should be made (p. 165. not : 3)? In temporary settlements what stipulations as to Alluvion and Diluvion should be made (p. 137, I.); , 16. What are the probable causes of the extensive alienations of lands during the currency of the settlement (p. 49, para. 5)? Under what law is the Revenue officer invested with some control in sales of land in execution of decrees (p. 53, para. 5, p. 265, para. 8, Pt. II, p. 117, Z. p. 125, para. 6)? What instructions have been issued on the sub- ject (p. 383)? What allowances are permitted to Tehseeldars and Peshkars employed in field operations at Settlement (p. 47)? 17. What sole change has the Seharun pore Instructions introduced in the procedure to be used for calculating the Government demand (p. 47, para. 2)? What principles to be followed in fixing the Government demand have they affirmed? What materials for this purpose would be &Vailablo (paras. 3, 4)? When does the Settlement year end? Name the Act which fixes this date (p. 48, line I, Pt. II, p. 123, No. 5)? 18. Why should baghs be assessed! What caution should be exercis- td (p. 48)? What proportion may be excimpted from assessment (p. 72) *W will this rule apply to pure zemindaree and how to estates held in *veralty (p. 79, paras, 1, 2)? In settlement of lapsed maafee tenures with Sther than the Zemindar, in what cases should the latter be allowed a *entage for the risk and trouble of collection ? At what rate (p. ; Wo. 3)? When should land in Civil stations be excluded from the *----------> | 8 || district rent roll! At what rate should such land ordinarily be assessed (p. 61, No. 12) . At what rates should Talookdaree allowance be calcu- ated (p. 48, N.)? 19. What is the object of Settlement Statements II and III (p. 58, p. 61)? In filling up the column for “average rent rates” in divisions containing tracts of varying fertility how should you proceed (p. 58, paras. 3, 4)? Generally what data should form the basis of these entries (para. 5, 11, p. 60, paras. 3, 4, 5)? How should that data be obtained (p. 59, para. 11)! What should the report contain (p. 58, paras. 5, 9, p. 70, para. 4)? Why is the correctness of the result now more than ever a matter of moment (p. 59, para. 12)! At what stage of the settlement should this report be made (p. 60, para. 5, p. 66, No. 28)? In filling up the statement of rights and liabilities page. 3, statements II, III, what rules should be followed in regard to the entry of sharers and local sub- divisions, (p. 61, No. 3)? Why can no form be prescribed for the assess- ment statement (p. 67, No. 26)." In irrigable mehals, in what cases must the tabular statements in II, III, be supplemented in detail (p. 66, paras. 7, 8)? What measures should be adopted to test the accuracy of the Settlement Records (p. 46) . In a village where the met assets amount to Rs. 1000, for how much will engagements be taken from the proprietors? Under what heads will this be credited, give an exemplar (p. 80, paras 5. 6). 20. What principle should guide the settlement officer in assess- ing the jummah in districts where artificial irrigation has been provided at the cost of the state (p. 42.) : What are the grounds of this principle, who should collect the water-rate (p. 43)? Will this alter the general basis of assessment in such cases (p. 54, para. 2)? How will the increased revenue due to irrigation be determined (p. 54, para. 3, p. 66, para. 3)' However in calculations based on the difference between baramee and ºrrigated rates, what limitations must be considered (p. 66, para. 4)? To what uses will this estimate of Canal Revenue be put (do, para. 6)? What other considerations connected with irrigation influencing the assessment must be detailed in the Assessment Statements II, III, (do. para. 7, 8)" 21. When the permanent Settlement is in progress what stipulations should be entered in the durkhast of engagement. (p. 65, p. 67, No. 29, para. 4)? What special ones in estates artificially irrigated at the cost of the state (p. 165, Not. 3)? What stipulations as to mining royalties should be made the subject of engagement in lands of which the pro- prietory right belongs to (a) the state (b) private parties (p. 68, Wo. I, p. 73, para. 9)? In the preparation of assessment statements ii, iii, in estates irrigated at the cost of the state, how should the Canal Revenue | 9 | be estimated (p. 66, para, 3)? What limitations must be considered (para. 4)? Why must these limitations be carefully considered by reason of the use to which the calculation may be put (para. 5, 6)? What other consi- derations require a more detailed explanation than the tabular statements afford (paras. 7, 8)? In estates subject to fluvial action, how may the pro- cedure of the permanent settlement be applied (p. 67, No. 29)? What divisions should be made? When may enhancement on account of fertiliza- tion of area and abatement on account of deterioration be claimed (p. 67)? In the latter case what is the practice in estates not perma- nently settled (p. 6, 8, para. 7)? Into what classes may districts be di- vided for the purposes of the permanent settlement (p. 72)? To which of these classes may the permanent settlement be extended (para. 3)" What is the standard entitling an estate to permanent settlement (para. 4)? When such standard has not been reached, when and under what restrictions may a permanent settlement be still formed (p. 73, para. 5)" Is a russudee jummah allowable (para 6) . In estates not open to a permanent settlement, how long will the settlement last (paras. 7, 8)? 22. Name the Chowkeedaree Acts (p. 80, para 8) ; What Act. provides for the watch and ward of towns and bazaars (p. 80, para. 8) ; What cesses are leviable under the Chowkeedaree Acts (p. 68, para. 4)? At what rate, when and how should the House tax be levied (p. 69, paras. 5–11)? How should this be stipulated for in the settlement durkhast (p. 69, para. 8, p. 80, paras. 2, 5, 7)? When should the detail of liabilities under the Act be entered (p. 69, para. 9)? By what process is it leviable from the Collectors, and by them from the cess-payers (paras. 7, 11)? What would be considered a separate house under the Act (para. 12) . When the jummah has already been revised, what rules should be observed 4 Give an exemplar (paras. 14, 15) At what rate should the municipal cess be levied (see sec: viii, of the Act) To what purposes may it be applied (p. 80, para. 7) : III. MAAFEES. 23. On what terms, and subject to what proviso, should the heirs of maafeedars be admitted to settlement (p. 105, No. 12, paras 2, 4)? Will the death of an ex-maafeedar, with whom the land has been settled, disturb the arrangement (para. 3) . In summary settlements of resum- ed maafee and other similar patches of land, how will the jummah at half assets rate be calculated (p. 105, 1, paras. 3, 4) # When the land is settled with other than the zemindar of the village, in what cases only should the latter be allowed a percentage for the trouble and risk of *** ----------—- ------- ** ***-*- $) *d | 10 | collection, at what rate (p. 60, Wo. 3) In cases of lands released for certain specific purposes, what caution should be inserted in the certificate (p. 107, para. 3) { Name the laws which apply to mutations of registry of these holdings (paras, 4, 6)? With whom should an in crease by alluvion to a maafee estate be settled (p. 136, para Ó) IV. A. LLU WI () N AND DILUWION. 24. In mºhals subject to fluvial action at the annual inspection, in- to what classes should those found to require alteration of assessment be divided (p. 133, para. 5)? How should the inspection be conducted (p. 33, paras. 2, 3, 4,)? What percentage of increase will entail a re- | settlement (p. 134, para, I) What is the object of this rule (p. 136, paras. 3, 4,) In cases of a//wvion, what option in the settlement is allowed to the Zemindar (p. 134 para. 1, p. 136, para 4) . How should new formations be treated (p. 134, para. 3) | And how the entire loss of a mehal. (para. 7) Describe the quinquennial system of inspection (p. 134, S. 2, 3) . What advantages does it offer (paras. 7, 8) ; In what cases and subject to what provisoes may this arrangement be in- terfered with (paras. 4, 5)? Is increase of area by alluvion in Maafee estates liable to assessment (p. 136, para. 3) . With whom should the settlement of increment be made, the maafeedar or the Zemindar (para. 5) | 25 When may abatement on account of Diluvion be claimed. (p. 134, II. p. 135, para. 6) In future settlements, what new stipulation | in regard to Alluvion and Diluvion has been prescribed (p. 137, I.)? Under this arrangement, when only can Diluvion be considered (do.) . In the re-settlement of estates subject to fluvial action, what lands should be separated from the parent mehal, and how should they be treated (p. 137, II, III. J.W.)? Name the law for Boundary disputes (p. 138, para. 7) How should these summary settlements be reported (p. 138, para. 4) . W. CAN ALS. 26. Name the Canal Disricts in the N. W. P. (p. 163)." What spe- cial powers over rivers and streams have Canal officers in their districts (p. 163, para. 2, p. 164, para. 4, and Fatarct. G. O.)? By what agency will the water-rate be collected (p. 42, para. 13, p. 166, J.)? By what agency the navigation dues (p. 167, P.)? How far will losses sustain. ed by the action of canal works undertaken for private interests be borne by Government, and by the promoter respectively (p. 165, not; 3)] How must the right of passage for private works be provided for (do)" Describe the procedure in respect of accounts to be rendered of Canal Collections (p. 167, F. F.)? —- *-ur- | 11 27. Who is the controlling officer in casses of default in payment of canal dues (a) from want of assets. (b) from objection as to liability, failure of water &c. (p. 168, para. 4)? Who will actually collect the rate (p. 42, para. 13, p. 166, J. p. 168, para. 5)? How will the accounts be kept by the persons collecting (p. 168, paras. 5, 6, 8) { Name the Law under which proprietors and farmers of estates may be appointed lumberdars for the collection of the water-rate (p. 170, No. 4) . In what case will this not apply (p. 172, No. 5) How should the record of irrigation for each fºssil be compiled (p. 170, paras. 4, 11)? What | agency will be employed, detail the duties of each (do) . In complaints regarding canal matters generally, what jurisdiction has the tehseeldar (p. 171, para. 15, p. 172 not )? How will his acts be supervised (p. 171, para. 16) | Are petitions on Canal matters to bear a stamp (p. 172, not :) For the purpose of fixing the rates to be levied, into what classes are Crops divided (p. 172, 3)? What proportion do the “Pal” rates bear to the “Tor” rates (p. 173, No. 17)? On what measure of area will they be calculated (p. 173, No. 20) 7 WI. APPROPRIATION OF LAND FOR PUBLIC PURPOSES. 28. Name the Law (p. 220, para. 11)? When should the Jummah of Malgoozaree land taken up for pub'ºe purposes, be retained on the Touzee and when struck off (p. 199. No. 6) In the former case how should it be represented in the accounts (do.) . What two registers of such lands should be completed in each District (p. 199, F. O. p. 213, para, 4)? What explanations should the register of appropriations by Government for its own urposes contain (p. 212, para. No. 5, 2, p. 213, paras. 4, 5, 8) ; How should relinquishments be noted (p. 213, paro. 6)? | Explain the rule which fixes the amount of compensation at ten per cent. above the jumma rates on the cultivated or malgoozaree area [as the Case may be] (p. 200, para. 34, p. 201, paras. 6, 9, 13)? If the owner consents, what should the razeemamah contain (p. 200, para. 5, p. 212, No. 13) | But if he refuses how should the Collector proceed (p. 200, paras. 5, 6)" In all cases what explanations must be entered in the remark column (p. 200, para. 7, p. 201, Remarks)? In negotiating for the perma- ment possession of rent free land, what rule should be adopted (p. 202, line 15, p. 207, para. 26, p. 211, para. S) { 29. In the adjustment of claims to compensation on account of lands appropriated for Railway purposes, what are the duties of the Tehseeldar (p. 204, Not. 11, paras. 1, 6, 12, 13, 20, 29) : The Engineer (do, para. 4). The Surveyor (do, para. 6). What records should be made | 12 on the spot? Describe each and their object (do, paras. 611)! What modes of compensation are authorized by law (do. para. 12)? Describe the pro- cedure in each mode (do. paras. 13, 17)." After appropriation and regis- tration of the land, how may the amount of the Government demand to be suspended be calculated (do, para. 18) By what law has Govern- ment the power of determining the account of compensation due to tho malgoozaree for loss of profits (do, para. 19, see Act VI, 1857, Sec: 1)! What will this be under existing rules! Should a larger compensation be awarded, how will it be given (do, para. 19) . In compensating for loss of profits what other interests besides those of the proprietors may be concerned, how should they be compensated (do, paras. 20, 21) What distinctions, among non-proprietary cultivators should be taken into consideration (do. para. 21) : 30. In cases of formal arbitration where parties dispute, (a) as to the amount of their shares, (b) as to their right to participate, by whom will the case be decided (p. 206, Not : 11, para. 22) . Where the dis- pute is, as to what particular person the compensatºon should be given, to what rule should obtain (do, paras 22, 23 see Act VI, 1857, Secs, xiv, xv) In co-parcenary estates in what cases should the compensation be retained in deposit (do. para. 23) | What distinctions must be taken into consideration in “lakhiraj" and “mokurruree” holdings (do. paras. 24, 25) As to the mode of compensation for maafee lands, what general rule is given (p. 20, line 15, p. 207, para. 26, p. 211, para. S) { To what compensation is a non-proprietary Maafeedar entitled, to what a Maafeedar who is also proprietor, to what a Mokurrureedar, to what an ex-maafeedar with whom the estate has been settled at favorable rates on resumption (p. 207, part. 26)." What is the rule for “nuzool” land, for Houses on (a) ccoupier's own land (b) nuzool land (c) in bazaars on the land of others for trees and orchandi, for spontaneous produce la- wars, bagha and absorbed jheels (p. 207, para. 27) : What are the rules to be followed in calculating the amount of compensation for cul- turable waste (p. 221, No. 5)" Where temples or other places of worship must be removed, what procedure should be followed (p. 208, para. 28) When appropriations may afterwards be relinquished, how should they be treated (do, para. 32)" 31. Detail the principles to be followed ºn calculating a fair com- pensation in the case of (1) Proprietors (p. 210, para. 2). (2) Talookdars and Biswahdars. (do, paras. 3, S, p. 231, note). (3) Tenant contracting year by year. (p. 210 para. 9). (4) Tenant with permanent right of occu- pancy at full rates (p. 211, para. 10), (5) Tenant with permanent right of occupancy at privileged rates (do, para. 11). (6) Minhyedar (do, part. ------". | 13 | 12, 14). If the Minhyedar be a rural police-man or such like who enjoys the land in lieu of service, and his services be retained, how should the compensation be distributed (do, para. 14) . To what approprations have the principles prescribed for compensation in Railway appropriation been extended (p. 211, No. 2) . To what case has the ready money compen- sation principle been extended (p. 211, para. 8) ; 32. Into what classes are lands taken up for Railway purposes to be divided (p. 227, para. 1) . Describe the lands which each of the four classes A. B. C. D. will comprise (do. paras. 2, 5)" In cases of tempo- rary appropriation, who will determine the period of occupation (do, para. 3, 4) . Which classes of land are provided by Government free of cost (do, para. 1) . In cases of permanent occupation of lands comprised in class C. what considerations should influence the fixing of the rent (do, para. 4 and p. 226, A. A.) . In these cases, why has the rent paying and not the purchase system been adopted (p. 228, para. 6) What should the plans filed with the applications for appropriations contain (do. paras. 8, 10) | Through whom should they be presented and by whom checked (p. 228, para. 11, p. 222, paras. 5, 6)" How will the District authorities be furnished with copies of them (p. 228, para. 12) . What are the duties of the consulting Engineer and Revenue authorities respectively (do, paras. 11, 13) : 33. On what basis should the register of appropriations both past and present be compiled (p. 214, F.) | What items should the English and vernacular statements submitted with appropriation reports respectively contain (p. 213, N.) | What rules have now been adopted for obtaining a full record of all Railway lands, who will keep these books (p. 222, M.)? Within what period should adjustment of compensation be made (p. 208, paras. 29, 30, p. 226, paras. 2, 3, p. 230, No. 3) . What sanction is required before taking up lands for public purposes (p. 211, para. 2, p. 226, para. 4, 5)" What dates should schedules of appropriation and resumption bear, to whom should they be sent (p. 226, Q. p. 230, A.) . VII. LAND LORD AND TENANT, 34. What classes of suits are cognizable under Act X, IS59, and Act XIV, 1863, (p. 257, 8, p. 264)? Where local investigation may be deemed necessary, to whom may a commission be issued (p. 25s, para. 11, p. 268, para. 3)? What procedure is enjoined, give the form (p. 26S, para. 3) . In cases of abatement how may the information obtained be tabulated (p. 269, para. 4) . Give the Board's opinion as to the gene. ral construction of Sec : 1, Act XIV, 1863, (p. 264, para. 3) . How should the word co-shaº'ers in cl: 2. Sec : 1, Act XIV, 1863, be construed Yº-------—--------------- --- - - - - - - - - - - ------- - - - - - - - - - - --- - - - - - ---- - - * * * - - - - ---------- - - - - | 14 ) (p. 268, No. 10) How are the povisions of Act X, 1859, to be applied to Act XIV, 1863 (p. 264, para. 3) . What pleas and issues will and will not oust the jurisdiction of the Revenue Courts (do, para. 4) . To what courts are decisions of courts of first instance under Sec. 1, Act XIV, 1863, appealable (p. 274, No. 11) . How should the institution stamp in suits relating to (a) Khalsa lands (b) Lakhiraj lands be calculated (p. 264, para. 2) . Name the law for determining the value of a suit (p. 265, para. 6) What new rule as to process of execution has been introducd by Act XIV, 1863, (p. 265, para. 7) How has the power of the Reve- nue anthorities to avert the sale of land in execution of decrees been ex- | tended by the same Act, name the laws (p. 265, para. 8)? In what case | is provision for taking security from a party arrested made under Act || XIV, 1863, (p. 265, para. 12) . What powers have been given by the same Act to officers employed in making or revising settlements (p. 265, para. 13, p. 266, No. 1 l) { Name the arbitration law; in applying it, what pre- cautions should be observed (p. 265, para. 10) In what class of cases is a recourse to arbitration peculiarly appropriate (p. 270, para. 6)? How has the power of distraint been extended by Act XIV, 1863 (p. 265, para. 9); 35. In applications under Secs. XXV, xxviii, Act X, 1859, what procedure is enjoined (p. 263, No. 7, para. 2) . In applications under Sec. xxviii of the same Act, what issues should be laid down (do. para. 3)] How is the limitation classes in Sec : xxviii, to be construed (p. 261, No. 416) . What law governs it (p. 262, para. 4) . What are the only excep- tions to a 12 years laches extinguishing all right to assess (p. 262, para, 7)? How should the amount of assessment be determined (p. 263, No. 7, para. 3) . What change has this section introduced in the law (p. 267, para. 2) # To what class of non-rent-paying holdings do the sections of regulations cite a in Sec : xxviii, Act X, 1859, refer (p. 267, para. 3) . To what class do they not refer, and how should both be treat- ed by the Settlement officer (p. 267, paras. 4, 9) What other exceptional case may sometimes occur, and how would this be treated (p. 268, para. 10) | Who should conduct sales in pursuance of process of the Revenue courts (p. 260, not : No. 3)? What remunera. tion is prescribed (p. 263, No. 366)? What jurisdiction has an officer invested with powers under Act X, placed in charge of a sub-division of a district (p. 261, F.)? What fees are allowed to translators, what regis- ters should be kept (p. 274, No. 13)? 36. Has the stamp law made any alterations in the appeal stamps required by Act X, 1859 (p. 268, No. 5)? At what stage of a case should the issues be laid down (p. 268, No. 13, para. 2) . How should the evi- dence be noted (p. 270, paras, 9, 10) What should the judgment and -- -- - —- -------- -- --- -----" | 15 decree contain (do, paras, 11, 12) . How and under what sections of Act X, 1859, may a ryot with rights of occupancy be ejected (p. 270, para. 8) : In suits of what value are the copies of decree and judgment ex- empted from stamp-duty (do. 1 ara. 13)? What endorsment should the former contain, why (do, para. 14) . What decrees may be executed within three years only (p. 273, No. 2)! VIII. RECORDS AND REGISTRATION. 37. What system has been laid down to render the records of the collector available to the public (p. 299)? What procedure should the par- ty applying follow (p. 299, para. 4) . What fees are to be charged (a) for search (do. para. 5,) (b) registry (do, para. 9) When papers are called for by proper authority, how should the Mohafiz Dufur act (do. para. 8) ; What is the object of the fly-indew (p. 300, A. para. 2) How should it be prepared (do.)? What cases should be entered in the kooleat register (p. 303, para. 8, p. 305, para. 27)? Where should registers of per- manent utility be deposited (p. 304, para. 21, p. 316, app. 4) . Name some of them and their object (p. 305, paras. 29, 31) . What should be the basis of mutations in the Lumberdaree register and khewat (p. 30) No. 2) # Who are responsible for the timely furnishing of notifications required in these cases (p. 301, paras. 2, 5)? How should they be promulgated (do, paras. 6, 7) : In what class of cases should the provi- sions of Act XXXIII, 1854, be observed (p. 302, line 1) . What is the object of the Act (p. 301, No. 4) # In these cases, why is a copy of the decision in English meccessary, at what rate should it he charged (p. 320, No. 7)? : 38. How are the Offices of current bussiness and record respectively | styled, what records are kept in each (p. 302, No. 9, para. 3) # Should the distribution of business be according to subject or territorial division, which is preferrable and why (p. 303, paras. 9, 10) What re- gisters should be kept up in each department (do. paras. 1, 12, 14) . Of what use are they (do. 7 ara. 13) : What record is made of the contents of a misl (do. para. 15) ' What should the fly-leaf and “kyduk” contain (p. 304, para. 16)? How many “bustahs” should be kept by each depart- mental mohurrir (do. para. 17).' What should each contain (do.) . What should the “maskhubar” contain (do, para. 18) When only should Cases be handed over to the record-office from the moonshee-kanah (do. para. 19) . What records require special arrangement (do, para. 20)? When only and under what Sanction can the authorized headings of the Report be altered (p. 304, para. 23) : What proceedings should be ex- cluded from the statement of business (p. 304, para. 24, p. 320, Wo. 228) *- "T"-------— | 16 How should useless records be disposed of (p. 305, No. 10, p. 313, para. 22) # Under what descriptions will records to be retained or removed after certain periods fall (p. 311, No. 4) . How may the proceeds from the sale of waste paper and use 'ess records be applied (p. 313, paras. 17, 22, 23) : What mislounds are required where the distribution of busi- mess is (a) territorial, (b) according to subject (p. 320, C. G.). 39. What is the groundwork of the arrangement of Eng/ish record and correspendence (p. 306, 7 ara. 2)? What bundles may be made, and what rule will obtain in placing correspondence in these bundles (do) How will the correspondence regarding a transaction be treated, and in the file of what month will it be deposited (do, paras. 3, 4) . In order to carry out this plan in its integrity, what care must be taken in correspondence (do, para. 5) / Give a general view of the arrangement of the Commissionors Office (p. 306, 309)? What correspondence, record and indices should be kept up in the Collector's Office (p. 399, I, II)? Into what monthly bundles will the file regarding a transaction be deposited (do. III)' Into what bundles may the correspondence be divided, what entries should the fly- indices to these bundles contain, so as to ensure the discovery of the en- tire correspondence (do. III, p. 310, VI, p. 321, No. 19)% Name the eight general headings under which the correspondence may fall (p. 309, para. 5) ; What Registers are enjoined, who should have charge of the Indices and Registers (p. 311, VII, XII) { 40. In cases mouzahwa, and kooleat, how should the papers of a misl be arranged so as to be able at once to distinguish those which it is necessary to keep (p. 311, paras. 1, 2)" Who should make this arrange ment (p. 312, para. 3) . Give a general list of papers in a misl and dispose them under each head (p. 314, app. 1)! What general rule as to time and subject should obtain (p. 312, paras. 4, 5) What papers in cases mou- zahwar and kooleat should be retained permanently (p. 314, app. 2, A.)" In all cases what papers must invariably be preserved (p. 312, para. 8, p. 313, para. 19) . How should the terms for destruction with reference to these rules be computed (do, para. 9); Into what special departments may periodical statements, registers books and accounts be distributed (do, para. 11)? How will the list of these records be kept (do, para. 10)? What must be permanently retained (do, para. 12, p. 316, app. 4)? And what periodically destroyed (p. 312, part. 4, p. 317, app. 5)? Who will control the revision of the records; what discretion is given (p. 313, paras. 13, 15) Generally what records should be retained (p. 312, para. 8, p. 319, part. 19) . What rules should be observed in the Tehseeldars Canoongoe's and Putwarie's offices (p. 313, paras. 21, 25)? What papers should be kept by the latter (p. 314, para. 25)! | 17 | 41. In what cases under Act X, 1859, should a memorandum ac- cording to Act XX, 1866, be sent to the office of the District Registrar, (p. 321, not : 12, para. 1) . When should sale deeds be registered (p. 322, para. 3) . What instruments executed on the part of Government or the Court of Wards should be registered (p. 323, Not : No. 23) - IX. PARTITIONS. 42. Name the Partition Law (p. 347, Wo. 11, para. 1)? How far does it oust the jurisdiction of the Civil Courts (do, para. 9) ' Who may claim Partition (do, paras. 6, 13, 21)? What should the application con- tain (do, para. 4)? What preliminary notification should be issued (do. para. 5)? In serving this notice what caution should be observed (para. 5)? When and how should the power of rejection be exercised (paras. 4, 6, 20)? What rules as to procedure should the Collector follow (para. 7) : When should the parties be referred to the Civil Court (para. 7) : What cases are appealable to the Civil Court, and what to the superior Reve- nue Authorities (do. para. 8)? After settlement of preliminaries, what is the next step (para. 10)? Who are invested with powers under the Act. (para. 11)? Under what conditions has the Collector power to hand over a case to a subordinate officer (para. 11)? What law regulates the fees of the Ameens and arbitrators employed (para. 12) ' Who should provide these fees, and how, and in what proportion may he be reimbursed (para. 12, p. 352, No. 23) 43. When should the measurement and rent-roll be prepared (p. 349, para. 14)? What paper's may be accepted as a basis for partition, when (para. 14)? When only should an Ameen be appointed (paras. 15, 16) When should attachment be resorted to (para. 17)? What are the rules for partition of Putteedaree villages (para. 18)". When only can posses- sion be altered and transfer inforced (para. 19) . In putteedaree villages and Talooks, when may sanction to partition be withheld (para. 20)? How should the apportionment of the Government Revenue be determined (para. 22) What principles should guide the partition- ing officer in cases where he may consider that any land should be left undivided (para. 24) : Is the act applicable to Maafee villages (para. 27)' Determine the distinctions in form and liability between “But- wara Camoonee” and “Tukseem Putteedaree,” and how far are each affect- ed by the Act (paras. 30, 31) : X. CIVIL SUITS AND ORDERS OF COURTS. 44. What rules should be observed in the management of lands attached by orders of the Court (p. 378, No. 3)? What supervision is pro- *- 3 — [ 18 | vided (do, para. 3)? What particulars as to time of sale should be entered in a sale notice (p. 377, No. 4, S. D. A. Circulars p. 225, Sec : coxlix, Act VIII, 1859)? Where may the sale proceeds be deposited (do. Wo. 14, p. 387, para. 12) . What course should be followed on the occur. rence of a vacancy in the office of Government Wakeel (do. No. 2)? What course is prescribed before re-sale after an adjournment (p. 378, line 6, see Sec : 11. C. O. S. D. A. 26, 1862)? What is the object of the provisions of Sec. 244, Act VIII, 1859 (p. 49, para. 5, p. 53, 1 *%. 5, p. 382) What instructions have been issued on the subject (p. 383)' . 45. In suits brought against the Collector as representative of Go- Vernment, how should the Collector proceed (p. 379, para. 2) . What Papers should accompany his report to the Commissioner (do, para. 2)? What rules should guide the preparation of the reply (do. para. 3) . With what exception is the discretion of appeal allowed to the Commis- Sioner, and under what circumstances to the Collector (do. paras, 5, 8)? What exclusive action is retained by the Board in suits by and against Government (p. 379, para. 5, p. 380, paras. 9, 10, 14)? In regular Appeal to the Sudder Dewanny Adawlut, what paper and records should be sent with the report of the Collector (do, para. 13, 14, 16) 1 See sche- dule Act X, 1861, (Cºr: B. 1867)? In special appeals, what papers and | records should be forwarded (p. 380, para. 15)? How should the cases | be classified in the returns (p. 382, p. 385, c. c. p. 390, para. 3)? What should be considered a separate suit (p. 390, paras. 5, 6)? According to what year should the return be prepared (p. 389, No. 17, para. 2) What index and memoranda should be attached to each suit for facility of reference and preparation of report (p. 390, paras. 6, 9)? In cases of damages on account of Railway works who are liable for the same, how far should the Collector interfere (p. 389, No. 25)? - 46. On what dates should sales of lands or of rights and interests in lands in execution of decrees of Civil Courts be held (p. 386, 1)? What Procedure should the Civil Courts follow in ordering attachment or sale (do. II, III)? On receipt of requisition by the Collector, how should he Proceed (do. iv) What discretion has he in selecting the property in the inventory of sale (do, iv)? How should any errors in the entry be recti- fied (lo. iv)? On the sale day, what information should be afforded to the Public by the Collector (do. v). How should objections against the proposed sale be treated (p. 387, vi), When only can the Collector postpone a sale (do, vi)? What offences at sales are punishable under the Penal Code (do. vii)? In what cases may the right of pre-emption be exercis- ed (do, viii)? How much of the purchase money must be deposited at . —TT 3. | 19 J * the time of sale (p. 387, ix) Within what period must the whole be made good (do. x) { What ensues on default (do. x) { In what cases only can the Collector disburse it (p. 388, xv) Where difficulties arise in giving possession under a sale-certificate, how should the Collector proceed (do. xv)? What are understood to be the liabilities of the purchaser and rent-payer in estates sold from the day of sale (do... xvii, xviii) : XI. PAUPER SUITS. 47. What claim has the Government in pauper suits (p. 418, No. 1, para. 3, see Sec : xccix, Act VIII, 1859)? How must the claim if irre- coverable be adjusted in the accounts (do.) . With what authority will the power of striking out such claims as appear irrecoverable rest (p. 4.17, C. p. 418, No. 1, para, 3, p. 422, No. 5)? Describe the forms of return and report enjoined (p. 418, paras. 5, 12)? What percentage on recoveries is allowed as fees, to whom (p. 418, J. p. 422, Wo. 13)? What class of fines is recoverable in the same manner as Government due in pauper suits (pt. ii, p. 76, No. 16, para. 2)? XII. COURT OF WARDS. t 48. What returns and reports have been enjoined to afford the Board the means of supervising the accounts of estates under the Court of Wards (p. 447)? With whom lies the appointment of tutors to male minors (p. 44S, No. 17, No. 7)? What schemes for their education has now been adopted (p. 4501)? To whom has the control of the Wards Institution been given (p. 451, paras. 4, 5) * egºs | 20 PART II. XIII. PUTWAREES AND LUMBERD ARS AND PUTWAREES' ACCOUNTS. 49. What should be held the minimum qualification for the office of putwaree (p. 1, para. 2) . How should this standard be enforced (do. para. 3, 5)" What means of instruction are open to Putwarees (p. 7, para. 5) . Under what proviso may the means of instruction be pro- vided at the expense of the Putwarees (p. 8, para. 4) . How will they be provided with surveying apparatus (p. 3, ZZ. Pt. 1, p. 39, No. 17) Who is to examine putwarrees and grant certificates (p. 2, para. 6)" In carrying out this measure, what provision is made in favour of present incumbents (p. 1, para. 4, p. 2, para. 6)" º 50. Where and by what agency should the Putwarees annual pa- per be prepared (p. 7, para. 2, 3) . In what character and language should they be written (do. 7, para. 4) . What character and language should ordinarily be used (p. 7, para. 4)? What should be the basis of the Putwarees yearly papers, and what alterations from this basis should they exhibit (p. 9, para. 2, p. 3, para, 5) What is the great object of these papers, and what measure should be adopted to ensure the attain- ment of this object (p. 9, para. 3, p. 7, No. 8, para. 2, Pt. I, p. 41, para. | 14, 15) ' What are the main points for enquiry at the yearly inspec- tion (p. 10, line 1) . By whom should it be conducted and how (p. 3. para. 3, p. 8, para. 3, p. 10, lºne 13) : What is the object of the “tukh- meenah” made in the Allahabad District (p. 6, paras. 1, 5) . What orders have been issued with regard to it (p. 7, para. 8) ; By whom should the Shujrehs and Indices of districts under settlement be prepar- ed, what are the advantages of this plan; will the preparers be re- munerated (Cir : 5, 1867) { t 51. What papers make up the new “ Huftaganah,” what addition has been made (p. 12, No. 16, paras. 10) How many copies will the Putwaree prepare, where will they be deposited (p. 13, para. 14) . How far does the change relieve the putwarees (p. 13, paras. 13, 16)? Describe the Jumahbundee, give the headings (p. 12, paras. 3, p. 14, No. 1) the Milan Jumahbundee (p. 14, No. II), the Teerij Wasil-bakee (p. 15, No. iii), the Wasil-bakee Bakaya Schsala (p. 15, No. iv), the Jumma- Wasil bakee, kastkarar Shikwa, (p. 16, No. v.) the jumma khurch (p. 12, para. 8, p. 16, No. vi), the Tabdeelee nam, lumberdaran, aur Hissa-daran (p. 17, No. vii). What is the object of the “Bajharut Hissa-daran,” how - ---- —“ [ 21 is it compiled (p. 12, para. 10, p. 17, No. viii) . How far are all tenants entitled to a copy of the Jumahbundee (p. 10, No. ii, para. I, Pt. I, p. 66, No. 25) What should the tenants copy contain (p. 10, Wo. 11, para. 5) # When should a new copy be given (do, para. 6) Who will have the copies and how will the expense be defrayed (do. para. 2, Pt. 1, p. 66, No. 26, para. 2) . 52. Name the Putwarees Law (p. 11, 0, para. 2) Enumerate the offences and punishments made cognizable by it (do.) . How are minor offences and breach of the Boards' rules made punishable under it (do. para. 3) . What would be considered a suitable punishment in such cases (do, para. 4, 5, p. 12, para. 12) . In what cases should Putwarees be made to reimburse parties for the expense they have been put to in prosecuting their rights (p. 11, paras. 6, 8) ; What punish- ment follows on non-payment of fine (p. 11, para. 4) . In charges of incompetency, what procedure should be followed (do.) . What arrange. * , ment for the payment of putwarees was made in the Scharunpore district.” settlement of 1855 (p. 18, No. 7, para. 2) . How has this been modi- fied (do. and Pt. 1, p. 48, No. 4) . At the revision of settlement in the same district, at what rate and through what agency were the Putwarees fees collected and paid (p. 8, para. 7, do. No. 7, para. 2, p. 18, para. 3) . How have they been graded, on what account and in what limits are they promoted (p. 8, No. 7, £ara, 3) . What principle as to their pay was adopted (p. 9, para. 5) When may these arrangements be introduced (do. para. 6) How may the surplus Putwaree's fees be | expended (do, paras. 4, 7) : What discretion has the settlement officer in fixing the mode in which the Putwarees dues are to be calculated (p. 18, para 2, p. 8, para. 2, Pt. 1, p. 80, para. 4)? How often should they be paid (p. 8, para. 7, p. 18, para. 3)? Why should the proprietors of maafee patches in khalsa estates contribute (p. 18, para. 4)? 53. Define the title “Lumierdar" (p. 4, para. 5)? What quali- fications may a Lumberdar be expected to possess (p. 2, para. 8) ; Can the qualifications of Lumberdars always rule their appointment; in what cases may their appointment rest on other ground (p. 2, para. | 7)? In appointing Lumberdars, what principle as to numbers should pre- wail (p. 4, para, 3)? When this principle has been overlooked, what mea- sures should be adopted to rectify the error, and where may the basis of a correct calculation be found (p. 4, para. 4, 7)? How have the Se- harumpore rules made attention to this principle a matter of primary importance (p. 4, para. 3)? In carrying out these measures, what state- ment may be prepared and how may this statement otherwise be made use of (do, paras. 4, 5,9)? When should separate Lumberdars be allowed --- [ 22 (do, para. 5)" What procedure should be adopted in cases (a) where seve- ral distinct puttees claim each its own Lumberdar (b) where the Lum- | berdars title has been extinguished by sale &c. (p. 4, paras. 5, 6)" XIV. ESTABLISHMENTS. 54. What transactions have been forbidden to public servants gene- rally in the districts in which they are employed, what rules have been | prescribed for adoption (p. 43, No. 2, do. not ; line 18, p. 49, No. 10, p. 50) Should the security bonds of Treasurer be stamped and registered, how often should they be renewed (p. 44, No. 11)? What procedure should be followed where an increase or change of establishment may be | deemed necessary (p. 47, No. 5, p. 78, S.)? What pension-holders in employ can draw the full salary of their office (p. 43, not: line 25) / For the appointment and removal of what grade of officers should the sanction | of the Commissioner be obtained (p. 44, No. 8, p. 48, para. 2, C. O. 2, *367, para. 3)? What allowances should be made during the period of (a) suspension reading enquiry and (b) suspension for punishment (p. 49, para. 9)? In the former case, how should the balance of pay held in deposit be distributed (do, paras. 6, 7)? When substitutes have been employed, how should their remuneration in case of (a) acquittal and (b) conviction, be calculated (p. 49, paras. 4, 6) In punishing what officer by fine must a report be made to the Commissioner (p. 43, No. 3, p. 48, para. 2)" Who alone has power to take cognizance of offences “suo motu" (Cir. 2, 1867) : 55. Name the Canoongoes Law (p. 46, para. 1)? Who are eligible for the office (p. 46, para. 3, Cir: 4, 1867, para. 5)? Under what restric- tions may Gomashtas be employed by them (p. 46, para. 4, Cºr; 4, 1867, para. 6) Define the relations of the Canoongoe to the Tehsoeldar (Cór .. 4, 1867, paras. 4, 7)? What are the duties of the Canoongoe as Pergunnah Registrar (p. 46, Tara. 7)' What are his duties as Official attestor (p. 57, para. 8, Cºr 4, 1867, paras. 2, 3) X W. ACCOUNTS. 56. In what class of accounts should fractions of a rupee be omit- ted (p. 75, No. 15)' Describe the “Register of suits other than pauper suits,” what is its object (p. 75, G.)? What memorandum should accom- pany contingent bills which require the counter-signature of the Com- missioner only and those which require the counter-signature of both the Commissioner and the Board (p. 76, No. 5, paras. 2, 3) . What certi. ficate should accompany an application for sanction to extra expenditure (p. 78, S.) Under what procedure will fines under Act XIX, 1853, be ~~ * - | 23 ] levied (p. 76, No. 16, , aras. 2, 7)? Who has power to remit all those hopelessly irrecoverable (do. para. 5)? On whom will devolve the com- pilation of the statement of Demands, Collections and Balances required by the Board (p. 79, B. para. 2)? What will form the basis of this state- ment (do.)? According to what year should it be kept (p. 81, No. 4) . In the Budget Estimate, how should proposed remissons of demand on ac- count of Revenue be provided for (p. 81, Y. paras. 2, 4)? how refund of sums already collected (do. paras. 3, 4) . ln both cases what certi- ficates must accompany the report (do. para. 4) . In the latter, to what year must the certificate refer (p. 82, para. 2)? In what cases of cash payments for Government may the certificate be dispersed with (do, para. 3)? Under what head of the Budget should Surplus Tulubama be credit- ed (p. 82, No. 28) : XVI. ANNUAL REPORTS. 47. Under what heads should the annual report of the Col/ector be # arranged (p. 115, para. 30, p. 119, No. 22)? What should the General Remarks contain (p. 115, para. 30) In order to censure the timely sub- | mission of the report, what arrangement as to the preparation of tabular statements should be adopted, to whom should they be forwarded (p. 120. D. paras. 2, 3, p. 124, v, para. 2, p. 125, para. 9)? What statatements should the appendia contain, briefly describe each (pp. 107, 114, 1 19, 120, 123)? What notice should be taken of alienation of lands public and private, why (p. 107, para. 1, p. 113, para. 21)? How far does Sec : | 244, Act VIII, 1859, affect compulsory sales (Pt. I, p. 49, No. 42, p. 382, M. Pt. II, p. 117, Z. p. 125, para. 6) On what dates do the offi- cial, Revenue, and agricultural years respectively commence (p. 123, Not: 5, para. 2, Cir. 7, 1867, para. 1)? What returns, reports and remarks in reports will be drawn up according to each of these years (p. 123, not: 5, p. 125, paras. 2, 3, Cór .. 7, 1867)? Under what headings should the settlement report be arranged (p. 126, para. 3)' Explain each (do. paras. 4, 8) ; What matters must be excluded from these reports (p. 125, No. 19, para. 2)? To what other reports will these instructions apply (p. 126, para. 9); XVII. NUZOOL. 58. How only can “Nuzool” lands be granted away or sold (p. 151, para. 9)? Distinguish between Wuqf and Nuzool lands (p. 151, paras. 4, 5)? How may each be applied and how should their accounts be kept (p. 151, 2)? What is the rule of compensation when Nuzool land is taken up for Public purposes (Pt. I, p. 207, para. 27) : | 24 | XVIII. PRICES-CURRENT. 59. Who is primarily responsible for the accuracy of the prices. current (p. 180, No. 9, para. 3) . By what officer should they be com- piled (do. p. 179, line 7)? Of what articles only will the wholesale price be given (p. 177, Rule 5, p. 180, para. 3)? What will be considered the market price (p. 179, line 11) . What days transaction will appear in the return (p. 177, para. 2, Rule 5)? What weights and coins will be entered in the return (p. 178, Rule 6) What should be entered under the head of “sugar (red.)” (p. 180, Office Memo.)? XIX. RAIN_GUAGES AND RAIN-RETURNS. 60. Describe the rain-guage in use (p. 214, W.)? How are obser- vations taken and recorded (do.)? When especially should the registers from out stations be examined (p. 208, para. 7)? How are the rain- guage stations to be arranged in the returns (p. 208, para. 7, p. 211, #ºara. 4, p. 206, para. 6); What should be shown in the accompanying map (p. 206 para. 7, 8) ; To whom will the returns be sent, on what days? How will out-station registers be forwarded (p. 2] 3, Not: No. 1)? xx, PENSIONS. * * 61. At what rate may hereditary and all other personal pensions of an hereditary nature be commuted for Cash payments (p. 241, para. 3)! # In what cases may allowances to religious objects be so commuted (do.) . º ... In each case, what sanction is required (do.) . What life-pensions may be ºf commuted for cash-payments, at what rate (p. 243, No. 6) What regis. ter to prevent fraud is enjoined (p. 242, paras. 3, 4) . What certificate must be signed by the disbursing officer at the time of payment (p. 243, No. 761)? What pensions are transferable from one place to another with- in the Bengal Presidency, subject to what provisoes (p. 244, C. para. 2) XXI. RULES OF PHACTICE. 62. How are appeals to be presented to the Board (p. 270, Rule I) What stamp is necessary (do. Rule II) . What papers should accompany the memo of Appeal (do. Rule II, p. 276, para. 8) ; How will the case be prepared in the office (p. 270, Rule III) . What are grounds for ad- mitting a special appeal (p. 270, Rules IV, VI) / On the admission of an appeal, what procedure should be followed (do. Rules VII, VIII) . How will the final order be made known to the parties (do. Rule IX) : What class of circular order, new rules and forms should not be issued without the consent of Government (p. 270, No. 12) . What should they contain and how be published (p. 270, No. 12, para. v) What general rule as to distribution of business to subordinate officers should be adopted (p. 271, annexure) : | 25 | 63. In cases of suspension of demand, levy of suspended balances attachment for default, claim to renewal of a lease with petitioner as heir, Tuccavee payment of authorized malikanah, default in payment of Canal Toll and Transfer of funds, what authority is given to the Commissioner and what is reserved by the Board (p. 272, No. 9, Rules I, IX) In Imperfect Partitions, Civil suits by or against Government and adjustment of diet allowance of revenue defaulters, how far will the Commissioners order be final (p. 273, Rules X, XII)? In investigation of maafee cases matters connected with the Court of Wards, Repairs of Pub- lic Buildings, abkaree, and continuance and payment of pensions, how far does the Board's authority extend (do. Rules, XII, XX)? In all these cases even where the Commissioners order may be considered final, what power of revision is retained by the Bºard (do. Rule XXI) When the decid- ing officer in each grade 1 be dissatisfied with the decision of his superior, to whom may a *... be made (p. 274, Rule, XXII)? What's rule of practice as to distribution of business between the two membe j of the Board 9ptain: *(p. 276)" And what cases is the concurrence of the two members #ess sº (p. 275, Rules VI, VII, x) { What Actºgu- lates the procedure of Revenue officers when acting judicially (p. 27 6, No. 4, para. 1) Enumerate the cases in which judicially (do, paraś. 3, 4) . What time is allowed for an appeal from the decision of the Collector to the Commissioner (p. 276, para. 3, Cºr: 6, 1867) : From thé Coriº missioner, to the Board (do.) & gºtº & " . . . - *: . . .a XXII. GOVERNMENT BUILDINGS. ; : 64. What record of lands in Tehseeldaree enclosures should be kept (p. 327) For what purpose, in what form (p. 327) : XXIII. TREASURE AND TREASURIES. - 65. What kind of bowes should be used for the conveyance of Treasure (p. 329, No. 705, para. 5) What will the larger hold and weigh (do. paras. 3, 4) . When should Treasury cash be forwarded to the Sudder Station (p. 331, No. 18, para. 2); What check should be kept by the Tehseeldar (p. 331, No. 18, paras. 3, 4)? How often should the cash be counted (do. para. 3, p. 333, No. 16, para. 3) When may the Tehseelee cash balance amount to more than Rs. 10,000 (p. 331, paras. 6, 7)? What Treasury letters should be registered (p. 331, E.) : In what respect does the Head Quarters Tehseelee differ from the others (p. 332, para. 2)? Where should the Revenue due in such Tehseelees be paid (p. 333, para. 4) # Under what restriction may officers other than Collectors be placed in charge of Treasuries, how *-_ 4 | 26 || only can this restriction be removed (p. 333, No. 16, para. 2) # Docs this alter the responsibility of the Collector (do, para, 3) . Within what time of joining his first appointment, and for how long must an assistant Collector have charge of a Treasury (C. O. 1, 1867) : XXV. REVENUE AGENTS. 66. Name the Revenue Agents Act (p. 391) : What "papers must accompany an application for enrollment under the Act (do, para. 1) What qualifications are required from (a) natives of India (6) Europeans (do. paras, 2, 3) . In what subjects will the applicants be examined, how will the examination be conducted (p. 391, paras. 4, 5) . What number of marks will entitle a candidate, to a certificate (do. 6, 9)? What certificate-stamps are required (p. º *para. 4) . What fees are allowed to a Pleader and Revenue Agent resºactively under rules of the Jºoard, in (a) suits and applications under As X, 1859, and Act XIV, *863, where the value is known, (b) in suits where the value cannot be defined exactly (c) where the suit is decreed in part”(d) and where dis- missº iº9% (p. 392, No. 8, paras. 1, 4) Whāt fees #are allowable to defendant, where a suit for damages under thºfentº creed in part for plaintiff (do, para. 5) When several defendants make à. joint defence and where their defence is made separately, how are the £es to be calculated (do, paras. 6, 7) : What scale of fees are leviable d he Courts of the upper appellate authorities, the Collectors, and *śńeputy Collector's Courts respectively in miscellaneous cases (do, para. 8)? What is the rule for undefended cases and revivals or re-hearings (do, paras. 9, 10) How far will the rules as to fees in original suit apply to Appeals (p. 394, paras, ll, 13) : In all cases what discretion is allowed the presiding officer in granting fees (p. 394, para. 14) ' # XXVI. MISCELLANEOUS. 67. Who has a right to the kumkur and Koora found in an estate (p. 419, No. 730, para. 2).” How may kumkur required for public pur- poses be taken possession of (do, paras. 5, 9)? How will koora be prosid- ed (do, paras. 6, 10)? What carriage is allowed to officers on circuit (p. 421, W. W.)? Who may be left in charge of the Sudder Station dur- ing the winter tour (p. 420, F. F.)? When should boundary pillars on the frontiers of Native States be kept in order by the land-holders in our territories, and when by the Government (p. 421, No. 1, paras. 6, 7)? In what form should the mortuary register be kept (p. 425) / Who will pre- pare it in villages and who in bazars and towns (p. 424, line 36, p. 425 line 14, p. 426, No. 6)? By what agency will the reports be made to the | 27 J Registrars (do.) . To whom will the reports be forwarded by the Regis- trar (p. 425, lines 4, 10, 16, 17, 18, 20)? What are the subjects require- ing notice by the Tehsee/dar in his weekly report during the dry and rainy seasons (p. 426, No. 4) . What orders have been issued in regard to the working of Government officials on Sundays (p. 423, No. 11, Cºr: 3, 1867) : Can Cºvil processes be transmitted by post on the public service (p. 424, line 4) . What fees are allowed to copyists for transcription of Records in the Revenue offices (p. 422, x) { At what rate will an English copy be given with the vernacular copy of the decree (p. 277. No. 7) Who only has power “suo motw” to take cognizance of offences committed in the district (Cºr: 2, 1867, para. 2)? For the suspention of what grade of officers must the Sanction of the Commissioner be obtained, what rule is laid down for the guida º d he ºf: Tºctor in such cases (do, para, 3) ; - *, f .# --------> --- - - - - --*-*----- IS IRRIGATION NECESSARY UPPER INDIA {}Y MAJOR A. F. CORBETT, B.S.C., SUPERINTENDENT, BUDAON POLICE. 3. Iluljabah : P}{}}NTED BY G, A, 3AW J EJ, LE, AT TIl E l'ION 19). It l'IRESS, J 87(), P R E F A () E. •º A VERY great majority of the residents in Upper India, i. e., the North-Western Provinces, the Punjab and Oude, look on Irrigation as abso- lutely necessary to cultivation in these Provinces, and will doubt the correctness of the theory I here broach. If however, while doubting, they will give the system a fair trial, I feel assured they will find good reason for altering their opinions. A. F. C. IS IRRIGATION NECESSARY IN U P P E R IN D I A 2 AT a time when extensive irrigational works are being carried out and more proposed, it may not be out of place to consider to what extent such works are required, and what quantity of water is useful, or otherwise, to crops in general. It may in the first place be as well to consider the general condition of land and the present system of culti- vation of both irrigable and unirrigable lands. I shall here, where not otherwise mentioned, refer more particu- larly to the rubbee crops, and take wheat as an example, it being the most valuable of these crops as a food for Jſſla,Il. The soil of cultivated fields has lying immediately below the cultivated surface soil a hard layer or crust; this is not a natural, but an artificial, formation, caused by the treading of men and cattle, and the pressure of the sole of the plough. This is called by farmers in England the pam, and is known to the natives by the word “tawa,” which is almost identical in meaning. This pan is much denser in stiff than in Sandy soils, and in some clays and | 2 | stiff loams is almost impermeable to water: the roots of cereals can hardly force their way into this pan. As the irrigable land is prepared in this country for sowing by being ploughed and re-ploughed about three or four inches deep, the cereals are limited to a little more than this depth of soil in which to seek moisture and nourishment, and this too in a soil impoverished by yearly cropping. The moisture quickly evaporates from this loosened upper layer of soil above the pan, and irri- gation becomes necessary to keep the plants alive. I believe indiscriminate irrigation to be the bane of Indian farming, for as long as a cultivator can, by scratch- ing the surface soil and Swamping it with water, get a crop of four or five-fold the amount of the seed sown, he lets things follow the old course, and does not trouble himself to look about for a better system. Below this pan the soil is generally more free and open and contains moisture held there by capillary attraction ; the amount of water is small, as most of the rain falling on the land or water supplied by irrigation is evaporated from the surface or taken up by the crops before passing through the pan. All porous soils have a greater or less power of capil- lary attraction; the smaller the particles composing the soil the less will be the power of capillary attraction possessed by it. Thus clay soils, which can be rubbed into an almost impalpable power, have a much less power of capillary attraction than gritty Sandy soils; but whilst clay or loamy soils have a less power of capillary attrac- tion, they have a greater retentive power for moisture, that is, they will retain moisture longer when once it has [ 3 ] penetrated into them, and will not so soon lose it by evaporation or filtration. We have a familiar example of capillary attraction in a flower-pot. If we fill a flower-pot with dry loose earth and place it in a shallow pan of water, moisture will rise in the flower-pot by capillary attraction to the surface of the soil, although much higher than the water was in the pan. If however, instead of a flower-pot, we use tubes, we can ascertain what height the water will rise in dif- ferent descriptions of soils, Rain falling on the surface requires some time to pene- trate the hard pan, and should hot sunshiny weather suc- ceed the falls of rain, the greater part of the water is evapo- rated. In Upper India it requires a heavy fall of rain, or rather a continuance of wet weather, to produce what the natives call the “Milwan,” or meeting of the surface water with the water held by capillary attraction in the lower strata of the soil, below or in the lower part of the pan. As I said before, under the present system irrigation is required to keep the plants alive. This irrigation tends to consolidate the soil, the smaller particles being washed into any fissures there may be in the pan, and the surface soil binds together. The roots of plants, however, require air as well as water, but the air can hardly penetrate the now almost hermetically-sealed surface soil. Weeds grow amongst the crop, and in hoeing these out the soil is loos- ened. Here we see the use of weeds, in the absence of which the surface soil would not be stirred. When the crops are cut, there is a little grass, which is eaten off by cattle, after which the bare fields are left a smooth har- dened surface, almost impervious to air and moisture. [ 4 || The more water has been supplied to the land by irriga- tion, the more parched the land becomes when the crops are removed and irrigation ceases. Solar heat is reflected from the hardened surface of the soil and heats the air, causing the hot winds; the direct rays of the sun having very little effect in raising the temperature of the air. It is difficult to say what amount of water is applied to irrigated lands, but where the fields are irrigated from wells I think we may calculate the amount of water to be about two inches for each irrigation; so by doubling the number of times the lands are irrigated we get a fair approximation of the depth in inches of the water supplied to the land. As the land irrigated from wells is generally watered three or four times during the growth of the crop, we may consider it receives a depth of six or eight inches of water. I believe where canal water is used, very much more water is applied to the land than where water has to be drawn from wells, and if I am correct in my reading of a tabular statement in a late Government of India Gazette, the amount of water supplied by the Ganges Canal during the month of February last was equal to a depth of six inches over the whole of the irrigated area. There is a Report on Tank Irrigation in Ajmere and Mhairwarra, by Lieutenant Home, R. E., in No. 4, Vol. I., second series, “Selections from Records of Government, N.W. P.,” and a letter from Major Stewart, R.E., forwarding the said Report, in which he says —“The average required to irrigate one acre is shewn by Lieutenant Home to be 177,261 cubic feet, whereas in our calculations we have allowed 200,000 to 300,000, and generally the | 5 | latter.” Now 177,261 cubic feet per acre is equal to a depth of 4.07 feet, and the 300,000 cubic feet is nearly 7 feet, say 80 inches. This seems excessive, as one inch depth of water over an acre of ground is upwards of 100 tons in weight; so every inch of rain that falls, or water that is applied to the land by irrigation, supplies upwards of 100 tons of water to the acre. By weighing the produce of a few square yards of churree (jowar).” I calculated the weight per acre of the crop, when at its full growth and full of sap, to be about 100 tons. The amount of water in churree cut green for cattle is about 80 per cent of the total weight of the crop; and an inch of water, being say 100 tons, the crop only contains eight-tenths, i. e., four-fifths of an inch of water. A good crop of wheat with its straw, at the time of its greatest succulency, just before the formation of the blos- som, may weigh about ten tons: this may contain about 75 per cent, or three-fourths of one-tenth of an inch of water, or say one-tenth the amount taken up by churree. In round numbers, we may say a crop of jowar, bajra, or maize retains one inch, and a rubbee crop only one-tenth of an inch of water when at its full growth. As plants, however, lose a great quantity of water by evaporation from their leaves, the above-mentioned amount of water would be altogether insufficient for their support. Mr. Lawes found from experiments carried out in Eng- land, that common plants (wheat, barley, beans, peas and clover) exhaled during five months of growth more than 200 times their dry weight of water. A crop of wheat of * Holcus Sorghum, [ 6 || 19 bushels of 60 lbs., equal to half a ton of grain, is, I believe, greatly above the average of the wheat crops now grown in Upper India. To grow a crop of half ton per acre with its straw, which may be put down as double the weight of the grain, or 1 ton—total weight of grain and straw, 1% tons,—would require 300 tons or 3 inches of water in England; if we allow the amount of water exhaled or evaporated from the crops to be in India double what it is in England, the crops would require to absorb from the soil 600 tons, or 6 inches depth of water. The water evaporated from the crops would not all be lost to the soil, as a great amount of it would be returned in dew and rain. I do not think there would be any difficulty in retaining double this amount of water in the soil, if the pan were broken up and the soil deeply ploughed; and I believe it would be a simple matter with the aid of manure, which can be had in any quantity, to raise the average of wheat crops in Upper India to one ton, or Say 37 bushels per acre. The soil and sub-soil in many parts, for instance Rohilcund, is a rich alluvial deposit, and only wants thorough cultiva- tion to make it one of the most productive in the world ; and the climate during the time the cereals are growing is all that can be desired to bring them to perfection. A fair index, however, to the amount of water required by the wheat and other rubbee crops is obtained by observation of unirrigated lands, most of which are light sandy soils called “bhoor.” Under the present system of farming in Upper India, | 7 | with an average rainy season and cold-weather rains, crops of wheat and barley are obtained from these lands. Being light soils, they are ploughed deeper than irrigated lands, perhaps six inches deep, and the water that remains in the sub-soil, together with the cold-weather rain, is sufficient to raise the crops; and these bhoor lands have some grass on them throughout the hot weather which the irrigated lands have not. I allow the crops on these bhoor lands are light, but this is from a want of manure and a defi- ciency of water, which can be remedied. These unirrigated land crops are in a great measure dependent on the cold-weather rains. If we can retain in them the moisture from the regular monsoon rains, we shall be independent of what may fall in the cold weather. I know of no reason sufficiently valid to deter experiments being made at once on these lands on an extensive scale. The average rain-fall during the rains may be from 20 to 30 inches, and the cold-weather rain from 1 to 3 inches. I believe, with an improved system, one-half, or even less rain, would be ample. My reason for this belief is, that a greater part of the water which falls on these soils, either runs off the surface, or is lodged on, or in the soil, so near the surface above the pan, that it is lost by evaporation before it can penetrate into the sub-soil. Now if these light soils, which are much less retentive of moisture than irrigable lands, can retain sufficient mois- ture to produce a crop, succeeded by some scanty herbage, during the hot weather, what necessity can there be for irri- gating soils of a closer texture, which have a greater power of retaining moisture ? I maintain that if we prevent the | 8 || rain running off the land, and as much as possible prevent evaporation and use manure, the annual rain-fall even in dry seasons will be found sufficient to produce even better grain crops than are now obtained by irrigation under the present system. Irrigation applies water to the surface; crops do not want water on the land, but in it. It is a mistake to suppose that a great amount of water is required for either khureef or rubbee crops. We see every year both descriptions of crops damaged if water lies about their stems: the chilling effect of water evapo- rating about the stems of the crops is always more or less detrimental. Cotton in particular suffers from this. What plants chiefly require is a deep porous and somewhat moist soil, in which their roots can strike downwards to such a depth as to be unaffected by drought and the heat of the sun. The roots of wheat will penetrate four feet, or even more, in a loose open soil, and as long as there is mois- ture in the soil within the reach of the roots, there is no fear of the plant dying for want of water. To obtain a deep moist soil, in the first place the land must be ploughed or stirred up deeply, so that the rain will sink into it to a depth from which it will not readily be evaporated. - The rain-water will pass through the loosened soil by gravitation, leaving the soil moist, and as the upper surface soil is dried by evaporation caused by the heat of the sun, the water lost by evaporation will be replaced by water rising in the loosened soil by capillary attraction, exactly as oil rises in the wick of a lamp. The loss of water by evaporation would tend to dry the soil ; but as solar heat would be absorbed by the | 9 | loosened soil during the day, and radiated during the night, and the surface consequently cooled by the radia- tion; we should have a copious dew deposit, from the vapour in the atmosphere caused by evaporation during the day. The advantage of allowing as much rain-water as pos- sible to penetrate to the sub-soil before it has time to evaporate will be sufficiently evident when I mention that from experiments carried out in the temperate cli- mate of England, during a period of eight years, it was ascertained that of a mean yearly rain-fall of 26°49 inches, the quantity evaporated was 15:20 inches, and only 11:29 inches filtered into the sub-soil. It is shewn in the same experiments, that whilst in the month of February, from an average rain-fall of 1971 inches only 0.424 inch was lost by evaporation, from a mean fall of 9-556 inches in June, July, August and September, the loss by evapora- tion was 9'080. What then must be the amount of loss by evaporation in India. ? What the required depth may be, to which land should be stirred, will vary with the description of the soil: thus close-grained soils, having a greater retentive power for water, will not require to be stirred so deeply as loose Sandy soils, which possess that power in a less degree. In Sandy soils we must make up for the want of retentive power by deeper stirring. The proper depths to ensure crops on the different soils can best be found out by direct experiments on the soils. I am, however, inclined to think, from experiments carried out with tubes filled with soil, and an experi- ment I am going to describe further on, that 15 to 18 inches | 10 J would be sufficient for stiff soils of the “doomat” sort, and 1% to 2 feet would be a safe depth to plough light sandy bhoor lands. The depths I here state are what I consider extreme depths, which would be sufficient for the very driest seasons. Every few inches deeper we plough unirrigable lands will tell in increased produce from them. Wherever the culturable soil is of two or more feet in depth, I believe there is no necessity for irrigation. Deep ploughing will be sufficient, provided the soil is brought to a fine tilth, i. e., sufficiently broken up and pulverised. Where, however, kunkur, stone or loose sand, which will not retain moisture, lies within less than two feet from the surface, irrigation may be necessary, but I am not certain that it is. - The country plough, although abused by many persons, is perfectly efficient as long as shallow ploughing only is wanted. The whole of the mechanical operations we see brought into play in England in cultivating the soil, such as ploughing, sub-soil ploughing, the use of the cultivator or grubber, the clod-crusher, the harrow and the furrow pressers, are, after all, only to make a suitable seed-bed for whatever we ‘may wish to sow. Where shallow cultivation only is wanted, the land can be very effi- C { ciently prepared with a country plough and a “putela,” which is merely a log of wood drawn over the surface; and with a tube tied behind it the country plough makes an efficient drill. Still this country plough will not do for deep cultivation, as any pressure on the stilt depresses the heel of the plough and raises the point. English ploughs and sub-soil ploughs are from their price [ 11 | beyond the reach of natives, even if they were inclined to try them. What is wanted is an alteration in the common plough of the country, to enable it to penetrate deeper into the soil, which alteration must be effected so cheaply as to make the improved plough not more expen- sive than the present one. - •' I give here a rough sketch of a country plough and a modification I have made of it. Fig. 1. Fig. 2. The old plough, Pig. 1, is made in three principal pieces— the haras or draught pole which rests on the yoke, the stilt or handle, and the share in which an iron point is [ 12 fixed. The angle at which the share is to the draught pole will not allow of its penetrating deep into the soil; true the share is fitted into a groove in the stilt and fixed there by wedges, by altering which a slight difference in the angle can be made, and a somewhat deeper ploughing effected; still pressure on the stilt depresses the heel and not the point of the plough, which is thus brought to the surface. - My altered plough, No. 2, is made in two pieces, the draught pole and the stilt which is continued, the lower end of it forming the share, which is like, in shape and action, one of the tines of the modern cultivator. Pres- sure on the stilt forces the point (which is covered with iron) into the ground. This is simpler than the country plough, being in two pieces, and less likely to get out of order, and it is also cheaper. It could be strengthened by having a piece of iron from the point of the share to the pole (where the dotted line is), thus forming a coulter. The natives have a prejudice against deep ploughing; they say it turns up bad soil. I believe this is merely an excuse for laziness; as although I have asked hundreds of natives whether they have tried it, I have not met one who told me he had. Thirty or forty years ago there was a strong objection on the part of farmers in many parts of England to breaking up the pan, but now it has been done they acknowledge the advantages of deep cultivation. Cereal crops are always better here after cotton or indigo. This is, I believe, because these crops have, with their deeply penetrating roots, loosened the sub-soil, which enables the roots of cereals to penetrate deeper into it. [ 13 | Another objection made by natives to deep ploughing is that their bullocks cannot draw the plough. If one pair of bullocks cannot draw the plough I have made, two pairs can do so easily. As, however, the deep ploughing would be effected, not by one ploughing, but by several, each going a few inches deeper than the former, there would not be much more power required with my plough than there is at present with the ordinary country plough. Secondly, banks must be raised round the fields to pre- vent rain-water running off by surface drainage. Where the land is tolerably level, there will be no difficulty in this; the ordinary ridges will be sufficient when the land is deeply ploughed; but where the land is undulating, long narrow fields should be made with the length of the fields running across the direction of the slope ; in fact, the fields will require to be terraced, as they are in the hills. By raising the ridges between the fields, any manure there may be on the surface, droppings of cattle, stubble of old crops, &c., is all retained on the land, and, when the land is also deeply cultivated, sinks into the soil, where it remains available for crops. Now, all this manuring matter is carried down by streams to the Ganges and deposited on the low lands of Bengal, where it is the cause of malaria and disease on the subsidence of the floods which have carried it there in suspension. Not only is manure lying on the land lost by surface drainage, but the rain-water, which is required to moisten the sub-soil, and also contains valuable manurial ingredients, is lost to the land of these provinces, and carried down to Bengal, which does not require it. Bengal, with an ample rain- fall, is flooded and manured by the Ganges, as Egypt is by | 14 | the Nile; only Egypt has next to no rain-fall and requires it, whereas it is injurious in every way to Bengal. The water being arrested in the soil of the fields where it fell would slowly filter through the sub-soil to the rivers, which would be kept at a more equal depth throughout the year; and Bengal would not suffer to the extent it now does from floods. Another advantage resulting from deep ploughing would be that solar heat, instead of being reflected and heating the air, would be absorbed and radiated by the loosened surface soil, and the intense heat of the hot weather would be moderated; as also would the steamy atmosphere of the rains, by the rain sinking into the lower soil before it had time to evaporate. The tempera- ture being lowered, the evaporation would be lessened, consequently less rain would be sufficient, and possibly the climate might be so altered as to adapt it to many plants, such as tea, which cannot now be grown in the plains, and also to the culture of the silk-worm. - With modified hot winds there would be less difficulty in growing grasses and forage crops in the hot weather, and the crops that have now to be irrigated almost daily, to keep them alive, might possibly, after a few years, when the sub-soil was more moistened, hardly require irrigation. A reduced temperature would render the climate more adapted to Europeans and lessen the necessity for hill sanitaria for troops. To what extent the temperature might be reduced I have no means of judging, further than some balloon experiments of the British Association gave a decrease of 1° Fahrenheit for every 276 feet of alti- tude. If, therefore, we divide the difference of altitude in feet of hill stations and the plains by 276, we get the theoretical difference of temperature. Thus 5,520 feet, which is about the difference between the altitude of parts of the Upper Dooab and Nynee Tal, should give a temperature in the Upper Dooab only 20° higher than that of Nynee Tal. A loosened soil of 1% or 2 feet in depth would be useful as a sanitary measure for the country generally, porous earth being a great absorbent of malaria and noxious vapours. Troops moved into camp on cholera breaking out in military stations soon improve in health, I believe chiefly from getting away from the sodden consolidated soil of cantonments to the vicinity of more cultivated land. Cantonment lands can- not well be cultivated, but if they were sub-soil drained, I believe we should have less sickness in the stations. I am here straying from my question. I have, however, brought the subject of sub-soil drainage of military sta- tions to the notice of the Sanitary Commissioner with the Government of India. So convinced was I of the benefits of deep ploughing, that last year, in the rains, I ploughed and re-ploughed a piece of ground, stated to be four kucha beegahs, as deeply as I could with the country plough. The land was hard “doomat,” which had always been irrigated. I thought I had ploughed this field ten to twelve inches deep, but on testing it, it proved to have only been ploughed eight or nine inches deep. I sowed wheat in this field on the 4th November, 7; seers Budaon weight per kwclva beegah. The last fall of rain there had been on it, previous to sow- ing, was on the 9th October. Hardly a blade of this was touched by white-ants, and as the crop looked very healthy up to the 12th January, I determined not to irrigate it. | 16 l I did not see it again from 12th January till I returned from camp on 1st March, when it seemed to be in want of water, and I was persuaded to irrigate a few beds (kiarees) (possibly one-twentieth part of the field) on one side of the field, which looked more dried up than the rest: the irrigated part at once became laid and the irrigation did more harm than good. The next field to mine (said to be three bee- gahs), farmed by a native in the usual way, was ploughed three or four inches deep, and also sown on the 4th Novem- ber, the same day as mine; he sowed ten seers Budaon weight per kucha beegah; a great quantity, I should think three-fourths of his plants, were destroyed by white-ants when the crop was a few inches high ; he irrigated his field three times from Sowing to harvesting. As the lºwcha beegah is rather a vague measurement, I had these fields measured, and found the area of mine was 3,213 and the native's field 1,944 square yards. The crop from my field was 9 maunds 6 seers 8 chittacks Budaon weight of 100 tolahs to the Seer, and the native's crop was 2 maunds 10 Seers, according to his statement. Reduc- ing this to bushels of 60lbs., my crop was at the rate of nearly 23 bushels per acre, and his a little over 9 bushels. I must mention that I manured my land with a dressing of farm-yard manure; on one part of it. I applied some broken bones and afterwards gave a dressing of brick kiln ashes over the whole. It is impossible to say what amount of the crop was due to manure and what to deep-ploughing. Had I, after the manure was applied, ploughed my land like the native three or four inches deep and watered, I do not think I should have had as good a crop as | 17 I had. This is only conjecture. However, had I only ploughed three or four inches deep and not irrigated, I am certain I should have had no crop at all. But, had my land been ploughed even five or six inches deeper than it was, I think I should have had nearly double the crop I had ; as a great many of the ears of my crop were altogether empty, and a great quantity of the grain was shrivelled from want of moisture when the grain was forming, which would not have been the case had there been a greater depth of pulverized moist soil under the plants and the roots been able to penetrate deeper. My land being ploughed to a depth of only eight or nine inches, the roots of the plants could not strike down sufficiently deep in the soil to be unaffected by drought and the heat of the sun, and the moisture was dried up out of the depth of soil they could reach, before the grain was perfected. My field sloped down to one side, and perhaps half the rain which fell on it ran off by surface drainage, it not having been properly banked up : this makes me consider that half the average rainfall would be sufficient if it were retained in the land. - The cultivators about Budaon have been enquiring how it was I obtained a better crop without, than they did with irrigation. Some say they irrigated four and even five times, and only got about half the return I did, and from the same description of soil. I merely tell them to “manure well and plough deeply,” and have shewn them my new plough, which they seem to have taken a fancy to, and say they will adopt. * . As it is, my crop does not compare badly with the aver- [ 18 | age crops of European countries, as mine was nearly 23 bushels per acre. In a late number of the Farmer, the average of wheat in bushels per acre in different countries is given as follows — Ireland, 26 bushels, high farming 30 to 40; England and Scotland, 28, high farming 44; Belgium, 21; France, 14; Russia, 17 ; Silesia, 10; Austria, 15 to 16 bushels. The rainfall at Budaon, from the 10th October to within two or three days previous to the time I cut my crop, was 13 inches. I do not include rain falling just previous to cutting the crop, as it delayed my harvesting and did it more harm than good. The natives sow a large quantity of seed per acre, as they expect a great quantity of the young plants will be destroy- ed by white-ants. White-ants, I believe, will not attack strong healthy plants. It is only when, in the struggle for existence caused by the poverty of, and want of nourish- ment in, the soil, the weaker plants begin to droop, that they become the prey of white-ants. - After my crop was cut I could easily push a walking stick into my field to the depth it had been ploughed, but could not push it above an inch deep into the native's field. The soil of my field being thus light and porous, I ploughed it to the depth it had been originally ploughed, and left it in the rough, to get the benefit of the ameliorat- ing influences of the air and rain. Had the occupier of the land next to mine attempted to plough his land after removing his crop, he could not have done so above two inches deep. - Under the present revenue system, unirrigable lands are assessed at a much lower rate than lands which are | 19 | irrigable: if my theory is correct, there is no reason why the unirrigable lands should not be rated as highly as the irrigable. At present, in general they are of a lighter or more sandy composition, and as such more Suited to barley than wheat, but in ploughing deeply the sandy particles now on the surface would fall down into the furrows, and be mixed with the minuter particles of the denser sub- soil, and the texture of the soil would be improved and become more suited for wheat : at the same time the soil of lands now irrigated would, by deep ploughing and ceasing to irrigate them, become more light and porous and better suited for all agricultural crops. Every year we hear of the cotton crop being damaged in some district or other from either excess or want of rain. Were the land deeply cultivated, so that rain could easily penetrate to the sub-soil, I do not think we should hear of damage from either of these causes, and instead of getting a crop of from 50 to 70ſbs. an acre, we should have one of from 200 to 300fps., or even more. As it now is, a great amount of the vital energy of the Cotton plant is expended in forcing its roots into the hardened pan, and we have a dwarfed plant. With reference to lands barren from being covered with “reh,” I believe wherever kunkur has been quarried from these lands they have become fertile. This probably is from the reh becoming mixed with a mass of soil, instead of being collected on the surface; it might be worth try- ing whether deep ploughing and thus mixing the reh, with the sub-soil would have the effect of making these barren soils fertile. Whether I am right or wrong is a question which could | 20 1 be settled by a few simple experiments carried on in dif- ferent parts of the country. If I am right, the money spent in irrigational works, except under certain condi- tions of the soil and subsoil above explained, is simply money thrown away. • PRINTED BY G, A, SAVIELLE, AT THE PIONEER PRESS, ALLAHABAD. THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN : GRADUATE LIBRARY . 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