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B 431413

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ARTES
1837
SCIENTIA
LIBRARY
VERITAS
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
LPLURIBUS UNUM
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51-QUAERIS PENINSULAM AMOENAMI
CIRCUMSPICE
HULIKIANG
Loct
B431413
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2020
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میری
98

VOTES
EQUIROTAL DROITZSCHKA.
PLATE XI.
ד'' ;
21691
ENGLISH
PLEASURE CARRIAGES;
THEIR
ORIGIN, HISTORY,
VARIETIES, MATERIALS, CONSTRUCTION, DEFECTS, IMPROVE-
MENTS, AND CAPABILITIES :
WITH AN
ANALYSIS OF THE CONSTRUCTION OF COMMON ROADS AND RAILROADS,
AND THE PUBLIC VEHICLES USED ON THEM ;
TOGETHER WITH
DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW INVENTIONS.
ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS DESIGNS.
FOR THE USE OF CARRIAGE PURCHASERS AND CONSTRUCTORS.
BY
WILLIAM BRIDGES ADAMS.
"He would fain keep a hold on the Actual, knit the New securely to it, and
give to them conjointly a just direction. **** He recognises motion as the
true element of humanity, and principle of the universe."
Characteristics of Goethe.
LONDON:
CHARLES KNIGHT & Co. LUDGATE STREET.
1837.
LONDON:
PRINTED BY SAMUEL BENTLEY,
Dorset Street, Fleet Street.
his
Reclass. 11-22-27 A. V. M,
PREFACE.
THE object of this work is general utility, rather than
technical instruction in minor details. The principles on
which carriages ought to be constructed, rather than the
arbitrary proportions of parts, are what the author has
sought to make clear. The utmost care used in giving
accurate measurements, with considerable labour to the
writer, and more to the reader, would fail in enabling a
mere copyist to construct a good carriage, and a builder
with clear ideas would not need them. In architecture,
there are certain rules laid down by which all proportions
may be regulated; but in carriages, so many considera-
tions intervene, as to produce uncertainty, what actual
strength may be required. Seasons, localities, weight,
speed, and many other circumstances, conspire to defy pre-
cise calculation. The builder of a steam-engine knows to
1
a 2
iv
PREFACE.
a fraction the amount of strain his work will have to bear;
but the carriage builder canonly take average proportions
to meet varieties of circumstances, unless his vehicle be
intended for a railroad.
The writer makes no pretension to set a complete
work before the reader; circumstances rather than origi-
nal intention have caused the book to be produced, just
as Mr. Babbage in the pursuit of a specific object ac-
quired a mass of general knowledge, which he afterwards
gave to the world, for the benefit of those who might
not have the opportunity of collecting it as he had done.
The writer, when a boy, was "brought up," in the usual
phrase, to the "art and mystery of coachmaking,” and
acquired the common amount of routine skill in imitating
certain prescribed forms; but as to the principles of the
art,—as to the mode of originating the forms, he was left
in utter ignorance. In fact, those to whose instruction he
was confided were as ignorant as himself. Had the pat-
terns of the factory been destroyed by accident, the busi-
ness must have stopped, unless external talent had been
brought in to renew them. Impatience of mere routine
excited in the writer the desire of becoming familiar with
other branches of the art, and he acquired something of
skill in many varieties of work. Circumstances afterwards
brought him into connexion with an eminent engineer,
PREFACE.
V
and a new world seemed to open upon him, gorgeously
decked in all the wonders of machinery. The minds of
most boys are essentially inclined to the material; they
prefer the real to the imaginative,―utility in art, to taste or
splendour in art,—and feel far more interest in Robin-
son Crusoe's canoe than in a Lord Mayor's barge. Thus,
after becoming familiar with the properties even of simple
machines, the inferior mechanical construction of car-
riages became an object of contempt to the writer; and
taste for beauty of form not having been awakened in him,
he ceased to feel any interest in them. His daily occupa-
tion became a drudgery to him, to which almost any other
employment seemed preferable; and the simple reason
was, that he had no scope for improvement, no exercise
for advancing intelligence. The motive of the writer in
recording this is, that the same mischievous system still
prevails, though opportunities for self-improvement are
more numerous than before. Ere he had well attained
mature years, the writer was obliged by ill health to
seek a more genial climate than his own, and he pass-
ed several years alternately sojouring and travelling in
various countries, where perceptions of the beautiful in
Nature and in Art gradually began to stir and awaken
his dormant faculties. Being thrown much on his own
resources in mechanical difficulties, his invention was fre-
vi
PREFACE.
quently tasked in various ways; and the excitement of
overcoming obstacles served to stimulate his persever-
ance, and quicken his observation as to mechanical capa-
bilities.
When the writer returned to England with renewed
health, he entered into partnership with his father, in
the firm of Hobson and Company, of Long Acre. For a
considerable time he applied himself to the mercantile
department of the business; after which, peculiar circum-
stances gave him leisure to pursue systematically a series
of mechanical improvements, as well as to study the prin-
ciples of the art of vehicular locomotion. He sought for
books to aid him; but the knowledge to be gleaned from
them was so imperfect, and so extensively scattered-so
devoid of all system, and so very unsatisfactory, that he
chose rather to seek the practical schools of the workmen,
and the verification of experimental research, and thereon
to build his own theories. Having accumulated the re-
sults for his own satisfaction, it struck him that informa-
tion acquired with so much trouble must be valuable to
a large class of readers, both the constructors and pur-
chasers of carriages. Farther reflection convinced him
that a succinct detail of the progress of wheel carriages
in England from the earliest period down to the present
time would be a desirable addition, and the result has
PREFACE.
vii
been the publication of the work now offered to the
reader.
Whatsoever may be the imperfections, the writer can-
not doubt that, in the absence of any existing available
work on the subject, the information herein collected will
be esteemed valuable by the large and increasing class of
those who keep carriages, whether for their own use or for
the purpose of hiring out to the public. Whoever is
about to build a house endeavours to procure drawings and
models beforehand, to make sure that his fancy may not
lead him astray; and carriages being articles of consider-
able expense, it must surely be desirable to acquire such
knowledge as a book can give on the subject, previous to
making a purchase. To constructors, this work must be
useful, even to those who might feel inclined to contest
any of the positions the writer has laid down; for it will
give them the opportunity to verify anything which they
find not borne out in practice. It may perhaps induce
some one of greater skill than the writer to put forth
another work. He would be glad to hail such a work as
might be worthy of being entitled The Science of Vehicu-
lar Locomotion. In the mean time, constructors residing
at a distance from the metropolis, and those of foreign
lands, will probably avail themselves of the opportunity of
knowing the existing state of the art of carriage construc-
viii
PREFACE.
tion in the English metropolis, where it is generally sup-
posed to have attained its nearest approach to perfection.
If there be any constructors so illiberal as to suppose this
injurious to their interests, they will do well to reflect that
ere foreigners can rival English constructors, they must
train their workmen in every branch, direct and indirect,
to posses greater skill than English workmen. The circu-
lation of English models on the Continent would tend
perhaps to improve the Continental manufacture; but they
would to a greater extent tend to increase the already ex-
tensive taste for English carriages.
As this work may occasionally fall into the hands of
readers who feel no direct interest in pleasure carriages
either as purchasers or constructors, some may perchance
be inclined to question its utility, except as it relates to
the mechanism of vehicular locomotion. They may per-
chance condemn pleasure carriages altogether, as luxuries
unjustly engrossed by wealthy people. This would be as
unjust as the sweeping condemnations so frequently passed
on the public vehicles in the streets. Pleasure carriages
are instruments of elegant human enjoyment; and to say
that none ought to enjoy them because all cannot enjoy
them, would be to possess a spirit akin to that of the "dog
in the manger." If those who possess pleasure carriages
were to enjoy them at the expense of those who do not
PREFACE.
ix
possess them, the evil would be a monstrous one: but such
is not the fact. Partial instances might be adduced; but
they are only exceptions to the rule,-as, for example, the
case of a swindler. But, after all, those who do not use
pleasure carriages—as the mass of the community—though
they do not benefit directly, still benefit indirectly by
them. They are objects of beauty constantly exposed to
public view, as much so as architectural erections-perhaps
more so, being locomotive,—and far more so, though in a
humbler way, than paintings or statues. It is an unde-
niable fact, that the daily habit of beholding beautiful ob-
jects has an imperceptible effect in refining the national
taste. Pleasing colours and pleasing forms tend to soften
rugged natures; and whatever may be the disputes as to
the evil or good resulting to a nation from the existence of
a permanent leisure class, it is quite certain that if no part
of the community be at leisure to study the arts of ele-
gance, the public will be far less refined, far more devoid
of taste, than if they have a standard—a type, as it were, to
imitate, when any individual may acquire the means to
imitate, without understanding the principles of that which
he imitates.
In most branches of art, men of vulgar minds are to be
found who deem that art is on the decline because works
of art are progressively diminishing in price; forgetting
X
PREFACE.
that an increasing demand more than compensates for a
decreasing price. Amongst carriage constructors men of
this class may be found, who prophesy the decline of car-
riage building in England, because they cannot maintain a
lazy monopoly. They obstinately shut their eyes to the
fact that the streets of London are now occasionally block-
ed up with pleasure carriages, as they frequently are with
carts. The simple fact is, that ordinary skill is now com-
mon, and carriage builders have become a more numerous
body. It is a more difficult thing than formerly to stand
out from the crowd, and it can only be accomplished by
combined talent and energy. The arts of elegance, or
luxury, as they are sometimes called, will be pursued with
more earnestness than ever as people advance in wealth;
and if there be a fear, it is, lest the arts of wisdom be neg-
lected for the pursuit of external enjoyments, as is so much
the case in the wealthy cities of the United States.
Porchester Terrace, Bayswater,
June, 1837.
CONTENTS
Locomotion.-
-Litter.-Rollers.
INTRODUCTION.
Animals.— Raft. -Canoe.-Sledge.—Palanquin.
Solid Wheels.-Cart.- Primitive Car.-Por-
Chilese Car. Framed Wheel. Axle.
Axle. - Pampas
tuguese Car. Chilese Car.
J
Carts. Turning Carriage. - Ancient Coach Springs. — Strapped
Seats. Swinging Braces. Buenos Ayres Travelling Carriage.—
Wooden Springs, used in Canada. Johnson's Waggon.- Steel
Springs.
Page 1
CHAPTER I.
Early History of Wheel Carriages.Scriptural Chariots.-Caretta,
Carruca, Arcera, Lectica, Carpentum, Decemjugis.-Grecian Cha-
riots.-Car from Persepolis.-Wine Waggon and Car from Pompeii.
-Saxon MS.-Essedum.-King John's Litter.-Queen Katherine's
Litter.-Chariot of Lady Emergard.-Chariot of Meliadus.-First
Suspended Carriage, Hungarian.-Whirlicote.-Robert Westende.-
Coach. Kotcze. Emperor Frederic IIIrd's Close Carriage.
Elector of Cologne. - Margravine John Sigismund. Henry the
Fourth of France. - Emperor Ferdinand the Second.-Coaches of
Perfumed Leather.-Glass Coaches.—Emperor Leopold's Wedding
Carriage.-Brouette.
•
20
xii
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER II.
English Carriages.—
Walter Rippon.-First Coach.—Queen Mary
- Earl of Arundel.-William Boonen.-Queen Elizabeth's Coach.-
Cost of a Coach.. M. de Rosny, Treasurer of France. Scotch
Patent for Public Carriages. Strictures on Coaches by Taylor the
Water Poet. Colloquy between Coach and Sedan. Dialogue
between a Frenchman and a Londoner.-Public Travelling. Page 42
CHAPTER III.
Definition of Wheel Carriages.Primary and Secondary.—Ani-
mal and Elemental Power.-Elasticity and Gravity.-Examples.-
Mechanical Powers.-Lever.-Wheel and Axis.-Pulley.-Inclined
Plane.-Wedge. — Screw. — Funicular Action.- Hydrostatical Ac-
tion. Automatical Action. — Ponderatical Action. - Geometrical
Forms in Carriages.
1 56
CHAPTER IV.
Materials of Wheel Carriages. Animal:- Hides.- Skins.-
Hair.-Wool.- Silk.—Glue.—Whalebone.- Ivory.-Pearl-shell.—
Vegetable :- Timber.— Ash.—Beech.—Elm.—Oak.—Mahogany.-
Cedar.- Deal.— Pine.- Fustic.-Lancewood.-Birch.-Chesnut.-
Sycamore. Plane Tree. -Cotton.-Flax.-Hemp.-Tow.-Straw.
-Caoutchouc-Copal.- Linseed Oil.-Turpentine.— Mineral:-
-Iron. Steel. Copper. - Brass.-White Brass.-Gun-metal.—
Silver.-Gold.-Lead.-Tin.-Glass.-Metallic Oxides. .
68
CONTENTS.
xiii
CHAPTER V.
Analysis of Carriage Construction.-
Dennet.-Stanhope.-Til-
bury.-Cabriolet.-Curricle.-Underspring Phaeton.-Coach.-Parts
of Coach. Carriage Body.- Equipage for Town and Country.
Page 83
CHAPTER VI.
Wheels.- -Definition. -Solid Wheel.-Plank Wheel.- Framed
Wheel.-Barrow Wheel. Nave. -Spokes.-Felloes.-Cylindrical
Wheel. Conical Wheel. Pyramidal Wheel. Nave Hoops.-
Strake Tires. Hoop Tires.-Mode of Construction. Disadvan-
tages.-Machine-made Wheels.-Solid Felloes.-Hancock's Wheels.
-Tubular-spoked Iron Wheels. Losh's Wrought-iron Wheels.
Jones's Pyramidal Iron Wheels. -Weight of Wheels. Elas-
ticity.
93
CHAPTER VII.
Axles. Wooden. Conical.-Iron. -Cylindrical. -Common
Bar. Faggoted. Sizes. Lubrication.-Soap. -Black-lead.-
Grease. — Oil. — Common Axles with Linch-pins, — Screw Nuts.—
Mail Axles.-Defects.-Collinge's Patent Axle.-Process of Oiling.
-Defects.-Mason's Improved Collinge Axle.—Various Projects for
Axles.-Essential Particulars necessary to the perfection of Axles. 106
CHAPTER VIII.
Springs.- Various Substances used for them.-Leather.-Whale-
bone. — Wood.-Metal. -Spring Steel.-Construction.-Defects.—
Elasticity.—Varieties of Springs.-Simple and Combined Forms.—
xiv
CONTENTS.
Straight Spring. -Elliptic Spring.-Regular Curved Spring.-Spiral
Spring.-Examples.-Combinations of Springs.—Breakage of Springs.
—Essential Qualities of a perfect Spring.
Page 117
CHAPTER IX.
Iron-work. -Cranes.-Perch Plates.Loops.-Stays.-Plates.
-Hoops.- Clips. -Bolts. Steps. - Treads.-Joints.-Shackles.
Jacks.Qualities of Iron. -Plated Work.-Beading. -Lamps.
Dress Lamps. Wax Candles. Oil Lamps for travelling.
Argand Lamps. Cochrane's Patent Lamps.-Principles of Com-
bustion.
•
•
132
CHAPTER X.
Construction of a Carriage.Length.-Height of Wheels.-Dish-
ing of Wheels. —Axle Arms.-Springs.-Lock of Front Wheels.—
Splintre Bar. - Timber. Construction of a Body.- Painting. -
Iron-work. Trimming. - Carriage Frame-work and Iron-work.
Leathern Braces.-Hanging the Body.- Dress Carriage. -Seat and
Hammer-cloth.-Hind Standard.-Open and Close Carriages.
141
CHAPTER XI.
Invention. -Derivation of Carriages mostly Foreign.— Original
Inventions and Improvements.-English Artists.-Patent Rights.-
Continental Artists. Processes of Improvement. Theory and
Practice. Genius and Invention.-Wollaston. Brindley.-Watt.
- Babbage. Analysis of the Qualities developing Invention.
Difficulties of Inventors.-Expense of Patents.-Jealousy of Rivals.
-Combination of Carriage Forms and Proportions. -Taste in De-
sign. -Drawing.—Variety of Qualities necessary to conduct a Car-
riage Manufactory.
•
156
CONTENTS.
XV
CHAPTER XII.
Carriage Artisans.-
Various
-Handicraft Work.-Steam Labour but little
used.-Skilled Workmen.-Modes of getting Work executed.-Piece
Masters. Carriage Builders' Tradesmen. Materials.
Workmen:-Body Makers.—Carriage Makers.—Carvers.-Smiths.---
Trimmers.-Painters.-Brace and Harness Makers.-Sawyers.-La-
bourers. Designers.-Draughtsmen.-Herald Painters.-Axle-tree
Makers.- Spring Makers.-Wheelwrights.-Lamp Makers.-Blind
Makers.-Joiners.-Trunk Makers. Turners. Lace Makers.
Curriers. -Japanners.-Ivory Workers. -Platers. -Chasers.—Em-
broiderers.-Trades' Unions.-Jealousy of Caste.
.
Page 172
CHAPTER XIII.
Steam Locomotion.-
High and Low Pressure.
Canals.-Railroads.-Engines.—Boilers :
- Tubular Boilers. —Durability of Steam
Mr.
Engines. Difficulties of Steam Vehicles on Common Roads.
Hancock's Carriages. Speculators in Steam Carriages. Defects
of Steam as applied to Pleasure Carriages.-Steam compared with
Horses. Steam adapted to Rail-roads, but not to Common Roads.
Probable Increase of Pleasure Carriages by means of Rail-
roads.
•
190
CHAPTER XIV.
Taste.—Definition of Taste.—True and False Taste.-Originality
and Imitation.- Form, Colour, and Proportion.-Defective Propor-
tions of Carriages.-Natural Forms.-Ornaments contrived to cover
defects.— Colours.-Heraldic Bearings.-Disposition of Ornaments.
-Trimming.
205
xvi
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XV.
Varieties of Carriages.-Distinguishing Characteristics.-Coach
with Under-springs-without Under-springs.— Landau. — Driving
Coach.-Town Chariot. Post Chaise. Landaulet. Britzschka
Chariot.-Elliptic Spring Chariot.- Barouche. Barouchet.-Britz-
schka.- Elliptic Spring Britzschka. — Droitzschka. — Driving Phae-
ton.-Elliptic Spring Phaeton.-Pony Phaeton.-Britzschka Phae-
ton.-Ancient Phaeton.-Cabriolet Phaeton.-Elliptic Spring Ca-
briolet Phaeton. Curricle. Cabriolet. -Tilbury.-Stanhope.-
Open framed Stanhope. - Dennet. Gig. One-horse Chaise, or
Whiskey
Page 220
•
CHAPTER XVI.
Purchasing and Jobbing Carriages.--Carriages made to order.-
Ready-made Carriages. Judgment. Preservation of Carriages. -
Sun.-Frost. Rain. — Dust.— Mud.-Atmospheric Air.-Moist-
ure. Dryness. Metal-work.— Rust.- Leather.- Cloth.— Silk.—
Lace.-Paint and Varnish.-Coach-houses.
246
CHAPTER XVII.
New Inventions.Imperfections of English Carriages.-Unequal
Wheels. Unequal Motion, unequal Wear, unequal Durability.
Elastic and Rigid Wheels. Modes of making Spring Wheels.
-Author's Invention of a Circular Spring Wheel.-Improved Oil
Chamber.—Author's Invention of Equirotal Carriages.- Equirotal
Phaeton.- Advantages of the Equal Wheels.— Equirotal Cabriolet
Phaeton.- Equirotal Pony Phaeton.-The same with a low body.
Equirotal Droitzschka. Equirotal Chariot; Advantages.
CONTENts.
xvii
Equirotal Carriages adapted for Posting with one Horse, being
very light.-Equirotal Omnibus; Advantages.-Author's Invention
of an Adjusting Bow Spring, adapted equally for light and heavy
loads in Carriages, and universally applicable.
Association
Cabriolets and Omnibuses.- -Hansom's Cabriolet.
Omnibuses.-Patent Cabriolet, with door behind and Boulnois' Ellip-
tic Springs.-Defects of the Patent Cabriolet.-Imitations.—Go-carts.
-Four-wheeled Cabriolet. Deep-cranked Axles.- Author's In-
vention of a deep-cranked Axle.-Author's Invention of a Cabriolet
open or close at pleasure, and driven from behind.
Invention of a Coal and general Burden Waggon, adapted to
narrow Streets and Wharves.
M
Author's
Page 255
CHAPTER XVIII.
Existing Mail Coaches.- Their Defects.-Author's Invention of
an Improved Mail Coach.-The Advantages of it.
282
CHAPTER XIX.
Railroad Transit.-Clashing Opinions.-Engineers and Carriage
Builders.-Railroads still only experimental.-Manchester and Liver-
pool Railroad.- Railroad Bubbles.- Steam versus Horses.-Iron-
tyred Wheels an argument for Iron Bearings on Roads.-Defects in
the Original Construction of the Manchester and Liverpool Railroad
and Carriages.- Great Destructive Wear.-Causes.- Absence of
Elasticity. Springs. Relative Speeds. - Diameter of Wheels.-
Enormous Weight and Unscientific Construction of Railway Passen-
ger Carriages. Parallel Axles.- Flanges.-Coned Wheels.—Ad-
vantages. Sledge-like Motion.-Improvement in the Position of
Rails.—Author's Invention of a Railway Train to pass freely round a
Curve.-Propositions for increased Speed on Railways premature.—
b
xviii
CONTENTS.
Stephenson's Six-wheeled Engine.-Earl of Dundonald's Two-wheel-
ed Engine. Methods of constructing Railroads.-Analysis of Com-
mon Roads.-Macadamised Roads.-Imitations.-Combination of
Wood and Iron for Railroads. Durability of Wood. Artificial
Means of increasing Durability.-Author's Inventions of a Railroad
of Wood and Iron-Of a Mode of keeping the Wheels on the Rails
without Flanges-And of a Mode of keeping the Bearings of the
Axles abundantly oiled without waste.-Summary of the Defects of
Railroads and Railroad Carriages, and the Remedies which are desir-
able. Conclusion.
Page 289
ILLUSTRATIONS.
Equirotal Droitzschka
Car of Portugal
Chile
•
Ox Cart of the Pampas
Buenos Ayres Carri-coche
Car from the Ruins of Persepolis
Brouette
Pompeii
Town Chariot
Barouche
Britzschka
Modern Phaeton
Cabriolet
Frontispiece.
•
Page 8
9
11
16
24
26
41
225
227
229
233
240
Tilbury
•
242
Stanhope
243
Circular Spring Wheel
264
Equirotal Phaeton
265
Cab Phaeton
Town Chariot
Omnibus
267
270
273
Regulating Bow-spring
Equirotal Mail Coach
274
288
Lateral Elevation of a portion of a very light Carriage-train
for a Railroad
296
Hind Elevation of a Railway Carriage
Flexible Carriage-train drawn into a circle
73
298
Mode of applying Horizontal Guide Wheels on Vertical Axes, to
dispense with the Flanges of the Running Wheels
309
Improved Mode of oiling the bearing Brasses by an Oil-chamber
and revolving Dippers attached to the Axis
310
ENGLISH PLEASURE CARRIAGES.
INTRODUCTION.
Locomotion.- Animals.- Raft.- Canoe.- Sledge.- Palanquin.-
Litter.-Rollers.- Solid Wheels. Cart.- Primitive Car.-Por-
tuguese Car.-Chilese Car.- Framed Wheel.- Axle.- Pampa-
Carts.-Turning Carriage. —Ancient Coach Springs.-Strapped
Seats.-Swinging Braces.-Buenos Ayres Travelling Carriage.-
Wooden Springs, used in Canada.-Johnson's Waggon.-Steel
Springs.
THE nature of man is progressive, and constantly
prompts him to take advantage of all favourable circum-
stances in order to lessen his painful labour-to mitigate
as much as possible the "primeval curse
primeval curse" by the exer-
cise of his great sustaining faculty, reason. Next to
speech, and its kindred arts, reading and writing, the power
of locomotion is the most important agent in human civi-
lisation; and, as a consequence, facility of locomotion ís
highly desirable. If locomotion be painful to a human being,
the minimum of it will be performed; if it be easy, the
maximum will be performed, inasmuch as the power of
seeing new faces, places, scenery, and other objects, is de-
sired by almost all human beings; and this desire is only
kept in abeyance by the consciousness or the fear that
the pain caused by indulging it will be greater than the
pleasure arising from its gratification.
The earliest and simplest means of locomotion were the
B
20
INTRODUCTION.
same in human beings as in the lower animals-the muscu-
lar action of the limbs. So long as the muscles continue
elastic, the act of walking is a source of pleasure; but
when they become languid and relaxed, it is a source of
pain. The frequent necessity of continuing locomotion
after the muscles have become fatigued, must have set
human invention at work at a very early period of the
world to devise a remedy. The simplest remedy which
presented itself,—the easiest transition from actual pain to
comparative comfort,-was that of substituting for human
muscles, the muscles of the lower animals; in short, the
act of subjugating such of the lower animals as were suffi-
ciently powerful, to human control, and obliging them to
carry a human burden. Thus commenced the art of riding.
Horses, asses, mules, camels, dromedaries, elephants, and
even cows,* have been used to ride on in various countries
and localities, according as they were found or adapted.
Some of these, as the four former, may be trained to such
ease and grace of movement as to give pleasure to the
rider; consequently they are still used even where no po-
sitive necessity exists. The three latter, on the contrary,
are painful to ride on, and ungraceful in their gait; conse-
quently they are only used in the absence of any better
means of locomotion. The wild Arab only chooses the
bone-shaking dromedary in preference to the horse, when
the desert is too broad for the horse's powers of endurance.
But though the act of riding on the back of a dromedary
be only a lesser evil than walking, and though the act of
"* The chief of the Gallas galloped off on his cow."
BRUCE'S Abyssinia.
INTRODUCTION.
3
riding on the back of a horse be a positive pleasure, still it
is not a pleasure at all times, nor to all persons. The
muscles of a horse become non-elastic on a long journey,
and the act of riding a tired horse, if not more painful, is
only one degree less painful than walking with tired legs.
Besides this, horses vary, both in their tempers and physi-
cal qualifications, and it is as great a pain to ride some, as
it is a pleasure to ride others. In short, as a means of sim-
ple locomotion, for the purpose of a long journey, a horse's
back is, to the majority of human beings, a very imperfect
mode of conveyance. It is only in the vigour of youth,
when the animal spirits are predominant, or by the pos-
sessors of hardy frames and enduring constitutions like the
Tartars, and some few individuals of other nations, that
riding horses are preferred to other and easier modes of
locomotion, when a choice can be attained. The old, the
infirm, the feeble, the idle, the luxurious, the careful, the
calm, the industrious, the sedate, and the economists of time
and strength, though they may all in turn ride on horse-
back for the purposes of pleasure or exercise, will invariably
prefer, as a means of simple locomotion, whatever method
may offer the maximum of speed, with the minimum of
bodily exertion, and consequently diminished wear of the
animal economy.
The first attempt at vehicular locomotion must neces-
sarily have been imperfect. Human beings residing on the
banks of large rivers would naturally observe the facility
wherewith trees and other vegetable productions floated on
the surface, moving with the downward current. After
this, the construction of a rude raft would be an easy
B 2
4
INTRODUCTION.
transition. At the present day, there exist people who
go out fishing on rafts constructed of bundles of dry
rushes.* A long period probably elapsed ere the invention
of the oar or paddle, for the purpose of moving up the
stream, induced the river travellers to construct, first a
raft, and then a canoe, which might be worth preserving
as a property of constant utility. But this was a mode of
locomotion confined to a limited space. Vehicular convey-
ance by land was the most important desideratum.
The first and most simple form of it would naturally
be a land-raft or sledge, which, if not heavily loaded,
would move in favourable localities with considerable faci-
lity, as over dried grass, or green turf, or ice, or on the
surface of hardened snow. In the northern countries
both of Europe and America, the sledge is constantly used
upon the snow at the present day; for which purpose it
is better adapted than wheel vehicles, the great length of
the two bearers preventing them from sinking in the snow
as wheels would do. In the island of Madeira, the heavy
pipes of wine are drawn on sledges from the mountain vine-
yards to the sea-ports; and part of the driver's business is,
to walk by the side of them with a kind of mop, to keep
the surface of the bare rock on which they run constantly
wetted to diminish the friction. Another instance is the
sledge used by the London brewers, and drawn by a sin-
gle horse, to convey barrels of light weight. But it is evi-
dent that, except under peculiar circumstances, the friction
of sledges is so great as to cause a great loss of animal
power; and, therefore, better vehicles must have been ob-
jects of desire at a very early period. In mountainous
* Lake fishermen in parts of South America.
INTRODUCTION.
5
countries, sledges could scarcely be used except down hills;
and accordingly, in mountainous countries, the next stage
of improvement must have been first adopted.
This mode was to take the sledge altogether from the
ground, on which it had been drawn by horses or oxen,
and to suspend it from the backs of two or four of them,
by means of pack-saddles and lashings. In Spain and
Portugal, this rude vehicle is still to be found, under the
form of the litera or litter; which is, in fact, a sedan chair
borne by two mules, one before and one behind, the poles
being slung to their packsaddles. In England this sedan
chair is, or rather was, borne by men. In the East, the
form changes from a chair to the more luxurious one of à
couch, and under the name of a palanquin it constitutes
the principal vehicular conveyance of the rich, being borne
by olive-complexioned men more capable of endurance
than quadrupeds in an enervating climate.
But the litter and the palanquin were alike imperfect,
inasmuch as they consumed a large amount of animal
power for very little effect; because the whole weight of
the passenger and the vehicle also, had to be borne as
well as moved along. Those who navigated large rivers in
canoes, were obliged occasionally to lift them out of the
water, and carry them over land wherever falls or shallows
interrupted the channel. In such a case, the bearers
would become sensible of the disproportion of labour
existing between the act of paddling a canoe and that of
carrying it, and invention would be set to work to pro-
*
* On the navigable rivers in Canada, there are numerous spots
marked in the maps "Portages." These are carrying-places for the
Indian canoes, the progress of which is impeded by falls or shallows.
6
INTRODUCTION.
duce a similar result with a land vehicle-to find a mode
Invent-
of sustaining it, as the water sustained the canoe.
ors are not creators, they are merely finders-out: they do
not make new forms, they merely take the types which
exist in nature. He who cut down trees on the hill-side
to build his house in the valley would naturally remark
the facility wherewith the round trunks rolled to the bot-
tom of the hill, and also the ease with which they could
be moved over the level, when compared with flat logs or
large blocks of stone. This was doubtless the origin of
rollers or round logs of wood, which are placed under
heavy trees or beams in order to move them over the sur-
face of the earth. To set in motion trees thus placed,
it is necessary to apply a lever. This would not be a tedi-
ous process of discovery, after the example of the paddle,
which acts as a lever in the water. But turf or soft ground
would prove a very inefficient fulcrum to rest the lever on,
and the next process would naturally be that of cutting a
hole through the roller in which to insert the lever. The
convenience of several holes in the circumference of the rol-
ler would then become apparent, and thus would be form-
ed an embryo wheel nave. It could not fail to be remark-
ed also, that the larger the roller, the greater the facility
for turning it, and consequently the greater the load that
could be borne upon it. But there are few trees whose
stems are found of large size and of a cylindrical form;
without which latter condition, they would not roll in a
straight line, but in the circumference of a circle of greater
or lesser size and besides, the weight of very large solid
rollers would be a great disadvantage. Under these circum-
INTRODUCTION.
stances, it would soon be remarked, that it is not essential
for rollers to bear on the earth throughout their whole
length;—that it is sufficient if they bear at the extremity,
with just so much surface as is necessary to prevent them
from sinking into the ground. Most trees are found to
possess the largest diameter just above the spread of their
main roots. It would soon occur to those who wished for
large rollers, that if a short length were cut from one of
the largest trees at this spot, it might be joined to a
similar one at the needful distance by means of a cross
beam inserted in a hole in each. This, supposing the
cross beam to be fixed in square holes, would be the rude
outline of a pair of wheels and an axle, of precisely the
same principle as those used on the Manchester and other
railroads at the present day, and also by the rustic culti-
vators and town carmen of Portugal.
Possessing this wheel and axle, it would be a very sim-
ple process to round the axle cross beam, and place a
frame on it capable of carrying burdens, the axle being
confined to perform its revolutions at or near the centre of
gravity* of the frame, by thole pins or guides similar to
the rowlocks of a boat. The form of the frame would be
a central pole or beam, sufficiently long to bear the bulk
or volume of the load, and also to project forward between
the two draft horses or oxen. Parallel with the central
beam would be ranged two side bearers, and these would
* The motive for choosing this precise position on the axle, is to
balance, or nearly balance, the frame, in order that the weight may
not unduly press on the horses' backs, or have a tendency to lift them
from the ground.
8
INTRODUCTION.
be connected together by cross framings or diagonal braces.
This then would be a car or cart, the simplest possible
form of a wheel carriage.

CAR OF PORTUGAL.
But it would soon be discovered that a cart thus con-
structed runs best in a straight line, and that to turn it in
a circle, unless it be a circle of very large size, causes an
-immense quantity of friction. The reason of this is, that
in the act of turning, one wheel has a tendency to revolve
faster than another, the outer track being longer than the
inner one. To obviate this difficulty, the cart-maker or
driver would soon contrive that each wheel should revolve
on its own centre. Instead of fixing the cross beam or axle
in a square hole, they would contrive it to play easily in a
round one of a conical form, that being the easiest form
for adjustment. The principle of this cart would be pre-
cisely that of the antique cars used by the Greeks and
Romans for the purposes of war and festivity, the battle,
the triumph, and the Olympic games, as well as for agri-
cultural purposes; the only distinction being in the ab-
sence or presence of ornamental work, and the general
superiority or inferiority of the construction, or rather
workmanship. The rude carts used by the poor peasantry
INTRODUCTION.
9
of Chile for their agricultural purposes in remote districts
are constructed in the manner above described.

I
CAR OF CHILE.
It is evident that a machine made in the rude manner
described could not be well adapted for very rapid motion,
without a great expenditure of animal power, especially
if it were much loaded. The axle being of wood, must
necessarily be of considerable size; and working in wood
also, a rapid motion would cause so much friction, that
it would soon be cut through, even though the hardest
woods might be sought and lubricating substances applied.
The wheels, procured at an expense of much labour,
would quickly become useless; large-sized trees would
become scarcer; and reducing the size of the wheels would
increase the friction, already too great. To provide a re-
medy for this would be the next task of invention. The
roller, with the lever-holes cut through and around it,
formerly referred to as the original of the wheel, would
be again examined, and a number of levers of equal size
being placed in it, would present at their extremities, the
outline of a circle of great diameter. How to connect
these would be the next consideration; and when the plan
10
INTRODUCTION.
of fixing felloes on was first devised, the first experiment
probably gave a sample of rude and crazy workmanship,
at which the makers of solid wheels would laugh in scorn,
and exult when they broke down, as though to fulfil their
predictions that "they could never answer." But no
really useful invention can be finally put down, and some
more skilful workmen, fired by ambition, would begin
anew, and remedy the defects, consisting, not in princi-
ple, but in execution; and thereat all cart-drivers would
cry, "Lo! a wonder !" and thenceforth solid wheels would
only be regarded as matters of antiquity, and a theme for
surprise, that people could have been found simple enough
to make, and other people simple enough to use them.
But the new wheels, with naves, spokes, and felloes,
would be liable to the same disadvantages as the solid
ones-a too rapid wear. The first remedy for this would
be to make the axle of softer wood than the nave of the
wheel, inasmuch as a new axle could be supplied with less
labour than a new wheel. As this would not be sufficient,
means would be devised to cover the axle with some wear-
ing substance which could be renewed from time to time.
Nothing could be so simple or so appropriate for this as
a covering of untanned neat's hide sewed on wet, and left
to dry and shrink. Supplied with grease or soap, the
friction of an axle thus covered would be comparatively
small, and both axle and nave would remain serviceable
for a considerable period. The great point of wear would
be the felloes, which would be renewed as they wore. The
frequent renewal of these felloes would loosen and wear
the spokes, and therefore means would soon be devised to
INTRODUCTION.
11
cover the wearing surfaces of the felloes with some mate-
rial capable of being renewed. In the absence of metal
fitted for the purpose, wood would of course be resorted
to: and the mode of applying it, would be to use a se-
cond set of felloes around the outer circumference of the
first, covering each joint, and fastening them by means of
treenails and wooden wedges. Precisely such wheels as
these are used in the ox-carts, which form the trading ca-
ravans of the great Steppes of Spanish America.* Their
height is about seven feet, in order to lessen the draught
as much as possible, and also to enable them to cross the
deep streams and gullies. The frame of the carts is such
as before described; but on the frame a wattling of sticks
is erected, six feet in height, and arched at top, the sides
being thatched with rushes, and the roof covered with un-
tanned hides. Not a particle of metal is used in their
whole composition.

OX-CART OF THE PAMPAS.
* They are quaintly termed by the natives" barcos de tierra," i. e.
"landships," inasmuch as they ply for freight, and carry provisions
and water with them over the deserts.
12
INTRODUCTION.
We have now seen the most primitive specimens of
open and covered two-wheeled carriages; and in the im-
provement of their workmanship, art would for a long
period find sufficient occupation. Form and ornament
would be the principal objects aimed at, and some of the
beautiful results have been handed down to us in the spe-
cimens of the antique cars for the purposes of war and
pleasure used by the Greeks and Romans; with the ge-
neral construction of which, most persons are familiar
who have been accustomed to inspect antique coins,
medals, or bas-reliefs.
Beautiful as these vehicles appear in their design and
harmonious curves, they were by no means adapted to en-
sure ease of motion unless at a very slow pace: in fact, at
a rapid pace the passenger was usually obliged to stand
upright, and relieve his body from the jarring shake as
well as he could, by the elasticity of his feet. Whole-
some the cars doubtless were in the way of exercise, and
exceedingly graceful when grouped with the fine horses
by which they were drawn; but neither the old nor the
infirm would use them from choice.
After or before that two-wheeled carriages could arrive
at this degree of perfection, it is probable that vehicles
with four wheels would be constructed for the transport of
articles too bulky or too heavy for the two-wheeled vehi-
cles; such, for example, as timber. These would be sim-
ply a frame of the ordinary kind, but of extra length; and
the wheels would be of equal height, like our modern rail-
road carriages. It would soon be found that such carriages
are not calculated to turn except in a very large space;
INTRODUCTION.
13
and some contrivance would be resorted to, to enable the
fore wheels to lock round.* This process would be, to con-
struct a double frame, one a long one with the hinder
wheels affixed to it, and the other a short one with the
fore wheels affixed to it, and moving or turning under the
long frame, by means of the lever beam or pole, on a cen-
tral pin or pivot, now called a perch-bolt. As considerable
strength would be required in the under frame, and as it
would be necessary to retain the upper frame at a horizon-
tal level, it would of course be necessary to reduce the
height of the fore wheels, and thus cause a mechanical im-
perfection, which has been perpetuated in carriages up to
the present day. This imperfection consists in the in-
crease of friction in the fore wheels, in consequence of
their diminished size obliging them to perform a greater
number of revolutions in the same space than the hinder
ones do. Vehicles thus constructed, though they would
be enabled to turn in a reasonable space, would still be
awkward in a narrow street or lane, because the fore wheels
would be limited in their locking or turning by the side
of the upper frame which carries the load. Many of the
English waggons are still constructed thus, and may be
seen with an angular piece cut out of their sides, to admit
a larger space for the wheel to lock in. Some of the stage-
coaches also are thus imperfect in their locking, and are
occasionally overset on account of it when the horses be-
come restive and start on one side. In order to avoid this,
* The expression "to lock," as applied to the turning motion of a
carriage, is not a good phrase; but custom having made it familiar,
the author has thought it well to retain it.
14
INTRODUCTION.
it is necessary either to raise the upper frame, or to re-
duce the size of the fore wheels, so that they may turn
beneath it. Either of these remedies produces a certain
portion of evil;—the former, by raising the centre of gra-
vity to a greater height, and increasing the chance of over-
setting; the latter, by increasing the friction and consum-
ing a larger amount of moving power.
Most of the ancient coaches or covered carriages were
constructed upon one plan. Two longitudinal timbers or
beams, secured to two cross bars at each end by scarf
joints and bolts, constituted the upper frame. As the streets
of most of the ancient European cities were very narrow,
the difficulty of turning or locking experienced with such
carriages, led to an obvious improvement—the inven-
tion of the crane neck. The two longitudinal beams being
removed, their places were supplied by two long heavy
bars of iron, arched upwards in front, in the form of a
swan or crane's neck, to a considerable height, so that
the fore wheels when locking might pass beneath them.
By this contrivance, a high fore wheel was retained, and a
perfect lock accomplished; but very considerable weight
was at the same time added to the vehicle. But as coaches
were only kept by the rich, who could afford abundance
of animal power, this was not to them a very important
defect.
Ere mechanical art reached this degree of perfection in
the wheels and framework, it is probable that attempts
would be made towards the development of some means for
preventing the concussion arising from the rapid motion of
the wheels over rough roads from reaching the bodies of the
INTRODUCTION.
15
passengers. As a concussion or shock is transmitted much-
more forcibly through a solid or firm medium than through
an unfirm one, the simplest contrivance would be, to sus-
pend a seat by means of straps or lashings :-specimens of
this may be seen in the light carts used by butchers and
others in the large towns of England. The next im-
provement would be, by separating the sitting part altoge-
ther from the wheels and axles and interposing a moving
medium between them:-the sitting part would be made
an independent frame, supported on long ropes or straps
stretched beneath it, and affixed by the ends to another
frame firmly secured upon the axles. The antique four-
wheeled carriages of Europe used for state purposes are
mostly constructed on this plan, and their great weight
and slow movement prevent any violent concussion.
Many of the public stage-coaches of France are suspend-
ed on the same principle, as well as those of the United
States and Canada: for in the latter countries, though
there is not any lack of enterprise or want of energy to
improve the public vehicles, it is found by experience
that the imperfect condition of the roads precludes the
possibility of using steel springs with a due regard to
economy.
*
The natives of Buenos Ayres use for the purpose of tra-
velling a covered two-wheeled vehicle with shafts, called a
carri-coché, or cart-coach. Horseflesh, owing to its abun-
dance, is profusely wasted on the Pampas of La Plata.
When used for draught, the horses are not harnessed: a
strap or cord of raw hide is fastened to the ordinary saddle
girth; and as many as are the horses fastened to a vehicle,
16
INTRODUCTION:
so is the number of the postilions. The possibility of
one man guiding more than one horse when attached to a
travelling vehicle has not entered into the imaginations
of Spanish American economists. As for the collar, it is
unknown. The wild Gaucho, in fact, draws a carriage just
as he would draw a wild bull with his lazo or hunting
noose attached to the right or off side of his saddle girth.
The carri-coché consists of a close framed body, painted
and lined, with sliding glasses, and a door to open behind,
the whole suspended on long braces or twisted cords
of untanned hide. When used in towns it is intended
to be drawn by one or two horses with a postilion, and to
carry six persons, three on a side like an omnibus.

BUENOS AYRES CARRI-COCHE.
The objections to this carriage are, that the body being
fixed on two nearly straight braces, and having little weight
to steady it, when on a rough road the quick vibrating
motion is almost as unpleasant as actual concussion. In
every carriage thus suspended, great weight or inertia is
absolutely necessary to procure ease to the passenger.
INTRODUCTION.
17
Those who have travelled in the heavy and heavy-loaded
French diligences at a slow rate, will not have found their
motion unpleasant; but whoever has experienced the
movement of the rude leather-covered carts formerly
used for the conveyance of the French mail will never
wish to repeat the experiment.
To get much ease in the mode of suspending the body
or sitting part of a wheel carriage by braces stretched or
attached to solid supporters, it is necessary to have great
length. This of course must increase the weight, and be
an additional motive for resorting to some more perfect
method of avoiding concussion. This would naturally be
by the interposition of positive elastic substances. Elastic
wood, from its facility of workmanship, and also from gene-
ral familiarity with its qualities, acquired by the long use of
the bow as a projector of missiles, would be the first re-
sorted to. Amongst the settlers of Upper Canada, and
the inland portion of the United States, are to be found
the rudest four-wheeled vehicles used by civilised people.
They are called waggons, and consist of an oblong packing-
case of rough planks, beneath which the wheels are attach-
ed, the fore wheels being contrived to turn or lock very
slightly. They are used with one or two horses, whether
for farm or other purposes. When used as a personal con-
veyance, a simple contrivance is resorted to, to lessen con-
cussion. A kind of framed chair, affixed to two bearers of
elastic wood, is placed inside for the principal sitters; and
if there be others, they rough it out as they best can.
These rude springs are also used in the construction of
gigs, or two-wheeled vehicles drawn by one horse.
C
18
INTRODUCTION.
In England also, wooden springs are occasionally used
for two-wheeled vehicles; when they are placed at right
angles across the axle, the body resting upon them. A
light four-wheeled vehicle was invented some few years
back, by a Mr. Johnson. It consisted of two very long
light poles, connecting the hinder axle and wheels with
the fore cross bar, beneath which the under frame and fore
wheels were made to turn: the seat, for a single sitter,
was placed in the centre of the poles, which by their flexi-
bility served as springs. This vehicle was very light, and
not very uneasy; but, owing to its great length, it was ill
adapted to turn in ordinary streets.
The long braces which supported the huge bodies of the
lumbering vehicles formerly called coaches, were usually
attached to a strong wooden pillar, or frame at each end,
which was either upright, or slightly sloping outwards.
After a time, an attempt would be made to give some
flexibility to these pillars: but such an attempt would be
very imperfect, as wood in short lengths cannot be made
to carry heavy weights, and exhibit the quality of elasticity
at the same time. The long-bow of wood is of considera-
ble length; the cross-bow of steel is comparatively short,
yet possesses more power and elasticity. These different
qualities would soon be compared as applicable to car-
riages, and after some few preliminary experiments, upright
pillars of elastic steel would form the supports for attach-
ing the braces. They would at first be constructed of a
single piece of steel in a taper form, and thence by grada-
tions, regulated by the modes of their failure, they would
assume the form of laminæ, playing one against another.
INTRODUCTION.
19
This accomplished, a carriage would possess all the essen-
tial principles required; viz.-facility of moving forward
and facility of turning round by the application of the
needful external power, and freedom from concussion to
the passengers. The carriages existing at the present day
in the greatest state of perfection as yet accomplished, are
merely these same principles better regulated by more
perfect combinations and more perfect execution.
c 2
20
CHAPTER I.
Early History of Wheel Carriages. Scriptural Chariots.— Caretta,
Carruca, Arcera, Lectica, Carpentum, Decemjugis.-Grecian Cha-
riots. Car from Persepolis. - Wine Waggon and Car from
Pompeii.-Saxon MS.-Essedum.-King John's Litter.-Queen
Katherine's Litter.—Chariot of Lady Emergard.-Chariot of Melia-
dus-First Suspended Carriage Hungarian.-Whirlicote.-Robert
Westende.- Coach.- Kotcze.- Emperor Frederic IIIrd's Close
Carriage. Elector of Cologne. Margravine John Sigismund.
-Henry the Fourth of France.-Emperor Ferdinand the Second.
-Coaches of Perfumed Leather. Glass Coaches. Emperor
Leopold's Wedding Carriage.-Brouette.
W
SOME of the earliest records of wheel carriages are to
be found in the Old Testament; though, as it confines its
mention of them to the simple fact of such things being
in use, no light is thrown upon what was their construc-
tion. The "chariot" and the "waggon" are both named
in Genesis: Joseph rode in the second chariot of Pharaoh
as a mark of peculiar dignity.
“Waggons
aggons" were des-
patched from the court of Egypt, to convey thither the
wives and little ones of the family of Jacob: from this,
as well as the fact of the brethren of Joseph bearing their
corn away on asses, we may infer that wheel carriages, even
of the lowest description, were not in general use amongst
the common people at that time. Later in the Israelitish
history, we hear of the trouble caused in the host of Pha-
raoh, in his pursuit of the Israelites towards the Red Sea,
EARLY HISTORY OF WHEEL CARRIAGES.
21
66
by the wheels being detached from his chariots, so that
they drave heavily ;" an impediment almost as trying to
an ancient army, as the abstraction of wheels from artillery
carriages would be to one of later date.* Chariots at that
period, and subsequently, were used principally for war
purposes; all public games, all public sports, tended to the
encouragement of this, one of their master passions; and
the sound of chariots and the sound of horsemen were
seldom heard, but as heralds to the sound of battle. Even
the chariots themselves were made to assist in the work of
destruction; being armed with hooks and scythes, by
which they made considerable devastation, mowing down
men wherever they came in contact with them. Though
the better sort of carriages were used for so mischievous a
purpose, others of an inferior kind, and at a later period,
were introduced among the Jews for agricultural purposes.
They were principally used for thrashing out the corn,
and were called carts or drags; (a method still practised in
Arabia.) The word cart is most probably derived from
the Latin caretta, a diminutive of carrus; and the ancient
carruca had most probably a kindred derivation. Beck-
man, in his "History of Inventions," tells us "that the
earliest Roman vehicle on record was the arcera, of which
mention was made in the Twelve Tables. It was a covered
carriage, used by sick and infirm persons. It appears to
have been employed earlier than the more luxurious lec-
tica (litter), and by it to have been brought into disuse."
* Detaching the wheels would seem to indicate that the wheels
were fast on the axle, which turned beneath the body: the axle being
thrown out of the thole pins, the chariot would become a sledge.
22
EARLY HISTORY OF
Isaiah, when prophesying the future glory of Jerusalem,
describes the faithful as coming "upon horses and in cha-
riots, and in litters and upon mules." "A later invention,"
continues Beckman, "was the carpentum; the form of
which may be seen on antique coins, where it is represent-
ed as a two-wheeled car, with an arched covering, which
was sometimes hung with costly cloth. Still later were
introduced the carruca, first mentioned by Pliny; but
so little is known of them, that antiquaries are uncertain
whether they had one wheel like our wheelbarrows, or
(as is more probable) four wheels. This much however is
known, that they were richly decorated, often with solid
silver curiously engraved and carved, and that senators and
people of condition were carried in them. The Theodo-
sian Code allowed them to civil and military officers as a
mark of dignity; and it was considered an honour to ride
in those which were remarkably high.
There is a distinguishing difference between the con-
struction of ancient and modern carriages in one respect:
the greater proportion of the former must have been made
principally for the display of muscular strength and agility
in their management, rather than for the purpose of bodily
ease and relaxation. Hence might have arisen the long-
retained prejudice against carriages of all kinds, as tending
too much to luxury and effeminacy. Carriages really
deserving the name, carrying the person who placed him-
self within them, without requiring his constant and dex-
terous management of the muscles, were seldom used ex-
cept at public festivals. In "Kennett's Roman Antiqui-
ties" are engravings of several cars, as they appeared when
WHEEL CARRIAGES.
23
in procession to grace one of the triumphs, allowed only to
dictators, consuls, or prætors. The first car contained the
spoils and treasure; the second, a group of Roman nobles;
and the third, the hero of the day.
The Romans had their chariot races like the Greeks;
though the far-famed Olympic games carried away the
prize of pre-eminence, so that the heroes of Rome were fain
to enter the lists. Suetonius chronicles the Emperor
Nero as engaging in the Olympic games, and riding in a
decemjugis, or chariot drawn by ten horses abreast. The
renown attached to a winning chariot was as great as that
now gained by a winning horse. In modern times, how-
ever, something more is contested than the reward of bare
fame, and a wreath of parsley. It was remarked of Al-
cibiades as a thing of extraordinary extravagance, that he
first sent three chariots at one time to the Olympic games.
The skill in the use of these chariots must have been
displayed in turning them without breaking the wheels
or axles, of which there must have been some danger,
as their racecourse was longitudinal instead of circular.
The earliest representations of the chariots of Greece
will be found on the bas-reliefs amongst those beautiful
exiles from their native land-the Elgin marbles. They
were the product of the time when Pericles held sway over
Athens-nearly five hundred years before Christ; and the
records left on the stone tablets adorning the walls of the
temples erected by him, are among the oldest handed down
to us.
The vehicle here inserted is taken from an engraving of
some specimens of the remaining ruins of Persepolis, de-
24
EARLY HISTORY OF
stroyed by Alexander the Great, three hundred and thirty
years before Christ. It is from one of a number of repre-
sentations of different deities typical of the seasons. This
small wheel carriage served as a sort of moving platform
for one of these idols, who was seated upon it in Oriental
style. The mode of attaching the axle to the carriage
differs from that of the Greek and Roman cars of a con-
temporaneous period, or indeed from any other we have
seen in antique sculpture, or elsewhere.

CAR FROM THE RUINS OF PERSEPOLIS.
:
There is another, a curiosity in its way, and although of
Roman origin, it differs from the usual form of cars at that
time. It is from an antique gem in cornelian, which forms
the subject of one of the many erudite papers in the Archæ-
ologia. It is like a Greek car reversed, and is a kind of
primitive model of the whole tribe of one-horse vehicles
now in use. It is drawn by horses, driven by a Cupid ;
but the detail of traces, harness, &c. is omitted, as is
usually to be observed in representations of antique cha-
rioteering. The gem is inscribed " Marte-Mario," and
has reference, in all probability, (as the historian supposes,)
to some passage in the life of Caius Marius, whose for-
WHEEL CARRIAGES.
25
tunes were influenced very materially by Martha, a re-
nowned Syrian prophetess. Marius was born one hundred
and fifty years before Christ.
By far the nearest approach to the ingenuity of contri-
vance of modern times, is to be found in a drawing made
by Sir William Gell from one of the time-defying frescos
of Pompeii. It is of a wine cart, or rather waggon; and
though it aided the services of the inferior orders amongst
the people, it displays a neatness and ingenuity in its con-
struction far exceeding that of the cars and ornamental
vehicles of the time-supposing they had equally faithful
artistical chroniclers. The four wheels are of equal size,—
a desideratum long sought after for locomotive vehicles,—
and the contrivance which allows them to turn with safety,
-an open
arched space in the centre of the cart,—is simple
and practicable. The group from which it is copied is clas-
sical and elegant: the figures of the peasants employed in
emptying the skins in which the wine was contained are
graceful both in form and costume, the latter being the
simple tunica. Sir William Gell complains of the sloven-
ly style in which the whole is painted his copy suggests
an exquisitely neat and finished original. Notwithstanding
this little discrepancy, the details as to the principle of its
construction may be trusted.
In the same work are two other designs. One represents
one of the several chariots drawn by different animals,
which decorate the tablinum of the peristyle of the Dio-
scuri. It appears to be slovenly in its execution, and the
details of its construction incomplete. There is an absence
of elegance in its design-the angle supplying the place
26
EARLY HISTORY OF
of the graceful curve which characterised the Greek chariots
of earlier date.—The other is from a design executed in
stucco on a stone in the temple of Venus. The group
entire represents Love in the act of driving two mules ;
though Love must have been somewhat deficient in taste
to have selected such cattle for such a carriage.

CAR FROM POMPEII.
The simplest of all forms that have made pretension to
the name of chariot, is the essedum of the ancient Briton,
referred to in Cæsar's Commentaries, lib. iv. c. 29. He
there, in describing the manner in which our rude fore-
fathers were wont to conduct themselves in battle, dis-
tinctly proves an obvious difference between the war cha-
riot of the Briton and that of the Roman. The Britons,
it appears, were accustomed to leave their chariot, and run
along a pole which was attached to it, from whence, or
from the yoke, they engaged the enemy, again to retire
into their chariot when they saw fit. Its construction
must have been low in the fore part to have allowed this;
differing essentially from those of the other nations, which
are thus represented: "Front of the body breast-high,
WHEEL CARRIAGES.
27
rounded like a shield, so as to answer to the driver for a
defence; and was for that reason called åσidioxy, or the
shield part." Strutt, in his "Manners and Customs of
England," mentions a kind of chariot in use amongst the
Anglo-Saxons: he says, it is supposed to have been de-
rived from the Britons, and to be the old British essedum
referred to by Cæsar. Without meaning to insult the me-
mory of our warlike ancestors, it has nevertheless a strik-
ing resemblance to the donkey carts in use in many of our
country villages: but it is somewhat wanting to the reli-
gion of history thus to profane what most probably was
the moving platform from whence Boadicea with her wrong-
ed daughters harangued the brave though undisciplined
Icéni.
An evident improvement in invention was made by the
Saxons. In the Cotton Library there is a valuable Saxon
illuminated manuscript; by some supposed to be that of
Ciedna, by others the work of Elfricus abbot of Malms-
bury. The subject is a comment on the books of Genesis
and Exodus, with illustrative delineations. In one of these
may be found the first approach to a slung carriage; and it
may be interesting to the lovers of historical coincidence,
that it is given in an illustration of the meeting of Joseph
with Jacob, of that part of the Old Testament which first
makes mention of vehicular conveyance. The cɲxt or cha-
riot in which Joseph is seated is a kind of hammock, (most
probably made of leather, which was much used by the
Anglo-Saxons,) suspended by iron hooks from a frame-
work of wood. It moves upon four wheels, the construc-
tion of which is somewhat ambiguous, owing to decorative
28
EARLY HISTORY OF
licence having been taken with them by the artist. The
father of Joseph is placed in a cart, which we doubt not,
from its primitive simplicity, is a faithful representative of
those of the time. This proves the illuminator to have
been true both to his subject and the custom of the period
in which he lived, as the cлxt was monopolised by the prin-
cipals, while the people rode in carts.
With the Normans came the horse litter, a native
originally of Bithynia, and from thence introduced into
Rome, where it is still used by the Pope on state occa-
sions, and also among the mountain passes of Sicily—also
in Spain and Portugal. Malmsbury records that the dead
body of Rufus was placed upon a "rheda caballaria," a
kind of horse litter,-or, as Fabian translates it, a "horse
litter." King John, in his last illness, was conveyed from
the Abbey of Swinstead in "lectica equestre.” These were
for several succeeding reigns, the only carriages in use for
persons of distinction. Froissart writes of Isabel, the
second wife of Richard II, as "La june Royne d'Angle-
terre en une litiere moult riche qui etoit ordonée pour
elle." These litters were seldom used except on state
occasions. When Margaret, daughter of Henry VII,
went into Scotland, she is described as journeying on a
"faire palfrey:" but after her was conveyed by two foot-
men, one vary
riche litere, borne by two faire coursers
vary nobly drest; in the wich litere the sayd queene was
borne in the intryng of the good townes, or otherwise to
her good playsher." Some idea may be formed of the
state and richness of these conveyances from Holinshed's
description of that of Queen Katherine at her coronation:
(6
WHEEL CARRIAGES.
29
"Then came the queen in a litere of white clothe of golde,
not covered nor bailed, which was led by two palfreys clad
in white damask doone to the ground, head and all, led by
her footmen. Over her was borne a canopie of cloth of
gold, with four gilt staves and four silver bells. For the
bearing of which canopie were appointed sixteen knights,
foure to bear it one space on foot, and other foure another
space." Long after the introduction of coaches, the litter
continued in use. In the frontispiece of Thomas Scott's
"Vox Populi," (1620) there is a representation of a litter
carried by mules; and the mother of Henrietta, queen of
Charles I, entered London in a litter, having previously
travelled from Warwick in a coach.
The feudal times were obviously unfavourable to the
use of carriages: the only seat considered befitting a
knight was his saddle, and the only place for a vassal, at
the stirrup of his liege lord. The knights bestrode their
coursers, and fair dames gracefully reined up their richly-
caparisoned palfreys. In 1239, on the entrance of Frede-
ric II. into Padua, ladies highly born and sumptuously
attired came forth to meet him on horses ornamented with
trappings. But this state of things was to have its change:
the more commodious though less picturesque wheel car-
riage came to make its innocent and bloodless revolution.
Italy, France, Spain, and Germany take the lead of us in
their records, and contend with each other for the honour of
the first introduction of carriages. The earliest record we
have found is upon Beckman's authority: he states, that
when Charles of Anjou entered Naples, (towards the end of
the thirteenth century,) his queen rode in a caretta, the
30
EARLY HISTORY OF
outside and inside of which was covered with sky-blue vel-
vet, interspersed with golden lilies. That the example of
the fair queen was speedily followed in France, though most
probably at a humble distance, may be inferred from the
fact of an ordinance of Philip the Fair being issued in
1294, (and which is still, according to Beckman, in pre-
servation,) for suppressing luxury, and forbidding the citi-
zens' wives the use of "6 cars. That these carettas were
the same with the "cars," "chares," and latterly the
"charat," in form, though differing in adornment, there is
little doubt; and although "caretta," and "sky-blue vel-
vet," and "golden lilies," seem far more fitting to describe
the car of Cinderella, or of some radiant genius in a fairy
pageant, there is little difficulty in believing that all the
above-named vehicles had one universal family likeness,
both in name and construction, to our common, broad-
wheeled cart! In the "Anciennes Chroniques de Flan-
dres," date 1347, a manuscript in beautiful preservation,—
a work of art it may be called, from the brilliancy and de-
licacy of its finish,-is an illustration of the flight of Emer-
gard, wife of Salvard, Lord of Rousillon. The carriage in
which she is seated, is not only richly coloured, but the
details of its construction are accurately supplied. The
outer edges of the wheels are coloured grey, to represent a
tire of iron, and the horses are attached to the carriage by
a similar method to one now in use. The body of the
cart or “chariette" is of carved wood, and the hangings of
purple and crimson, turned up in the centre. The Lady
Emergard is seated inside, with an attendant behind, and
WHEEL CARRIAGES.
31
her Fool in front. The machine is drawn by two horses,
the charioteer sitting upon the left horse.
That England was not far behind in the possession of
the "chare," we have testimony, and that of an interesting
kind, as it has thrown some light upon a part of the
Lady Emergard's vehicle of stately clumsiness of which
we had not till then discerned the use. In "The Squyr of
Low Degree," supposed to be before the time of Chaucer,
(vide Ellis's Specimens of Early English Poetry,) the father
of the Princess of Hungary thus makes promise :—
"To-morrow ye shall on hunting fare,
And ride my daughter in a chare.
It shall be covered with velvet red,
And cloths of fine gold all about your head;
With damask white, and azure blue,
Well diapered with lilies new:
Your pomelles shall be ended with gold,
Your chains enamelled many a fold."
These pomelles* were doubtless the handles to the rods
affixed towards the roof of the "chariette ;" and were for
the purpose of holding by, when deep ruts or obstacles
in the road caused an unusual jerk in the vehicle:-in the
illumination they are gilded. This coincidence with the
other of the "lilies" in the "caretta," seems to identify the
carriages as far as general construction is concerned.
That the use of wheel carriages became common in
re-
* Pomelle - probably a diminution of pomme, little apple
ferring to the small round knob by which the hand held on. Modern
carriages still retain a similar appliance in the shape of inside lace-
holders, even now that the improvements in springs and roads have
rendered them useless except as ornaments.
32
EARLY HISTORY OF
England as they did in France, may be gained, amongst
others, from Froissart, who, in speaking of the return of
the English from Scotland in the reign of Edward III,
tells of "leurs charettes," which were most likely of a
similar form to those above mentioned; though, as they
were used for purposes of war, they were without any of
the elegant appurtenances that were thought seemly for
ladies of high degree.
The progress of improvement in vehicular locomotion
appears to have been very slow. A double reason may
be found for this: an internally struggling country has lit-
tle time or means to foster inventive power; and the bad
state of the roads, which continued for centuries, make it
no marvel that a machine nearly akin to a broad-wheeled
waggon, was the only carriage employed by people of con-
dition in our early history.
In France progress was
almost equally slow. In "Le Roman du Roy Meliadus,”
a manuscript which is supposed to bear date towards the
middle of the fourteenth century, a representation is given
of the carriage which had the honour of conveying his ma-
jesty, which, with all the added charm a poetical imagina-
tion has given to it in a wheel of architectural design, has
yet in the body of the carriage a most unfortunate ple-
beian likeness to one of our common vans. Another reason
may be found for this backwardness in improvement, in
the strong prejudice which existed against the use of any
kind of carriage ministering to personal indolence. It was
thought derogatory to the dignity of men to be seen in
them: princes and electors who have avoided attendance
on the meetings of the States, have excused themselves on
WHEEL CARRIAGES.
33
the plea of the unfitness of their health to bear the fa-
tigue of a long journey on horseback. In the "Mémoires
sur l'Ancienne Chevalerie" of M. of Sainte Palaye, he
mentions the entrance into Bruxelles of Louis the Dau-
phin in 1456 on horseback, and that he was met at the
porte by the Duchess Isabella and other ladies of the
court on foot !
One of the most curious documents relative to this
time, is to be found in Roubo's "L'Art de Menuisier."
It has reference to the introduction of what would seem
to us to be
to be the first suspended carriage, although
history ascribes this to a much later date. In speak-
ing of a carriage brought from the King of Hungary as a
present to the Queen of Bohemia, and which seemed to
excite the wonder and admiration of the good Parisians,
he describes it 66
as branlant et moult riche." What could
branlant (quivering or trembling) mean, but that it sway-
ed to and fro, from being suspended? From this time
covered carriages began to be used in France, though
somewhat sparingly. They were forbidden for common use;
even to women, as tending too much to the promotion of
luxury; and only those of the highest rank were permitted
to use them. At all public ceremonies there is no men-
tion made of state coaches, but of state horses and state
mules. Even his holiness the Pope rode upon a grey
horse; though, to indemnify him for the exertion, his
horse was led and his stirrup held by kings and emperors.
As time went on, people became more philosophical;
and one evidence of this was, in preferring the ease that
does no injury, to the self-denial that does no good;-or
D
34
EARLY HISTORY OF
rather, the ease that does good, to the self-denial that does
injury. Covered carriages began to obtain more commonly,
though at first their uses were confined to long journeys
or times of public ceremony. Hungary appears to have
been the country out of which the coach was born; though
many nations contend for the honour of fathering the un-
wieldy child, which has in its turn been father to a nume-
rous tribe of now rapidly-improving offspring. Denina
contends for Spain; Father Semedi, for Italy; the “En-
cyclopédie Française," for France; while we would put
in a claim founded on the "whirlicote," which conveyed
the mother of Richard II. from the terrors of Wat
Tyler's mob. What these whirlicotes were, we have not
been able to discover; most probably the first rude at-
tempt at the close carriage of a later period.* That the
common people of this country had at this time their con-
veyances, may be inferred from the record of the bearing of
King Richard's corpse,-" upon a chariette or sort of lit-
ter on wheels, such as is used by citizen's wives who were
not able or not allowed to keep ordinary litters." Anne,
the wife of this king, granted an annual stipend during the
life of Robert Westende, "purvoiour de noz chariettes."
There are various and ingenious derivations ascribed to
the word "coach ;" some of them of an amusing character,
such as, for instance, that of Menage, who says it is to be
taken from the Latin vehiculum !—a somewhat more pro-
bable one of Junius, xew, to carry; Wachten, from the
German kutten, to cover; Lye, from the Belgic koetsen, to
lie along,—or, as it properly signifies, a couch or chair.
Query-Whirling cot, or moving house.
WHEEL CARRIAGES.
35
Others have endeavoured to prove its derivation from the
Hungarian, that it had its rise in a village in the pro-
vince of Wiesellung, formerly called Kotsee. In "Beck-
man's History of Inventions," (a book that has furnished
us with many details and much valuable general informa-
tion,) an extract is made from Stephanus Broderithus, who
says, speaking of the year 1526, "When the archbishop
received certain intelligence that the Turks had entered
Hungary, not contented with informing the king by letter,
he speedily got into one of those light carriages of the
place, they call kotcze and hastened to his majesty." This
evidence, backed by the presentation carriage before men-
tioned to the Queen of Bohemia, is certainly in favour of
the Hungarian coachmakers; but we must leave to wiser
heads to determine the exact truth: for what with the
caroche of France, the caroce of Italy, the carri-coché of
Spain, and even our own coach, the head is somewhat be-
wildered and is fain to take refuge in the simple carruca of
old Rome, from which these appellations most probably had
their rise. After all, it must be a divided honour. The car-
etta, chare, car, charat, &c. being the earlier construction,
they had the earlier derivation; later came the Hungarian
kotcze, the German kutsche, &c. &c., and adding both form
and name to what had gone before, produced a mixed
vehicle with a mixed appellation. We will glance over
the state and increase of carriages on the Continent during
the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, and
Query.—Are coach and couch synonymes? The earliest coaches or
litters were for reclining. The cars in the procession of Maximilian
ale literally couches or sofas on wheels.
D 2
36
EARLY HISTORY OF
devote the concluding chapter exclusively to those of
England during the same period and up to the present
time.
In 1474 the Emperor Frederic III. came to Frankfort
in a close carriage; and as he remained in it on account of
the wetness of the weather, the inhabitants had no occasion
to support the canopy over his head, except on going and
returning from the council house-(vide Beckman). The
poor citizens must have invoked as ardent a benediction
on the head of him who invented coaches, as did Sancho
Panza on him who "invented sleep."
At the beginning of the sixteenth century, the richness
and number of carriages increased-though the accession
was chiefly confined to Germany. At tournaments they
were made objects for display; they are spoken of as being
gilded all over, and the hangings of crimson satin. Elect-
resses and duchesses were seldom seen without them; and
there was as much rivalry in their days of public exhibi-
tion, as there is now amongst the aspirants of fashion in
their well-appointed equipages at a queen's drawing-room.
While in 1562 the Elector of Bologne had twelve car-
riages in his suite, and somewhat later the Margravine
John Sigismund, thirty-six coaches, with six horses each,
at Paris in 1550, during the reign of Francis I, there were
but three, one belonging to the queen, another to the
king's queen, and the third to a corpulent old lord, whose
inability to take exercise in any other way, rendered this
luxury a necessity. If, as historians say, in spite of the
"branlant" before mentioned in Roubo's comment on the
carriage of the Queen of Bohemia, the carriages of this
WHEEL CARRIAGES.
37
time were not suspended, his lordship's exercise must have
tended somewhat to his reduction.
Even so late as Henri Quatre little advance had been
made in emulation of the more luxurious Germans. It ap-
pears from a letter said to be still in preservation, that
Henry the Great had but one carriage for himself and his
queen: he says, “I cannot come to you to-day, because my
wife is using my coach." This coach was probably the one
in which he was afterwards assassinated. It is said, that
immediately upon the murder, his friends about him let
fall the curtains of the coach and drove to the palace.
Carriages at this time used in France were made with a
canopy supported by ornamental pillars, and the whole
surrounded by curtains of stuff or leather, which might
be drawn up or let down at pleasure,
The example of the German nobles was soon followed
by their vassals. In 1588, an edict was issued by Duke
Julius of Brunswick, in which his vassals were forbidden
to ride in carriages: amongst other things, he says, "that
the useful discipline and skill in riding have been almost
lost; and that the principal cause of this is, that our vas-
sals, servants, and kinsmen without distinction, young
and old, have dared to give themselves up to indolence,
and to riding in coaches," &c.
The seventeenth century in Germany began with equal
state in its princes, and the same imitation at a humble
distance by its vassals. Count Kevenhüller, in speaking
of the marriage of the Emperor Ferdinand II. with a prin-
cess of Bavaria, says, "the bride rode with her sisters in a
splendid carriage studded with gold; her maids of honour,
38
EARLY HISTORY OF
in carriages hung with black satin; and the rest of the
ladies, in neat leather carriages." At the same time an
attempt was again made to suppress the use of carriages
amongst the people. In 1668, Philip Duke of Pomera-
nia Stetten reminded his vassals that they ought not to
make so much use of carriages as of horses; and there is
a less gentle admonition in the Churmark Archives, where
an edict is still preserved that went to forbid the use of
coaches under pain of incurring the punishment of felony.
All these prohibitions were of little avail, especially as the
example of the nobles tended to the increase rather than
the diminution of state in their wheel carriages. Coaches of
"perfumed leather" (probably what we now call Russia
leather) and glass carriages now are mentioned.
In 1631, Mary, Infanta of Spain, rode in Carinthia
in a glass carriage in which no more than two persons
could sit. The wedding carriage of the first wife of the
Emperor Leopold, (1658,) who was also a Spanish prin-
cess, cost, together with the harness, 38,000 florins: the
carriages of the Emperor himself are thus described by
Kink: "In the imperial coaches no great magnificence
was to be seen; they were covered over with red cloth
and black nails. The harness was black, and in the whole
work there was no gold. The panels were of glass, and
on this account they were called the imperial glass coaches.
On festivals the harness was ornamented with silk fringe.
The imperial coaches were distinguished by their having
leathern traces; but the ladies of the imperial suite were
obliged to be contented with carriages the traces of which
were made of ropes."
WHEEL CARRIAGES.
39
The
From the circumstances of the two Spanish prin-
cesses being so richly appointed in their equipages, it
would seem that Spain was now taking the lead which
had so long been engrossed by Germany. Poor France
still continued at a distance, as may be inferred from
the fact, that as late as the reign of Louis XIII,
(1620,) a woman was accustomed to go to court mask-
ed and hooded, jogging behind a man on horseback!
The first attempt at a common usage of covered wheel
carriages amongst the Parisian citizens occurred at this
time, in the introduction of a vehicle called brouette
or roulette. The body of this was like a sedan chair,
placed upon two wheels, and was dragged by men.
proprietors of sedans interfered to have them prohibited;
just as our short-sighted labourers would proscribe machi-
nery, not seeing how much in the end their own toil
may be mitigated. For a while they were forbidden; but
were permitted in 1669, and in 1671 they were in general
usage amongst the people. Dupin, the inventor of these
brouettes, found means to contrive them so that their mo-
tion was tolerably easy; and his ingenuity concealed his
art so well, or rather, the Parisian mechanics of that time
had so little of enterprise or curiosity,-that he was the
only one who made them. The author has obtained from
Roubo's "L'Art de Menuisier," in the Bibliothèque Royale
at Paris, the mode of the suspension of these carriages,
which, as they were the only ones of the time, and are the
earliest of the kind on record, are a mechanical curiosity.
The description is here inserted in its original quaint
French, with the accompanying illustrations.
40
EARLY HISTORY OF
"Les brouettes sont des petites voitures assez semblables aux
chaises à porteurs pour ce qui est de la forme et la construction de
la caisse; mais elles diffèrent de ces dernières, en ce qu'elles sont
portées par des roues, ou, pour mieux dire, par un ressort [possibly
of elastic rope] attaché au corps de la voiture et à l'essieu des roues,
et traînées par un homme au moyen de deux bâtons attachés à la
voiture, entre lesquels il est placé comme un cheval de limon; ce qui,
malgré l'usage, ne fait pas beaucoup d'honneur à l'urbanité française.
Toute la différence qu'il y a entre le corps d'une chaise à porteurs
et celui d'une brouette, c'est qu'à ce dernier il faut placer deux mon-
tants sur le derrière dans la partie de l'appui, ou, pour mieux dire, un
seul montant evuidé au milieu pour passer l'essieu des roues et les
montants, qu'ils le soient de manière que les roues ne débordent pas
le corps de la voiture peu devant, et que leurs ouvertures, ainsi que
le siége, soient assez élevées pour que l'essieu puisse monter sans y
toucher. Les roues des brouettes ne sauroient avoir plus de 3 pieds
8 pouces de diamètre; parce que si elles en avoient davantage, elles
hausseroient trop le siége, qui est déjà fort élevé, puisqu'il a près de
16 pouces du dessous, ainsi qu'on peut le voir fig. 3, laquelle repré-
sente la coupe de la brouette, dont les élévations de face et de côté
sont représentées fig. 1 et 2.
“Quant à la manière dont les brouettes sont suspendues, elle est fort
ingénieuse. Elle consiste en un lien de ressort attaché en dessous du
brancard, que l'on prolonge d'environ un pied plus que le devant de
la voiture le petit bout de ce ressort entre dans une boucle formé à
une tringle de fer attachée avec l'essieu de sorte que tout le poids de
la voiture porte sur le ressort, et par conséquence sur les roues par le
moyen de la tringle montante, qui alors fait l'office de soupente. Je
ne donnerai pas d'autres détails touchant la manière de suspendre les
brouettes, parce que cela n'est pas du ressort de cet ouvrage, et que
c'est l'affaire du serrurier de voitures; m'étant contenté d'avoir repré-
senté dans les fig. 4, 5, 6, l'élévation d'un moutant de brouette avec
sa garniture de fer, et le montant de fer dans lequel passe l'essieu
A; le bout inférieur de ce même montant, avec la boucle ou chape,
qui reçoit le bout du ressort, et le plan des montants des côtés de la
brouette, avec les garnitures de fer, dans lesquelles est pratiquée la
coulisse par où passe le montant de fer, dont le collet est indiqué par
des lignes ponctuées descendantes de l'élévation fig. 4, au plan fig. 6.
"Les brouettes sont peu susceptibles de décoration, étant la plupart
des voitures publiques; il suffit qu'elles soient constructées solidement.
Cependant, comme il y a quelques particuliers qui en font usage, on
WHEEL CARRIAGES.
41
pourra faire ces dernières un peu plus riches que les autres, comme je
l'ai observé au fig. 1 et. 2, où j'ai mis des glaces de custode et des
montants de crosses, ce qu'on ne fait pas aux brouettes publiques, les-
quelles, ainsi que les chaises à porteurs de cette espece, n'ont pas la
face ainsi que par les côtés, que des ouvertures d'environ 8 ou 9
pouces de haut ouvrantes à coulisse horizontales par les côtés seule-
ment. Les brouettes, ainsi que les chaises à porteurs publiques, doi-
vent être un peu plus petites que celle dont je viens de faire la de-
scription, d'environ 3 ou 4 pouces sur la hauteur, afin de les rendre
un peu plus légères."

BROUETTE.
In the following reign, that of Louis XIV, carriages
suspended by leathern straps were supposed to be first in-
troduced. There is a drawing in the Bibliothèque Royale
of the king's entry into Paris, in which this method is
adopted. But already are exceeded the limits devoted to
our Continental neighbours, and it is time to return to
England, beginning with the commencement of a new
chapter.
42
CHAPTER II.
English Carriages.-Walter Rippon.-First Coach.-Queen Mary.—
Earl of Arundel.-William Boonen.-Queen Elizabeth's Coach.-
Cost of a Coach.-M. de Rosny, Treasurer of France.-Scotch
Patent for Public Carriages.-Strictures on Coaches by Taylor the
Water Poet.-Colloquy between Coach and Sedan.-Dialogue
between a Frenchman and a Londoner.-Public Travelling.
THE introduction of coaches into England appears to
have been at a somewhat later period than either in France
or Spain. In Stowe's "Summarie of the English Chro-
nicle,” he says, coaches were not used till the year 1555,
when Walter Rippon made a coach for the Earl of Rut-
land, which was the first ever made in England; and in
the year 1564, the same Walter made the first "hollow
turning coach,” with pillars and arches, for her majesty,
(Queen Mary), being then her servant; and in the year
1584, he made “a chariot throne with foure pillars behind,
to beare a crowne imperiale on the toppe, and before two
lower pillars, whereon stood a lion and a dragon, the sup-
porters of the arms of England." Another ascribes their
introduction to Fitzallen Earl of Arundel, who brought
one from Germany in 1580. In the postscript to the Life
of Thomas Parr, written by Taylor the Water Poet, (and
a mortal enemy to land carriages,) we find the following
ENGLISH CARRIAGES.
43
note : "He (Parr) was 81 years old before there was
any coach in England; (Parr was born in Edward IVth's
reign, 1483;) for the first ever seen here was brought out
of the Netherlands by one William Boonen, a Dutchman,
who gave a coach to Queen Elizabeth, for she had been
seven years a queen before she had any coach; since when
they have increased with a mischief and ruined all the best
housekeeping, to the undoing of the watermen, by the mul-
titudes of hackney-coaches. But they never swarmed so
much to pester the streets as they do now, till the year
1605; and then was the gunpowder treason hatched, and at
that time did the coaches breed and multiply." Taylor is to
be thanked, not only for his information, but for his capital
though unconscious burlesque upon those fancied philoso-
phers who talk of cause and effect, where events, because
they happen in sequence, are made to depend one on the
other, when the fact of their being two things apart
makes them independent existences. Another absurdity
may be noticed the attempt then, as too often now, to sa-
crifice newly-increasing comfort to old custom-the multi-
tude of coaches to the lesser number of watermen. What
would the murmurer have said now to the moving mass of
omnibuses and other conveyances that stretch from one
end of Babylon the Greater to the other? What would
he say an hundred years hence, when owing to the su-
perior compactness and cheapness of their construction
and manufacture, their number will perhaps be trebled?
The moving temple before described as made for Queen
Elizabeth was doubtless suggested by the importation of
the Dutchman, and in process of time gave rise to the
44
ENGLISH CARRIAGES.
To
more easy but less magnificent coach of modern use.
have attached a "box" to a "moving temple," would have
been a most derogatory anomaly; so "the coachman joined
a horse found to match a saddle-horse to the coach-tree,
then he sitteth upon the saddle, and when there was foure
horses, he drave those which went before him, guiding
them with a reign." That the carriages used by Queen
Elizabeth could be opened and closed at pleasure, may be
inferred, from her causing at Warwick, during one of her
progresses, “every part and side of her coach to be opened,
that all her subjects present might behold her, which most
gladly they desired.”
We now find conveyances of numerous kinds becom-
ing general amongst the wealthier people. Spenser, in
his "Faery Queen," uses the words "wagon," "coche,"
and "charat." Long waggons for passengers and goods,
afterwards called caravans, were introduced, though of
somewhat clumsy construction to accommodate them to
the badness of the roads and the number of persons
they carried. Private families had their private carriages :
in the year 1573, there is in the household book of
the Kytson family, (vide the Archælogia, vol. xx.) a me-
morandum of the cost of a coach then in use; it runs
thus-1573. For my mes coche, with all the furniture
thereto belonging except horses-xxxiiij li. xiiijs. For
the painting of my m' and my mes armes upon the coche
-ijs. vj d."
"For y coche horses bought by Mr Paxton-xj li.
xiii s. iii d."
At the close of the following century is another minute
ENGLISH CARRIAGES.
45
of a similar kind, entered in Sir William Dugdale's
diary.
"1681. Payd to Mr Meares, a coachmaker in St.
Martin's Lane, for a little chariot wch I then sent into the
country, £23. 13s. Od; and for a cover of canvas, £01
00s. 00d.: also for harness for two horses £04. 00s. 00d."
J
Vehicles of all descriptions now became general, and an
outcry was speedily raised against them. In 1584, Wil-
liam Lilly, in one of his plays, complains of those who
were accustomed to go to a battle-field "on hard-trotting
horses, now riding in easie coaches up and down to court
ladies." So high did the clamour run, that a parliamentary
bill was in agitation to prevent the increase of coaches; its
alleged necessity being, that government would be at a
loss to mount the army, owing to the increased use of
horses amongst the common people.
Meantime England was lending in turn to other coun-
tries what she herself had borrowed. Towards the end
of the sixteenth century, John of Finland, on his return
from England, among other articles of luxury took
with him to Sweden the first coach that was seen in that
country. Before that time, the nobles of Sweden when
they travelled carried their wives behind them on horse-
back. The princesses travelled in like manner, and when it
rained, enveloped themselves in a mantle of waxed cloth.
In 1598 it was accounted a great marvel that the English
ambassador to Scotland had a coach with him, as it was
the custom for all public functionaries to add to their
other toils of office that of making long journeys on
horseback. James I, made his first progress from Edin-
46
ENGLISH CARRIAGES.
burgh to London after this fashion. Stowe records his
leaving Edinburgh on the 5th of April, and not reaching
London till the 7th of May. We must cease to wonder
at slow national progression, if all public business was con-
ducted at a similar rate. Great part of the way where the
country was favourable, the king hunted; and on the day
of his arrival, to avoid the extremity of dust, he rode from
Theobaldes, through the meadows. At Stamford Hill
he was met by the lord mayor, knights, and aldermen of
London, in scarlet robes, all on horseback, and "multi-
tudes of people swarming in highways, in fields, on houses
and trees, to behold the king, and with whom the name of
king was very strange, being full fifty years since there
was a king in England.
There is a record by the same chronicler of the com-
mon use of carriages at this period. "On the 8th of June
following arrived at London, Monsieur de Rosny, great
treasurer of France, accompanied with noblemen and gen-
tlemen in great number. The same night they, in thirty
coaches, rode to the French ambassador's leaguer, then
lodged at the Barbican by Redcross Street." Anderson
places the period of the general employment of coaches
in 1705, and, in his "History of Commerce," gives the
following state of the number and increase of hackney-
coaches in London and Westminster :
50
In 1637
1652
200
1694,
limited to . 700
1716
800.
This does not quite agree with Old Parr's chronicler, who
}
ENGLISH CARRIAGES.
4
:
surely could not account fifty coaches in London a swarm
sufficient to ruin the watermen or cause the gunpowder
plot! What would he say now to the nine hundred
omnibusses of modern growth, exclusive of the ancient-
looking hackney coaches, and the endless varieties of the
great mushroom family of cabs.
It is a singular fact that in the earlier use of coaches in
Scotland, that country was indebted to a native of Stral-
sund, in Pomerania, who, in the year 1610, offered to
contract for a certain number of coaches and waggons, with
horses to draw and servants to attend them. Accordingly,
a royal patent was granted him, conferring an exclusive
privilege, for fifteen years, of running between Edinburgh
and Leith. In England, coaches were daily becoming
more necessary to the good citizens; although, in many
quarters, the prejudice ran high against their use. The
most vehement outcries, as might be expected, were to be
found amongst the watermen, whose "rights" were most
infringed upon. These, with their own poet Taylor at
their head, now and then assisted by a stray pamphleteer
or squib-writer, raised so formidable a complaint, that the
matter was taken into parliamentary consideration, and
there was some serious discussion as to the eligibility of
checking the too frequent use of hired coaches:! The
supposed necessity of such an injunction is almost to be
wondered at when we consider what these vehicles were-
without springs, and altogether clumsy and unsightly in
their construction-vehicles in which people were, in the
words of Taylor, "tost, tumbled, rumbled, and jumbled
without mercy." Take his more elaborate description :
48
ENGLISH CARRIAGES.
"The coach is a close hypocrite; for it hath a cover for
knavery, and curtains to vaile and shadow any wickedness.
Besides, like a perpetual cheater, it wears two bootes and
no spurs, sometime having two pair of legs to one boot,
and oftentimes (against nature) it makes faire ladies weare
the boote; and if you note, they are carried back to back,
like people surprized by pyrats, to be tyed in that miser-
able manner and thrown overboard into the sea. More-
over, it makes people imitate sea-crabs, in being drawn
sideway as they are when they sit in the boot of the coach;
and it is a dangerous kinde of carriage for the common-
wealth, if it be considered." He even ventures so far in
his abuse as to call them "hell-carts,"-a nickname which
they retained for many years after. In 1635, a patent
was granted to Sir Saunders Duncombe for the introduc-
tion of sedans; their purpose being " to interfere with the
too frequent use of coaches, to the hindrance of the carts
and carriages employed in the necessary provision of the
city and suburbs." A rivalry now sprang up between
coach and sedan; and it gave rise to a humorous tract, in
which they are impersonated, and represented as holding a
colloquy. From the different descriptions, as well as the
plates given of them, we may form some idea of their con-
struction at that time. The title runs thus-(we quote
from the Archælogia)—" Coach and Sedan; a pleasant
dispute for precedence, the brewer's cart being moderator:"
1636. They are thus described: "The one (sedan) was
in a suite of green, after a strange manner, windowed be-
hind and before with isinglasse (talc), having two hand-
some fellows in green coats attending him; the one ever
ENGLISH CARRIAGES.
49
went before, the other came behind. Their coats were
laced downe the back with a green lace suitable; so were
their half-sleeves; which persuaded me at first they were
some cast suites of their masters. Their backs were har-
nessed with leather angles cut out of a hide as broad as
Dutch collops of bacon."-"The other (Coach) was a
thick, burly, square-sett fellow, in a doublet of black
leather, brasse-buttoned downe the breast, back, sleeves
and winges, with monstrous wide bootes fringed at the top
with a net fringe, and a round breech guilded, and on the
back an achievement of sundry coats in their proper co-
lours, &c. &c. Hee had only one man before him, wrapt
in a red cloake, with wide sleeves turned up at the hands,
and cudgelled thick on the back and shoulders with broad
shining lace (not much unlike that which mummers makë
of strawen hats); and of each side of him went a lacquey,
the one a French boy, the other Irish, both suitable alike.”
During the argument "Coach" has somewhat the worst of
it. Sedan speaks : "And, Coach, twice or thrice a year,
you must needs take a voyage to London with your ladie,
under a cullor, to be new cullored, guilded, or painted,
covered, seated, shod, or the like; when her errand indeed
is, as one saith well, speaking to such ladies who love to
visit the city,
"To see what fashion most is in request,—
How is this countess, that court ladie drest.
Hence it happens, Coach, that by your often ambling to
London, Sir Thomas or Sir John sinks, as in a quicksand,
by degrees so deep into the merchant, mercer, or lawyer's
booke, that hee is up to the eares, ere hee be aware;
E
50
ENGLISH CARRIAGES.
neither can he be well drawne out without a teame of
usurers, and a craftie scrivener to be the fore-horse, or the
present sale of some land; so that wise men suppose this
to be one maine and principal reason why within a coach
journey of a day or two from the citie, so many faire inhe-
ritances as have been purchased by lord mayors, aldermen,
merchants, and other rich citizens, have not continued in a
name to the third-yea, scarce the second generation;
when, go far north or westward, you shall find many fa-
milies and names of nobilitie and gentrie to have continued
their estates two and three hundred years, and these in a
direct succession." The moderator "Beere-cart" seems
an apt disciple of the lawyer who made the celebrated
oyster decision, for he thus finishes the dispute: "Coach
and Sedan, you both shall reverence and ever give way to
Beere-cart wherever you shall meete him, either in citie or
countrie, as your auncient and elder brother."
In the first day's entertainment at Rutland House,
(vide Sir William D'Avenant's Works,) this despotism of
Beere-cart is appealed against in a disputation between a
Parisian and a Londoner, who contend for the superiority
of their national cities. We give the extract; and it
seems to imply the superiority at that time of the coaches
of Paris to those of London, as the Frenchman remains
unanswered. "The song being ended, a consort of in-
strumental music after the French composition being
heard awhile, the curtains are suddenly opened, and in the
rostras appear sitting a Parisian and a Londoner in the
livery robes of both cities, who declare concerning the
pre-eminence of Paris and London." The opening ad-
ENGLISH CARRIAGES.
51
dress of the former deserves quotation. "You of this
noble citie are yet to become more noble by your candor
to the plea between me, a bourgeois of Paris, and my op-
ponent of London; being concerned in honour to lend
your attention as favourably to a stranger as to your na-
tive oratour; since 'tis the greatest signe of a narrow edu-
cation to permit the borders of rivers or strands of seas to
separate the general consanguinity of mankinde; though
the unquiet nature of man (still hoping to shake off distant
power, and the incapacity of any one to sway universal
empire) hath made them bounds to divide government.
But already I think it necessary to cease persuading you,
who will ever deserve to be my judges, and therefore mean
to apply myself in admonishing him who is pleased to be
awhile my adversary." He does admonish him, and very
wisely too, on his national concert, on his imperfect system
of education, and other subjects of different import to the
one directly before the reader. After some remarks on
the overhanging build of the city, contrived, he supposes,
66
in the days of wheelbarrows, before those greater en-
gines, carts, were invented," or as "an umbrella of tiles
to intercept the sun," or that "the shambles were so
empty that fresh air was to be avoided least it should
sharpen the appetite," he continues" I have now left
your houses, and am passing through your streets; but
not in a coach, for they are uneasily hung, and so narrow
that I took them for sedans upon wheels. Nor is it safe
for a stranger to use them till the quarrel be decided,
whether six of your nobles sitting together shall stop and
give place to so many barrels of beere. Your city is the
E 2
52
ENGLISH CARRIAGES.
only metropolis in Europe where there is a wonderful dig-
nity belonging to carts. Master Londoner, be not too hot
against coaches; take advice from one that eats much sor-
rel with his broth."
The fever against the use of coaches-nay, against coaches
themselves, (vide Bishop Hall, who calls them "sin-
guilty," continued to rage, the watermen turning firemen
on their jury, and others, with less interested motives, but
with equal absence of reason, crying out for their suppres-
sion. "Coaches and sedans, (quoth the waterman,) they
deserve both to be thrown into the Thames; and, but for
stopping the channell, I would they were; for I am sure,
[now comes the gist of this and many a modern objec-
tion,] where I was wont to have eight or ten fares in a
morning, I now scarce get two the whole day!"
At this period, it may be presumed, public vehicles were
universally used, not only for short distances, but for long
journeys. For proof we are again indebted to the Arche-
ologia, which gives the following letter, date 1673, with an
authenticated pedigree:-" Honored Father, my dutie
premised, &c. I got to London on Saturday last. My
journey was noe ways pleasant, being forced to ride in the
boote all the way. Ye company yt came up with mee were
persons of great quality, as knights and ladies. My jour-
ney's expense was 30s. This travel hath soe indisposed
mee, yt I am resolved never to ride up again in ye coatch,"
&c. Directed
Directed"To his honoured Father, Parkins,
Esq. Browsholme House. To be left with the post-
master, Preston, Lancashire."
It may be inferred from the foregoing extract that
ENGLISH CARRIAGES.
53
the journey from Lancashire required some days for its
performance; but even this rate of travelling had its
impeders amongst the objectives. The writer of a tract
in the Harleian Miscellany (1673) deprecates "the mul-
titude of stage-coaches and carriages now travelling on
the roads," and advises parliament to interfere to sup-
press them;" especially those within fifty or sixty
miles of London." He recommends the others being
obliged to travel with one set of horses, and to be li-
mited to thirty miles in summer, and twenty-five in win-
ter, per diem! Although the legislature was too wise to
adopt the recommendation of this "slow coach," locomo-
tive conveyance made for some time only a tortoise-like
progression. So formidable an affair was the undertaking
a journey reckoned, that even from Birmingham to Lon-
don a departure was the signal for making a will, followed
by a solemn farewell of wife, children, and household!
Slow travelling, and a correspondent tardiness of other
arrangements, continued to a much later period than might
be imagined, when we look, not at the rapid rate at which
journeys are made from place to place, but even as we
write, we are conscious that those who come after us will
be tempted to smile at our " rapid rate," as we have often
smiled at the rapid rate of our grandfathers, in their adver-
tisement of "that remarkable swift travelling coach the
Fly, which leaves Birmingham on Mondays and reaches
London on the Thursday following." When we consider
that the days of railroads are in their infancy, and yet
what extraordinary progress is made through their agency,
we can scarcely calculate on what their capability, com-
54
ENGLISH CARRIAGES.
bined with that of steam, or other yet undiscovered means
of employing the powers of nature, may effect.
Toward the end of the seventeenth century, improve-
ments began to take place. In Wood's Diary, mention is
made of a machine called the "Flying Coach," which com-
pleted the journey between Oxford and London in thirteen
hours! The outcry lessened, and the imperfect vehicles
and bad roads were left to passengers unmolested. What
the latter were, may be imagined from the fact, that when
Charles III. of Spain visited England, and Prince George
of Denmark went out to meet him, both princes were so
impeded by the badness of the roads, that their carriages
were obliged to be borne on the shoulders of the peasantry,
and they were six hours in performing the last nine miles
of their journey!
One
Abroad, little progress seems to have been made. In a
curious collection at St. Petersburg, now in the possession
of the Emperor Nicholas, and originally belonging to
Peter the Great (recognised as Emperor in 1725), some
specimens of antique carriages are still preserved.
is close, made of deal, stained black, mounted on four
wheels, the windows of mica instead of glass, and the
frames of common tin: the other is open, with a small
machine behind of the shipwright emperor's invention-
its purpose to determine the number of miles traversed
on a journey. In the same collection is the litter of
Charles XII. used at the battle of Pultowa.
During the eighteenth century, improvements were very
gradually made in carriages, and but little progress in the
rate of travelling. So late as 1760, a journey from Edin-
ENGLISH CARRIAGES.
55
burgh to London occupied the time of eighteen days,—a
part of the roads being only accessible by pack-horses.
Within our own time may be remembered the uncouth
“turns-out,” as a coachman would emphatically call them,
both in private and public conveyances :-heavy coaches,
laden with ill-packed luggage; miserable horses, bound
in worse harness; all at the mercy of a red-faced, half-
drunken apoplectic coachman, with a wisp of straw for a
hatband, and buried under a weight of dirty drab capes
and cotton neckcloths, looking as if he united the double
capacity of driver and passenger, sufficient weight for the
coach, being the passenger thereon.
56
CHAPTER III.
Definition of Wheel Carriages.- Primary and Secondary.—Animal
and Elemental Power.-Elasticity and Gravity.-Examples.—Me-
chanical Powers.-Lever.-Wheel and Axis.—Pulley.— Inclined
Plane.-Wedge.- Screw.- Funicular Action.- Hydrostatical Ac-
Automatical Action.- Ponderatical Action. - Geometrical
Forms in Carriages.
tion.
A WHEEL CARRIAGE moved by internal action, as
when steam power is combined with it, may be defined—
a primary machine for the purpose of locomotion.
A wheel carriage moved by external action may be de-
fined—a secondary machine for the purpose of locomotion.
A machine, properly so called, is a material combination
of two or more of the means designated by mechanicians
"mechanical powers," whereby the forces known as
animal and elemental* power may be transmitted to other
bodies with various modifications, for the purpose of pro-
ducing motion in them.
as
Animal and elemental power may be divided into two
classes: that which acts by the force of elasticity, and that
which acts by the force of gravity.
* The author has retained this old term on account of its familiarity
to the general reader, though savouring of the quaintnesses of the an-
tique chemistry, now exploded.
DEFINITION OF WHEEL CARRIAGES.
57
When a horse is used for the purposes of draught, part
of his power consists in the elastic action of his muscles,
which serve to throw his body forward, as when he first
bends and then straightens his limbs; and part of it in
gravity, as when he hangs his body forward against the
traces after the expansive muscular action is expended.
For this reason a heavy horse can do more work than a
light one, with less fatigue, even though the muscular action
of both be of equal power.
When a man works the wheel of a tread-mill by climb-
ing from step to step, it is the force of gravity alone which
acts directly. The elasticity of his muscles only serves to
enable him to maintain a position in which his gravity can
be available to produce motion.
When a man lifts a weight from the ground in a ver-
tical position, it is the force of elasticity alone which acts;
viz. the expansion and contraction of his muscles: the
weight of his body does not enter into the account as a
producer of motion. A man whose muscles possess great
power of expansion and contraction will exert more force
than a much heavier man whose muscles do not possess the
same power.
But when a man pulls a rope above his head without his
feet being fastened to the surface on which he stands, the
elasticity of his muscles only serves to secure his gripe on
the rope: all the motion he can give it is the effect of the
gravity of his body,—so that a heavy man will exert more
force than a light one.
Amongst elemental powers, steam may be considered as
58
DEFINITION OF WHEEL CARRIAGES
an example of pure elasticity. This power is used in num-
berless modes as a first mover.
Atmospheric air, on the contrary, possesses the powers
both of elasticity and gravity. The former is shown in its
action in the form of wind upon mills, and also in its com-
pressibility; the latter, by its downward action in the pis-
ton of an atmospheric steam-engine, when the steam which
served by its elastic force to raise the piston has been again
condensed and restored to the state of water.
The water of running streams, which is applied to turn
mill-wheels, is an example of the force of pure gravity.
The tidal power of the ocean is precisely the same, when
applied to mill-wheels.
As the elastic force of gases has not yet been efficiently
applied to produce motion, they may be omitted. The
classification, then, of the available "powers" will be as
follows:
Animal Power.
Wind Power.
Water Power.
Steam Power.
The two kinds of force by which the powers are made
available to perform human drudgery, viz. elasticity and
gravity, may be considered as primary and secondary; for
in no case can gravity produce motion until it has been
acted on or disturbed by elasticity. Thus, the horse's
weight or gravity in draught is not brought into action
until the elasticity of the muscles has thrown the centre
over the base. The gravity of the man on the tread-wheel
does not act till the elasticity of his muscles has raised him
AND MECHANICAL POWERS.
59
the necessary height. The man who pulls the rope cannot
bring his gravity to act, till the elasticity of his muscles has
raised him from the ground, and served to suspend him
from the rope. The weight of the atmospheric air cannot
drive down the piston of the steam engine till the elastic
action of the vapour has first raised it. The water of the
running stream cannot bring its gravity to bear on the
mill wheel, till it has been first raised from the surface of
the ocean to the summit level of the fountain head, in the
form of elastic vapour.
Therefore, the material source of all physical power may
be considered to reside in the principle of elasticity; and
the secondary means of distributing this power consist
in certain natural forms of matter which man has imitated,
and which mechanicians have agreed to designate as me-
chanical powers, but which, it is evident, are not powers
in themselves, but merely vehicles or instruments for the
transmission of power, just as a steam engine is a vehicle
for the employment of steam power or the force of steam.
The mechanical powers, as set forth by mechanicians,
are six in number:
The Lever,
The Wheel and Axis,
The Pulley,
The Inclined Plane,
The Wedge,
The Screw.
These may be divided into two simple powers, of which
the other four are combinations or modifications. The
lever and the inclined plane are the simplest ones.
60
DEFINITION OF WHEEL CARRIAGES
The common poker wherewith a fire is stirred is a fami-
liar example of the lever. The poker is suspended on the
bar of the grate as a fulcrum; the power or force with
which it acts depends on the proportion in which the ra-
dius or circle described by the hand in moving it, exceeds
the radius or circle described by the coals which are moved:
in simpler language, in proportion as the length of poker -
outside the bar exceeds the length of poker inside the bar.
The handle of a common pump is another familiar instance.
The type of the lever may be found in nature, in the tree,
which, spreading farther into the air than it does into the
earth, is acted on by violent wind, and in falling, tears up
the solid ground with its roots. In this case the elastic
force of the air is the mover. Another type is found in
the ocean cliff, which becoming gradually undermined by
the influx of the wave, at length projects far over the
strand, till it acquires a leverage overpowering the cohesion
of its material, and then comes gravity to weigh it down
and leave a mass of ruins on the margin of the sea, which
by the friction of attrition gradually reduces it into sand.
An inclined plane is a straight surface, one side of which
is lower than another-or, in other words, which dips down-
ward from a horizontal level and forms an angle with it.
It is the especial instrument with which gravity works.
Where a rolling body is placed on a sufficiently inclined
plane, the centre of gravity or weight overhangs the base
or bearing point, and motion ensues, which only ceases
when the horizontal level causes the centre of gravity to
fall within the base. A wheel carriage rolling down hill is
a familiar example of the use of an inclined plane. But it
AND MECHANICAL POWERS.
61
is clear that an inclined plane must be useless for the pur-
poses of motion without the intervention of the lever.
When we say that the centre of gravity overhangs the
base, we merely mean that the contact point or fulcrum of
the body is not in a vertical line with the centre of gra-
vity. A line drawn from the axis to that part of the
periphery which impinges on the ground does in reality
constitute a lever which the force of gravity impels down-
wards or towards the centre of the earth. In nature
the inclined plane is found in numerous positions of high
utility. The hills and the valleys are inclined planes,
which drain off the surplus moisture and prevent the earth
from becoming a quagmire: the beds of the rivers are
inclined planes for the efficient motion of the mingling
mountain streams: the ocean beach is an inclined plane,
down which the dashing surf rolls back to join its parent
water; and the sides of the hoary rocks of the lofty moun-
tain ridges are inclined planes, down which the fragments
shattered from the peaks by the winter's frost, roll to the
higher valleys formed by the snowy rills, there gradually
to be decomposed and play a new part in creation.* In all
these cases gravity is the moving force.
The wheel and axis consist merely of a series of levers
planted round a common centre. In the common framed
wheel every spoke is a lever. When the wheel is fixed on
a horizontal axis, two of the spokes are vertical; and as the
horse draws forward, each pair of spokes in succession be-
* Geologists say that these very mountains have been originally
raised up by the elastic force of heat. If so, elasticity is in the very
outset the awakener or employer of gravity.
62
DEFINITION OF WHEEL CARRIAGES
come vertical. When a spoke is vertical, it constitutes a
lever reaching from the line of draught, which is the axle,
to the ground: therefore, the longer the spoke—or, in other
words, the higher the wheel,-the more powerful is the
lever.
The wedge is an inclined plane, the action of which is
reversed or modified by being made movable. It is
mostly used by the force of concussion, as the blows of a
hammer or sledge; which is a modification of the power of
gravity, the centre round which the weight moves being
the ball and socket joint of a man's shoulder. But the
wedge may also be acted on by a lever, or lever and screw,
and may be used either for the purpose of raising or low-
ering a body. A large ship, when on the stocks, is secured
upon a series of wedges; these wedges being loosened, she
slides down the inclined plane into the water.
The pulley is simply a small wheel and axis, around
which a rope runs in a groove. The convenience of the pul-
ley is, that it may be multiplied many times for the sake
of increasing the power at the expense of the time: i. e. a
series of levers are brought into action at once by means of
a longer rope.
The screw is a movable inclined plane, not straight,
but in a spiral form. It is a modification of the wedge,
and not intended to be moved by concussion, but by a
lever, without which it is useless. The path of this mov-
able spiral wedge is in a circle. It is used by mechanics
either to cause bodies to approach to, or to recede from
each other. An example of the former case is the com-
mon smith's vice, wherein the action of the screw is used
AND MECHANICAL POWERS.
63
to impel the chops or gripping parts forcibly towards
each other, to hold firm the work. An example of the lat-
ter case is the screw jack, used by builders to lift heavy
weights, such as the walls of buildings which have sunk.
An authority of high repute, Mr. John Farey, author of
the well-known work on the Steam Engine, has added to
the ancient catalogue of the "Mechanical Powers" two
others, viz.:
The Funicular Action,
The Hydrostatical Action.
The first is the force exerted by a cord or rope forcibly
stretched between two supports to draw those supports
nearer together. The archer's bow is the familiar illustration.
of it. The bow string is in this case merely the vehicle for
transmitting the muscular or elastic force of a man's arm.
The force which is given to the bow, and which serves to
propel the arrow, is the force of elasticity, which is com-
municated by the man's arm temporarily, and more rapidly
expended than communicated. The force employed in
drawing the bow is the amount of force communicated to
the arrow, minus friction.
The hydrostatic action in one form is the facility af-
forded by water as an agent in the transmission of force.
The well-known Bramah's press is an illustration of it. It
consists of a large and solid cylinder, in which works an
accurately-fitted piston or plunger; a forcing pump of
very small bore communicates with the cylinder, and by
the action of the pump handle or lever, exceeding small
quantities of water are forced in succession beneath the
piston in the large cylinder, thus gradually raising it up,
64
DEFINITION OF WHEEL CARRIAGES
and compressing bodies whose bulk or volume it is intend-
ed to reduce. It is evident that this press is merely a
circuitous contrivance for accumulating together the sepa-
rate efforts transmitted from the man's arm in each suc-
cessive action of the lever or pump handle. Without the
lever, the pump could not be worked.
To these two last mechanical powers may very fairly be
added two others of a more complicated kind, which have
long been in constant use. They ray be designated
The Automatical Action,
The Ponderatical Action.
The first is the action of a coiled spring of steel, such as
contains the moving power of a watch, a common bottle-
shaped roasting jack, and many other contrivances. The
spring itself is not a power;-it is merely the vehicle for
holding the power communicated in a short space of time,
by the elastic action of the human hand through the lever
called a key, and which power it distributes by means of
multiplied wheel work through a long space of time. This
power is the representation of the force of elasticity alone.
A simple form of this action is shown in the delicate
spring coiled within the balance wheel of a watch, which
keeps up a continuous resistant action. The spiral spring
used to lift the screw of a large stamping press is another
instance.
The ponderatical action is the action of a suspended
weight which contains the moving power of a common
clock, a common roasting jack, and other machines. The
weight is not the power, but merely the vehicle for hold-
ing the power communicated in a short space of time by
AND MECHANICAL POWERS.
65
the elastic action of the human hand through the lever
called a cranked handle, and which power it distributes
by means of multiplied wheelwork through a long space
of time. The immediate cause of the weight's action is
the force of gravity, of which it may be held the represen-
tative: but, again, that gravity only represents the elasti-
city of the hand first communicated to it. A simpler form
of this action is shown in the safety valve of a steam en-
gine, where the gravity of the weight constantly regulates
the elasticity of the steam. The pendulum of a clock is
another instance. Another is the governor or revolving
pendulum of the steam engine, which regulates the issue
of the steam. The common fly wheel for regulating speed
is another instance.
Of the four powers known as "first movers," three only
have been applied, or can be conveniently applied, to com-
municate motion to wheel carriages.* They are,
Animal Power,
Wind Power,
Steam Power.
All three may be used as external powers by which car-
riages of the secondary class can be moved; but they can-
not all be used as internal powers to propel machines of
the primary class. Only steam and animal power can be
used at all as internal movers,† and only the former with
* A steamboat moving by paddle wheels may be called a water
wheel carriage; but the water does not move it,—it merely supports it.
+ Wind carriages, made of light cane work and impelled by sails,
are said to have been used by the Chinese at very early periods.
Carriages impelled by large paper kites, and also by sails, have fre-
quently been experimented on in England, but with little success. The
F
66
DEFINITION OF WHEEL CARRIAGES
:
much advantage. Men might impel carriages internally by
their muscular elastic force, but it would be an exhausting
process; and horses could not very conveniently impel
them by means of their gravity, while their elastic
would be unaided by impetus.
power
In a locomotive wheel carriage moved by the internal
power of steam, the principle of action would be a combi-
nation of several of the "mechanical powers." Into the
action of a wheel carriage of the secondary class, only two
of the mechanical powers enter, viz.:
The Lever,
The Wheel and Axis.
The pole or shafts of a four-wheeled carriage are ap-
plications of the lever for the purpose of locking or turn-
ing. The shafts or pole of a two-wheeled carriage are
applications of the lever both horizontally and vertically;
the former for the purpose of locking, the latter for the
purpose of supporting the weight at the proper level.
The wheel and axis is applied both to two and four-
wheeled carriages, as the medium of progression on which
the whole machine is supported. In four-wheeled car-
riages the perch-bolt is an application of the axis, as a
centre around which the fore wheels and under frame turn
through the medium of the pole's leverage.
principal reason of their want of success is, that they are confined to
narrow roads, and have not an open surface, as sailing vessels have on
the ocean. But they could at best only serve as vehicles of amuse-
ment. In an age of certain power like steam, no business people will,
if they can help it, trust to the uncertain power of wind. On some
short lines of railroad near the sea, the wind is commonly made
available to drive cars by means of sails attached to them,-i. e. when
the wind happens to be favourable.
AND MECHANICAL POWERS.
67
The geometrical figures which enter into the composition
of a carriage are,
The Plane,
The Circle,
The Ellipse,
The Square,
The Oblong,
The Rhomboid,
The Triangle,
The Prism,
The Cylinder,
The Pyramid,
The Cone,
The Parallelogram.
:
F 2
68
CHAPTER IV.
Materials of Wheel Carriages.-
Animal:-Hides.-Skins.-Hair.
-Wool.- Silk.-Glue.-Whalebone.-Ivory.-Pearl-shell.-Ve-
getable:- Timber. Ash.-Beech.-Elm.-Oak.—Mahogany.-
Cedar.- Deal.— Pine.- Fustic.-Lancewood.-Birch.-Chesnut.
-Sycamore. - Plane tree. - Cotton.— Flax.-Hemp.-Tow.—
Straw. Caoutchouc. - Copal. Linseed Oil. - Turpentine. —
Mineral:- Iron.-Steel.-Copper.-Brass.-White Brass.-Gun-
metal.-Silver.-Gold.-Lead.-Tin.-Glass.-Metallic Oxides.
THE materials of which wheel carriages are composed,
embrace the three great divisions of nature, called the
animal, the vegetable, and the mineral.
The animal substances used in carriage building are,
hides, skins, hair, wool, silk, glue, whalebone, ivory,
pearl-shell.
The vegetable substances used in carriage building are,
timber of various kinds,-ash, beech, elm, oak, mahogany,
cedar, deal, pine, fustic, lancewood, birch, cotton, flax,
hemp, tow, straw, caoutchouc, copal, linseed oil, turpen-
tine.
The mineral substances used in carriage building are,
iron, steel, copper, brass, white brass, gun-metal, silver,
gold, lead, tin, glass, and various metallic oxides.
Hides are used both for purposes of suspension and
also for coverings. The hides are those of horses and
neat cattle, converted into leather by the action of oak and
MATERIALS OF WHEEL CARRIAGES.
69
other bark. They are afterwards smoothed and levelled
by the currier;-being occasionally split into two equal
thicknesses by means of an engine; after which they are
rendered pliable by the application of oil and tallow, and
finished to a clear black or brown colour, as they may be
required: this is called dressed leather. For some pur-
poses the hides are merely levelled, put on wet to the ob-
ject they are intended to cover, and left to shrink and
dry. Others, again, are covered with a coat of elastic japan,
'which gives them a surface like polished glass, imperme-
able to water: in this state they are called patent leather.
In a more perfectly elastic mode of japanning which will
permit folding without cracking the surface, they are called
enamelled leather. They are usually black; but any
colour which is required can be given them. All this
japanned leather has the japan annealed, something in
the same mode as glass. The hides are laid between
blankets, and subjected to the heat of an oven at a parti-
cular temperature during several hours.* Sole leather
hides are also used for some purposes.
The skins are those of the sheep and goat. The former
are converted into leather by the action of oak bark. In
one form of dressing them they are known as basil leather,
which is of a light brown colour and very soft. Sometimes
* The original inventor and patentee of this leather was a French-
man. He lost his patent right, because in his specification he inad-
vertently stated the heat of the oven according to the thermometrical
scale of Reaumur without naming it. It was held that as Fahrenheit
was the English standard of thermometrical heat, the "degrees
named must be taken by that standard, in which case the specification
was untrue.
""
70
MATERIALS OF
they are blacked, and occasionally japanned, in the same
mode as horse and neat's leather.
In all these forms
sheep-skins are only used for inferior purposes, as mere
coverings, where no strength is required. The probable
origin of the term basil is, that it was first manufactured
at the town of Basle in Switzerland, and thence imported
into England, ere it became a native manufacture.
Goat-skins are the skins used for preparing the beauti-
ful leather known by the names Spanish and Morocco.
They are not tanned in oak bark like other leather, but
very slightly in an infusion of the bark of the sumach
tree. They pass through many processes previous to that
of dyeing; for which purpose they are sewn up with the
grain outwards, and blown with wind like a bladder. This
is to prevent the dye from getting access to the flesh side.
This beautiful leather was originally manufactured by the
Moors, who afterwards introduced the process into Spain;
by which means it came to be known under the two names.
The English manufacture has been so much improved on,
that few others can now vie with it. These skins are used
in carriages for inside linings.
Hair is used as an article of stuffing. To give it the
peculiar curl which renders it elastic, it is forcibly twisted
up in small locks, and in that state baked in an oven to
fix it. The hair of horse's tails is the best, as being the
strongest and longest; but various other kinds are used.
Sometimes it is adulterated by mixing it with fibres of
whalebone. Doe hair is also much used as an article of
stuffing; but as it is very short, it cannot be curled, and
there is very little elasticity in it.
WHEEL CARRIAGES.
71-
Wool in its natural state is not used for carriage pur-
poses. In the form of "flocks," which are the short comb-
ings and fibres produced in the process of manufacturing
it, it is very largely used as stuffing. In a manufactured
state great quantities are used for various articles: cloth,
lace, fringe, carpeting, baize, serge, shalloon, binding,
tufts, tassels, twist, occasionally plush.
Silk is used in various fabrics, such as tabbaret, velvet,
ducape, lutestring, damask, and various others, for inside
linings. It is also used for lace, fringe, embroidery, tassels,
tufts, cord, twist, and lastly, for sewing.
Glue is prepared by boiling down refuse gelatinous sub-
stances.
Whalebone is used principally to fix to the under sides
of lancewood shafts, to reinforce them on account of their
extreme brittleness, just as archers' bows are formed of two
pieces of wood, the more elastic and brittle being in the inner
or concave side, and the toughest on the outer or convex
side. These, however, are fastened by cement; whereas the
whalebone is fastened to the shafts by means of bolts or
screws. Whalebone has also been applied to the purpose
of making wheels; but being an article of limited sup-
ply, the price rose so rapidly that the manufacture was
discontinued.
Ivory is used for rollers, studs, and buttons; and some-
times for carving armorial bearings, crests, &c.
Pearl-shell is used for similar purposes.
The timber principally used in the construction of car-
riages is that of the ash tree grown in England. There
are two kinds of it, known as "hedge-row" and "coppice."
72
MATERIALS OF
The former, as the name imports, grows in hedge-rows
and other open spots, and being exposed to the air and
light, is of slower growth, but much firmer, stronger, and
tougher than that of the coppice, which spires up very
rapidly without the access of air and light, and is propor-
tionably soft, and not durable, though straighter grained.
Ash timber brought from America is principally of this
latter quality, being grown in thick forests, which are
remarkable for a moist atmosphere.* But the quality of
the timber also depends much on the soil in which it
grows. Strong wheat lands are the best adapted to it. For
the heavy framework much exposed to concussion, the tim-
ber is required in its greatest state of perfection, arrived at
maturity, but not at the extreme size it is capable of at-
* The forests of America of ancient growth, where they have been
untouched by the axe of the settler, present a remarkable appearance.
There is no growth of underwood, for the absence of free air and light
will not permit it to spring up. No sound is heard on the ground,
and all is hushed and still. The breeze penetrates not to the person
of the traveller, and he can but hear its distant murmur as it ruffles
the lofty branches of the forest giants whose round naked stems bound
his vision on every side, like an endless columnar temple from which,
at rare intervals, can be perceived a glimpse of the blue arching vault,
as though from the mouth of a well. At first entering the forest from
the sunshine the eyes are blinded for a while, for the only light is a
dim twilight. The earth is covered to a considerable depth with the
undisturbed dust of decayed vegetation, and the footsteps are else un-
impeded save by an occasional fallen trunk of an ancient tree, which
mostly crumbles to fragments at the touch. It is over this stratum of
fine vegetable dust that the Red Indian goes upon the "trail" of his
foe, and hunts him to the death as surely by the sight as a bloodhound
does by the scent. In such scenes, wearied with the gloom, the tra-
veller almost wishes that fire would consume it and give the heavens
to his view; and when a stream intersects his line of march, he blesses
his happy chance that he can once more look on daylight.
WHEEL CARRIAGES.
73
taining, for then it becomes of weaker texture, and is more
fitted for such framework as, being removed from concus-
sion by the intervention of springs, requires less strength.
Ash is not, properly speaking, an elastic, but rather a
tough fibrous wood, very capable of altering its form by
the application of pressure, and therefore, when not in
large masses, it requires iron plates to secure it. By boil-
ing it becomes very plastic, and will take any required
form, provided the thickness be not too great; but the
soundness and durability of the wood is much lessened
unless care be taken not to overboil it. Wood consists of
fibres united by gluten. If boiled long enough, the gluten
would all dissolve and the fibres separate. Hot steam does
less mischief than hot water, because, as it does not make
an infusion, it is less liable to carry off any of the gluten,
which is the bond of union.-Some ash timber is white at
the heart, and some red: the white is usually the strongest
and best. Some trees which have been grown on hill-sides,
much exposed to constant winds, present a remarkably
wrinkled appearance through their whole length, and it is
scarcely possible to plane their timber smooth: this is the
toughest of all ash timber. Parts of ash trees are sometimes
found of a yellowish brown colour, accompanied by a fetid
acid odour. This is occasionally attributed to the effects
of lightning; but the most probable solution of the matter
is, a putrid fermentation of the sap takes place in conse-
quence of an imperfect process in drying. All other cir-
cumstances being equal, that timber is best which is cut
down when the circulation of the sap is slowest, as the
pores are least open. In the process of drying, the mea-
74
MATERIALS OF
surement of the trees diminishes considerably. One of the
qualities which render ash peculiarly valuable for carriages
is the absence of elasticity, and consequent indisposition to
alter its form by its own internal efforts-that is say, it is
not liable to warp or twist. Though excellent for framing,
ash is not well adapted for boards or planks in which much
width is required, as in drying it is apt to rend and open.
It is also more expensive than other woods which are bet-
ter adapted for boards. The diameter of ash trees used by
carriage builders is from one foot to three feet six inches;
but the latter is an unusual size. Altogether there are
forty species of ash.
Beech is a wood which ought never to be used for car-
riages, or for any work which may be exposed alternately
to air and moisture. It is, however, occasionally used by
carriage builders, and also by wheelwrights, on account of
its superior cheapness. It is extremely liable both to warp
and to rot, and cannot be depended on; but when covered
by water and kept constantly wet, it is durable.
Elm is a wood largely used in carriages for planking
where strength is required. There are two kinds,-hedge-
row, and wych or wick. The latter is an old Saxon name
meaning stream or streamlet,—one of the tributary streams
which run into main rivers, as Hampton Wick, Green-
wich. The banks of such streamlets are generally compos-
ed of soft alluvial land, and the timber growing on them is
mostly large, soft, and straight-grained. Such is the cha-
racter of wych elm; but though every timber-dealer pro-
fesses to sell such, it is very rarely met with. Hedge-row
elm composes almost the whole supply. The diameter of
WHEEL CARRIAGES.
75
the trees is from one foot six inches to three feet six inches.
The grain is curly and wavy, difficult to work, brittle,
and apt to split, without care. It is not a good surface to
paint on, as the grain shows through several coats of co-
lour. The wych elm is more apt to split, but it forms a
good surface for paint. Elm is used also for the naves of
wheels. It is not so expensive a wood as ash. There are
fifteen species of elm.
Oak is used in carriages for the spokes of wheels. The
best kind are made of the timber of saplings, which are not
sawn but rent in the direction of the grain, in halves or in
quarters according to their size. Inferior spokes are also
made from the limbs of large trees. Oak is also used in
plank under the name of wainscot, for boxes. The number
of species is one hundred and forty.
Mahogany is very largely used for the pannels of car-
riages in such parts as are intended to show an even sur-
face of paint. There are two kinds of mahogany, known
as "Spanish" and "Honduras." The former grows on
mountains and on the sides of ravines, and its favourite
soil is where a profusion of limestone is found. In most
of it, the pores will be found filled with a white powder,
which destroys a cutting edge so rapidly, that cabinet-
makers use what is termed a tooth plane to work it; i. e.
the edge of the plane iron is composed of a number of sharp
points like the teeth of a saw. This kind of mahogany
is never used by carriage builders; as the beautiful curl-
ed grain which gives the effect of light and shade, so much
prized by cabinet-makers, renders it unfit for carriage pan-
nels, which in many cases require to be bent not merely in
1
76
MATERIALS OF
a cylindrical, but also in a partially spherical form. For
these purposes the Honduras wood is admirably adapted; as
it can be procured, if required, upwards of four feet in width
and perfectly straight-grained, and free from knots and ble-
mishes. This timber is not all brought from the bay of
Honduras, although originally it came from thence. Many
parts of the Spanish Main abound with it. It is mostly
found in low alluvial soil in the neighbourhood of rivers
and marshes where air and light are not very abundant :
therefore it is that the colour presents a blanched appear-
ance when compared with the Spanish kind. There are
several qualities of mahogany sold under the name of Hon-
duras: some of it is very solid though straight-grained, and
some very porous and curly, while other classes of the
timber are very open-grained and straight throughout.
There are three species altogether; one being found in the
West India Islands and America, and which in commerce
becomes "Spanish" or "Honduras " according to its soil
and locality. The other two species are natives of the
Eastern Indies.
A coarse-grained species of cedar, of considerable width,
which is brought from the same districts as the Honduras
mahogany, is sometimes used for carriage pannels which
are to be covered over with leather or other substance.
Its extreme porosity renders it unfit to serve for a painted
surface.
Deal is very largely used for the flooring of carriages,
and also for covered pannels, occasionally glued by the
edges to get a sufficient breadth. The word "deal" refers
WHEEL CARRIAGES.
merely to the form of the timber, and not to its quality.
Deal means portion.
The wide American pine is chiefly used in very thin
boards to form the covered pannels and roofing of car-
riages.
The hard yellow wood called fustic is occasionally used
to form the naves of wheels which are intended for hot cli-
mates, as they are not so subject to shrink as the woods of
English growth. This wood is a native of the Isthmus of
Panama, of Brazil, and of the West India Islands. It
is a species of mulberry.
Lancewood is a straight-grained elastic but highly brit-
tle wood, brought from the West India Islands in the form
of taper poles about twenty feet long, and from six to eight
inches diameter at the largest end. This wood was for-
merly much used for shafts, but it is more disused of late
on account of the curved forms which have become fa-
shionable. Lancewood can be bent into form by boiling;
but it is altogether a very unsafe material to trust to for
so important an article as shafts, the breaking of which fre-
quently occasions the loss of life. The grain is yellow, and
close as box.
American birch is a most valuable wood for flat board-
ing, inasmuch as it can be procured of great widths; from
one foot to two feet six inches, and occasionally three feet.
It is of a perfectly homogeneous substance, free from rents,
and with scarcely a perceptible pore. It works easily with
the plane, and yields a beautifully smooth surface, which
does not show the smallest particle of grain beneath the
778
MATERIALS OF
most delicate paint-work. It is even as stretched canvass.
It is not very straight-grained; but this is not important.
The greatest defect is its brittleness, which will not admit
of its being used for any but plane surfaces; and then
much care is required in bolting, screwing, or nailing it.
The price is not much higher than American pine. It is
of the bark of this tree that the Indians of North America
make their beautiful light canoes, which are merely sewn
together: some of them will carry twenty men, yet are so
light that they may with facility be carried by two. The
trees grow in alluvial soil with little air and light, and are
principally cut down for the purpose of clearing land; so
that it is to be feared the time will come when they will
be much scarcer, at least the larger trees. It would be a
valuable kind of wood to introduce in England as a plan-
tation tree.
Of late, the great increase in the construction of carriages
for railroads and other public uses has caused a scarcity
to be felt in the ordinary timber, and chesnut, sycamore,
plane trees, and other woods are now occasionally used.
Cotton is used in the manufacture of carriage lace, as an
under body on which to weave the surface. But it is gene-
rally considered an inferior material. It is also used for
waterproof material with India rubber.
Flax and hemp are largely used in the form of sewing-
thread, twine, cord, and rope; and also for floor-cloth, linen
and canvass, and the purposes of lace-making. Tow is
generally used as stuffing where a more solid substance
than hair is required.
Straw is used in small quantites for stuffing coachmen's
WHEEL CARRIAGES.
79
seats exposed to the atmosphere; also for stuffing the lea-
thered parts of poles.
Caoutchouc, or India rubber, is a most valuable article in
carriage building where pliability and impermeability to
water are required in conjunction. It is a gum prepared
from the sap of trees, the growth of some parts of Southern
America. It is also found in Ceylon. The American
Indians early discovered its valuable proprieties as a vehi-
cle for containing water. Their usual water-vessels were
made of gourds or calabashes, but which were liable to
break with a fall; a defect causing much inconvenience on
a journey. When the caoutchouc gum was first used in
their stead, the Indians took for models the calabashes, to
give form to their new inventions. The process was, to
mould a lump of clay to the desired shape, and wounding
the tree, to suffer the sap to flow over it till the desired
thickness was attained. The sun's action rapidly hardened
it, and then the inner mould was washed out with water;
the result being an elastic bottle well adapted for carriage,
and not capable of being broken. These bottles were first
brought to Europe as articles of curiosity, and eventually
as articles of commerce, when their utility as a rubber or
cleanser was discovered. For a long period they were ap-
plied to no other purpose, as chemistry had not furnished
the means of dissolving and re-hardening them. Even when
this difficulty was vanquished, the material still continued
for a long period to be brought over in the form of bottles.
Ultimately it was brought over in large squares, which
were cut by a machine into thin slices, used for various pur-
poses. The process was then discovered of dissolving the
80
MATERIALS OF
material so that it would again harden to its former consist-
ence. For making water-proof cloth, two thicknesses are
required, either of woollen, linen, cotton, or silk. The
caoutchouc is spread on one in its liquid state, and the
other is pressed upon it by means of heat. The union is
so perfect, that it requires very considerable force to sepa-
rate them afterwards; and though the film of gum is ex-
ceedingly thin, it is both air and water tight. The natives
of Columbia had adapted this material to the preparation
of water-proof cloaks long before it was so used in Europe;
and their cloaks are the most perfect, inasmuch as they
prepare them with the fresh gum from the tree, and not
from an artificial solution. The gum after artificial solu-
tion and re-hardening is never so tough as at first. In using
it as rubber, it is not so efficient, and wears away very
rapidly. Waterproof material prepared with caoutchouc,
will not bear the contact of oil or grease without being
destroyed. The cloaks used by travellers on horseback,
are spoiled by coming in contact with the sweat of the
horse.
Copal is a transparent resin of a faint yellow colour,
brought from Southern America. All carriage varnish is
prepared with it, as it is very tough and not easily cracked
or worn.
Linseed oil is used in the preparation of paint. It is
extracted from the seed of the flax by expression.
Turpentine is a product of the fir tree, and is used with
paint in the form of a thin liquid in order to give it drying
properties.
The metal which is most abundantly used in carriage
WHEEL CARRIAGES.
81
It
building is iron. The consumption of it is enormous.
is used in the cast form for the boxes of wheels; and in the
wrought form it is used in almost every possible shape,
from the wheel tire, the axle, the crane, the bar, the stay,
the hinge, the plate, the bolt, up to the most minute screw
and nail. The quality most known and preferred is that
called, after its mark, "King and Queen."*
Steel is likewise a metal of great consumption for the
manufacture of springs. It is not of a very fine quality;
i. e. less carbon enters into its composition than into that
of the finer steels used for cutting implements, and clock
and watch springs, cross-bows, &c. The spring-makers
assert that steel of a finer quality would not answer so
well, as it would be more liable to break by concussion :
but this is mere assertion, and not borne out by facts.
Copper is much used for the preparation of beading
which covers joints, and is intended to be painted. It has
also been occasionally used for panels.
Brass, an alloy of copper, is used in innumerable ways;
as, beading, wheel hoops, plates, locks, rings, buckles, and
for other purposes, both useful and ornamental.
White brass, another alloy of copper, is a material
which has lately come into use, known under various
*This iron is called " scrap iron," being prepared from the frag-
ments of worn wrought iron collected in London and its neighbour-
hood. This is placed in furnaces, and welded in masses under a very
heavy tilt hammer, after which it is passed between rollers and con-
verted into bars. This is a similar process to that by which old horse-
nails are converted into gun barrels. The intelligent proprietors of
the King and Queen Iron Works at Rotherhithe would much benefit
the public by adapting their machinery to forge axletrees and similar
ironwork, at present imperfectly executed by hand labour, with a de-
structive wear of human life,
G
82
MATERIALS OF WHEEL CARRIAGES.
names, as, albata, German silver, &c. It is now used in
carriages to some extent, for ornamental purposes. But
neither white nor common brass can be used for purposes
requiring much strength. In such cases iron is used, and
the brass is plated on them in a thin sheet by means of
solder.
Gun-metal is another alloy of copper, which is used to
make axletree nuts, in preference to brass, as it is tougher,
and not so liable to corrode with oil.
Lead and tin are both used in the preparation of solder;
of which there is a large consumption, especially for filling
up the hollow parts of beading and chased work.
Silver is largely used for ornamental plated work, and
occasionally as pure metal. Lamp reflectors are plated
with silver.
Almost the only form in which gold enters into a car-
riage is that of leaf gold for the purposes of the herald
painter.
Glass is an item of considerable importance. Where
the window frames are not divided by cross bars, it is
necessary to use plate glass for strength; and its superior
beauty, independent of other considerations, always secures
it a preference, notwithstanding the extra expense. For
lamp glasses however it is not required, clear common
glass being sufficient. Cut glass has not hitherto been
used in carriages for ornamental work; but it might so be
used to great advantage.
Almost all the metallic oxides capable of being used in
paint as colouring matters, are applied to carriages. Vege-
table colouring matter is rarely used, as it is liable to
change with the action of the atmospheric air and light.
83
CHAPTER V.
Analysis of Carriage Construction.Dennet.-Stanhope.-Tilbury.
-Cabriolet.-Curricle.- Underspring Phaeton.-Coach.- Parts
of Coach.-Carriage Body.-Equipage for Town and Country.
THE component parts of the simplest kind of two-
wheeled spring carriage for one horse are,
The wheels, the axle, the springs, the carriage,which
consists of the shafts connected together by cross bars,-
the steps, and the body or sitting part, to which are at-
tached the lamps.
The body is composed of the framework, the jointed
hood or head covered with leather, the lining, the cush-
ions, the driving box, the dashing frame of iron covered
with leather, to keep off the mud and dirt thrown up by
the heels of the horse, and the apron or knee boot.
The Dennet and Stanhope are the existing specimens
of this kind of vehicle.
In the next class of two-wheeled spring vehicle for one
horse, pliable leathern braces are introduced between the
springs and the body of the vehicle. In this case, suspen-
sion brackets must be introduced. The Tilbury and the
Cabriolet are the existing specimens. In the former, an
iron bracket like a double gibbet is affixed on the hinder
part of the carriage, and two shorter ones are affixed for
G 2
84
ANALYSIS OF
ward beneath the shafts. In the cabriolet, two iron brackets
called loops are affixed to the hinder part of the body, to
suspend it by braces from the upright circular springs:
forward, two small brackets are affixed beneath the shafts,
to take two straight springs which are bolted to the body.
In the two-wheeled vehicle for two horses called a Cur-
ricle, there are no shafts. The body is suspended in a si-
milar mode to the cabriolet, on a frame consisting of two
side pieces and two cross bars at each end. A pole is in-
serted into this frame, which passes between the horses and
is suspended from a metal bar resting on their backs. The
principle of yoking therefore is precisely that of the classic
chariot. When this vehicle stands without the horses, it
is necessary to support the fore end with a rest, which is
a light frame resembling a short ladder hinged on to the
fore end.
The simplest kind of four-wheeled spring vehicle for
one horse is called an Underspring Phaeton. It consists of
a long deep-sided box, usually painted black, the fore end
of which is fitted to a body resembling that of a dennet or
stanhope, while the hinder one carries an open seat. Be-
tween the hinder end of this box and the axle are secured
a pair of double elliptic springs to give ease of motion.
Beneath the fore end is secured a circular plate of iron
and some strengthening framework. Beneath this is a
frame called the under carriage, turning upon the perch
bolt; to this frame the fore springs and fore wheels are
attached, and also the splinter bar and pole, in lieu of the
shafts, when it is intended to draw with two horses instead
of one.
A great variety of carriages are built on this same
CARRIAGE CONSTRUCTION.
85
principle, the difference being in form, and not in mecha-
nical construction.
The next class of four-wheeled spring vehicle is that in
which the body is connected with the under framework by
pliable braces of leather attached to the springs. In this
case, the framework which supports the fore and hind
springs is connected together by a long central piece of
timber plated with iron, called the perch. The fore fram-
ing is provided with a wheel plate, beneath which the
under carriage and fore wheels work or lock round the
perch bolt, as before described. The springs are of a cir-
cular form, and placed in a vertical position. An iron
perch called a crane neck is sometimes used instead of a
wooden one.
The next class is an improvement on the last, by using
double sets of springs; viz. horizontal springs placed im-
mediately on the axles, to intercept the concussion of the
wheels, and sustain the whole weight of both body and
carriage; and also circular upright springs, to sustain the
body. For the purpose of procuring mere ease of motion
to the passenger without regard to other considerations, no
improvement upon this mode of construction has yet been
brought into use. The close carriages built upon this con-
struction are called Coaches and Chariots. Those made
to open occasionally are called Landaus and Landaulets.
Those permanently open with a leathern hood or head are
called Barouches and Barouchets. A variety of this last are
called Britzschkas.
For an analysis of parts, the Coach may be selected in
its most finished state, as the chief of every class, and from
86
ANALYSIS OF
which the constructors of pleasure carriages take their usual
designation of "coach-makers."
An Underspring Coach is usually so constructed that it
may serve as a town or travelling vehicle, by changing
certain equipments called technically "town and country
furniture." The component parts are the
Wheels,
Axles,
Under Springs and Dumb Irons ;
Beds, or cross framing timbers, which are techni-
cally called the fore axle bed, hind axle bed, fore
spring bed or transom, hind spring bed and horn
bar;
Perch, or central longitudinal timber;
Wings, which are spreading sides hooped to the
perch and framed to the hind beds
Nunters, or small framing pieces, which help to bind
the hind beds together;
Hooping Piece, a piece of timber scarfed and
hooped to the fore end of the perch to secure
it to the
Wheel Plate, which is a circular iron cased with
wood, bolted beneath the fore beds, and beneath
which the under or fore carriage turns. The fore
carriage consists of the fore axle beds, into which
are framed the
Futchells, which are longitudinal timbers supporting
the
Splinter-bar and the
Pole.
CARRIAGE CONSTRUCTION.
87
The hinder end of the futchells support the
Sway-bar,-a circular piece of timber working beneath
the wheel plate. A circular piece of timber of
smaller size supported on the fore part of the fut-
chells for a similar purpose is called the
Felloe Piece,
On the splinter-bar are fixed the
Roller Bolts, for fastening the traces.
On the pole is affixed the
Pole Hook, to secure the harness.
The perch and beds are strengthened with iron
plates where necessary; and the other iron work
consists of
Splinter Bar Stays, to resist the action of the
draught. Formerly these were affixed to the ends
of the axles, and called "wheel irons."
Tread Steps, for the coachman to mount by;
Footman's Step;
Spring Stays.
On the beds are placed
Blocks to support the
C Springs; to which are attached
Jacks, or small windlaces, and
Leathern Suspension Braces, which bind around the
convex surfaces of the springs.
All the wood work is lightened in its appearance as
much as possible by the introduction of carving and bead-
ing; and these parts constitute what is technically called
the carriage; i. e. the framing which supports the body
or sitting part.
88
ANALYSIS OF
+
The body is a species of box fitted with doors and win-
dows, and lined and wadded for the purpose of comfort.
As the bottom is the part by which it is suspended, it
is of course there that the greatest strength is necessary.
The two side bottom timbers are bonded together by two
cross timbers called bottom bars, which are firmly framed
into them. To give depth to the floor without destroying
the symmetry of the side, deep pieces of elm plank are
fixed to the inside of the side bottom pieces, and to these
the flooring boards are nailed, being additionally secured
by strap plates of hoop iron nailed beneath them. In the
central portion of the bottom sides are framed the door
posts, called "standing pillars." At the angles of the
bottom framework are scarfed the corner pillars. The
cross framing pieces which connect the pillars are called
rails. Two of these rails stretching across the body inside,
between the door posts, are called seat rails, and serve to
support the seats. To form the roof, arching timbers are
laid across from side to side. The doors are framed double
to contain a hollow space for the glasses and blinds, and
they fasten with a wedge lock forced into a groove by a lever
handle. There is one window in each door, and one in
front behind, there is a small light with a fixed glass.
The doors of the best carriages are always hinged with
secret hinges, not showing on the exterior,—for which
pur-
pose they are made with a cranked lever working excen-
trically. The panels are of mahogany, fitted into grooves
and strengthened by batons. The roof is of thin pine
covered with japanned leather; and the bouge or sword
case, which projects behind, is formed in the same manner.
CARRIAGE CONSTRUCTION.
89
Bouge is a Saxon word signifying, to bulge out, as an ex-
crescence; which it in fact resembles, being originally an
awkward contrivance to enable gentlemen riders to stow
away their swords on a journey. The body when complete
consists of
The Frame or Case,
The Doors;
The Glasses, which are fixed in thin frames of wain-
scot covered with cloth or black velvet;
The Blinds, which are sometimes panels and some-
times Venetian, so adjusted with springs that the
bars may stand open at any required angle;
The Curtains, of silk, which slide up and down on
spring rollers;
The Lining and Cushions, of cloth, morocco, silk,
hair, lace, &c. The cushions are occasionally
made elastic by the addition of springs of coiled
wire.
The Loops, which are stays or brackets of iron bolt-
ed to the bottom, one at each corner, for the pur-
pose of suspension to the springs;
The Check Brace Rings, to which are attached lea-
thern braces from the spring heads, to prevent the
body from swinging too far fore and aft
The Collar Brace Rings, to which are attached lea-
thern braces from the perch to prevent the body
from swinging too much upwards or sideways.
The Steps, which are made to fold up and fill re-
cesses in the doors when they are closed ;
The Lamps, which are affixed to the upper part
90
ANALYSIS OF
of the fore end of the body, by means of iron
stays..
When the coach is intended for town use, there is
affixed on the fore beds a
Salisbury-boot, which carries the coachman's seat,
hammer cloth, and foot board.
This is consider-
ed the most perfect equipment; but sometimes in
lieu of it is used a
Coach-box, which consists of a light open frame
fixed to the beds, carrying the seat and hammer
cloth, instead of the much heavier Salisbury-boot.
But the coach-box does not harmonise so well
with the general appearance of the carriage as the
Salisbury-boot does.
On the hinder beds are fixed two carved wooden
blocks, which support the hind footboard. On the
hind footboard is placed a frame covered with lea-
ther and stuffed, for the convenience of standing
firm. This frame is adorned with carved wooden
uprights and ornamental iron work, and the name
given to it is Hind Standard. Its principal use is
to fill up the hinder part of the carriage, which
would otherwise look naked. At the back part of
the body are attached the
Holders, which serve for the servant to steady him-
self by. They are merely strings of lace or web-
bing secured by staples.
When the coach is wanted for the purpose of travelling,
the boot or coach-box with the coachman's seat is remov-
ed, and its place supplied by a box called a Platform-boot,
CARRIAGE CONSTRUCTION.
91
which carries luggage inside. On the top of the platform
a trunk is fixed.
The hind standard, footboard, and blocks, are also re-
moved from the hind beds, and a Rumble, or boot with a
seat for two servants, takes its place. Under the seat of
this boot there is a luggage box. At the back part of the
body is fixed a large trunk called a Cap-case. Under the
seats inside are two wainscot boxes; and on the roof are
one or two very large flat shallow trunks called Imperials.
In addition to these, Wells or deep boxes are sometimes
placed beneath the bottom of the body, one on each side of
the perch. A drag-staff, chain, and shoe, and tool bud-
get, are also necessary appendages on a journey.
The different items thus enumerated as forming parts of
a first-rate underspring coach, with various alterations as to
shape and form, enter into the composition of most four-
wheeled carriages. Some are occasionally omitted, and some
few others are occasionally added. The pole is of course ap-
plied when the carriage is in use.
futchells and secured with an iron pin. At the front end of
the pole is affixed a double staple, to which the leathern
straps called pole pieces are attached, to hold the horses in
a proper position, and prevent the carriage from overrun-
ing them when descending a hill.
It is fixed between the
The foregoing notice of the different parts of a coach
is merely the enumeration of their names. Many of them
require an accurate analysis in order to make the reader
understand their advantages and defects.
Those parts
are, the
92
ANALYSIS OF CARRIAGE CONSTRUCTION.
1
Wheels,
Axles,
Springs,
Iron Work,
Lamps.
The simplest mode of treating them will be to take
each subject separately, and analyse all that relates to it.
93
CHAPTER VI.
Wheels.- -Definition. Solid Wheel. Plank Wheel. - Framed
Wheel,-Barrow Wheel.- Nave.-Spokes.-Felloes.-Cylindrical
Wheel. - Conical Wheel. - Pyramidal Wheel. - Nave Hoops.-
Strake Tyres.-Hoop Tyres.-Mode of Construction.-Disadvan-
tages. Machine-made Wheels. - Solid Felloes. · Hancock's
Wheels.- Tubular Spoked Iron Wheels.-Losh's Wrought Iron
Wheels.-Jones's Pyramidal Iron Wheels.-Weight of Wheels.
Elasticity.
A WHEEL for a locomotive vehicle is a circular roller,
either cylindrical or conical, the width or thickness of
which is considerably less than its diameter. It may be
either solid, or constructed of various pieces; in which lat-
ter case it is called a framed wheel. It may also be made
of wood or metal, or of a combination of both.
A solid wheel, such as is used still in countries where
the arts have made little progress, is formed of a short
length cut from the boll of a round tree. Solid wheels are
also made of cast metal.
The simplest form of framed wheel is that made of
planks set together side by side and crossed by other
planks, the whole united by nails or trenails.
The next form of framed wheels is when an exterior
circle is formed of wooden segments on which planks are
nailed.
The next form is that in which two spokes at right
94
CONSTRUCTION OF WHEELS.
angles are made to pass through an axis, and segments of
a circle are framed on to their extremities. The common
barrow wheel is a specimen of this class.
The next form is when the wheel is composed of three
distinct parts, viz. the Nave, the Spokes, and the Felloes.
The Nave in its simplest form is a short cylindrical
block of wood forming the centre of the wheel, and pierced
longitudinally with a conical hole to admit an axis.
The Spokes are arms or radiating levers framed into the
nave at equal distances to form a circle.
The Felloes are circular segments framed on the extre-
mities of the spokes, forming the tie or arc to them, and
securing the whole together.
The simplest form of this wheel is when the framework
is made to form a plane surface, i. e. perfectly cylindrical.
The next form is when the wheel is not a plane surface,
but is dished or conical; i.e. the centre is made to fall
back from the level of the felloes, so that the spokes form
an angle with the central line of the nave.
The next form is that in which the nave is made suffici-
ently long that the spokes may stand at an angle with each
other, alternating both ways so as to render both surfaces
of the wheel conical. A wheel in this form is the strong-
est that can be made, as the centre or nave is the base of
a pyramid of which the felloes form the apex. But though
this wheel will support a very heavy load, it cannot bear
much concussion, owing to its want of elasticity.
Wheels which were made before the introduction of iron
were of course very clumsy in their construction, in order
to give strength. Specimens of them may still be seen in
CONSTRUCTION OF WHEELS:
95
the broad wheels of waggons, technically termed rollers.
The naves of these wheels are of enormous size. But
when the naves of wheels were reduced for the purposes of
elegance, a thin hoop of iron was applied both to the front
and back, to prevent them from bursting by the strain of
the spokes.
When the felloes also were reduced in size,
straps of iron called strakes or streaks were applied to their
convex surfaces, covering the joints. But the last im-
provement was the most important of all, viz. the applica-
tion of what is called a "hoop tire" instead of a "strake
tire" i. e. the tire forms a solid hoop which is put on the
wheel warm, and as it shrinks in cooling, forces the whole
of the framing together into a firm body.
It will be as well now to describe the process of con-
structing the best wheels in use; such, for example, as are
used to the coach before treated of.
The form of wheel which is now generally preferred in
practice is of the dished or conical kind. When in use, the
axle arm is slanted so far downwards from the horizontal line,
that the lower spokes may be always in a vertical position.
By this means the friction is undoubtedly increased, inas-
much as a wheel on a horizontal axle runs the easiest and
lightest. When the axle arm is slanted downwards towards
the point, the wheel has a tendency to bind harder against
the shoulder, and the rubbing surfaces are thus increased in
extent. But there are several advantages to set against this
disadvantage. The collar or shoulder of the axle is firm and
solid. The nuts or lynch pins, which prevent the wheels
from coming off, are much inferior in solidity. Consequently
there is an advantage in throwing a greater strain on the
96
CONSTRUCTION OF WHEELS.
shoulder collar than on the nut, because it is better able
to bear it; and moreover, in case of the nuts or lynch pins
giving way, there is not so much risk of the wheel coming
off, as its tendency when on a level road is to run upwards
towards the shoulder. Besides this, as the lower spokes
are in a vertical position, the upper ones spread consider-
ably outwards, and thus afford a greater space for the body
between the wheels, without the track on the ground being
increased. The last advantage is, that the mud collected
by the conical wheels is thrown off from the carriage.
The hind wheels of a coach such as before described
vary in height from four feet three inches to four feet eight
inches; the fore wheels are from three feet four to three feet
eight. The number of felloes in the circumference varies
according to the number of the spokes, two spokes being
inserted in each felloe. Fourteen spokes are the usual
number to a hind wheel of ordinary size; twelve to a fore
wheel. When the nave of elm wood has been turned to
its size in the lathe, it is marked for the spoke mortices,
and firmly fixed at a convenient height at such an angle
with the horizon as corresponds to the intended dish of the
wheel. Two holes are then bored in each mortice in suc-
cession, after which they are squared out with proper chi-
sels. Truth of eye and skill of hand are the workmen's
only guide in this operation; though it is evident that it
is the most important operation of the whole, as upon it
depend the accuracy and solidity of the wheel when finish-
ed. The tenons of the spokes,-which are portions of dry
rent oaken saplings,—are then cut to fit the mortices, pa-
rallel in their thickness and slightly wedging in their
width. The other parts of the spokes are only partially
CONSTRUCTION OF WHEELS.
97
prepared. Every alternate spoke is then driven by blows
of a maul, the workman guiding it as well as he can in
a proper direction till it abuts upon the shoulder. But
it is evident that the position which each spoke will take
is by no means certain. The spokes are driven very
tight, and wood, not being of a homogeneous texture,
will yield more in one part than another: and the
mortice, cut as it is by sleight of hand, must be uncer-
tain. Every alternate spoke being driven, the remainder are
then driven in between them in the same manner. After
this, the spokes are finished to their proper form; and the
lengths being measured from the nave, the outer tenons are
cut to a cylindrical form, leaving the back shoulder square,
to abut on the felloe with more firmness. The back of
the spoke is rounded to a semicircular form in nearly
its whole length behind; in front it is worked to a
knife-edge, for the sake of a light appearance.
The
felloes are then fitted on the spokes, and jointed together.
Holes are then bored in the ends of the felloes, and a
small piece of wood, called a dowel, is inserted, which
serves as a tenon to connect them together. The felloes
being then driven home, wedges are inserted in the ends,
of the spokes to keep all firm. After this, the tire, welded
into a solid hoop, is heated and put on. As it shrinks
in cooling, the wheel cracks and compresses beneath the
force. Iron pins are then driven through tire and felloe,
one on each side of every joint, the points being riveted
inside the felloe upon a small round plate of iron called a
burr.
The result of this mode of making a wheel is, that
H
UorM
98
CONSTRUCTION OF WHEELS.
MU
it is very imperfect when finished. Scarcely any two
wheels are alike. Scarcely any spokes in a wheel radi-
ate alike; some are apart an inch more than others; and
as the shrinking of the tire varies, some wheels, as a con-
sequence, get more dish than others, the spokes either
compressing in the nave mortices, or yielding elastically
in their length. To get them at all accurate, it is ne-
cessary to employ very skilful workmen; and as very
skilful workmen are not very numerous, the cost of wheels
is very much increased, beyond similar work in other
branches. Another disadvantage attends them : a work-
man may put his work badly together, and there is no
means of detecting it except in practice. A badly-
framed wheel may show as well to the eye as a good
one, and until it breaks down, no one, neither the mas-
ter wheeler nor his customer, can detect the inaccuracy.
Unless the master watches every wheel while the spokes
are driving, he can only depend on the good faith of his
workman.
There is no remedy for this evil except substituting
machines for men's hands. The machine, if it cuts true
once, will cut true always. Every piece of wood in a
wheel ought to be shaped by machinery. The felloes
should be sawn to their exact size, curve, and length,
by machine saws; they should be bored by machine
augers, and rounded by machine shavers. The spokes
should be tenoned by machine saws, and shaped by ma-
chine lathes. The naves should be turned by a ma-
chine lathe, and the mortices cut by a machine chisel: and
the spokes should not be driven by the irregular strokes
CONSTRUCTION OF WHEELS.
99
of a maul, but be forced into their places by the re-
gular pressure of a machine. And when the tire is
put on, the wheel should be fixed in a frame, in order
to preserve an exact size and shape. And when all
these things are done, we may hope to procure wooden
wheels alike in form and quality, and, moreover, accu-
rately circular, which wheels at present are far from
being. All the machines should be worked by a steam-
engine. That wheels continue to be made by hand in
England, is a somewhat remarkable thing, after the block
machinery has existed so many years at Portsmouth. There
is scarcely any article of manufacture for which there is
so large a demand, and there is no variation in their
mode of construction. It may, perhaps, be alleged that
it would be cruel to turn wheelwrights out of employment
by machinery; but such would not be the fact.
unusual cheapness of wheels would cause more to be used;
and the probability is, that people would cease to repair
old wheels; and thus the total number of workmen would
rather be increased than diminished.
The
It seems, at first sight, a paradox to assert that a co-
nical or dished wheel is stronger than an upright or plane
one. To say that any body will stand firmer in a slant-
ing position than in a vertical one, is a manifest untruth.
The fact is, the advantage arises from the solid hoop
tire with a strake tire, the upright wheel would be the
strongest. When running, the great lateral strain on the
wheel is from the outside. Consequently, if the wheel
be dished in an opposite direction, the thrust will be in
the direction of the greatest resistance. The spokes can-
Uor M
H 2
100
CONSTRUCTION OF WHEELS.
Mou
not yield, because in yielding they increase the area of
their circle; and this the hoop tire will not permit. Upon
the same principle in carpentry which constitutes greater
strength in the cambered or crooked beam than in the
straight one, the dished wheel is stronger than the up-
right one.
When the tire is shrunk on the felloes, the spokes are
forced somewhat into an arching form, and consequently
have a tendency to regain their natural position. As the
wheel revolves in use, the tire by the process of constant
concussion is elongated as by hammering on an anvil;
or the wood beneath it is compressed, which produces
the same result. As the circle increases the spokes be-
come more upright, and loosen in their mortices with
the jarring. It is then necessary to take off the tire,
and shorten it by the process called technically, "cut-
ting and shutting ;" when the spokes are forced back
to their original position at the expense of leaving gap-
ing orifices between the tenons and mortices at the back
of the nave.
Water gets in there; and thus the wheel
becomes rickety, and must at last be replaced by a new
one.
These known defects in wheels have given rise to many
attempts at improvement. Amongst others, wheels were
made with the felloes in an entire piece. Straight grained
ash was selected of the requisite length and thickness,
which by the process of boiling was softened and bent
into a circle. It was imagined that this gave greater
strength than the separate felloes; but such was not the
fact. Wood is a substance consisting of fibres laid side.
CONSTRUCTION OF WHEELS.
101
by side, and adhering together by means of a natural
glue. If the wood were boiled long enough, the glue
would all boil out, and the fibres would separate. It is
evident, therefore, that the strength of wood must occa-
sionally be materially injured by injudicious boiling. In
addition to this, it was a difficult thing to get the felloe
into its place in a single piece; and to repair a wheel
thus made, was wholly impracticable, unless by cutting
away as much of the felloe as might be equivalent to the
extent of the damage.
Attempts were subsequently made to form the felloes
in two segments of boiled timber; but there was no
advantage in it, and the plan was at length altogether
abandoned.
During the process of experiments in the art of con-
structing steam carriages for common roads, the defects of
ordinary wheels have been found to be a chief impediment.
To obviate this, Mr. Hancock, one of the competitors in
this branch of art, constructed a wheel of a novel but very
efficient form. He abandoned the nave altogether; and
instead of cutting the ends of the spokes into the form of
tenons, he formed them into a series of wedges fitting each
other, and forming a barrel arch, the ends abutting on the
axle-tree box. Two circular flange plates were then ap-
plied laterally, and a screw bolt passed from one to an-
other through the end of each spoke Thus is construct-
ed a very simple and exceedingly strong wheel; al-
though the centre, from its large size, looks somewhat un-
sightly. But it might be reduced, and the wheel advan-
tageously adapted to ordinary vehicles where very rapid
102
CONSTRUCTION OF WHEELS.
motion is not required, on account of the facilities it affords
for the use of improved axle boxes, containing an abun-
dant supply of oil.
When railroads were first brought into use as a mode
of rapid locomotion, it was soon found that wooden wheels
were not capable of bearing the work required of them at
high velocities. Iron wheels, cast in a single piece each,
were then tried, but were found to break down. Wrought
iron tires were then applied to them; but though an im-
provement in the mode of construction, still the expense
by breaking down was very great. A method was then
devised of making the arms or spokes of drawn iron tubes,
flattened to an oval form, which were laid in the moulds,
and the centres and peripheries cast upon them. A wrought
iron tire being then applied, the wheels were found to
stand the work required of them tolerably well; and no
better railway wheels have yet been produced, except those
of Mr. Losh, of Benton House, who bends wrought iron
bars into a triangular form, and then placing a sufficient
number in a circle with their ends meeting in the centre,
casts a solid axle box on them to unite them altogether.
The outer sides, which form segments of a circle, abutting
against each other, are then clipped with a grooved tire,
which is shrunk on hot; and thus is formed a rigid
wheel of perhaps the strongest form which art can ac-
complish.
The wheels of railway carriages are always upright,
and the great velocity used is the cause of their re-
quiring so much extra strength. Every irregularity, every
slight blow is multiplied in its effects with a compound
CONSTRUCTION OF WHEELS.
103
force.
Small pieces of gravel are felt as though it were
a pavement of rough stones; an inequality of less than
one quarter of an inch in the level of a rail joint is felt
like a plunge into a deep hole, or an ascent over a formid-
able obstacle.
Impressed with the disadvantages attendant upon the
use of wooden wheels, Mr. Theodore Jones projected a
wheel made entirely of iron, and constructed with con-
siderable ingenuity. The cast iron nave is of consider-
able length, and the round iron rods which serve as spokes
are inserted at either end alternately; thus forming a
pyramidal wheel, the apex of which is at the circumfer-
ence, and the base at the nave. The spokes are fixed into
the nave with a screw-nut, and the extremities are rivet-
ed through the iron rim or circumference: for this
reason the proprietor called it a suspension wheel. The
original wheels were made with plain rings of cast iron,
which were found to fail, and consequently the proprietor
replaced them by rims of rolled iron with a rib in the
centre.
-
Ingenious as these wheels are in their mode of construc-
tion, they have not been found to answer all the expecta-
tions of the proprietor. For heavy carriages with a slow
motion they are well adapted; but when they are re-
quired to be light, and are used with a rapid movement,
the spokes are found to become very loose, and apt occa-
sionally to break short off at the nave. Attempts have
been latterly made to save them from concussion by at-
taching the axle to double elliptic springs, for light
carts; but the expense must be considerably increased
104
CONSTRUCTION OF WHEELS.
by it.
It is clear that elasticity is a necessary ingre-
dient to ensure durability in wheels; and this is a na-
tural advantage in wooden wheels over iron ones.
Wheels were at one time constructed for the street ca-
briolets on Mr. Jones's principle, retaining the cast iron
centre, and substituting wooden spokes and wooden fel-
loes instead of iron ones. A much lighter though clumsy-
looking wheel was thus produced, and in reality a stronger
one, inasmuch as the vibration resulting from the elasti-
city of wood is better adapted to resist shocks.
notwithstanding, they have gone out of use.
But,
Weight in wheels is a matter of less importance than
in other parts of a vehicle, inasmuch as the amount of
axle friction is scarcely at all increased by it. Wheels
may be too light as well as too heavy. If there be a great
weight resting on the axles, the wheels should have a
proportional weight, or the carriage would have more ten-
dency to overset. But of course, though the amount of
axle friction would differ little with heavy wheels or light
ones, very heavy wheels would require more draught pow-
er, inasmuch as they would add to the total weight of the
vehicle, increasing thereby the amount of inertia.
going up hill this disadvantage would always remain ;
but on level ground, when a sufficient amount of ve-
locity were attained, the weight in the wheels would
have something the same effect as the fly wheel of an
engine. But in practice the extra weight would mostly
be found to act on the disadvantageous side, at least
in vehicles moved by animal power.
In
Elasticity is important in wheels, both to increase
CONSTRUCTION OF WHEELS.
105
their general durability and to promote the ease of the
traveller. Some years ago, a Mr. Hancock invented
a wheel the spokes of which were made of whalebone.
The aptness to split in this material was a consider-
able difficulty; but a still greater was the limited supply
of the material, which rose so rapidly in price, that it
became necessary to abandon the project. To invent,
plan, and bring to bear anything new, as an article
of manufacture, requires much consideration. It is neces-
sary, first of all, that it be not too costly; next, that it
be generally useful; and lastly, that it be not constructed
of a rapidly-exhausting material.
Most persons familiar with the wear of wheels must
have remarked that the difference of durability in dif-
ferent sets of apparently the same construction is very
great,-nay, that some sets of light wheels will last longer
under the same weights and speeds than those which are
apparently stronger. The reason of it is simply to be
found in the relative degrees of elasticity. A well-made
wheel properly tired will be found on examination, to have
the backs of the spokes rounding, and the wheel, in-
stead of being conical, will be dome-shaped. It will
be an elastic dome; and the more the spokes are thus
rounded, provided the elasticity of the timber be not
injured, the greater will be the durability of the wheel,
as it will contain within itself a power to evade the mis-
chievous effects of concussion.
106
CHAPTER VII.
Axles.Wooden.-Conical.-Iron.-Cylindrical.-Common Bar.
-Faggoted.—Sizes.-Lubrication.-Soap.-Black-lead.—Grease.
-Oil.- Common Axles with Linch-pins,
y
Screw Nuts.- Mail
Axles.-Defects.-Collinge's Patent Axle.-Process of Oiling.-
Defects.-Mason's Improved Collinge Axle.-Various projects for
Axles.-Essential particulars necessary to the perfection of Axles.
AN axle, or axle-tree, for a locomotive wheel vehicle, is
that portion of wood or metal, or both combined, which
serves as an axis or centre for the wheels to turn round on.
•
The name axle-tree at once indicates the substance ori-
ginally employed for it-viz. wood. Axle-trees are of
two kinds; those which are fixed firmly in the wheels and
revolve in gudgeons beneath the vehicle, and those on which
each wheel revolves separately. The former, as being the
rudest, were probably the earliest used. The earliest fixed
axle-trees were simply pieces of hard timber with the ends
rounded down into a conical form, that form being the
easiest to fit to the wheel. Subsequently they were plated
with iron to resist wear.
In the earliest iron axles, the conical form was still pre-
served, for the obvious reason of easy adjustment to the
wheel. These iron axles were not made in a single piece,
but were merely short ends bedded in, and bolted to a
J
AXLES.
107
wooden centre. Examples of these axles may still be seen
in heavy carts and waggons.
►
The next improvement was to make axles of a single bar
of iron; and this practice has now become common. An
axle is technically divided into three parts;—the two arms
and the bed, or that portion which connects the arms toge-
ther. The commonest axles, which are manufactured for
the sake of superior cheapness, are formed of a square bar,
simply rolled to its shape between mill rollers. This iron
is uncertain in its quality, as it is liable to have sand cracks,
blisters, and other imperfections, which cause axle-trees
made from it to break down with concussion. To guard
against this, the best axle-trees are formed of several flat
bars of iron welded together in a mass, which process is
technically called "faggoting." The size is regulated by
the weight they are intended to carry. For a very heavy
coach, from two inches to two inches and a quarter in
diameter, and ten to eleven inches long in the arm, is an
appropriate size. For light carriages, both four and two-
wheeled, an inch and a half in diameter, and eight inches
length in the arm, is a common size; and occasionally some
are made as small as an inch and a quarter in diameter.
It must be borne in mind, that a much less size would bear
the weight, were the axles stationary, as in mill work; but
for locomotive vehicles it is necessary to provide against
the greatest concussion they can meet with in ordinary
application.
When iron axles were first used, it was customary to
drive an iron ring or hoop two or three inches broad into
either end of the nave, to prevent the too rapid wear. This
108
AXLES.
plan is still occasionally used in heavy carts; but other-
wise axles are always fitted with iron boxes adjusted to the
arms with more or less accuracy, according to the price, and
the material used for lubrication. For the prevention of
friction in wooden axles, soap or black-lead are the best
materials ; for common coarse axles, a thick unctuous
grease is the best adapted; but for axles which are accu-
rately made and fitted to the boxes, there is no lubricating
material equal to oil of the purest kind which can be
pared, i. e. the freest from mucilage or gelatine, according
as it may be of vegetable or animal production.
pre-
of a conical form,
The commonest axles now used are
with a box of plate iron fitted to them. This box is made
by welding the two edges of the iron together in a broad
projecting seam, which helps to secure it in the nave. The
inside of the box is sunk into hollows, for the purpose of
holding the lubricating grease.
arm the axle is left square, and
At the upper end of the
against this a broad iron
Against this washer the
washer is usually shrunk on hot.
box works. To secure the wheel against coming off, a
small iron collar is placed on the reduced outer end of
the arm, and a linch-pin is driven through the arm be-
yond it.
An improvement on this kind of axle is when the collar
at the upper end or shoulder is made solid by welding, and
a screw-nut with a linch-pin through it is substituted for
the collar and linch-pin. These nuts are commonly made
six-sided, with a mortice or slot for the linch-pin through
each side, in order to afford a greater facility for adjustment.
In all other particulars this axle is the same as the last,
AXLES.
109
except that occasionally it is case-hardened to prevent wear
and friction.
In travelling, these axles require to be fresh greased
every two or three days; and the trouble thus caused is
very considerable, besides the risk of omission, in which
case the axle is likely to be entirely spoiled.
The other axles in common use are lubricated with
oil.
The commonest kind of oil axle is called the "mail,"
because the peculiar mode of fastening was first used in the
mail coaches. The arm is not conical, but cylindrical, in
the improved kind. At the shoulder of this axle a solid
disk collar is welded on for the box to work against. Be-
hind this shoulder collar revolves a circular flange plate of
wrought iron, pierced with three holes corresponding with
holes in the nave of the wheel from front to back, through
which long screw-bolts are driven, and their nuts screwed
sufficiently tight against the circular flange plate, to allow
easy motion. The wheel, when in motion, thus works
round the shoulder collar, while the flange plate secures it
against coming off. This is not neat or accurate, but it is
simple and secure, and no nut or linch-pin is required to
the axle in front, while the front of the nave can be entirely
covered in. When screwed up for work, a washer of thick
leather is placed between the shoulder collar and the box,
and another between the shoulder collar and the circular
disk which extends over the whole surface of the back of
the nave.
The box of this axle is of cast iron. The
front is closed by a plate of metal, between which and the
end of the axle arm an inch of space is left, as a reservoir for
110
AXLES.
oil, which is poured in through a tube passing through
the nave of the wheel, and closed by a screw-pin. At the
back of the box there is a circular reservoir for oil, three-
fourths of an inch in depth and half an inch in width.
When the wheel is in motion, the revolving of the box
washes up the oil and gradually pumps it away from the
front to the back reservoir, and all which is above the level
of the leakage point-the bottom of the arm at the shoul-
der-gradually drips away. The oil in the back reservoir,
being below the level of the leakage point, does not dis-
appear so rapidly while the axle is in good order; but after
no great length of time, by rain or the process of washing,
the large leathern washer gets saturated with water, which
by compression finds its way into the reservoir, and then
of course the oil floats off by reason of its specific light-
ness. In short, the mail axle is very imperfect, and can-
not be trusted without frequent examination when it has
much work to do: but as it is neat in appearance,
tolerably secure against accidents, and not very expensive,
it is much used. Both arm and box are case-hardened.
The other kind of oil axle is that known to carriage
builders as "Collinge's Patent." The original intention
of the inventor was to make it a cylindrical arm, with
the box running round it against a coned shoulder, and
secured by a coned nut in front: but as it is found in
practice that a leathern washer is necessary at the shoul-
der to prevent jarring, this part of the plan was abandoned.
The axle as at present constructed consists of a cylindrical
arm, with a broad shoulder collar. The box is of cast
AXLES.
111
iron, and the back of it is like the mail before described.
The front of it has a rebate cut in the box to receive a
small conical collar and the screw of an oil cap.
The arm
of the axle is turned down in the lathe to two-thirds of
the total thickness, from the point where the rebate of the
box begins. A flat side is filed on this reduced portion,
and along it is made to slide a small collar of gun-metal,
with a conical face in the interior to fit against the coned
interior of the rebate in the box. Against this collar,
technically called the "collet," a nut of gun-metal is
screwed; and against that again, a second nut of smaller
size, with a reversed thread, is tightly fixed. These two
nuts thus screwed in different directions become as firm on
the arm as though they were soldered there, and no action
of the wheel can loosen them, because the collet, which does
not turn, removes all friction from them. But, as a fur-
ther security, the end of the axle arm projects beyond the
farthest nut, and is drilled to receive a spring linch-pin.
Over all, a hollow cap of gun-metal containing a supply of
oil, is screwed into the end of the box.
When the wheel is in motion, the oil is pumped upwards
from the cap and passes along the arm to the back reservoir,
constantly revolving round the cap with the wheel. If the
cap be filled too full of oil,-that is, if the summit of the
column of oil in the cap be at a horizontal level above the
leakage point at the shoulder,—it will pump away rapidly
and be wasted till it comes to the level of the leak, where
the remainder will be economically used. It is essential
to the perfection of an oil action that the oil should not be
112
AXLES.
permanently above the level of the leak, but that small
portions of it should be continually washing up into that
position by the action of the wheel in turning.
In order to ensure their greater durability and greater
freedom from friction, these axles and their boxes are
always case-hardened; i. e. their rubbing surfaces are con-
verted into steel to a trifling depth by the process of ce-
mentation with animal charcoal, for the space of an hour
or two, when they are plunged into water. The boxes
are ground on to the arms with oil and emery; either end
being applied alternately, a nearly true cylindrical fit is
accomplished.
The mode in which oil acts as a lessener of friction is
by its being composed of an infinite number of moveable
globules, over which the fixed surfaces of the arm and box
roll without the abrasion or adhesion which would ensue if
they came into actual contact. But this saving of the ab-
rasion of the arm can of course only be accomplished by
the destruction of the oil. This gives us one rule for guid-
ance; viz. the greater the mass of the oil, the better and
longer will the axle run. The bearing surface of the axle
also should be sufficiently distant from the surface of the
box to permit a film of oil between them; and it should be
sufficiently extended so that the superincumbent weight
may not press out the oil from beneath it, and thus cause
an actual contact of rubbing surfaces. This consideration
will sufficiently determine the size of axles. In a well-made
Collinge axle, a wheel of three feet six inches in diameter,
running on an arm of sufficient size, will travel five thou-
sand miles without getting dry. A highly-polished surface
AXLES.
113
is important in an axle and box, inasmuch as the bearing
is thereby flatter and truer. A rough surface is a sur-
face of salient angles, which would pierce through the film
of oil and produce contact.
But, perfect as these axles are, they are not secured
against dangers arising from carelessness. The fit of the
axle being so close, if by any chance the two surfaces are
rubbed together without oil for a short time, heat is elicit-
ed, and the axle sticks fast in the box, the two surfaces
uniting partially together. To guard against this as much
as possible, the arm of the axle is reduced in thickness at
the centre, for about an inch in length, to allow a lodge-
ment for the oil. But in the process of work, as the wheel
box revolves round the arm, it constitutes a circular pump
which gradually draws up the oil from the front cap. If
the sucker of a pump be allowed to get dry it fails to draw
up the water; and just such is the case with the wheel. If,
from carelessness, the wheel be put on with the box and
arm dry, the capillary attraction of the oil from the cap
will not take place, and when the wheel is in motion the
metal will heat, and the wheel stick fast.
Another danger arising from carelessness is the introduc-
tion of grit into the box. The two surfaces being very
hard, of course it requires some substance still harder tô
cut into them. In practice this commonly consists of par-
ticles of silex, which, cutting into the opposing surfaces
keys them firmly together, so that it is frequently neces-
sary to break the box in pieces to get it off the arm.
To remedy these defects, a patent was taken out by a
Mr. Mason for a plan of casting three longitudinal trian-
I
114
AXLES.
gular grooves in each box. The advantages thus gained
are, that if grit gets in, it finds its way to the bottom of
the grooves, and does not interfere with the action of the
wheel; and moreover, the grooves keep a constant surface of
oil in actual contact with the arm, instead of trusting to
the mere capillary attraction. Nor is the bearing surface
altered by it, for the circular sinking round the arm in
Collinge's plan is of about the same superficies as that of
the grooves on Mason's plan.
The number of plans which have been devised, and pa-
tents taken out for improvements in axles, is almost innu-
merable; yet none have hitherto come into very general
use save those enumerated. Mr. Hancock's plan for his
wedge wheel is a deep circular chamber, open all round to
the arm and cast in one piece with the box: it will con-
tain a large supply of oil. The plan of Mr. Jones, in his
iron wheels, is to cast a semicircular hollow round his box
open to the arm all round, and fed with oil by a thumb-
screw from the exterior. Friction rollers have been tried,
set in the box all round the arm, with oil contained in the
hollows between them. The box has been sunk into fluted
hollows, presenting only minute convex surfaces to the
friction, and the interstices containing oil. Loose barrels
have also been applied between the box and the arm, and
the arm has been made a hollow cylinder.-But none of
these contrivances are comparable to the Collinge axle
with the grooved boxes. Some of them fail from want of
sufficient bearing surface, and others from difficulty of
manufacturing, or extraordinary expense.
AXLES.
115
To the perfection of an axle several considerations are
necessary :-
That there be sufficient bearing surface for the arm to
rest on;
That the box be of a convenient shape for insertion in
the wheel;
That as large a body of oil as possible be kept in ac-
tual contact with the arm by washing up as the wheel
revolves;
That the column of oil may in no case be above the ho-
rizontal level of the leakage point while the wheel is at
rest.
The possibility of accomplishing more than has yet
been done as regards these objects will be treated of in a
separate chapter on improvements; but all carriage keepers,
nay all cart keepers who understand the principles of eco-
nomy-not the false economy of mere low price at the out-
set, but that true economy which takes into the calculation
all that bears on the subject-will, as a matter of course,
prefer purchasing the best made axles on Collinge's princi-
ple,—with grooved boxes,―to any other at present in use.
The mere saving in oil or grease is almost motive suffi-
cient, saying nothing of the labour and risk of taking
wheels on and off frequently. And more than all this is
the risk attending neglect of that which should be per-
formed at very frequent intervals in mail and common
axles, viz. the oiling or greasing. If the wheel runs dry,
the axle gets damaged, and perhaps breaks suddenly; and
this is a matter ordinarily left to the care of servants.
It is sometimes objected to Collinge's axles, that if any
I
I 2
116
AXLES.
accident happens to them-such as a wheel sticking fast in
the country, or on the Continent, their complication renders
it a difficult matter to put them to rights. But this objec-
tion is not of much force; for, if necessary, common boxes
for grease may be applied to them as easily as to any
others.
117
CHAPTER VIII.
Springs. -Various Substances used for them.-Leather.-Whale-
bone.-Wood.-Metal.-Spring Steel.-Construction.-Defects.-
Elasticity. Varieties of Springs.-Simple and Combined Forms.
- Straight Spring. -Elliptic Spring.-Regular Curved Spring.-
Spiral Spring. Examples. - Combinations of Springs.-Break-
age of Springs.-Essential Qualities of a perfect Spring.
-
SPRINGS, in locomotive vehicles, are the elastic sub-
stances interposed between the wheels and the passengers
or load, in order to intercept the concussion caused by
the wheels revolving on an uneven surface.
Many substances may be used for this purpose; as,
thongs and straps of green hide, leather, catgut, hempen
cord, caoutchouc, horn, whalebone, elastic wood, and me-
tal. These may be used either separately, or in com-
bination one with another. Elastic atmospheric air, or
gases, might also be employed for a similar purpose.
In English carriages, the only materials actually em-
ployed for elastic purposes are leather, whalebone, wood,
and metal.—Leather is used for suspension in the form of
slings and braces. Whalebone is used to strengthen the
under sides of lancewood shafts. Wood is used instead
of metal, in the form of springs, in light one-horse vehi-
cles, in order to avoid the tax to which spring vehicles
are subject. But what is technically understood in car-
riages by the term "spring," is a plate or plates of tem-
118
SPRINGS.
pered steel properly shaped to play in any required
mode.*
The earliest springs were probably formed of a single
piece of steel; a mode of construction exceedingly de-
fective, and liable to accident where there is no provi-
sion to limit its action. And in the mode in which the
bodies of carriages are usually suspended, there is no pro-
vision for the rebound-as is the case with a bow, whose
string restrains it by the ends-and a violent concussion
would break a single plated spring. Experience in this
* The word Steel is probably more variously suggestive to the
minds and imaginations both of the learned and unlearned than any
word in the English language. It is associated with the poet's lore,
the artist's inspiration, and the artisan's toil. It calls up hosts of
ideas, as valuable to the imaginative writer as is the metal itself for
the innumerable uses to which it is applied in the actual existing
world. It brings the Iliad and Odyssey before us, and paints
the gleaming axe-like weapons that flashed at Marathon and Ther-
mopylæ, and the nodding plumes and stern features of the warriors
who wielded them, piling up hecatombs of their invading foes.
And old Rome, too, comes before us, with her cohorts, and the many
nations through which they hewed their way; and our wild Celtic an-
cestors arise, with their chariots, and the "sharp scythes fastened to
their axle-trees ;" and Ragnar Lodbrog, and the Vikingr haunt our
coasts once more, ringing their weapons, and deifying their fabricators
in their Runic rhymes and wild war-songs. And the hall of Odin is
dimly seen, and the gnomes of the mountains of the North are flitting
before us with their enchanted blades, whose edges no earthly material
might resist. The steel rings of the ancient "hauberk's twisted mail”
are clinking, and the plated war-suits are clanging to the tramp of
"barbed steeds," and the dints of the quarries from the cross-bows
are heard and William Tell starts up once more, and Highland
claymores flash amidst "dirks and steel-wrought pistols," and
busy armourers closing rivets up ;" and old Andrea of Ferrara
ruffles it again in his bravery, with one of his exquisite blades twisted
round his bonnet to sustain a plume, and another girdled round his
SPRINGS.
119
matter probably first led to the construction of springs of
more than one plate, leaving their ends free to play against
each other, and describe arcs, each upon its own centre,
when in motion.
Springs for carriages are formed of a peculiar steel, of
coarse quality, and into which little carbon enters: it is
prepared expressly for this purpose. It is pretended by
the spring-makers, that better steel would not answer the
purpose; but this is not the fact. The secret is, that the
expense of material being greater, they fear the profit of
the workmanship would be reduced; and moreover, the
waist to upbear the hilted weapon by his side. And the surnamed
blades of Don Quixote's heroes, and "swords of Spain, the ice-brook's
temper," and "Spanish blades," and "real Toledos," and the blood-
dyed khanjar of "Anastatius" turned Moslem, and Mahratta tuhl-
wars, and Malay creases, and the fearful two-edged weapons of the
true Indian Wootz, and Damascus scymetars, and Sölingen blades,
and the “Spanish Armoury," and London curiosity shops, and Walter
Scott's library and armoury and novels, and Grose's Antiquities, and
multitudes of old traditions and portions of history, crowd before us
in an ever-moving picture, which, were the hands as nimble as the
brain, might furnish many galleries of paintings. And then there have
been secret springs to drawers, and desks, and carved oaken chests,
and sliding panels, wherein steel has wrought the works of mystery.
Nor has it less aided to give form to human imaginations of beauty.
It served for the chisels of Phidias and Praxiteles; and while we little
heed the clear ring of the modern trowel on coarse bricks, we may not
forget that the same metal fashioned the marble columns and the
friezes of the Parthenon, and cut the dies which have been the means
of handing down to us coins and medals, in many cases the truest
records of the periods in which they were wrought. Nor, while the
steel anvil rings with the blows of the sturdy strikers who fashion our
mod ern anchors, can we restrain our imaginations from wandering over
the vast deep with the gallant ship to which the ponderous hook is to
be the emblem and means of safety. And this again, calls to the
writer's memory a beautiful poem which appeared in Blackwood's
120
SPRINGS.
workmen would be obliged to train themselves anew to
work a different material from what they had previously
been accustomed to. But it is not certain that a higher
priced steel would increase the cost price of the springs;
for a better quality of metal would be found probably more
efficient and in that case a smaller quantity would suffice,
thus making up for the increase of price. It must seem
to every reasoner a paradox to assert that inferior metal is
more efficient than the best, when, for cross bows, which
have to sustain a severer trial than any to which coach
springs are opposed, the best shear steel is used.
The steel used by coach-smiths is prepared by rolling-
mills to any thickness and width required.
The nar-
rowest is about an inch and a half in width; the broadest,
about three inches. The thinnest is about one-eighth
of an inch; the thickest, about three-eighths to half
an inch.
A spring may be of two kinds,-double or single: i. e.
tapering in one direction from end to end, or tapering in two
Magazine on the subject of forging an anchor,—one of the most vivid
pieces of written painting he remembers ever to have seen. In the
older ages, when brute force obtained the mastery over mind, steel was
alike the instrument and emblem of power, and the two-edged pointed
sword, still borne by our statues of Justice, is a remnant of the olden
feeling. A blind figure wounding on all sides, might be consonant
to the old practice of making laws merely instruments of vengeance,
but does not well represent the modern feeling, fast gaining ground,
that laws should simply aim at restraint and correction. The pre-
cious metals, and the paper which represents them, are the modern
emblems of power; but the real power resides, as of old, in steel.
Steel digs the gold and the silver from the debris and from the hard
heart of the mountain; and steel cuts the metal from which the paper
is engraved. It were well, were it never applied to worse uses.
SPRINGS.
121
opposite directions from a common centre, as in a com-
mon crossbow. A spring composed of several plates, is hoop-
ed together with an iron hoop shrunk on hot, and riveted
through at the point of fulcrum, whether it be double or
single. The plate which forms the back of the spring
is generally made thicker than the others, for two reasons:
-first, that the bolt-eyes are generally formed in it, for
the purpose of suspension; and next, that it is the
longest plate. In carpentry it is found that the longer
the beam, the greater must be the thickness, and a given
proportion between length and thickness is maintained
throughout. The spring-makers recognise this principle in
their longest plate, but they do not keep it up through-
out; for though the longest plate is thicker than the rest,
all the others are mostly alike in thickness, though their
length gradually diminishes.
The process of making a straight double spring of four
or more plates to cross an axle at right angles is as
follows:-
The back plate being cut to the proper length, the
ends are slightly tapered in the direction of their thick-
ness, by the hammer, and curled round a mandril
of the size of the suspension bolt. The side which fits
against the other plates is then technically "middled:"
i. e. it is hollowed by hammering so that the centre may
be sunk below the edges. The next plate is then cut
as long nearly as the first, and the ends are tapered
down; after which it is "middled" on both sides. A slit
is then cut at each end, about an inch in length and
one quarter of an inch wide, in which a rivet head is
122
SPRINGS.
to slide and connect it with the first plate; so that which-
ever way the force or weight may act, these two plates
sustain each other. At a little distance from this rivet,
a stud is formed upon the under surface by a punch,
which forces out a protuberance, sliding in a slit in the
next plate; by which contrivance all the plates are re-
tained parallel while they work. The next plate is pre-
pared in precisely the same manner, with the exception
that it is from three to four inches shorter at either end;
and so on with as many plates as the spring may hap-
pen to consist of. The last one, like the first, is only
"middled” on one side.
The plates being all prepared to shape, they are heated
to the requisite degree by drawing them through a hollow
fire; when they are plunged into water. This is called
technically “hardening." They are then drawn through
the fire again, the workman occasionally rubbing a piece of
stick over their surface till every part is of equal heat and
will kindle the stick to a blaze. This is technically called
"tempering." After this, the warps which the plates may
have received in hardening are set straight by blows of a
hammer; the workman taking care to have the plates
slightly warm while doing it, to avoid the risk of break-
ing. This is technically called "setting." The plates
are then filed in all parts exposed to view ; i. e. the edges
and points of the middle plates, the top and edges of the
back plate, and the top and edges of the shortest plate.
They are then put together, a square hoop is shrunk on
hot, and a rivet being passed through it connecting all the
plates with it, the spring is complete. After this mode
SPRINGS.
123
all carriage springs are made, whether they be straight or
circular, double or single, the only difference being that
the circular spring requires more setting.
It is evident that the whole process of spring-making is
defective. In the first place, the plates should be tapered
from the hoop to the points; which they are not, but merely
at the points. In the next place, the plates should bear flat
on each other throughout their width; which they do not,
and being thinner in the middle than at the edges, they
are more likely to break. In the next place, not being
tempered in a large fire with a measured and accurate de-
gree of heat, but depending entirely on the eye and skill
of the workman, it is evident that they must be liable to
inaccuracy. Setting" also is partial breakage; i. e. the
fibres are unduly strained.
66
Small articles, such as gunlock springs, are heated after
hardening till they will blaze tallow or oil; and they are
kept at this heat upwards of an hour, to ensure accuracy.
Saw blades are tempered as accurately as watch or clock
springs; and coach springs will not be perfect till similar
modes shall be resorted to. The spring plates ought to be
first forged, truly tapered, then "set" and ground to level
surfaces, then tempered as sword blades are done.
The mode in which springs are at present constructed
ensures their quick destruction. It is evident that the
"middling" process produces a large hollow space between
every two plates. Into these recesses the rain or the
washing water finds its way, and forms a magazine of rust,
eating away the hardened surface, in which most of the elas-
ticity of the plates resides. The elasticity of a spring plate
124
SPRINGS.
somewhat resembles the elasticity of a common cane, which
resides in the silex or hard covering. This silex being
removed, the cane becomes non-elastic, and capable of per-
manently altering its form. A similar process it is which
causes old springs to become soft and devoid of elasticity.*
The appearance of rust oozing out at the edges, which is
the case with all springs, is very unsightly. To prevent
this, some builders require their spring-makers to paint the
inner sides of the plates before putting together; but this
is of little avail: it serves to impede the free action of
the springs while it lasts, and soon getting partially rubbed
off, rust is at full liberty to work the work of decompo-
sition. A far better plan would be, to cleanse the surface
of the plates by means of acid, and then tin them all over :
the process would not be very expensive. It has fre-
quently been remarked that carriage springs in action yield
more in wet weather than in dry. This may be very easily
accounted for. The plates act by rubbing against each
other's surfaces. In dry weather there is much friction by
reason of the rust; but when the rain gets in between the
plates, it serves to lubricate them.
the el-
The names given to carriage springs are numerous; but
the simple forms are few, the greater part of the varieties
being combinations of the simple ones. The simple forms
are, the straight spring, either single or double,
liptic formed spring, either single or double,—the regular
curved spring, either single or double,—the reverse curved
spring, either single or double,—and the spiral spring.
* The mere polishing the blue colour off a watch spring is suffici-
ent to destroy its perfect action.
SPRINGS.
125
Examples of the straight spring may be found in the
modern Phaeton, the Tilbury, and in the Curricle pole,
where it is suspended from the steel bar over the horses'
backs. The technical name is "Single Elbow Spring."
Examples of the double straight spring may be found in
most two-wheeled carriages, where it is fixed across the
axle at right angles. It is also used in the Omnibus, the
Stage-coach, the Cabriolet, Dennet, Stanhope, Tilbury, and
many other vehicles. The technical name is "Double El-
bow Spring." A similar spring of one plate is also used
as a splintre for horses to draw from.
The elliptic spring is used single, in what are called un-
der-spring carriages, where the spring rests on the axle,
and is connected with the frame-work by means of a dumb
or imitation spring so as to form a double or complete
ellipse. This is technically called an "Under Spring."
When four of these springs are hinged together in pairs
so as to form perfect ellipses, they form four springs all
working together. They are used principally for four-
wheeled carriages without perches. Eight springs or four
ellipses constitute a set. The technical name is "Nut-
cracker Spring."
The regular curved single spring is in form generally,
two-thirds of a circle lengthened out into a tangent, which
serves as a base to fix it by, in an upright position. A
leathern brace is suspended from it to carry the body or
weight. Its general figure has caused it to acquire the
technical name of "C Spring."
The regular double curved spring is now rarely used. Its
form is three-fourths of a circle, fixed with the open space
126
SPRINGS.
upwards, a leathern brace being suspended from the two
points to carry the body or weight between them. This
spring is of double weight without any corresponding ad-
vantage, and to get sufficient length for play, requires an
unusually long carriage. The technical name is "Double
C Spring.
Examples of the single reverse-curved spring may be
found in the old-fashioned Phaeton fore springs, in the fore
springs of the Tilbury, and also of the Cabriolet. They
were also used formerly as "body springs" to fix to the
body in lieu of suspension brackets or loops. Ere C
Springs were used, they were applied as upright springs to
Coaches and Chariots, under the technical name of "S
Springs;" in which case, leathern braces were attached to
them, and they were supported by a bracket or buttress of
iron called the "Spring Stay." The "Whip Spring,"
which succeeded them, and has yet only been partially
superseded by the C Spring, was used in the same way.
The hind springs of Mr. Russell's steam carriage are the
only example of the double reversed curve, fixed by the
centre, and acting in opposite directions.
The examples of the spiral spring in old-fashioned car-
riages are found interposed between the leathern braces,
serving as a sort of elastic bracket to keep them apart, so
that they lengthen and shorten in the working. The other
example is in the spring cushions of modern carriages.
Both these springs are alike defective, on two accounts.
In the first place, the brace spiral, instead of being cylindri-
cal in form, was a double cone, largest at the centre; and
next, being screwed firmly at the ends by screws, it could
not play without straining the metal. The cushion spring
SPRINGS.
127
also is a double cone, with the smallest part in the middle.
These are also fastened between two frames covered with
strained canvass, to which the ends are firmly sewed, and
consequently they cannot act without straining the metal.
These springs are not made of steel wire, which is found
to break, but of iron wire, which, owing to its toughness,
will bear the strain of its metal for a long time without
breaking. But the ultimate coonsequence is, that after a
period they require to be renewed.
To understand the principle on which a spiral spring
acts, we must imagine it stretched out into a straight line.
If it were then suspended by the centre, the two ends would
play freely beneath weights placed on them adapted to
their strength. But if the spring were suspended firmly
by the two ends at fixed points, and the same weight were
placed in the centre, it would not play at all. If suffi-
cient weight were added, and concussion employed, it would
break down. When the straight rod is turned into a spi-
ral, its mode of action is not altered; it continues to act in
the direction of its length, though that length is laid in a
coil. It is therefore of as much importance that the ends
of a spiral should be left free, as the ends of a straight
spring; and if they be fixed and sufficient force applied,
they must break. And it is not sufficient that the ends
be free to ensure a perfect action: the spiral should be
regular and of a cylindrical form, or the strain would not
be on all parts alike. The child's spiral spring-gun is a
familiar illustration of the mode in which this spring can
best act.
:
The combinations of springs used in carriages to which
technical names have been given are eight in number:
128
SPRINGS.
The Nutcracker,
Telegraph,
Old Phaeton,
Tilbury,
Modern Phaeton or Mail,
Dennet,
Cabriolet,
Underspring with dumb iron.
Nutcracker Springs, as before described, are a combina-
tion of ellipses.
:
Telegraph Springs are a combination of straight springs,
eight in number when used for four-wheeled carriages, four
at each end. Two springs are fixed longitudinally on the
framework, and two transverse ones are suspended from
them by shackles on the latter the weight rests. From
the small space they occupy, they are constantly used in
stage-coaches. They are not easy without a great weight
on them; but they have the advantage that the body is
thus placed two removes from the concussion. The two-
wheeled carriage called a Stanhope is suspended on four of
these springs.
The old Phaeton was an example of the combination of
the upright C, or S, or whip springs, with leathern braces
behind, and two pairs of single elbow or reverse-curved
springs before. In this carriage there are six springs
altogether.
The Tilbury Springs are a combination of two single
elbow springs attached to the body, suspended by leathern
braces to a straight transverse spring behind. In front,
two single elbow springs attached to the body serve to
SPRINGS.
129
suspend it from the shafts by a short leathern brace. In
addition to these springs, double elbow springs are some-
times interposed between the axle and the shafts. In this
case, seven springs are used. This mode of hanging is
unscientific, inconvenient, and unsightly, besides possess-
ing considerable extra weight.
The modern Phaeton Springs are a combination of the
Tilbury and Telegraph springs, the hinder part being sus-
pended like the hind part of a Tilbury, and the fore part
like a stage-coach. Seven springs are used in it.
The Dennet Springs are a combination of three straight
springs, two of them being placed across an axle at right
angles, and the third suspended from them by shackles
behind. The shafts are attached to the fore part of the
springs, as in the street Cabs.
The Cabriolet Springs are a combination of C springs
behind, with leathern braces, and two reverse-curved
springs suspended from the shafts before. Two double
elbow springs are also interposed between the shafts and
the axle. This is altogether very heavy, owing to the
size of the springs.
The Under-spring Carriage Springs are a combination
of C springs and leathern braces above the framing, and
single elliptic springs and dumb irons upon the axles
beneath it.
The last combination is the most effective which has
yet been discovered for producing the minimum of con-
cussion or motion to the passengers; but the weight is so
considerable, that of late many persons prefer to have car-
riages suspended on the double elliptic springs alone.
K
130
SPRINGS.
When carriages were first used, roads and pavements
were so rough, that long leathern braces attached to upright
springs were the only available means of avoiding concus-
sion; but Macadamisation in modern times has contrived
to make streets and roads as level as bowling greens, so
that the elliptic springs are now nearly as easy as springs
and braces formerly were. The modern circular spring,
with its long brace, yields a universal motion before, be-
hind, upwards, downwards, and sideways; and therefore,
weight apart, it is the best. Elliptic springs only yield
an up and down motion. Telegraph springs, by means of
the swinging shackles which connect them together, have
to a small extent a universal motion; but elbow springs,
like the double elliptic, are confined to a vertical action.
The C spring and long brace is the best for the rider,
but not so well for the horse; for although an elastic car-
riage of equal weight with a non-elastic one is far the easi-
est to draw, still that is when the elasticity does not cause
much momentum, as is the case when a heavy body swings
loosely on leathern braces.
It has been remarked that accidents from breakage
rarely occur in C springs, but frequently in elliptic and
double elbow springs. And moreover, these accidents, con-
trary to apparent probability, happen more commonly with
light carriages than with heavy ones. The reason, how-
ever, is an obvious one. The elliptic and elbow springs
are firmly bolted both to the axle and the framework.
Their strength lies in the direction of the downward pres-
sure, and a heavy framework always keeps them to their
work in that direction. But light carriages, after a violent
SPRINGS.
131
concussion downwards, experience as violent a rebound
upwards, when all the weight is thrown on one or at most
two plates, instead of the whole, and of course the liability
to break is increased. To diminish this chance as much
as possible, these springs are in the best carriages not
bolted through their substance, but fixed with clips,
which avoid the necessity for drilling holes in them. The
clips are however very unsightly, and a better mode is, to
drill them and screw the nuts down on a strong short plate
equivalent to the casual strain. Sometimes these springs
break because the end hinge bolt holes are not truly bored.
But carriages will not be perfect till springs shall be de-
vised, which, without causing momentum, shall yield a
universal motion, acting at the same time by suspension
and also by pressure; resisting an upward or lateral re-
bound as well as a downward concussion, and capable of
adjustment to light and heavy weights. When a wheel
revolves, the obstacles it encounters communicate a shock
in the direction of the length of the carriage, as well as
upwards and diagonally.
The combinations of springs most commonly used have
been described; but out of the simple forms a great num-
ber of changes of combinations may be devised.
K 2
132
CHAPTER IX.
Iron-work. -Cranes.-Perch Plates.-Loops.-Stays.-Plates.—
Hoops.-Clips.-Bolts.- Steps. - Treads.―Joints.-Shackles.-
Jacks.-Qualities of Iron.-Plated Work.-Beading.-Lamps.-
Dress Lamps.-Wax Candles.-Oil Lamps for travelling.—Ar-
gand Lamps. Cochrane's Patent Lamps.-Principles of Com-
bustion.
In addition to the axles and springs, a large quantity
of expensive iron-work is used in carriages; the principal
cause of which expense is not the material, but the highly
skilled labour which is necessary in preparing it.
The most expensive articles are iron Perches or cranes;
the use of which is to allow the fore wheels to turn beneath
them, to gain space in narrow streets. But such weighty
and unsightly encumbrances are no longer necessary, as
roads and streets are now made wide enough for conve-
nience, unlike the mere lanes and bridle-paths of former
days.
The articles next in expense are the long broad
plates riveted to perches on either side, to prevent them
from breaking by the strain of an unequal surface of
ground, as the curved form of the perch cuts the grain
of the timber across and disposes it to break with facility.
These plates being exposed to view, as forming a con-
spicuous line in the carriage, are necessarily very nicely
IRON-WORK.
133
wrought. Another plate, of rougher construction, is bolt-
ed to the bottom of the perch.
The article next in expense is the Wheel Plate, or cir-
cular iron on which the fore carriage turns. This also
requires very accurate workmanship.
The Loops, which serve to suspend the body, require
exceeding good workmanship, for they are curved in many
opposite directions, are tapered, and irregularly formed
every way, yet requiring to have bearing bolts accurately
adjusted, and sundry contrivances for affixing iron-work to
them, and all this without a single straight side for the
maker to work from. They are samples of great mecha-
nical skill and dexterity of hand.
Other carriage iron-work generally is divided into Stays,
Plates, Hoops, Clips, Bolts, Steps, Treads, Joints,
Shackles, Jacks.
Stays, are iron brackets of various forms, bolted by
their extremities to such parts as they are intended to
sustain, without bearing throughout their whole length.
Plates, are irons which bear throughout their length
and breadth on the part they are intended to strengthen,
and to which they are fastened by bolts, screws, or rivets.
Hoops, are flat straps of iron riveted or welded to-
gether for the purpose of securing timbers together side
by side.
Clips, are a kind of open hoops, the ends of which are
formed into screw bolts to take nuts. The object they are
used for is to screw springs and axles in their places with-
out the necessity of drilling holes through their substance.
Bolts, are cylindrical pieces of iron of various sizes,
134
IRON-WORK.
one end of which is flattened out to form a head, and
the other is formed into a screw to receive a nut. The
use to which they are applied, is to secure the iron-work
and heavy framework.
Steps may be single, double, or treble. In the two
latter cases, they are called folding steps, and may
be made to shut inside the body or outside. Outside,
they are frequently very unsightly; and if they be well
managed, they do not incommode the sitters inside.
Treads, are small single steps a few inches square, fixed
for the most part on a single iron stem.
Joints, are jointed iron stays made in the form of the
letter S, and serve to keep the leathern heads or hoods
of open carriages stretched firmly out, when shade or
shelter is required.
Shackles, are iron staples which serve to receive the
leathern suspension braces on the springs, and also to
couple springs together.
Jacks, are small windlaces which serve to receive the
ends of the leathern suspension braces after passing around
the backs of the springs. By means of a wrench or winch
handle, the jack may be wound up or let down so as
to shorten or lengthen the brace.
The variety of small articles of iron-work used in car-
riages would occupy a catalogue merely to enumerate,
and they are not of material importance enough to dwell
upon, more especially as many of them are used in other
branches of art as well as carriage building. The greatest
improvement in minor articles for carriages which has
taken place of late years is in the door hinges, which,
IRON-WORK.
135
instead of projecting from the panel, and giving admis-.
sion to water, and being exposed to rust and rot, as for-
merly, are now entirely concealed beneath the surface
by being made to turn upon excentric centres. Yet,
strange to say, these hinges were invented many years be-
fore they were brought into use; and this was owing partly
to the inaccuracy of their construction, and partly to the
skill it was necessary for the workmen to acquire, in order
to ensure their accurate insertion. They, however, re-
quire very large timber framings to insert them in.
For the security of carriage iron-work, two qualities are
required in the metal,-toughness and rigidity. If it
be not tough and fibrous, it will snap short; and if it be
not rigid, great additional thickness, and consequently
weight, will be required to prevent it from bending. For
this reason it would be advantageous to use spring-steel
in lieu of iron, for many portions of the work, and espe-
cially the plates, as its superior rigidity would enable the
work to be executed with greater lightness, and the lesser
amount of weight would partly compensate for the dif-
ference in value of the material.
Two modes are resorted to in order to secure the iron
and steel work of carriages from rusting; viz. covering
their surfaces with paint, or with metal not subject to
rust. Steel springs are always painted; though there
would be no difficulty in plating them and it would
be a far better mode of securing them against rust, for
those to whom expense were not an objection. Carriage
iron-work is always plated when it is wished to make
it ornamental ;-in which case it is first covered with a
136
IRON-WORK.
·
coat of tin laid on by means of a soldering iron with
rosin and a small portion of sal-ammoniac, which promotes
union between the two metals. The tin being smoothed,
a portion of silver or brass rolled exceedingly thin is laid
on, and by means of the soldering iron it is made to
adhere to the tin; more of the silver is then added to
join the first by the edges, till the whole surface is covered.
It is then burnished and polished by means of proper tools.
All articles of iron requiring to be covered with silver
are treated in the same way; small articles of or-
nament in brass, which do not require strength, are cut
in solid metal, as it is cheaper by the saving in labour;
but for heavy articles, the weight of metal would much
enhance the price, supposing strength not to be required.
Wheel-nave hoops, axle-tree caps, loops, brace buckles,
check rings, and door handles, are covered with brass or
silver in highly-ornamented carriages; in ordinary ones,
the loops and wheel-nave hoops are painted.
The beading which is used to cover seams and joints,
is of three kinds: brass, copper, and plated copper. It
is formed of stripes of rolled metal drawn into a semicir-
cular or angular form by means of a die, the hollow space
being filled with solder, into which small pins of point-
ed wire are fixed to attach it by. The brass beading is
polished; the copper is painted, for which purpose the
surface is roughened. As the quantity of beading used
is very considerable, the labour of silvering by means of
a soldering iron would be too great, and therefore the
plated or silvered beading is prepared from metal silvered
in the sheet. The process is very simple:-A bar of
LAMPS.
137
1
copper being made flat, a bar of silver of the requisite
size is united to it by heat. They are then passed
through the rolls together, and occasionally annealed in
the fire till the requisite thickness is attained, the two
metals spreading equally. This kind of metal is much
used in the manufacture of carriage lamps.
Several kinds of Lamps are used in carriages, both as
regards principle of construction, as well as form and orna-
ment. In the simplest kind, the light is furnished by the
combustion of wax candles, which are contained in tin
tubes, through a hole in the upper part of which the wick
passes, the candle being pressed upwards as fast as it con-
sumes, by a spiral spring. In what are called dress car-
riages, when the lamps are very ornamental, the sides
being composed principally of glass, wax candles are al-
ways used on account of their superior cleanliness, though
their light is inferior to oil.
Lamps used for the purpose of travelling are mostly used
with oil. Indeed, the proper meaning of the word lamp is,
a vehicle in which oil may be burnt by means of a wick.
But amongst carriage constructors, what is commonly un-
derstood by a lamp is, the frame and glass which shelters the
light from the weather, without regard to the light itself:
this is, properly speaking, the lanthorn or guard. Dress
lamps are of a circular form; but travelling lamps are
square, and so contrived with slides or shutters, that they
may be blind by day for the greater security of the glass,
and only show their interior by night. The lamp itself is
commonly a round wick of the most ordinary kind, though
sometimes flat for the sake of spreading the flame. Re-
138
LAMPS.
flectors of many kinds are used in every variety of car-
riage lamps, formed of silvered metal highly burnished.
Attempts have been made to use the Argand lamp with
a current of air through the wick, but hitherto without
sufficient success to bring them into general use, as it is
found that they are liable to be suddenly extinguished by
violent draughts of wind. There is, however, little doubt
that this will ultimately be accomplished, when the philo-
sophical principles of combustion and the regulation of
the draught shall be better understood. There are, how-
ever, some difficulties to be overcome.
By a common lamp, is understood one that feeds the
wick with oil by capillary attraction, the column of oil
being below the level of the flame. An Argand lamp, on
the contrary, has a column of oil considerably above the
level of the flame, and constantly pressing upwards to it
like a fountain. The motion of a carriage has a tendency
o make the oil at times flow too rapidly, and extinguish
the flame, and sometimes also to cause too sudden a gush
of air up the central tube, which blows away the flame
from the wick. And when these difficulties are overcome
by ingenuity, the lamps become too complicated for the
skill of the generality of servants into whose charge they
are committed. This is the greatest difficulty of all; but,
fortunately, it is one which will be overcome with the pro-
gress of time. The light yielded by the Argand lamp is so
infinitely superior to that of candles, or any other light
save gas, that it is now universally used in houses by all
who can afford it, and of course the skill to trim it must
exist within the walls of dwellings. To transfer this
LAMPS.
139
skill to the stable and coach-house cannot be a matter of
insurmountable difficulty.
The principle of constructing an Argand lamp so that
it may regulate its own air-draught, is set forth by Lord
Cochrane in one of his patents. It is to divide the lamp
into three chambers;-one in the centre which contains
the reflectors and light, surrounded by the chimney glass,
and having a communication with the other two. A cham-
ber above this receives the top of the chimney glass,
and is pierced with holes at the sides to permit the egress
of the heated air and the ingress of the atmospheric
air. From this chamber a tube or tubes communicate
with the lower chamber, into which the air-tube of the
burner descends, and thus furnishes a regulated supply of
air. It is evident that by this process the air rushing in
must be regulated by the air rushing out, and vice versâ.
The flame of a lamp is not produced by oil or tallow
alone; it requires the oxygen of the atmosphere to mingle
with it. Without a supply of oxygen it would be extin-
guished; and herein consists the advantage of the Argand
lamp in furnishing atmospheric air in the centre of a flame.
The flame arising from a thick wick, either round or flat,
is hollow; i. e. it is a film of light like a bladder, and not
continuous, the inner portion of the bladder being filled
with gas.
It is well known that if the flames of two candles be
brought in contact, they will produce a greater intensity
of light than if they be burned separately. Upon this
principle what are technically termed "cobblers' candles"
are made. For the same reason, lamps are sometimes made
140
LAMPS.
to burn two or three wicks, placed just so far apart that
the flames may come in contact. This is an approximation
to the Argand principle, by admitting air between them.
But there is one difficulty attending them, viz. the regu-
lating the wicks all to an equal height, which would be
considerable, unless the lamp were so contrived that all
could be regulated by one movement. If this difficulty
should be overcome, a very excellent lamp might be made
by placing four wicks in a square.
It is too early yet to look forward to the time when
portable gas will be burnt in carriage lamps, at least for
anything but town use. But the time will come when
gas will be kept at inns as an article of consumption for
travellers, as commonly as axle oil or grease.
141
CHAPTER X.
Construction of a Carriage.Length.-Height of Wheels.-Dishing
of Wheels. -Axle Arms.-Springs. -Lock of Front Wheels.-
Springs.-Lock
Splintre Bar.-Timber.-Construction of a Body.- Painting.-
Iron-work.-Trimming.-Carriage Frame-work and Iron-work.-
Leathern Braces.-Hanging the Body.-Dress Carriage.-Seat and
Hammer-cloth.-Hind Standard.-Open and Close Carriages.
In commencing the construction of a carriage there are
several points to consider :-first, the purpose to which it
is to be applied; and next, the amount of power which is to
be applied to draw it ;-in other words, the size and strength
of the horses. It is a generally-received opinion, that the
shorter the carriage, the lighter it will run. In surmount-
ing the angle of a ridge, this is undoubtedly the case; but
on a straight hill side or on level ground, a long carriage
and a short one must be alike in friction, provided the
total amount of weight and all other circumstances be
equally balanced.
The next consideration is the height of the wheels. On
level ground, a horse will draw a vehicle with the greatest
facility when the centre of the wheel is a trifle lower than
the point of draught, viz. the point where the traces are
affixed to the collar; but this in practice would be found
inconvenient, inasmuch as a rider would be unable to enter
the vehicle save from behind, and moreover the height of
•
142
CONSTRUCTION OF A CARRIAGE.
the axle would necessitate a corresponding and inconvenient
height in the rider's seat. For this reason, the total height
of the wheels of two-wheeled vehicles is usually made to
vary from three feet to four feet six inches. It must be
borne in mind, that a low wheel on a very level road,—a
rail-road, for example,—may be more efficient than a higher
wheel on a rough and uneven road. But on the same road
and with an equal load, the high wheel is that which re-
quires the smallest amount of power to turn it.
It would be a desirable thing that the wheels of four-
wheeled carriages should all be of equal height, in order
that the friction and power might be equal; but this is
prevented by the existing mode of construction, which has
prescribed one only mode of making the lock or turn. It
is evident, therefore, that the height of the fore wheels must
be regulated by the height at which the body hangs, so that
the wheel may pass beneath it without striking when the
springs play. In practice, this height varies from two feet
to three feet eight inches, according to the kind of carriage
the wheels are intended for. The hind wheels
·
three feet to four feet eight inches.
vary from
The next point is the dishing of the wheel, which is ne-
cessary for the four purposes of-strength-to take the strain
off the nuts, also to throw off the mud, and prevent it
from clogging either the wheel or body,—and also to give
greater space between the wheels upwards, while the track is
not increased. Whatever be the amount of the dishing or
coning, which varies from an inch and a half up to two inches
and a half, one rule should always be adhered to; viz. to
make the lower spokes vertical with the horizontal plane,
CONSTRUCTION OF A CARRIAGE.
143
both in the fore and hind wheels. The axles being then
made both of a length, the hind wheels-if coned at the
same angle-will follow in the track of the fore ones.
Long practice has verified the theory that a cylindrical
arm will carry a wheel with less friction than a conical one;
yet there are persons who from the dished form of the
wheel extract the semblance of an argument in favour of a
conical arm.
A horizontal axle, it is clear, runs with less
friction than one which dips; but with a dished wheel it is
necessary to have a pitched or dipping arm. If therefore
the arm were made conical so that the bottom of it might
become horizontal, it is clear that a dished wheel would
not be liable to run hard against the shoulder collar. The
argument seems plausible, but it is fallacious, inasmuch as
the curving of the arm would reduce the front bearing sur-
face so much, that the oil would be squeezed out, and it
would run dry. The action would thus be unequal, and
the total amount of friction would be increased.
The next point to settle is the form, combination, and
proportions of the springs. Springs which are laid upon
the axle at right angles have to carry all the weight of the
carriage save only the wheels and axles. Where other
springs are used in addition, it is not necessary that the axle
springs should have much play: it is sufficient if they vi-
brate slightly so as to intercept the concussion from the
road. The strength of the springs ought to be adjusted
to the weight they are intended to carry; for it is evident
that if they be made sufficiently elastic for the weight of
six persons, and only three enter the carriage, the springs
will be found too hard. Yet this disadvantage carriages
144
CONSTRUCTION OF A CARRIAGE.
labour under: that the load is sometimes made to vary
from two persons to six or seven, and a large quantity of
luggage. In this case, the only remedy is to make the
springs sufficiently strong to carry the greatest weight
which is likely to be put upon them, and then, if their
hardness be complained of with a light load, to add ballast
in the shape of leaden weights till they be brought down
to their work. It is probable that in time carriage springs
will be used, capable of adjustment according as their load be
light or heavy; but meanwhile there is no better remedy
than ballast, for carriages intended to carry unequal weights.
Light carriages are never so easy to ride in as heavy ones,
even when the springs are proportionately adjusted; for the
concussion of a rough road takes more effect on a light
carriage in causing rebound, than it does on a heavy one.
The next consideration in a four-wheeled carriage is the
lock of the front wheels, which must of course depend on
the length of the axles, or width the wheels are apart.
This in a full-sized carriage is from four feet six inches to
five feet. The fore wheels will therefore strike the perch
at the distance of two feet three or six inches from the
perch bolt. The body therefore must be so hanged that
it may not approach within eight or ten inches of this spot,
in order to prevent it from striking the front wheel when
on the lock.
The height of the splintre bar from the ground should
fall on a straight line drawn from the horse's shoulder to
the centre of the hind wheel. This, however, is not always
convenient in practice, as the fore wheels regulate the
height of the framing of the under carriage, to which the
CONSTRUCTION OF A CARRIAGE.
145
splintre bar is affixed. The distance of the splintre bar
from the central pin or perch bolt is regulated by the size
of the wheels, and the projection of the driving-seat foot-
board.
The ash timber of which carriages are built is allowed
to lie some time after falling. It is then cut by hand into
planks of different thicknesses, from six inches to an inch
and a half, which are piled one on another, with flat sticks
between, and left to dry a sufficient time. As the forms
of carriage timbers are for the most part irregular, machi-
nery has not yet been introduced for the purpose of sawing
them.
When the plank is dry, the softer portions are set apart
for body work, and the tougher for carriage work. The
different portions being marked out on the planks by pat-
terns, they are cut out at the saw-pit or saw-bench, care
being taken to adapt the circular shapes to the natural
curves of the wood. In this state the timber mostly un-
dergoes another drying process. The chariot body maker
having sorted out the right number of pieces, planes a flat
side to each of them, from which all the other sides, whe-
ther straight or circular, are worked. They are then
framed and scarfed together; after which the grooves are
formed for the panels and rebates for the floor, and then
the carver beads and carves the various parts. Previous to
being fitted in, some of the panels have canvass glued firmly
on their backs; and when in their places, blocks are glued
all round their inside edges, to fix them firmly to the fram-
ing. Before the upper panels are put in, the roof is
nailed on, and all the joints stuck over with glued blocks
L
*
146
CONSTRUCTION OF A CARRIAGE.
inside. The roof is then painted, and a hide of undressed
leather is strained on wet, nailed, and left to shrink. The
upper panels are then put on, united together at the
corners, and blocked. Such panels as require much bend-
ing are wetted on one side, and held over a flame or heated
surface on the other. In this mode the thin board which
covers the sword case is bent to its shape. Formerly it was
the custom to cover the roof, upper panels, and sword-
case, all with a single piece of leather; but now it is only
considered necessary to cover the roof, a piece of fine linen
being glued over the surface of the sword-case board, which
also has canvass glued inside. The doors are then made
and hinged, and the hollow spaces intended to hold the
glasses and blinds are covered in with thin boards; and the
whole being complete, the body is given in charge to the pain-
ter, who colours it over with a paint composed of white lead
and litharge outside, and also paints the whole of the glued
canvass inside with coarse colour, to prevent damp from
acting on it. Coats after coats of white lead and yellow
ochre, to the number of six or seven, are then applied as
fast as they can be laid on; and then they are left for two
or three weeks, if there be time, to harden. When hard,
the whole is rubbed down with pumice stone and water to
a smooth surface, the grain of the wood being entirely
covered and hidden. One or two coats of white or lead
colour are then applied, which are afterwards smoothed with
sand paper, and then one or two coats of green, brown, or
yellow, or whatever colour is intended, are laid on, till the
whole appears one homogeneous surface. The framings are
then blacked; and when dry, the clearest copal body var-
CONSTRUCTION OF A CARRIAGE.
147
nish is applied, to the number of six coats, over the coloured
parts; and several coats of black japan are applied to the
roof, upper panels, and sword case, ending with a coat or
two of varnish. The whole is then suffered to harden.
The process of polishing the varnish is put off as long as
possible. The loops and other iron-work are then fitted,
filed, and japanned black, if they be not intended to be
plated with silver or brass.
The body then goes to the trimmer or liner, and the
inside seats are either caned or nailed over with strained
girth web. Canvass is then nailed over some of the uneven
portions, and wadded with tow. Certain parts, such as the
doors, pillars, and roof, are covered with cloth; and valances
of fluted cloth are made to hang from the seat edge to the
flooring. Lace, composed of silk, worsted, or of both com-
bined, is applied in various ways as a binding. It is di-
vided into three qualities:-broad, which is about two
inches in width; pasting lace, which is half an inch broad,
and serves to cover rows of tack heads; and seaming lace,
which is applied to cover coarsely-sewn edges. It was
formerly a custom to use cloth only as a lining; but now,
the seat cushions, and those for the back and sides, are
covered with silk or morocco. The back and side cushions
are stuffed with horsehair only, as the pressure is not
great upon them; and the back of them is only canvass, as
they are fixed in their places. But the seat cushions being
moveable, they are covered with cloth on one side, and silk
or morocco on the other. Being subject to much pressure,
they are made firm round the edges with tow and flocks,
horsehair being applied at the top. To make the cush-
L 2
148
CONSTRUCTION OF A CARRIAGE.
ions more firm, they have strings tied at various parts
through their thickness, the strings being hidden by tufts.
of silk or worsted. The folding steps are then trimmed
with carpet and morocco, and a carpet is fitted to the bot-
tom or floor, when the body is ready to place on the car-
riage, after the plater has put on the beads, door handles,
and check brace rings, and any other ornamental work
which may
be required.
The process with the carriage part is simpler. The
workman first planes a flat side to the perch, and then
tapers it narrower behind than before. He then works up
the top and bottom curves, or some portions of them, and
frames on the front and hind spring beds. A pair of
spreading wings are then fitted to the sides of the perch,
and their hinder ends are framed through the hind spring
bed. The hind axle-tree bed is then scarfed upon the top
of the perch and wings, and is connected with the hind
spring bed by two small framing pieces called nunters. At
the fore end of the perch, a cross bed, called a horn bar, is
scarfed on the perch, at the same distance from the fore
spring bed as the hind axle bed is from the hind spring
bed, viz. the length of the spring bearing-about fifteen
inches. The horn bar is connected with the fore spring
bed by the two spring blocks, which are either framed into
them or scarfed down on them, and also by the hooping
piece, which is scarfed on the top of the perch. The perch
and wings are then planed together to the proper curve,
and the perch is taken to the smith, who fits and rivets on
the side plates, which have ears at the ends to bolt them
to the beds. The carver then does his work, by beading
CONSTRUCTION OF A CARRIAGE.
149
the perch, wings, and beds, and rounding all the ends into
Ionic scrolls and volutes. A bottom plate with a drag
hook riveted in it having been fitted to the perch, the
hind framing is now put together, screw bolts securing the
tenons and mortices, and light iron hoops fixing the wings
to the perch, which are rebated to receive the perch plates.
The hooping piece is then hooped in a similar way to the
fore end of the perch, and the transom firmly bolted. The
carriage is then turned bottom upwards, and the smith fits
to it the wheel plate or turning iron, across which runs a
broad plate the width and length of the fore spring bed. A
similar broad plate runs across the hind spring bed. The
hind axle is then fitted to the wings and perch, and let into
its bed at the ends, where screw clips secure it, bolts passing
through the perch and wings, sometimes through the perch
alone. The carriage is again turned upwards, the wheel
plate is cased on the top with carved wood, and a plate is
riveted to the side of the horn bar; when the springs are
fitted to their blocks and bolted firmly down. Iron stays
are bolted to the springs beneath the beds to render
them still firmer. The footman's step, the tread steps for
the coachman to mount by, and other iron-work, are then
fixed, and the upper carriage is complete.
The under carriage is framed to the fore axle-tree bed,
which is a very heavy piece of timber. Through this are
framed the two futchells which receive the pole. The
upper part of the axle-tree bed is covered with a strong
plate to match the wheel plate. A circular piece of tim-
ber, called a sway bar, is bolted behind the axle-tree bed,
and this also is plated beneath for security. In front is a
150
CONSTRUCTION OF A CARRIAGE.
·
smaller piece of the same kind, and they both serve for the
circumference of the wheel plate to rest on.
The splintre
bar is bolted to the fore end of the futchells, and secured
by two branching stays, one at either end, connecting it with
the axle-tree bed. As an additional security, iron stays are
fitted to the bottoms of the futchells passing over the axle,
which, in addition to bolts, is secured by screw clips at the
ends, the same as the hind one.
The carriage here described is one without under-springs.
Where under-springs are used, the mode of construction is
the same, all but a few minutiæ, and a reduction of size in
the material on account of the concussion being removed.
The axles are in this case clipped to the under-springs,
which hinge to the dumb-irons, cased with wood to make
them resemble springs. This dumb-iron is bolted to the
framing.
Those who are familiar with the subject will at once
remark, that numerous minutiæ are omitted in this de-
scription; but to go through them would weary the rea-
der as much as the writer, and serve no useful purpose, as
it would scarcely serve to instruct one not previously fa-
miliar with the subject, how to construct a carriage. A
general outline of the form and structure is all that the
writer pretends to give.
The carriage being thus completed, the painter com-
mences with it. Two coats of white-lead and litharge
being applied, white or lead colour are again laid on to
make a ground work, which is smoothed with sand paper.
The colour it is intended to show is then laid on in two or
three coats. After this, it is lined or picked out, together
CONSTRUCTION OF A CARRIAGE.
151
with the wheels, which have undergone the same prepara-
tion. Three coats of copal varnish, of a tougher kind than
that applied to the bodies, completes the operation.
The next point to attend to is the hanging braces, for
which purpose the best and strongest leather is required.
But few persons are capable of judging of the quality of
leather without very long practice. The strongest mate-
rial for the purpose of suspension, is untanned hide soften-
ed by friction and well saturated with oil or tallow. But
this is elastic and very pervious to water. In this state it
is very liable to stretch and lengthen. The motive for
tanning leather, therefore, is to render it less pervious to
water, less elastic and more solid. But the lime and the
bark used in the process render the fibres of the hide brit-
tle; and thus the weight which a strap of leather will sus-
tain is many times less than that which a strap of the hide
it has been prepared from would have sustained. But alto-
gether the advantages are considered to be in favour of
leather, though probably its appearance is a chief considera-
tion. The best hide leather is that which is prepared in
the West of England. Sometimes leather is undertanned;
i. e. the interior of the hide remains in a gelatinous state,
uncombined with the tanning principle. In that case, it is
tough, but liable to stretch. Sometimes also, though not
often, the hides lie too long in the pits, and being over-
tanned, lose much of their tenacity, while they gain in soli-
dity. The best portion of the hide is what is called the
butt, after the belly and neck parts have been rounded off.
In preparing the braces, the butt is cut into straps slightly
wider than the spring, viz. two inches and three-eighths, or
152
CONSTRUCTION OF A CARRIAGE.
thereabouts. As many of these straps as are necessary for
the weight they have to bear, are then put together, ta-
pering from the hinder end to the other, which is turned
over into a loop to receive the suspension bolt, the ends
being tapered down one after the other with a spoke-
shave till the whole amalgamate neatly, forming at the
double, a thickness from one inch upwards. They are
then double sewed together with waxed hemp pointed with
blunted needles instead of bristles, as the holes are all
straight and pierced with an awl called a stabbing awl,
made in the form of a spear head. In what are called the
best braces, four rows of stitches are introduced, and the
stitches are crowded together as many as possible in the
space of an inch; which is a disadvantage, as the brace
is thus nearly severed longitudinally.
When the braces
are finished, the hinder end of each is fastened to a small
windlace called the jack, fixed to the bed of the spring,
and capable of being wound up by a lever. The upper
end of the brace is kept firm on the back of the spring by
a shackle near the top, which clips it round. In ordinary
carriages, these suspension braces, known as "Polignac
braces," are admitted in the loops' heads by taking out the
suspension bolts; but in ornamented carriages they are
made shorter, and between them and the loops are intro-
duced other braces, with large buckles, for the sake of
effect.
From the spring heads to the centre of the body, small
sewn straps called check braces hang in a low curve. They
are to prevent the body from swinging too far fore and aft.
From the perch to the bottom of the body, there is a
CONSTRUCTION OF A CARRIAGE.
153
strong brace on each side, called the collar brace, the ob-
ject of which is to resist any tendency of the body to
turn over, and break the springs by a reverse action in
case of violent concussion.
A very important point in the comfort and appearance
of the carriage is the mode in which the body hangs. It
should be so disposed between the four springs that the
door pillars stand perpendicular. To accomplish this, the
length of the loops and braces must be accurately adjusted,
so that the centre of suspension may fall in the right place.
Those who understand the operation can calculate it all
from the drawing; those who do not, hang the body down
by temporary loops, and get at the result by fourfold la-
bour and expense.
Of course it requires a correct eye to
know when the body hangs in the right place.
When the carriage is intended for dress or town use, a
Salisbury boot is fixed on carved blocks on the front beds.
This is a kind of egg-shaped trunk, with one end open, and
the other flattened diagonally to form a base. It is a heavy
frame of most expensive make, partly close and partly
open railed, and covered all over with black japanned lea-
ther. On the fore part of it a coachman's foot-board is
fixed, painted and varnished the colour of the carriage.
On two horns which project upwards from the boot are
fixed two branching stays to take the coachman's seat,—a
kind of wooden frame covered with canvass and baize, and
stuffed with straw, higher at the ends than in the middle, tò
give the coachman a firmner seat. This coarse-looking frame
is covered by the hammer-cloth, the colour of which some-
times harmonises with and sometimes forms an agreeable
154
CONSTRUCTION OF A CARRIAGE.
contrast to that of the paint. It is made of very strong cloth
stiffened with tarpaulin, canvass, and paste, and contrived to
hang in graceful massy folds. The upper edge has a single
row of broad lace round it; the lower edge is made some-
what to resemble an architectural basement, by three
rows of broad lace, or two rows of lace and one of deep
heavy fringe. The central compartment of the end folds,
usually receives a crest done in silver, brass, ivory, or
embroidery.
The hind standards and footman's holders being affixed,
as well as the lamps, and the wheels being oiled and regu-
lated, the carriage is ready for use.
With little difference such is the process through which
all carriages pass, from their first entrance into the coach-
maker's factory in the shape of material, till they leave it
in their most perfect condition. The varieties of carriages
are every day increasing as far as regards form, though the
general principles of construction remain the same. In
four-wheeled carriages there is one great distinction to be
made-those constructed with braces, and those without;
i.e. those bolted to the springs firmly, and those hanging
loosely from them. The carriages without braces are the
roughest, but also the lightest and least costly. There is
another distinction to be made: carriages which are open,
or made to open occasionally, and which are provided with
doors, must necessarily be heavier than close carriages, as
the bottom must be made strong enough to sustain its
weight and that of the passengers without any other fram-
ing. A Landau, for example, is much heavier than a
Coach, because it is necessary to sustain the bottom with
CONSTRUCTION OF A CARRIAGE.
155
heavy iron plates, in order that it may not alter its form
when the head is open, and thus prevent the doors from
opening and shutting. A Phaeton also may be made
much lighter than a Barouche or Britzschka; because
the two latter must have bottom plates, and the former
requires none.
Uorm
Maou
156
Invention.-
CHAPTER XI.
-Derivation of Carriages mostly Foreign.—Original In-
ventions and Improvements.-English Artists.—Patent Rights.—
Continental Artists.- Processes of Improvement.- Theory and
Practice.― Genius and Invention.—Wollaston.—Brindley.—Watt.
-Babbage.-Analysis of the Qualities developing Invention.-
Difficulties of Inventors. - Expense of Patents. Jealousy of
Rivals.—Combination of Carriage Forms and Proportions.-Taste
in Design.-Drawing.-Variety of Qualities necessary to conduct
a Carriage Manufactory.
ENGLISH carriage constructors are certainly not an in-
ventive race, if we allow that the names by which carriages
are known are indicative of their origin. Coach is de-
rived from the Hungarian Kotsee; Chariot is French;
Landau is German; Barouche and Britzschka are the
same; Vis-à-vis is French; Cabriolet is French; Chaise
is French; Droitzschka is German. Even the English
Curricle has a Latinized name; and the Phaeton takes its
designation from the heathen mythology. Whiskey,
Gig, Stanhope, Tilbury, Dennet, Buggy, and Jaunting
Car, are our only native names; and the first six are only
variations of the same thing.
But mere invention, mere original conception, does not
constitute excellence; and if foreigners may fairly lay
claim to the greatest originality, English artists have the
merit, perhaps still more important, of gradually improving
t.
INVENTION.
157
the original designs, and so contriving all the details, that,
in their state of comparative excellence, the carriages can
scarcely be recognised as constructions of the same prin-
ciple as their models. In order to verify this assertion, let
any man compare one of the German Britzschkas brought
over to England when peace was last proclaimed, with one
of the best constructed English Britzschkas of the present
day.
That English artists are not remarkable for the inven-
tion of new carriages, is no proof of their want of the talent
of invention. They have invention in abundance, if there
were sufficient motives to call it forth; but the fact is,
that invention is a matter but poorly paid for, unless it
can be effectually secured by patent right; and to make a
patent profitable, several things are requisite:-first, to
produce an article for which there is a considerable demand;
secondly, that it be an article of such a nature that it can-
not be pirated under the form of what are called "im-
provements ;" and thirdly, that the material of which it is
composed be in sufficient abundance to prevent its being
monopolised. That considerable improvements may yet
be made in wheel carriages, no sensible person will be
hardy enough to deny; but very rare indeed are those
for which a patent right could be maintained. English
artists are mostly little more than merchants in their mode
of doing business; they cannot afford to lose time, and
their principal object is to make as large an annual return
as possible, and as large a profit as possible on that return.
Continental artists are very commonly enthusiastic lovers
of their art; they try to improve it from liking for it, and
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when they fail, it is mostly from want of efficient workmen
to further their designs. The demand with them is not
sufficient to make every branch of their art a manufacture.
In England, on the contrary, the manufacture of carriages
is a work of many trades, and thus greater skill is pro-
duced in manipulation. But few carriage builders care to
introduce anything new. If chance brings in a new fashion,
competition is aroused, and does not subside till excellence
or something approaching thereunto be attained. A fo-
reign artist has mostly abundance of leisure time for his
invention to work; but if an English artist attempts to
invent, his trade stops, and he will probably be designated
for his pains by the contemptuous epithet of "schemer,"
even though his genius be that of a Watt.
The ordinary
measure of talent is held to be success, i. e. the acquisition
of property; though it is quite clear, the qualities which
ensure success are not always those which tend to produce
excellence or improvement in carriages more than in other
arts. The inventor may produce, but it is for the most.
part the mere merchant or tradesman who profits by the
inventions. Carriages are made to sell, as plays are written
to fill theatres; and the English carriage builder takes a
French or German carriage to improve upon, because it
saves his time and trouble, just as the English play writer
translates a French play to save the labour of his brains.
Improvements are rarely the voluntary production of Eng-
lish carriage builders; they are forced on them by the pur-
chasers, first individuals, and then the mass, who desire, some
mere novelty, others greater ease, and others a more rapid
rate of motion. Almost all the changes and improvements
INVENTION.
159
in carriages may be traced in their origin to the carriage
users, and not to the carriage builders. The carriage build-
ers do not lead, but they have always the means of press-
ing talent enough into their service, whenever a sufficient
demand offers them a remunerating return. Coaches were
first invented on the Continent; but it was in England
that they were improved into public stages, capable of
being run ten miles and upwards per hour for days and
weeks together.
This was not done at once, or by any one man: it was
the combined result of numberless small improvements,
forced on by the necessity of overcoming practical difficul-
ties. Carriage builders have not been remarkable as a
scientific body. They have been, strictly speaking,
66
practical men ;" and as the knowledge they have gained
by experience has not been carefully hoarded in books, car-
riage construction has remained a sort of occult matter,
without any specific theory attached to it. Each one, as
he is fresh initiated, gains his knowledge as he best can
from verbal instruction or from a new series of experiments,
and thus a considerable portion of his time must elapse ere
he can have verified his judgment. Enough of this know-
ledge exists in various brains, which might suffice for the
construction of a sound theory; but it would be a difficult
operation to gather it together, for many petty feelings
would be at work. In the mean time, all mention of theory
save in derision is decried. By most experimentalists, the
word theory is understood as synonymous with falsehood or
absurdity,—as the very opposite of practice. It is clear
that practice must be the ultimate verification of theory;
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INVENTION.
but every true practice must have a true theory belonging
to it. The theory of a subject is the science or philosophy
of that subject: practice is the positive knowledge or
proof of the soundness of the theory. But as theories are
more plentiful than practices, and as many of them are not
verified, there are, of course, many false ones. On this
ground, unscientific experimentalists have acquired the
habit of regarding all theory as false; which is about as
reasonable as it would be to assert that because falsehood
exists in the world, all truth must therefore be extinct.
This peculiarity is not confined to carriage building: en-
gineering and architecture abound with it, and law and
medicine are not wanting in it. The truth is, that human
knowledge is only got together by small portions at a time,
in the school of experiment; and when that knowledge is
considerable in any one branch, a true and verified theory
may be constructed from it. But when a great number of
subjects have thus been analysed and theorised, it is com-
paratively easy to construct theories by analogy, on new
subjects, by sound principles. Newton's theory of the
universe was just as true when he first developed it in
thought, as after he had verified it by calculation.
It is a common notion that a mechanical inventor must
necessarily be a man of genius; but if the matter be
analysed, it will be found that though inventors are
occasionally men of genius, they are but rarely so. In-
vention in its ordinary sense, as the word implies, is the
art of finding out. By genius is meant a species of cre-
ative power, like that of the poet, for example, in his
highest state of excellence. Invention is of two kinds ;—
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161
one resulting from a quick habit of observation, which
detects the applicability of various forms of matter to
similar objects. Of this an example may be given in
the case of Dr. Wollaston, who, in a hurried experiment,
needing some lime, which was not at hand, suddenly cast
his eye on his ivory paper-cutter, and with some scrap-
ings from its surface accomplished his object. This quick
habit of observation, when it goes to the production of
beautiful forms, is akin to fancy. The other, and higher
kind of invention, is that which results from bringing a
theory into practice, from first imagining a desirable
result, and then bringing it to bear by the exercise of the
judgment, and constant persevering efforts steadily directed
through a long period of time. The names of Brindley
and Watt, and in our own time, Babbage, are examples
of this quality. When Brindley set to work upon canals,
he did not create, he merely formed the plan of levelling
the surfaces of natural streams, by drawing off the water
into new channels of sufficient depth, and then prevent-
ing the water from being wasted. The process of form-
ing the locks was a continued series of mechanical contriv-
ances, with purpose aforethought. When Mr. Watt
first imagined the steam-engine, he did not invent the
power of steam; that was known long before, and had
existed from the time that fire and water existed. But
he formed to himself the plan by which he hoped to re-
alise the result of making steam an efficient human ser-
vant, through the agency of a perfect machine. The ge-
neral idea of this machine existed in his mind long before
he brought it into practice, and the slow process by which
M
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this was accomplished is evidenced by the fact, that a
prolongation of the term of his patent right was granted
him by Act of Parliament, on the ground that he had
not sufficient time to reap benefit from it. An anec-
dote told of Mr. Watt serves not only to prove this,
but also his highminded philosophy, which was far be-
yond the miserable vanity of ordinary inventors, who
aim at astonishing their fellows rather than instructing
or benefiting them. After success had elevated Mr. Watt
to the public eminence he so well deserved, a nobleman
who dined in his company expressed himself in terms of
wonder on what Mr. Watt had accomplished. Mr. Watt
coolly remarked, "The Public only look on my success,
and not on the intermediate failures and uncouth con-
structions which have served as steps to climb to the
top of the ladder." Mr. Babbage also, in the remark-
able volume published by him on the subject of Machi-
nery, says distinctly in his preface,
"The present volume may be considered as one of
the consequences that have resulted from the calculating
engine, the construction of which I have been so long
superintending. Having been induced during the last
ten years to visit a considerable number of workshops and
factories, both in England and on the Continent, for the
purpose of making myself acquainted with the various
resources of mechanical art, I was insensibly led to apply
to them those principles of generalization to which my
other pursuits had naturally given rise."
It is clear in this case, that the accuracy obtained in
mathematical science led Mr. Babbage to conceive a
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163
machine whereby the changes of figures might be mul-
tiplied ad infinitum. After this, in order to bring it
to bear, he ransacked the stores of accumulated knowledge
actually existing under the form of machinery.
The power of mechanical conception is very widely ex-
tended; it is a modification of the same power which
composes romances: the magic horse in the fairy tale
which turned and was guided by means of a pin in the
neck, was a mechanical conception. If the same person
who conceived that, had worked it out into practice, it
would have been an evidence of genius; viz. imagina-
tion discovering truth by some analogical inference.
Invention, then, of the highest kind, must be composed
of four qualities :-imagination to conceive a new and
complicated machine, knowledge to gather materials,
judgment to select and combine them, and perse-
verance, without wearying, till the result be obtained.
There are few samples of mechanical invention like unto
this. Those things which commonly go by the names
of new inventions, are very frequently merely modifica-
tions of what has been done before: "Improvements"
is the technical term.
The task a man has to go through, in conceiving,
designing, perfecting, and patenting a complicated me-
chanical invention, is by no means inviting. Even when
he possesses the hand to execute that which his head has
contrived, only a portion of his difficulties are overcome.
A first idea is fascinating, and apparently easy of exe-
cution. It is thought over again and again; all diffi-
culties are apparently surmounted, and all obstacles re-
M 2
164
INVENTION.
moved: it is, in the imagination of the inventor, perfect.
He may perchance know how to draw; but if not, he
must employ some one to make his drawings for him.
In this case, to avoid the risk of piracy, he must pre-
viously take out his patent; i. e. he must incur an ex-
pense of from one hundred to one hundred and fifty
pounds for a purpose whose success is uncertain, as it
has not been experimentally verified. He may perhaps
intend to take out his patent for England alone; in which
case he is allowed only two months to specify or de-
scribe his invention, and make the necessary drawings
for depositing in the public archives. If he can make
up his mind to take out his patent for England and
Scotland, he may have four months; if for Ireland also,
he may have six months; but his expenses will be doubled
or trebled, unless he can stretch his conscience, on the
payment of the first fees, to swear that he intends a triple
patent, for the sake of gaining the time, and afterwards
changes his mind and takes a single patent. This species.
of conscience-stretching is very commonly practised.
Having secured his patent, our inventor sets his draughts-
man to work, and with considerable difficulty-owing per-
haps to want of clearness on the one side, and want of
comprehension on the other-the drawings are made. Then
follows the model; and ere that is completed, it is discovered
that there occur unexpected difficulties in the material con-
struction, which did not present themselves on paper. New
contrivances must be resorted to, and the model is made
and re-made many times over, at a considerable expense.
It is at last completed-perhaps within a very few days of
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165
the time allowed for depositing the specification, and fresh
expenses are incurred by the necessity of paying highly,
those whose business it is to work against time. When
all is ready, the specification is deposited, and the inventor
perhaps discovers that the title he has first taken will not
cover his invention, on account of its being different from
his first contemplation. The title therefore must be al-
tered, and the fees paid over again; the first being an
entire loss. He now sets to work to construct a full-sized
sample of his invention, and all his patience is needed. He
must take either first-rate or ordinary workmen. If he takes
first-rate men, he must pay them very highly, because they
must necessarily work more slowly at a process which they
have to learn, than at one with which they are familiar ;
and in´order to earn the same amount, they must be higher
paid. If he takes ordinary workmen, his patience is still
more severely tasked: he has to teach them how to work,
without knowing how himself; he can only get at a result
by numberless repetitions and by a great waste of time.
At length his invention is in a state for practical trial.
Up to this point all seems well; but practice soon discovers
a defect, not perhaps in principle, but in detail. A second
experiment is made without success, and many more follow
ere the invention be completed, alike in principle and exe-
cution. Then begins the task of getting it before the
public. Perhaps the inventor has been sanguine, and has
attempted to introduce it to the public in an imperfect
state, and the consequent failures have excited a prejudice
unfavourable to his object. This prejudice has to be over-
come by repeated and unceasing exertions; and at length,
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INVENTION.
perhaps, when half the period of the patent right has ex-
pired, the inventor begins to reap the fruits of his skill and
industry. Public rumour is ever fond of exaggeration, and
he is soon supposed to be realising a large fortune, though
most likely he is only beginning to pay his expenses.
Competition is then at work, and rivals, who have been at
no expense or trouble, imitate his invention, or make just
so much alteration in it, as they think necessary to evade
his patent right. He goes to law with the pirates, and
then perhaps makes the discovery that his title or speci-
fication is imperfect, and that he has been labouring for
years to bring to perfection an invention from which he
can reap no more pecuniary advantage than if he had con-
fined himself to an ordinary trade, in which imitation alone
is necessary.* If he be successful in a law-court against
his piratical competitors, he may then chance to be amply
repaid but this is not a frequent case; and even when a
man possesses imagination to conceive, the head to contrive,
and the hand to execute, it is not an uncommon thing for
the term of the patent-right to run out, ere an invention
be reduced to general practice.
It is evident, therefore, that a man who possesses a good
trade as a coach-maker has little inducement to embark in
the perilous field of invention. His time is mostly taken
* By a late alteration in the law of patents this hardship has been
in part amended, the inventor being permitted to disclaim any portion
of his specification which makes against him,-paying fees, of course.
The want of a really efficient and simple patent law, protecting merit
and punishing piracy, is a grievous hardship on one of the most de-
serving, and certainly not the least important classes of the community,
-not the less important though usually needy,-others reaping the
fruits of their exertions.
INVENTION.
167
up with his ordinary business, and, unless under very pecu-
liar circumstances, he has no leisure to study improvements.
Those who have too little business to fill up their time are
interested in producing new things, in order to attract pub-
lic attention; but as their leisure is only at intervals, they
rarely devote themselves to it. First ideas frequently origi-
nate with working men, who have not the means of putting
them in practice unless in comparatively trifling improve-
ments. It is mostly the interest of the established trades-
man to discourage such things, as they interfere with their
plans, and give them more trouble without extra profit.
Thus, when under-springs were first adapted to carriages,
it was prophesied that they would be the ruin of coach-mak-
ing, by making the carriages too durable. When the streets
were Macadamised, the wheelwrights and coach-makers
alike complained that it was destruction to their trade. It
is the same in other things. The Manchester cotton spin-
ner who has a mill and machinery already erected, does not
feel very benevolently disposed towards an inventor who
contrives new machinery of a better class, by which he can
underwork him and take away his trade. It may be taken
as a general rule, that new inventions are viewed with jea-
lousy by all established tradesmen, on the grounds that
they are an individual advantage, and not in the outset ad-
vantageous to the trade in general. Therefore they keep
them down all in their power; and when they succeed, it
is by the circumstance that they are valuable in them-
selves, and that the customers of the tradesmen insist on
having them.
The advantages arising to an inventor of a new con-
1
168
INVENTION.
struction of carriages are limited, and the disadvantages
great. To secure a patent, it is necessary that the inven-
tion should be kept secret until the patent be sealed. Now,
a carriage is a bulky machine, which cannot well be tried in
secret, or made in secret: therefore the patent must be
taken in risk and uncertainty. And even when all is ac-
complished, the demand is very limited. Carriage-keepers
are not a numerous body, and they are usually more guided
in their desire by a pleasing appearance than by mecha-
nical excellence, and patents are not taken out for forms.
The patents which are profitable to inventors, are for the
inventions of machines to supersede human labour, and
thus furnish manufactured goods at a cheaper rate to the
The most ordinary man can judge of the wear
of a pair of stockings, and will purchase them at a shilling
more readily than at eighteen-pence, if they be of the same
quality; but he will not so readily take to a newly-fashion-
ed garment whose utility he has not tested by experience.
Therefore he who invents a machine which enables one
man to do the work of ten or twenty is certain of his
gain; but not so he who invents a new commodity.
consumer.
But the quality less necessary than many others to a
fashionable coach-maker is, sound mechanical knowledge.
Taste is the one requisite without which he cannot thrive,
and which therefore constitutes his real business qualifi-
cation. Taste is exhibited in form, colour, and proportion;
and having this, he can employ other persons to fill up
the details. The general mechanism of carriages does not
vary, and the mechanism serves as a skeleton framework
which is to be clothed according to fancy. Therefore, to
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169
produce what is commonly called a new carriage is a work
of composition, and not invention: it is a combination of
already existing parts to form a new arrangement. The
tasteful combiner may know nothing of the principle of
his wheels or axles, or their due proportion of strength; but
he has the wheelwright and engineer to take the responsi-
bility for him. He may know nothing of the construc-
tion of springs; but the spring-maker is at hand ready to
calculate the requisite strength, according to an estimated
weight; and if the weight should prove more than was
expected, it is easy to apply an extra plate. He gives a
general drawing of the framework, and a skilful work-
man knows how to apportion the scantling, and build
it strongly together. A skilful smith makes his orna-
mental iron-work to a given form, and takes all the re-
sponsibility of understanding and duly working the metal.
He directs his painter what portions to put in colours, and
what in ground colours; what to make conspicuous, and what
to hide; what to lighten by lines, and what to leave heavy.
The preparation of the colours, and their laying on, is the
business of the painter alone. He directs the trimmer as
to the general effect of the lining, and arranges the harmony
of the colours; but the trimmer has to study the best
mode of performing his work. The braces and other lea-
ther-work, are left to the skill of the workman, who is
mostly left to select his own materials and apportion their
strength; and the ornamental metal-work is the province
of the plater, who is responsible for its wear. It is clear
that, in addition to the possession of taste, it is almost ab-
solutely necessary that a carriage constructor should know
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INVENTION.
how to draw, in order effectually to direct those whom he
employs, and also to facilitate the purchasers who may
employ him to build for them. If he possesses the faci-
lity of constructing simple models, it is still better.
To be a complete carriage constructor, a man ought to
be familiar with all the branches before alluded to. But
there are few mechanics of such universal knowledge, and
still rarer is it that they combine that knowledge with
taste. Even then it would be scarcely possible for a single
individual to carry on a large business and do everything
in his own factory. It would require an enormous capital
and enormous premises, and moreover, very extensive mer-
cantile knowledge and skill,—which last is based on quali-
ties the direct opposites of those which nourish the faculty
of taste. Mercantile skill depends on calculation: taste
is a combination of imagination and observation. There
are three modes in which carriage building on a large scale
may be advantageously carried on :-first, by a single in-
dividual, whose business is only to combine parts, and
who employs tradesmen for every separate branch; se-
condly, by a single individual, who employs responsible
superintendents in every branch at high salaries; and
thirdly, by a combination of partners, one possessing taste,
another possessing mercantile knowledge, a third mechani-
eal knowledge, a fourth inventive powers, and so on. This
last mode would assuredly produce the most certain result,
provided the partners possessed the necessary moral quali-
ties to ensure the absence of suspicion, jealousy, and envy
amongst themselves. If these evil qualities existed, they
would destroy unanimity, and thus render the business
unproductive, by preventing efficient arrangements.
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It is probable that at a future time the workmen them-
selves will enter into some such combination; but it must
be after a lapse of many years, as the principle of caste
must first be eradicated amongst them, which is at present
so fruitful a source of jealousy amongst the different
branches. Ere that takes place, the increasing plenty of
capital will probably induce many capitalists to vest pro-
perty in carriage building, as they now do in house build-
ing, giving shares and salaries to men of undoubted skill
and probity, in order to ensure efficiency and perseverance.
The present race of master carriage builders have not
all been brought up to the business. Amongst the trade
it is considered that the only legitimate carriage builder is
he who has been brought up to the art of framing carriages
or bodies. But as it has been shown that taste is the chief
requisite, and as taste is not a necessary result of peculiar
instruction, it follows that it must be had where it can be
got. Thus, some carriage builders have been brought up as
painters, others as harness-makers, others as smiths, others
as wood-workers. Men who have been brought up to pro-
fessions entirely unconnected with carriage building also oc-
casionally embark in it. Of course, there are many varie-
ties of skill and taste; but the public hitherto, except a
very exclusive portion, have not been remarkable for the
refinement of their taste in carriages: it is now rapidly
growing up, and men of skill and taste combined, will pro-
bably meet with a much wider appreciation than they have
been heretofore accustomed to.
In a philosophical classification of trades, carriage con-
structors may be designated as "manufacturing artists."
172
CHAPTER XII.
Carriage Artisans.-Handicraft Work.-Steam Labour but little
used. Skilled Workmen.-Modes of getting Work executed.-
Piece Masters.-Carriage Builders' Tradesmen.—Materials.—Va-
rious Workmen :-Body Makers.-Carriage Makers.—Carvers.—
Smiths Trimmers.-Painters.-Brace and Harness Makers.-Saw-
yers.-Labourers.- Designers.-Draughtsmen.-Herald Painters.
Axle-tree Makers.- Spring Makers.—Wheelwrights.-Lamp Ma-
kers.-Blind Makers.-Joiners.-Trunk Makers.-Turners.-Lace
Makers.-Curriers.
Curriers. --Japanners.-Ivory Workers. — Platers.
Chasers.-Embroiderers.-Trades' Unions.-Jealousy of Caste.
CARRIAGE building still remains one of the arts to
which steam and machinery have not been directly applied
to facilitate construction and produce cheapness; though
something has been done indirectly to reduce the price of
the minor articles of metal-work entering into the con-
struction, but, unfortunately, at the same time rendering
their efficiency a matter of uncertainty. This is frequently
the case with wholesale manufactures in which some por-
tion is left to the workman's skill and choice. Few people
like the trouble of examining minutely a large mass of
small articles, and this an unprincipled workman takes ad-
vantage of. The reason that carriage building has kept
aloof from the innovations of steam, probably is, that it is
to a certain extent an art, like that of the statuary, and
that the purchasers of carriages are not yet sufficiently nu-
CARRIAGE ARTISANS.
173
merous to produce a regular manufacturing business; i. e.
a repetition or copying of certain established forms. Car-
riages are articles of fashion and fancy, superadded to their
utility, and changing fashions in a limited demand will
not pay for the outlay of machinery. Besides, carriages
are still in a state of progressive improvement-they are
yet far from perfection, and it will not be till the demand
increases so much as to make them objects of every-day
necessity, like houses, that they will be made cheaper, by
the introduction of steam and machinery, to supersede hu-
man labour in many of their processes. It may be said
that stage coaches are numerous enough to employ a well-
ordered factory, with steam and machinery; but whoever
takes the trouble to examine them will find that, with
the exception of the preparation of their crude iron and
similar material, they are entirely the result of uncertain
handicraft labour of various degree of skill. Undoubt-
edly large quantities of the drudgery of carriage con-
struction might be performed by steam, and greatly to the
advantage of the workmen; but the peculiar rules establish-
ed amongst them, and the jealousy they naturally feel lest
any unknown processes should have a tendency to dimi-
nish the amount of their earnings, will for many years
prevent this, unless some determined speculator should
embark in a wholesale carriage business, with an entirely
new set of workmen, taken indiscriminately from all trades,
unshackled by trade rules, and only selected for the single
consideration of skill and capacity.
The workmen employed in the construction of first-rate
carriages are all skilful men. The beauty, neatness, and
174
CARRIAGE ARTISANS.
strength exhibited in them could not be a result produ-
ced from bunglers. Few carriage builders carry on many
branches of work on their own premises; none carry on all
the branches, for it would not be worth their while on a
small scale, and on a large scale it would be too enormous
an undertaking. Some carriage builders there are who get
all their work done by a class of small tradesmen called
piece-masters, who work for a very small profit, getting up
a single carriage at a time and selling it the moment it is
made. In this case the ostensible carriage builder is merely
a retail shopkeeper. Many of these carriages are made by
apprentices and inferior workmen. Others there are who
get their bodies and carriages made by piece-masters, and
do their own painting and finishing. Some of these piece-
makers turn out very good work; but generally, being men
without capital, they cannot afford to keep a stock of dry
material, and their work, even if good, will not stand. A
considerable capital is essential to the production of good
carriages: unless the artist possesses a control over his
tradesmen, he cannot be sure of the quality of his work,
and no control is so effectual as that of paying them
ready money. Some carriage builders pass half their lives
nominally as masters, but virtually only the foremen of
their tradesmen, who find capital and supply them with
goods at their own price. From this state of thraldom it
is difficult for a man to free himself.
The value of all wrought material is of course depend-
ent on the amount of human labour necessary to produce it.
What a carriage builder calls material, is all that which he
pays money for, and brings on his premises to work up in
CARRIAGE ARTISANS.
175
his combinations.
Scarcely any of it comes to him in a
crude state; but whether it comes to him in the shape of
a set of axles whose principal value is in the labour be-
stowed, or in sponge or rotten stone which are merely ga-
thered from the stores of Nature, he regards it all as simple
"material." Expensive as are the materials of carriages,
so understood, they are not equal in amount to the wages
of labour paid weekly in large carriage factories. Skilful
workmen who work by correct eye and sound judgment
are never too numerous, and they must be highly paid.
The workmen usually employed in the best factories
are,
Body Makers, Carriage Makers, Carvers, Smiths, Trim-
mers, Painters, Brace and Harness Makers, Sawyers, La-
bourers.
Designers, Draughtsmen, and Herald Painters, of course
come under the category of artists.
It has been before shown that the success of a carriage
builder depends much on his taste in design, and judgment
in execution. One, if not more of the partners in a firm,
is therefore usually a designer.
The workmen usually employed by carriage builders
out of their own premises, through the agency of other
tradesmen, are,
Axle-tree Makers, Spring Makers, Wheelwrights, Lamp
Makers, Trunk Makers, Blind Makers, Joiners, Turners,
Lace Makers, Curriers, Japanners, Ivory Workers, Platers,
Chasers, Embroiderers. Many more workmen are indirectly
employed; such as cloth workers, silk weavers, glass
makers; screw, nail, and lock makers, and metal workers
J
176
CARRIAGE ARTISANS.
generally; carpet weavers and floor cloth makers, waterproof
cloth makers, cotton workers, tanners, morocco dressers,
hemp and flax workers, glue makers, colour and varnish
makers, and others, who do not work exclusively for
carriage builders.
Body-makers are very skilful joiners, using several
kinds of wood, and working up many forms in which
there is not a single plane surface. The essence of their
art is to show perfect forms in the lines of their work
without breaks or inequalities; and many of these lines
are double convex or double concave. The principles of
this work are essentially geometrical, and the more dif-
ficult forms of geometry are the most common. The work-
man must know how to draw well, or he cannot work well;
and to be enabled to do both, he must possess correct-
ness of eye and skill of hand. He has to make correct
joints at every variety of angle, and has to resort to
every mode of uniting his materials. The tenon and mor-
tice, the scarf, the lap, the groove, the glue joint, the
bolt, the screw, and the nail, are all employed. The
materials he uses are ash, elm, birch, mahogany, pine,
and deal; and he must also possess some skill as a metal-
worker efficiently to fit the various plates of brass and
iron which enter into the composition of his work. It
is not absolutely necessary that he should possess taste;
but fidelity in copying he cannot do without. And he
must possess a capital in tools, varying from thirty to
forty pounds. As such men are not numerous, they
command high wages. They do not usually work by the
day, like many other workmen, but by the piece. Two
CARRIAGE ARTISANS.
177
men working together have been known to earn in the
space of a week twenty pounds; but it was by great ex-
ertion, working early and late, sixteen hours per day, and
taking their meals on their work-benches. When in full
work, very quick workmen will earn five pounds per week;
but as they seldom have full work the year through, they
do not average more than four. Ordinary workmen do
not earn more than three pounds per week, and on the
average less than that.
Carriage makers are more akin to millwrights in the
work they perform, though much less skill is required in
geometrical knowledge. Their work is heavy, and re-
quires great truth in all the framings; but the lines are
on a larger scale than those of the body-maker, and there-
fore slight inaccuracies are not so perceptible. They have
also few double convex or double concave lines, and more
plane surfaces. The materials they use are ash and elm,
much of them in combination with iron-work supplied by
the smith. Neatness, but not extreme delicacy of work, is
required in the carriage maker: he requires fewer tools
than the body-maker, and his earnings, while employed,
are, by piece-work, from three pounds to two pounds per
week, according as he may happen to be a good or in-
different workman.
Carvers, are the workmen who execute the ornamental
wood-work of carriages. Some of them are artists, fur-
nishing designs as well as executing them, and of course
are in such cases highly paid. Others are merely the
executors of the designs of others. There are two classes
of carving used in carriages: the simplest consists of the
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178
CARRIAGE ARTISANS.
beads and mouldings on the framework of the body, and
also on the carriage timbers; the other consists of leaf-
work and tracery, according to fancy, and is used to or-
nament blocks of various kinds, as well as the hind stand-
ards, and also on the timber ends. The designs for these
purposes are similar to the scrolls and volutes used in ar-
chitecture. The earnings of carvers are from thirty shil-
lings up to four and five pounds per week, according to
their skill; but, like many other workmen, they are un-
employed several months in the year.
Coach-smiths are the most skilful of all iron-workers.
They have to work large and heavy bars of iron into
forms containing several unequal curves, the thickness of
the metal also being unequal. It is a work guided by the
eye more than by measurement, and there
are few
straight lines to work from. The coach-smith must be
able to draw, or at least to criticise forms accurately, or he
will not prove a skilful workman. He must possess con-
siderable personal strength, and capacity to bear the heat
to which he is exposed; he must be a good judge of the
metal he uses, and so contrive his work that it may appear
light, while capable of efficiently resisting the strain upon
it;
and it must moreover be truly wrought, being all in-
tended to fix to wood-work previously prepared. Men
possessing so many different qualities are not numerous,
and therefore are highly paid. Coach-smiths are divided
into three classes, fire-men, hammer-men, and vice-
men. The fire-men are the class just described. The
hammer-men aid them in their work, with the sledge
hammer, when heavy blows are required to reduce the
CARRIAGE ARTISANS.
179
ers.
metal in size or form; they also blow the bellows and
make up the fire,-in short, perform the office of labour-
And hence arises much injustice. If the hammer-
man happens to be a skilful man, he frequently applies
himself to work in the fire-man's absence. The latter,
as soon as he discovers it, grows jealous, quarrels with,
and discharges his hammer-man. Thus, the hammer-men
live in a position from which they are forbidden to emerge,
even if they possess the necessary skill. The busi-
ness of the vice-man is to file and smooth the work from
the rough marks of the hammer, to fit joints, and finish
screw-bolts and nuts. Neatness and skill are required in
his work, but not the precision of eye required in the
fire-man.-Fire-men mostly work by the piece, and earn
from two to three and four pounds per week, according to
the class of work: the hammer-men earn from twenty-
five to thirty shillings; the vice-men, from thirty shil-
lings to two pounds.
Smiths have usually been esteemed a very drunken race;
but this estimate of them must be taken with a reserva-
tion. They were formerly much more so than at pre-
sent, like other mechanics; but, like them, they are fast
improving. Men who work hard in a heated atmosphere
have a tendency to drink more than those who do not;
and with the imperfect arrangements which are so common
in smiths' shops, it is not surprising that some of them
should become confirmed drunkards. Contrivances will
in time be resorted to, to enable the workman to avoid
the heat while working; and probably tilt-hammers will
be so contrived that there will be no necessity to breed
N 2
180
CARRIAGE ARTISANS.
up hammer-men to a trade in which they can make no
progress.
Trimmers, are to carriages what upholsterers are to
houses, in what regards the interior lining. They use
similar materials; as, cloth, silk, morocco, canvass, web-
bing, curled hair, wool, flocks, &c. But, in addition to
this, they have to use the more stubborn material of
leather, in various ways, as for the coverings of folding
carriage heads, in what is called "open work." Here-
in much judgment is required.-The work of some trim-
mers is entirely confined to leather work, and their tech-
nical designation is "budget trimmers." They sew on
the leathers to the iron frames called dashing or splash-
ing irons and wings,-cover poles and shafts with leather
in the wearing parts,-cover the small cases called tool
budgets, drag chains, safety chains, and ropes, and other
similar work. In these employments, the men who cut
out, require much judgment, and also some taste, in order
not to waste valuable materials, and also to make their
work firm, and at the same time neat and agreeable to
the eye. The earnings of trimmers who are skilful cut-
ters are from three to four guineas per week; those who
are merely workmen earn from thirty shillings to fifty.
Painters are an important branch of the carriage trade, for
on them the general good appearance of the carriage depends.
The director or foreman must be an accurate judge of co-
lours, as to their durability, and also as to the effect which
varnish will have on them. He sometimes has to match a
single panel which has been damaged; and it is a very
nice operation to match a new colour to an old one, more
CARRIAGE ARTISANS.
181
especially when the colours are conspicuous. The mecha-
nical skill required in painting is not very great: that portion
which consists in what is technically called "picking out,"
or painting fine lines of a distinct colour, on a ground-work,
-as black on yellow,-requires the greatest skill. The
wages of a foreman are from two to four guineas per week.
The ordinary workmen earn from twenty-five to thirty-
five shillings, according to their skill; and they are by
no means too highly paid, considering the unhealthy nature
of their employment, in heated apartments impregnated
with mineral and other odours. Generally speaking,
painters are more healthy of late years than they former-
ly were; and this must be attributed to their increasing
habits of greater personal cleanliness.
Brace Makers and Harness Makers are generally ranked
together, on account of the similarity of their work. The
braces of a carriage serve to support the body on the springs,
and also to confine its oscillations within certain limits.
The braces are combinations of two or more straps of lea-
ther, increasing in number according to the strain they may
be exposed to, and sewn together to form one substance.
The cutter-out requires considerable judgment as to the
quality of his leather, and also how to use economically
the different parts of the hide which are fitted for different
purposes, as they are not of a homogeneous texture or
substance: he must also be able to calculate the requisite
strength of material. The workmen who sew the materials
together require little more skill than shuttle throwers:
piercing the stitches with the awl is a mere matter of habit
which almost any person can acquire. The wages of a
182
CARRIAGE ARTISANS.
good cutter are from two to three guineas per week. The
sewers earn from twenty-five to thirty shillings, according
to their neatness of work. Their employment is un-
healthy, as their work is always performed in a stooping
posture, and working on black leather has a tendency to
injure their eye-sight.
Inferior car-
Sawyers do not require any great skill.
penters and others commonly become sawyers. The work
is rather laborious. Their earnings are thirty shillings per
week. Very few carriage builders now use pit sawyers,
as a single man at a bench with a small frame-saw is found
far more efficient.
Labourers are a class of people employed by coach-
makers under one designation, but varying much in their
skill and ability. The commonest class are those who wash
carriages and move them from place to place. The next
class are those who are capable of polishing the metal-
work and leather, and keeping the paint in order. The
next and most efficient class are those who possess a gene-
ral knowledge of the mechanical construction of carriages,
and are capable of hanging and unhanging them, separating
their various parts, replacing damaged bolts or iron-work,
nailing on the wearing leathers, painting the iron-work,
greasing, oiling, and adjusting the wheels. They must
also be able to judge of the general condition of carriages,
so as readily to detect defects which might render them un-
safe in travelling. The weekly earnings of labourers are
from twenty to thirty shillings, according to their skill.
Axle-tree Makers are divided into forgers or fire-men,
turners, and vice-men. The work of the forgers requires
CARRIAGE ARTISANS.
183
considerable skill and strength, to unite large masses of
iron at a welding heat, and to reduce them to accurate
forms their work is akin to that of anchor-smiths.
Axletree turners must be very skilful, accurate workmen,
to fit the patent oil axles truly for the common axles
used with grease, inferior workmen will suffice. The vice-
men also require much skill and practice in filing, to en-
able them to work true, which is absolutely necessary in
axles. Were these men taught to work in wood first, as
is the case with millwrights, skill would be more frequent
amongst them than is the case at present. The forgers
earn from three to four pounds per week; the turners,
from two to three pounds; the vice-men, from thirty shil-
lings to two pounds,-but the latter sum is not common.
Spring Makers require considerable skill, especially for
the construction of circular or C springs with many plates.
They work by the aid of a hammer-man, like other smiths,
and have a vice-man to finish their work. The modes of
working being exceedingly imperfect, their work is empiri-
cal; and thus some few by long practice acquire skill in
tempering the steel, which others do not attain, simply
from want of instruction. Spring-makers earn from two
to four, and occasionally six pounds per week; the vice-
men and hammer-men, the same as in other cases.
Wheelwrights must be skilful workmen; for their work
is so severely tested, that if not true and sound, it must
fail; and moreover, the accuracy of it depends more
on truth of eye and skill of hand, than on any marks,
guides, or rules. First-rate wheelwrights earn from two
to three pounds per week; but their work is very laborious
184
CARRIAGE ARTISANS.
Tire-smiths are a branch of the wheeling trade: an un-
skilful tire-smith does much damage in a short space of time,
and skilful ones are not abundant: their earnings are from
three to five pounds per week, and occasionally more than
that.
Lamp Makers have no hard work to perform. Their
work consists in cutting out thin metal and soldering it
together. It requires neatness, but no considerable amount
of skill or exactness. The effluvia of a lamp-maker's shop
is unpleasant, but not positively unwholesome; yet the
sitting posture in which they perform their work is not
favourable to health. Their earnings are from twenty-five
to thirty shillings a week.
Blind Makers, Trunk Makers, and Joiners are reciprocal
trades. The amount of skill required by the workmen is
not very considerable. Their earnings are about thirty
shillings a week, and their work is very light. The join-
ers make wainscot cases, seat boxes, &c.
Turners are employed by carriage builders to turn
splintre bars, splintres, drag staves, raisers, and similar
things. Their earnings are thirty shillings a week.
Lace Making formerly constituted an important branch
of carriage building, as skilled workmen were few, and they
commanded very high prices for their labour. But the art
of lace-making is no longer a sealed book; the workmen
have increased in number, and although a first-rate work-
man can earn three pounds per week, still, as he does not
on the average work more than three or four months in the
year, the total amount is very trifling. Formerly lace-
making was confined to London; but since the increase of
CARRIAGE ARTISANS.
185
carriages it has become more of a manufacture, and is
made wholesale at Manchester and other manufacturing
towns. The London carriage lace-makers are, like most
weavers, a miserably poor and squalid race; as is the case
with all trades which are wearing out, or where the mode
of operation is changing.
Curriers are the workmen who dress the leather which
has been converted from the raw state by the tanner. Con-
siderable skill is required in the operation of levelling the
hides by a peculiar process called shaving, and the work is
laborious. When in work, the men can earn from two to
three pounds per week at piece-work; but their numbers
keep many of them constantly out of employment. Cur-
rying has generally been considered a profitable business
for the masters; and the reason has been, that considerable
capital is required in it, combined with judgment in buying
material. Tanners do not give credit, and the currier has
to lay in his stock of hides at particular seasons. Without
great skill to judge of the quality of a very deceptive ma-
terial, he may easily be ruined. It is a healthy trade for
the workmen.
Japanners, in the leather trade, are those who prepare
the glazed and enamelled waterproof leather used for car-
riages. Those who carry on this business are generally
employed by the currier who finds the leather. Consider-
able knowledge of materials is required, as it is essentially
a chemical art, and the material on which the japan is
spread is very liable to injury. The workmen earn the
same as other painters, and the employment is far from
healthy, on account of the great heat necessary.
186
CARRIAGE ARTISANS.
Ivory Workers are divided into turners and carvers.
The former earn from thirty to forty shillings per week—
the latter considerably more, as they require more skill.
The turners prepare rollers and buttons for glasses and
blinds; the carvers cut out ornamental crests for seat-
cloths.
Platers prepare the ornamental metal-work, such as
door-handles, and the beading which covers joints, as well
as buckles and all the metal-work used in harness. The
earnings of the workmen are about thirty shillings per
week.
Chasers emboss the crests, arms, &c, on the door-han-
dles, heads, and axle-tree caps, as well as other ornamental
work. The ordinary workmen earn two guineas per week :
but designers are paid much higher in proportion to their
skill.
Embroiderers prepare crests and coats of arms to orna-
ment the seat-cloths. Their work being principally fancy,
no fixed price is attached to it.
Notwithstanding the apparently high wages earned by
the greater part of the workmen employed by carriage
builders, but few of them, and those only amongst the
most skilful, enjoy constant work. High wages have pro-
duced the common effect of increasing the numbers of the
workmen beyond what are necessary for the demand. The
consequence has been, that inferior workmen have been
found willing, occasionally, to work at a lower rate of
wages, for small masters, who work on speculation, and
get carriages up cheaply with inferior materials, for the
CARRIAGE ARTISANS.
187
chance of a ready-money sale.
In order as much as
possible to counteract this, and prevent the low rate of
wages from becoming general, many of the workmen have
joined together in a Trade's Union, binding themselves
not to work for low prices. The consequence is, that
there are two classes of men,-those who belong to the
Union, and those who do not: but this makes no actual
alteration in their relative condition as to their earnings.
The most skilful men belong to the Union rather for
the sake of quietude and remaining unmolested, than
from any value they attach to it, because they know that
with or without the Union their skill can always command
constant employment at the highest rate of wages. The
other Unionists share amongst them just as much employ-
ment as there may happen to exist; and they would do
just as much without the Union, inasmuch as it neither
increases nor diminishes the total amount. If they be
good workmen, they get employment; and if they be
bad ones, the Unions cannot procure it for them.
those who do not belong to the Union, are in the same
precise condition: those who employ them select the
most skilful, and leave the others without work, unless
under the pressure of necessity. The only advantage the
Unions can appear to hold out, is the prevention of inter-
lopers from working at the trade, without serving a regular
apprenticeship to it but as these interlopers can work
in other shops, not belonging to the Unions, they are not
in reality kept out, but do the Unionists greater mischief
by working at a lower rate of wages. It has been sup-
posed by many, that great mischief may result to the
:
And
188
CARRIAGE ARTISANS.
public from the general customs of Trade Unions; but the
supposition is unfounded. On the contrary, experience
and discussion will most probably convince the Unionists
that combination cannot raise their rate of wages; and the
elements of dissolution are moreover constantly at work
amongst them. They are not an equal body, but one com-
posed of classes taking rank one after another. In the car-
riage manufacture it is peculiarly so. The body-makers are
the first on the list; then follow the carriage makers; then
the trimmers; then the smiths; then the spring-makers;
then the wheel-wrights, painters, platers, brace-makers,
and so on. The body-makers are the wealthiest of all,
and compose amongst themselves a species of aristocracy,
to which the other workmen look up with feelings, half of
respect, and half of jealousy. They feel their importance,
and treat the others with various consideration, according
to their station. Carriage makers are entitled to a species
of condescending familiarity; trimmers are considered
too good to be despised; a foreman of painters they
may treat with respect, but working painters can at
most be favoured with a nod. A smith is considered
quite unendurable, - a regular drunken, beer-drinking
“Ironsides ;" and a plater is contemptuously denominated
"bead-sticker." A wheelwright is held to be a kind of
rough wood-chopper; and a brace-maker, a mere vulgar
"snob." The other classes partake of the same feelings
of caste in their various proportions. A body-maker is
considered a "good catch" as a husband for the daughter
of an ordinary mechanic; and the carriage maker excites
much anxious feeling on the part of mothers, who con-
*
CARRIAGE ARTISANS.
189
sider marrying to a carriage maker as important a mat-
ter as vulgar-minded mothers in the classes just above
them consider "marrying to a carriage.
""
All these things of course create much jealousy
and bickering. The progress of democracy is not likely
to be advanced by the agency of Trades' Unions formed
of such ingredients.
190
CHAPTER XIII.
Steam Locomotion.—Canals.— Railroads.—Engines.- Boilers.—
High and Low Pressure.-Tubular Boilers.—Durability of Steam
Engines.-Difficulties of Steam Vehicles on Common Roads.-Mr.
Hancock's Carriages. Speculators in Steam Carriages.-Defects
of Steam as applied to Pleasure Carriages.-Steam compared with
Horses.-Steam adapted to Railroads, but not to Common Roads.
-Probable Increase of Pleasure Carriages by means of Railroads.
FROM the time that Mr. Watt first brought to per-
fection continuous circular motion by the agency of steam,
-from the time that the first steam fly-wheel was seen
to revolve,—it became an easy thing to imagine, that if
a steam-engine were provided with four fly-wheels, sup-
porting it on a horizontal surface, it might be made loco-
motive. The idea doubtless occurred to many; but ne-
cessity alone could reduce the idea to general practice.
The increase of human wants gave the first employment
to steam as a mill-grinder, machine-mover, water-pumper,
and coal-lifter; and its first rude attempts at locomotion
were as a coal-porter, to drag, in waggons, the coals it
had raised from the pits, to the place where they were to
be embarked in ships or barges. At the Northern col-
lieries, the first locomotive engines were used on rail-
roads. But this was only for short distances.
As popu-
As
lation thickened, and commerce and manufactures increased,
rapidity of inland transport became an important object.
STEAM LOCOMOTION.
191
Canals were found available to facilitate the transport of
heavy goods too inconvenient for land carriage; but they
were impracticable as a means of rapid transport, and lia-
ble to interruption in winter. Land carriage on ordi-
nary roads by means of horses was too expensive, and rail-
roads had only been applied for short distances for parti-
cular, and not general purposes. At length a railroad was
planned between Manchester and Liverpool, and all dif-
ficulties being vanquished, locomotion by means of steam
was found profitably available, at double the speed which
could be obtained by draught horses. But the original
expense of constructing the road was so great, that many
speculators, with added energy, applied themselves to the
task of making steam locomotion available on common
roads.
Wheel carriages drawn by animal power are moved by
the external leverage of the animal's limbs put in action
by expansive muscular force combined with gravity.
Steam carriages, on the contrary, are moved by an inter-
nal leverage acting on the wheels by the elastic force of
steam, either by a crank on the axle, as a man turns a
grindstone, or by some other contrivance producing the
same effect. Therefore, when the wheels turn on their
axes, it is necessary that the peripheries should hold firmly
to the ground, and not slide on it; or the forward move-
*The Chat Moss was a most formidable and expensive enemy
to the Manchester Railroad. The history of the struggles between
the skill, intelligence, and perseverance of the elder Mr. Stevenson,
and his capricious illusory antagonist, the Moss, is very remarkable.
As this road now exists, it is in reality a floating causeway, as care-
fully ballasted as a ship, to securet he equilibrium.
192
STEAM LOCOMOTION.
ment will not be obtained, but, instead of it, the wheels
will grind a hole, and gradually sink down. Therefore, in
order to obtain the forward motion, a certain weight must
be placed on the wheels, to increase the friction and keep
them from slipping. But this weight will be unavailing,
unless the road on which the wheels rest be sufficiently
hard, firm, and unyielding in all parts, to prevent the
wheels from sinking below its surface. If it be soft, it
will not afford a sufficient fulcrum for the wheels to
act on.
That part of an engine which generates the elastic force
of steam is called the boiler. The larger the boiler, i. e.
the greater the surface of water exposed to the boiling
action of heat, the greater will be the quantity of steam
generated. And in proportion as the intensity of heat
is increased, so is the power of the steam; but in that
case the boiler must be made proportionately stronger.
Boilers which are calculated to bear a pressure of steam
equal to fifteen pounds to the square inch are called "low-
pressure;" those which are intended to bear a greater pres-
sure to the inch are called "high-pressure." It is there-
fore evident that the high-pressure boilers with their charge
of water may be much lighter, and occupy much less space
than the low-pressure ones. In stationary engines, where
neither space nor weight are of consequence, low-pressure
boilers are most commonly used; but in a locomotive
machine, it is important to diminish as much as possible
both the weight and bulk, and therefore high-pressure
boilers are preferred. But boilers may chance occasion-
ally to explode from unforeseen causes, as guns go off and
STEAM LOCOMOTION.
193
houses are occasionally burned down, by accident. In case
of an accident, which is more likely to happen with a high-
pressure than with a low-pressure boiler, the danger is
much greater with the high-pressure than with the low-
pressure, because the elastic force of the steam is greater.
In a steam-coach it would almost infallibly be fatal to the
life of the engineer, if not of the passengers. To obviate
this difficulty a new kind of boiler has been adopted.
Instead of holding the water in one dense body, it is
made to circulate through a number of small tubes, round
which the heat of the fuel plays. These tubes are all
connected together, and contained within an iron casing.
Some one of these tubes may have a flaw which causes it
to burst; but the explosion is so trifling, that no danger
can be apprehended. A very small portion of the total
force is expended in the explosion, and the water imme-
diately leaking out, the fire is extinguished.
But though the danger is removed, these boilers are
found to give little steam power in proportion to their
weight; and the vehicles which are constructed with them
for the most part are inefficient, except on very hard firm
roads: a loose surface stops them, and a hill is with diffi-
culty surmounted. But this is not all. The durability of
a steam-engine depends very much on its being kept at one
rate of speed, and that the elastic force put in operation
be constantly the same. On roads which vary in their
texture and in their level this is impossible; up hill the
power of the engine must be exerted to the utmost,-con-
sequently the engine must be sufficiently strong for the
hardest work, and the extra weight and strength will
O
194
STEAM LOCOMOTION.
1
prove an incumbrance on level ground. Rail-roads are of
even surface, but Macadimised roads are uneven,—conse-
quently, delicate machinery on the latter must suffer much
destructive wear. It is only by making the road very firm
and even, or by the substitution of very efficient springs,
that this destructive wear can be alleviated. Very heavy
carriages, such as steam carriages must necessarily be, will
beat themselves to pieces over rough roads unless their
rate of movement be very slow. The size of the obstacle,
or the depth of the inequality, is multiplied in compound
proportion by the increased rate of motion. And where
efficient springs are used between the moving wheels and
the machinery, it is evident that there will be a greater
tendency in the wheels to slip round without moving the
vehicle. Now, in locomotion, one chief advantage which
steam has over animals is not merely its power of working
unceasingly without tiring, but also the capability of exert-
ing any needful increase of power to increase the rapidity
of movement. As regards a steam-coach carrying passen-
gers on its own wheels, the inequality of a road is a suffi-
cient difficulty; and for a steam-drag drawing passengers in
separate vehicles, a common unfirm road with an undulat-
ing surface would considerably increase the difficulty in the
present condition of locomotive machinery. The natural
powers
of an animal's limbs are adapted to surmount natural
surfaces, though rough or difficult; but the artificial limbs
of steam are only adapted to artificial causeways of an
equal degree of excellence.
But though steam vehicles in their present condition,
as regards the roads they travel on, are not adapted to ge-
STEAM LOCOMOTION,
195
neral use, it is no argument that skill and dexterity cannot
eventually bring them to bear. They have improved much
since the first attempts were made; and the numerous
speculators at times engaged on them, are continually
adding to the knowledge of what will not do by their
failures, and something also to the knowledge of what will
do, by their partial success. Gradually, the stock of know-
ledge contributed in small portions by different persons
will be combined to produce a more efficient result.
Wheels will be better constructed to prevent them from
sinking into the road, and springs will be contrived to
produce the necessary ease to the machinery without im-
peding the movement. One of the most patient, skilful,
and persevering, amongst steam carriage speculators, is Mr.
Walter Hancock of Stratford, and the compound pro-
gression with which he has produced several carriages is a
remarkable proof of what has just been advanced. In the
year 1826 he took out a patent for a boiler, not construct-
ed of tubes, but in flat partitions forming compartments.
It was not until the beginning of 1831 that the first car-
riage, called the Infant, constructed with this boiler, was
enabled to run. In 1832 a second carriage, called the
Enterprise was commenced, and in April 1833 it was
running for hire. The third carriage, the Autopsy, was
commenced in 1833; and by October of the same year it
was on the road. The fourth carriage, the Era, was com-
menced in 1834; and by August of the same year it was
completed. In the same year also a steam-drag was com-
pleted and shipped for Vienna. In all these carriages
there has been a gradual improvement of construction, as
0 2
196
STEAM LOCOMOTION.
well as rapidity of execution, which will not cease to make
progress till perfection be attained, or till perfection shall
have ceased to be an object of desire, by the attention of
the inventors being turned to objects of greater profit and
utility.
It is not generally known that the idea of a steam-coach
occurred to Mr. Watt, and is even proposed in one of his
patents, but was never acted on. The commencement of
actual construction for common roads was about the year
1825. It may seem strange that a considerable number
of persons should have been separately engaged for ten
years on the same object without producing a perfect re-
sult; but Mr. Watt himself was engaged twenty years
with his inventions ere he brought them to perfection.
Many years also elapsed between the first attempts at
steam-boat locomotion, and its regular establishment as a
matter of business. The difficulties to overcome in rowing
vessels by means of circular paddle-wheels are assuredly
less than those of propelling coaches over rough roads ;
but steam-rowing had its difficulties to contend with
nevertheless. There was a sufficient number of people
who knew how to build ships, and also a sufficient number
who knew how to build steam-engines; but those who had
to combine them must necessarily serve an apprenticeship.
to a new art, ere they could harmonise differing materials,
and ascertain the proportions and true forms of the various
parts. And this is the case with steam-coaches. A com-
bination of the practical knowledge of the carriage builder
and the engineer was necessary, to enable an inventor to
put his plans in execution; but mechanical men in regular
STEAM LOCOMOTION.
197
business rarely embark in speculations. The speculators,
for the most part, were neither carriage builders nor engi-
neers they possessed general knowledge, but very little
knowledge of details; they knew nothing of proportion,
and as they went on,-mostly in pecuniary difficulties,—
they were obliged to acquire their knowledge in the school
of costly experiment. And even engineers could not avail
themselves of their previously gathered knowledge, but
were constrained to learn afresh. The proportions of parts,
adapted to stationary engines, are not fitted to encounter
the uncertain concussion and momentum of rough roads.
Strength must be provided to resist the greatest amount of
concussion, and it is at the same time necessary that all
possible lightness should be preserved. To accomplish
these two opposite objects, the greatest nicety of calcula-
tion is required,—and that calculation can only be verified
by repeated experiment. All this must be at the cost of
the needy speculator; the public at large does not interest
itself, till doubts have vanished, and certainty has taken
their place,—unless the speculator be a good advocate, and
can persuade them to believe in a certainty he himself be-
lieves, but has not verified. In such cases the knavish spe-
culator who aims at people's pockets, and not at mechani-
cal success, has a better chance than the honest one.
But even in the present condition of steam-coaches,
enough has been done to excite the prejudices of many car-
riage builders, who fear lest their trade should be encroached
on. They fear it may be possible for steam to supersede
horses in pleasure carriages. To analyse this, we must first
define what is meant by pleasure carriages. All carriages which
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STEAM LOCOMOTION.
carry human beings may be called pleasure carriages, inas-
much as they are constructed to avoid the pain of walking;
but the best definition of a pleasure carriage is, one not
used for the purposes of business, or mere conveyance be-
tween near or distant places,-but for the purpose of plea-
sant exercise in the open air, or to facilitate the intercourse
of social life, not as a matter of necessity, but of enjoy-
ment. For pleasure carriages as thus defined, it is not
likely that steam will be considered available. The reasons
are sundry. In the first place, steam is a mere labourer-
a drudge who performs his work without speech or sign,
with dogged perseverance but without emotion. By dint
of the garb in which he is clad, the machine which serves
him for a body, he sometimes puts on the appearance of a
live thing, shaking his polished metal clothing like an ar-
moured knight: but this is only when he is stationary.
His travelling garb is rough and rude, his breath is sul-
phureous, his voice is hissing, his joints creak, the anointing
of his limbs gives forth an unpleasing gaseous odour, he
carries with him a kitchen and a fuel chamber, and his
He may be per-
whole appearance is black and unsightly
sonified when speaking of him; but no one pats his neck or
speaks to him in a voice of encouragement. It is not so
with a horse or horses. They are beautiful and intelligent
animals, powerful yet docile; creatures that respond to
kindness, and shrink from cruelty and injustice. The
driver and owner can love them or feel proud of them;
they step with grace, and can vary their form and move-
ments in a thousand ways. They are creatures of indivi-
dual impulses; and although injudicious treatment occa-
STEAM LOCOMOTION.
199
sionally reduces them to blindness by artificial means,—
though injudicious custom chooses to govern them by the
sense of feeling rather than by the inflection of the voice
modulated to their ear, still there is felt towards them a
species of companionship. The man who rides a horse,
feels a pleasure when the creature responds willingly to
his purposes; and when he responds unwillingly, he feels
a pride in the exercise of his power to compel him to obe-
dience. Even when a horse is vicious, there is a pleasur-
able excitement in riding him. The rider's nerves are
strung, his senses are quickened; eye, hand, and ear are
alike on the alert; the blood rushes through the veins, and
every faculty is aroused. There is a feeling of proud con-
sciousness that his individual skill and dexterity can ren-
der his life as secure in peril as other men's are under ordi-
nary circumstances. Many men there are who prefer a
horse to a certain extent dangerous.
"Oh! the blood more stirs
To rouse a lion than to start a hare."
Most men like a horse with vivacity, and few choose
one which is merely adapted to work,—at least for riding.
And thus it is with driving to a certain extent,-that is to
say, for pleasure purposes. The carriage is built to har-
monise with the horses, and the horses are selected to set
off the carriage well. The carriage and horses form a com-
bination; and if they possess not harmonising points, they
are unsightly. A cart-horse in an elegant carriage is as
much an anomaly as a blood-horse in a heavy cart.
But there are persons who merely need a carriage for
the purpose of moving in the open air without personal
200
STEAM LOCOMOTION.
trouble, and to whom a machine would be preferable if it
afforded them the same facilities, together with a diminu-
tion of the inconveniences. In its present state, steam is
not capable of supplying this purpose. The boiler and
appurtenances are necessarily of great weight; and the
smaller they are made, the more proportionately heavy do
they become as regards the work they are capable of per-
forming. Fire, even of coke or charcoal-steam—the em-
pyreumatic odour arising from heated oil, together with
hissing noises, are nuisances of great amount. A steam
gig or chariot would undoubtedly be a great acquisition
for night work, saving horses and servants alike from ill-
ness and annoyance. It is a painful sensation to be at the
opera and be conscious that the horses and servants are
suffering pain, and perhaps imbibing the seeds of disease,
exposed to rain, snow, or frost; but as these are only casu-
alties, they will be endured, rather than the certain annoy-
ances from steam in its present state will be submitted to.
For short trips by sea, steam is endured, because it is cer-
tain in its time, and against its inconveniences are to be
set the fearful inflictions of protracted periods of sea sick-
ness in sailing vessels; but if it were a question of a per-
manent dwelling on the sea, most persons would prefer a
sailing vessel to a steamer.
And our present state of knowledge affords little hope
that the inconveniences of steam can be efficiently remov-
ed. The old name for "steam-engine" was "fire-engine."
The truest definition would probably be to designate it a
"heat-engine." The heat is the real mover; the water is
but the vehicle in which to apply the heat, just as the
STEAM LOCOMOTION.
201
water in a Bramah's press-pump is but the vehicle to
concentrate the force of the human arm applied through
the lever. Water absorbs heat as spongy wood absorbs
water; and its bulk being increased by it, it acts like a
wedge against whatever restrains it. Attempts have been
made to use heat through other agencies,-as the various
gases, and atmospheric air; but they have not yet been
found practicable. Could the gases be used, the weight
of the charged machine would be lessened by the substitu-
tion of a light medium for a heavy one; but the weight of
the machine itself would remain the same, as the same
power of resistance would be necessary. It is possible
that in time the ill-odoured gases evolved from heated oil
may be neutralised by mixing them with other gases, and
the chief mover, fire, made exact and unerring in its appli-
cation, without smoke or vapour: but this is to calculate
not on what is, but on what may be.
It seems not likely that steam can be applied to plea-
sure carriages; but improvements will most probably go on
in the construction of steam carriages, till they be perfectly
available for common roads as vehicles of locomotion,-
as a means of travelling more economically than with
horses from one place to another. But to realise a profit
from them, they must carry many passengers: they will do
for public, but not for private vehicles. One advantage
they will possess which common vehicles have not: in
cold weather they may be warmed by the steam-pipes with
the same facility as a house, and in hot weather they may
be ventilated by fanners worked by the machinery.
But, when all this has been done, it will not be worth
202
STEAM LOCOMOTION.
while to work steam-coaches on common roads, for a sim-
ple reason. Wherever there may exist traffic enough to
warrant the use of steam-coaches, it will be worth while to
lay down rail-ways. Those who are strong advocates for
steam-coaches on common roads usually assume that rail-
roads are enormously expensive in their construction, and
that common roads cost nothing, or but little. But this
is an unwarranted assumption. The expenses of rail-roads
are heavy in the outset, by reason of the necessary em-
bankments, deep cuts and tunnelling, together with the
purchase of land, and the erection of bridges or tunnels to
keep up the communication on intersecting lines of road.
But is not this also the case with common roads on new
lines? The true question at issue is, whether, after
the level has been produced, it be more expensive to lay
a rail-road or a Macadamised road capable of bearing a
specific weight. In some districts the expense of Macad-
amising with granite is enormous, on account of carriage;
and for steam-coaches, the roads are required to be of the
very best kind, or they will not bear the weight. Allow-
ing that the rail-roads be most costly at first laying down,
there can be no comparison as a question of repairs. All
that can want renewal are the iron rails and fastenings; and
the steamers on the rail-road can carry their own materials,
which the steamers on common roads cannot so convenient-
ly do, the bulk being so enormous. And the amount of load
which the same amount of power will draw on the rail-road,
owing to the lessening of friction and concussion, is very
considerably increased. And lastly, the difference of speed
is an unanswerable reason for giving a preference to the rail-
road. Fifteen miles per hour is probably the outside per-
STEAM LOCOMOTION.
203
formance which common road steamers can attain without
shaking themselves to pieces; while on rail-roads twenty-
five miles can without difficulty be attained. Where very
great speed is not required,—as for short distances and fre-
quent stoppages, such as the common omnibuses are used
for,-it may eventually be worth while to employ steamers
on common roads when they are sufficiently improved.
The momentum acquired by great speed, which is found
so advantageous on rail-roads, would prove a serious diffi-
culty in the case of frequent stoppages.
The constructors of pleasure carriages have not only no-
thing to fear from the encroachments of steam, but, on the
contrary, they may regard it in the light of an ally. Since
the invention of steam-boats, the facility of exporting car-
riages to Ireland and the Continent, without the neces-
sity of expensive packing, and without the uncertainty of
arrival, has led to a greatly increased demand. In spite
of the unwise exclusion contemplated by the custom-house
laws of France, English carriages are now commonly seen
in Paris and other parts, and they are universally prefer-
red. On an infinitely greater scale will carriage-keeping be
promoted by the introduction of rail-roads. Time was,
that travelling coaches were something like baggage wag-
gons, and travelled as slowly. People wanted to travel
faster, and their baggage was sent by the waggon, as heavily-
laden vehicles would not bear rapid motion. But the ve-
hicles were improved, the baggage was lightened, and
goods and passengers again travelled together. But the
vehicles were wanted for other purposes than mere travel-
ling; they were needed as pleasure carriages in towns. In-
vention was set to work, and the same vehicle was made
204
STEAM LOCOMOTION.
to show like a town coach one day, and like a travelling
coach the next. But such vehicles are necessarily imper-
fect. The springs which are adapted to carry a light weight
easily are not adapted to carry a heavy weight, and vice
versâ: and a carriage must necessarily lose much of its
beauty when used for travelling. These disadvantages
have prevented many persons from keeping carriages, and
have obliged some few to keep two carriages. But another
motive has perhaps been still more forcible. In travelling
with a carriage rapidly, it is necessary to go with post-
horses; or to travel by very easy stages, with a single pair.
Few persons like to travel slowly, and fewer still, to leave
their horses behind them and be deprived of their use; and
as the habits of those who keep carriages are mostly migra-
tory at particular periods of the year, they would rather
cease to keep horses and carriages than be confined to one
spot. The desirable thing is to have one pleasure car-
riage perfect in all its parts, and to be able to convey it,
servants, horses, baggage and all, at a rapid pace, from
one point to another, without injury to carriage or horses;
to have the perfect use of it at any required spot, with
as much facility as though the owner had not left his
home.
Steam locomotion on rail-roads will accomplish all this.
The driver or the owner may drive the vehicle, with the
family, servants, baggage and all appurtenances, on to a
platform securely railed round, and steam will do its office
in conveying them to their destination, without concussion,
and without damage to the vehicle. When this shall
come to pass, pleasure carriages will increase in number
manifold.
205
CHAPTER XIV.
Taste.-Definition of Taste.-True and False Taste.-Originality
and Imitation.- Form, Colour, and Proportion.-Defective Pro-
portions of Carriages.-Natural Forms.-Ornaments contrived to
cover defects.- Colours.-Heraldic Bearings.-Disposition of Or-
naments.—Trimming.
THERE is a notion prevalent amongst uninstructed
people that the quality called Taste is a peculiar "gift,"
which an individual is endowed with at birth, and which
cannot be acquired by any amount of application. Some
portion of this belief is founded on reason, inasmuch as
the physical faculties of some individuals at their birth
are more perfect than those of others. Some are born
with weak, and others with strong eyes: and the same
difference may exist in the perceptive faculties generally,
on which faculties the quality of Taste must depend.
But even as weak eyes may be strengthened by judici-
ous treatment, and strong eyes may be weakened by in-
judicious treatment, so inferior perceptive faculties may
be improved by cultivation, and those which might have
been first-rate may disappear by neglect. Nearly all peo-
ple have the germs of Taste; but in some nations those
germs are developed more than in others. Even in those
nations where the germs of Taste are developed in but
few individuals,-where the mass of the community cannot
206
TASTE.
discover beauty for themselves, they are yet susceptible
of its influence when it is placed before them by others.
If it were not so, the expression "a person of good Taste"
would not be used, as it so commonly is, as a mark of ap-
probation. The phrases "a person of Taste," and "a per-
son of Genius," in common language mean two different
things; but they are in reality merely modifications of the
same thing. Perceptive faculties of a high kind, with-
out much cultivation, give a critical power to examine the
productions of Art generally; but when highly cultivated,
they give the power of creating works of Art of the high-
est kind, and this faculty is by common consent called
Genius.
Taste may be considered as another word for Truth or
Proportion, both morally and physically. Thus, the ut-
terance of a falsehood is bad moral Taste; it is a violence
offered to Nature. In works of imagination, such as
novels, those which offend a correct taste will be found
to violate truth, probability, or proportion; and even
when they are copied from Nature, it will be found a viti-
ated and distorted nature, forcibly perverted from the
true type. Much false taste exists in the community, and
always has existed; but the total amount is continually
lessening. The reason of the false taste is, the imitative
nature of man, which in an uncultivated state follows
without examining. But even as it is the nature of water
to attain a state of rest after violent oscillations, so it is
the tendency of truth and proportion to grow out of the
chaos either of thought or matter. When an individual
by the force of his Genius or cultivated Taste sets
TASTE.
207
a true type in any work of art, the public soon begin to
appreciate it, to take pattern by it, to imitate it, and
though many imitate badly, still there is a marked gene-
ral improvement. Excellence cannot be attained by imi-
tation; the principles of an art are the most important part
of it, and when they are once thoroughly mastered by
long-continued application, the details will be filled in
with comparative ease. It is a far more tedious opera-
tion to imitate than to originate; and imitations, though
they may be excellent as imitations, can never have the
value of originals: they lack the intellect, the spirit,
which Genius alone can bestow. Imitations of works of
art are like the mimicries of the manners of living beings:
they are caricatures rather than likenesses; being based on
no rules, they bring the important parts into stronger re-
lief than the main portions; they lay stress on the orna-
ments, and forget the lines of proportion; they overload
the capital, and entirely neglect the base.
Carriages, as constructed for the purposes of pleasure,
are works of art, in which Taste may be widely developed
in Form, Colour, and Proportion; but the former is of
course subservient to the mechanical construction. The
hitherto defective mechanism of carriages, in which "a large
wheel is made to follow a small one," has to a great extent
destroyed proportion, and given a general licence to all
kinds of heterogeneous devices and barbarous ornaments,
as if to overlay defects which there were no apparent means
of obviating. Custom has reconciled the public to this
discrepancy, which, were it now to appear for the first time,
would excite universal distaste and ridicule. The lines
208
TASTE.
of a carriage are generally arranged with the purpose of
composing an elegant side view. To use an Iricism, the
side of a carriage is its front. Viewed as a piece of archi-
tecture, it presents a central elevation, with a large wing
and a small one,—or rather, with two unequal pediments.
If viewed as a locomotive machine, the exaggerated mecha-
nical defect of the fore wheel being the smallest, is
at once perceived. The birds which cleave the air or float
on the waves, and the fishes which swim beneath the
waves, are all constructed by nature with the breast broad,
and the tail tapering off. The swift-footed quadrupeds
have a greater length of limb before than behind; and
ships and boats intended for speed have their extreme
breadth very far forward. But an ordinary four-wheeled
carriage is constructed in direct opposition to the princi-
ples of locomotion exemplified in animals and ships.
In an ordinary coach, the side form of the body is com-
posed of elliptic lines, from which the supporting iron
brackets or loops are continued into reversed curves. This
contrivance keeps the centre of gravity low. The four
C springs, from which the body is suspended by leathern
braces, are each-or ought to be-two-thirds of a circle,
with a tangent to it to form a base or support. The perch
beneath the body, which connects together the frame-
work supporting the springs, is curved into a serpentine
line, corresponding to the bottom of the body and the
loops; and thus a generally agreeable form is preserved.
But the double framework in front, and the unequal
wheels, entirely discompose the effect; and as a whole, it
is extremely disproportioned, and consequently unsightly.
TASTE.
209
The framework and wheels look a huge mass of tim-
ber and iron work, much too heavy for the light load
which is suspended on it. The wheels appear to project
far apart from it, for no apparent reason. To restore
something like a proportion of form, the hinder part is
filled in with what is called the hind standard,-a com-
position of carved curvilinear wood and iron work, sup-
ported on a pediment or cushion, resting on carved blocks,
-and the fore part is filled in with a black mass, with
elliptic outlines, called the Salisbury boat. This is sup-
ported on a pediment of carved wooden blocks, and is
surmounted by a mass of coloured drapery and fringe,
called a hammer-cloth. Altogether it is a barbaric mass,
which is only redeemed from positive ugliness by the har-
mony of the various curves as a whole; and to produce
this harmony there are yet no ascertained rules. There-
fore it is that the builder who possesses taste produces
combinations pleasing to the eye; and he who is without
taste produces unsightly works, which he is necessarily
obliged to sell at a low rate of profit, as mere articles
of convenience, and not of refinement. And even as ar-
ticles of convenience, they are imperfect, inasmuch as the
harmony of form arises from the due proportion of parts
to each other; and that very proportion produces a greater
amount of convenience. The size and weight of a car-
riage ought to be proportioned to that of the horse or
horses intended to draw it, as well as that of the person
or persons intended to ride in it, and also the locality and
season it is intended for; and the proportion of parts
having been once accurately settled, the same rule of pro-
Р
210
TASTE.
portion must be observed, whether on an increasing or
diminishing scale.
After settling the preliminary of Form, the next con-
sideration is that of Colour. Taste in the latter can do
much towards amending the defects in the former, or at
least can divert the attention of ordinary observers from
dwelling on them. Certain colours produce their effect
by contrast; as green and red, purple and yellow, orange
and blue: others again produce their effect by harmony;
as green and drab, or brown and amber: others again by
gradation; as the differing shades of greens and browns, in
almost endless variety. Colours are generally divided into
two classes, the warm, and the cold. Red and Yellow,
and their various gradations, are warm colours; Green
and Blue, and their various gradations, are cold colours.
The intermingling of the opposite colours forms neutrals.
In choosing the colour of a carriage, various considerations
intervene:—whether it is to be used in summer or in winter,
or in both seasons;-whether it is intended to look rich
in the outset, without regard to wear; or whether the chief
consideration be durability, and the next, appearance.
The warm colours are of course the most appropriate for
winter, and the cold ones for summer; but those which
look the richest are not generally those which wear the
best. As an exception to this, however, the yellows, which
are both rich and showy, are amongst the most durable
colours. For bright sunny days the straw or sulphur
yellow is very brilliant and beautiful; but for the au-
tumnal haze, the rich deep orange hue conveys the most
TASTE.
211
agreeable sensations. The greens used are of innumer-
able tints, commencing with the yellowish olive, and gra-
dually darkening till they are barely distinguishable from
black. Neither apple green, grass green, sea green, nor
any green of a bluish tint, can be used in carriage paint-
ing with good effect as a ground colour; but in some
species of light carriages a pleasing effect may be pro-
duced for summer by the imitation of the variegated
grasses. The dark greens look the richest, but do not wear
so well, the slightest specks being magnified by the dark
surface. They look best in the winter time. But the
olive greens are preferable for the summer, as they show
the dust less and are amongst the most generally durable
colours. The browns are scarcely less numerous than the
greens, and even more durable; but the lighter shades of
brown have rather an unpleasing effect, far too homely
for varnish. Some of the darker browns become exceed-
ingly rich with the admixture of a reddish tint, from the
first faint tinge, up to the deep beautiful chocolate colour,
the intermediate shades between which and a decided lake
afford perhaps the very richest ground colours used in car-
riage painting. Blues were formerly principally used as
a ground colour for bodies, to contrast with a red carriage
and framework. Of late very dark blues have been used
as a general ground colour, and when new they are very
rich, being a glazed or partially transparent colour; but
they very soon become worn and faded, the least speck or
dust disfiguring them. Blue is also a cold colour, and while
it is unfitted for summer by reason of its easy soiling, it is
F. 2
212
TASTE.
unpleasant in winter, owing to its want of warmth. Drabs
are very rarely used for painting colours, though for some
peculiar purposes they might be advantageously applied.
In addition to the ground colour, other colours are used
to relieve it, the framework of the body being generally
painted black; and in the case of a very dark colour being
used for the ground, it becomes necessary to run a very
fine line of a lighter shade, in order definitely to mark the
inner edges of the framework. The same process is pur-
sued with regard to the carriage and under framework, for
the purpose of making it look lighter to the eye. Were
the perch, beds, and wheels painted of one colour, they
would look exceedingly heavy and clumsy: but the skilful
management of the fine lines, or "picking out," as it is
technically called, produces a pleasing optical illusion.
The same effect is sought also in the carved work, which
would look very bare were it not heightened and brought
into relief by the judicious application of black and
coloured lines. The heraldic bearings, such as arms and
supporters, crests and ciphers, which serve as ornaments
to fill up the broad spaces of the panels, were formerly
painted in their proper heraldic colours. With some bright
grounds, such as yellow, the effect is occasionally good;
but with others it destroys the general harmony of the car-
riage. On this account it has been customary of late
years, when dark colours are used, such as greens and
browns, to paint the heraldic devices in relief of the same
colours.
Proportion in carriages applies both to Form and Colour.
As regards form, it regulates the sizes of the various parts
TASTE.
213
so that the whole may harmonise, and dictates the adoption
of contrivances for lessening the apparent size of those parts
which would otherwise be unseemly. Thus the total height
which is necessary in the body for the comfort of the passen-
gers is too great for the length which is convenient to assign
it. Therefore the total height is reduced, and to give suffi-
cient leg room a false bottom is affixed by means of con-
vex rockers like a child's cradle, and which, being thrown
back and painted black, cease to form a portion of the ele-
vation: they are like a foundation out of sight, and thus
the proportion of the front view is preserved. In painting
the body of a coach or chariot, it is customary to confine
the ground colour to the lower panels, and to paint the
upper ones black, all except some stripes on the upper part
of the doors. Now, inasmuch as colour in this case consti-
tutes form by means of outline, and as that outline gives
an irregular figure, it is a decidedly defective arrangement,
making the upper part of the structure look heavier than
the base. But the fact is, this defect has not been caused
by intentional bad taste; it is a mere result of imitation,
of following up old practices when the motive for them has
ceased.—It was formerly the custom to cover the roofs
and upper panels of all close carriages with greasy leather,
in order to make them water tight, the edges of the lea-
ther being fastened down with rows of brass nails. This
leather was black, and thus the eye became gradually re-
conciled to an unsightly object from a consideration of uti-
lity. After it was discovered that undressed leather could
be strained on and painted, it was still considered neces-
sary to paint it black, as the surface was not smooth
214
TASTE.
enough to show well with bright colours; and now that
wooden panels are used to the upper as well as lower part,
long custom has made the black colour of the upper part
appear indispensable.
As by the present mode of constructing bodies, various
joints are left exposed to view, where leather unites with
wood, and where two varieties of wood unite in the same
surface, it becomes necessary to resort to some mode of
covering them. This is done by means of beading, or
stripes of reeded metal with fastenings soldered to the
inner side. In some cases this beading is blacked and
scarcely shows; but in others it is of polished brass or pla-
ted, and thus marks portions of the outlines of the frame-
work. This has an exceedingly bad effect, and gives the
side lines a broken and unfinished appearance. Either the
beads should not show at all, or the whole of the outline
should be distinctly marked, as is the case in some few
of the best finished carriages. The elegance of a carriage
depends on the perfection of the outlines, and everything
which tends to disturb those outlines should be avoided.
Ornamental work conspicuously placed in injudicious posi-
tions ceases to be an ornament. Thus the loop heads
are proper positions to place an ornamental boss, because
they are the points where scrolls end and other lines com-
mence; but the rings which sustain the check braces on
the body should be kept out of sight, inasmuch as they
break the lines of the body in the straightest portions,
where there is no scroll to relieve them. For this reason
crests or head plates are objectionable, and seem mere ex-
crescences quite out of place: they encumber a plain sur-
TASTE.
215
face without compartments, and that in a mode which looks
as though they had been rolled away towards one edge
near the roof, in order to get them as far out of the way
as possible. The practice is now fast disappearing. It
originated in the desire to cover in some way the unsightly
projecting hoop-sticks used to sustain the flexible heads
of landaus, barouches, and other open carriages. In such
cases the head plates had somewhat the same effect as the
ornaments used by architects at the eaves of Grecian roofs
´to cover the ends of the projections which run in parallel
lines down the joints. But on a plain surface, such as is
presented by the upper panels of a coach or chariot, such
ornaments are out of place.
The handles of the doors are always made conspicuous,
being of brass or plated metal. Necessity dictates this, as
the constant action of the hand in opening and shutting
the doors prohibits the use of paint, on account of its
rapid wear. The side of the carriage would look better
without this prominent projection, if it could be avoided :
but as that is impracticable, it is generally placed at the in-
tersection of the central vertical and the central horizontal
lines, where it interferes less with the outlines than it
would in any other position. In some classes of carriages,
such as dress coaches and chariots for town use, these han-
dles are made highly ornamental, with a profusion of
chased work; but in others they are left quite plain. The
disadvantage attending chased work in carriages is the dif-
ficulty of keeping it clean. Its effect is dependant on
the arrangement of bright and dead portions, and the lat-
ter cannot be preserved when the cleansing brush is fre-
*
216
TASTE.
quently applied. Where polished metal is used, brass is
the richest and warmest, and harmonises best with the ge-
nerality of colours; but it requires much labour to keep
clean, especially in damp weather. Silver is more adapted
to summer colours, having a cool appearance; but in winter
it has the advantage of not tarnishing so readily as brass.
Brass might of course be lackered to keep it from the ac-
tion of the weather; but the lacker would give it a tawdry
and unseemly appearance. Gold would be the desirable
metal, were there not two strong reasons against its use—
the expense and the temptation to robbery.
The most conspicuous objects in a carriage are the
lamps. In dress carriages these are usually of polished
metal, and there is much room for taste in them; but for
travelling carriages the lamps are usually black.
In the lining or trimming of a carriage, form, colour, and
proportion are all requisites. All dress carriages have ham-
mer-cloths, or coloured drapery surrounding the driver's
seat. This forms a most prominent object, and if it does
not harmonise with the rest of the vehicle, the proportion of
parts is destroyed. The general form of the outlines must
be regulated by the lines of the iron-work or framework on
which it is supported. The effect of it is architectural.
It commonly has a base of deep lace or fringe: the central
elevation is composed either of a panel work of cloth with
lace outlines, or of massive cloth flutes; and the top has a
capital of horizontal lace to surmount it. The size of the
various parts, and the relative size of the whole to the car-
riage, must be regulated by the artist's eye; for so many
considerations intervene, that no particular rules can be laid
TASTE.
217
In brown and green car-
down to follow out every detail.
riages, it is customary to make the cloth or ground colour
of the hammer-cloth the same as that of the body, and to
relieve it with the differing shades occurring in the texture
of the lace. But with other colours decided contrasts are
preferred, not only in the carriage, but occasionally in the
hammer-cloth itself. The design of the carriage builder
is occasionally ruled by the family livery of the owner.
Thus, sometimes a dark blue body is seen with a deep
crimson hammer-cloth, a dead white hammer-cloth with a
deep blue lace, and so on. Yellow carriages are some-
times fitted with blue hammer-cloths, and sometimes with
drab ones; and the effect is equally good in both cases
when well managed. In the formation of hammer-cloths
to stand the rough usage to which they are constantly ex-
posed in the ascent and descent of the coachman to the
driving box, considerable judgment is required, to enable
them to preserve their shape. A worn or defaced ham-
mer-cloth destroys the general effect of the best made
carriages.
The interior lining of carriages is regulated by the same
general rules which determine the form, colour, and pro-
portion of hammer-cloths, with the necessity for greater
comfort superadded, which is made the first consideration.
The form of the cushions and squabs must necessarily be
regulated to the convenience of the passenger. These
forms are regulated by means of the canvass and stuffing.
The general covering is cloth; but for those parts which
wear or are apt to get soiled, it is customary to substitute
morocco or silk: thus one side of the cushions is cloth,
218
TASTE.
and the other silk or morocco, in order to reverse them if
necessary. The vertical cushions at the back and sides,
not being made to turn, are only covered on one side, with
either silk or morocco.
The roof is covered with cloth, as
well as the other parts.
into cavities in the doors, are covered with morocco and
carpet. Pockets are arranged on the doors, and in a chariot,
in front also. In carriages painted brown or green, it is
very much the custom to use cloth of the same colour as
the paint, and a different coloured morocco or silk. Thus,
green cloth and crimson silk are not uncommon, or brown
cloth and crimson or yellow silk. The lace which is used
generally contains the same colours as the cloth and silk,
and one of the colours is in relief. A breadth of three-
inch lace is generally placed horizontally around the whole
top as a kind of capital, and vertical lines descend from it
on either side at the doors. The outlines of the pocket
flaps are marked in the same manner, like a livery coat.
The fronts of the seat cushions, and hanging loops for the
arms, as well as the glass strings, are of the same lace.
Along the seat a valant of vertically fluted cloth is carried,
and the bottom of it is bound in a similar way. The
other parts of the lining are bound with a kind of narrow
edging lace. Different makers have different modes of
trimming; some put more lace, and some less; but there is
no exact rule on the subject, and the general appearance
must be the principal guide to the artist. In the summer
time it is customary to cover the lining with a false lining
of chintz, generally striped, and sometimes in figured pat-
terns. In this case no lace or binding edges are shown,
The steps, which are made to fold
TASTE.
219
and the effect is very good. Formerly it was the custom
to use brass or plated metal for the hooks, handles, glass
rollers, and other mechanical arrangements; but ivory is
now advantageously substituted, and in some cases pearl
shell.
220
CHAPTER XV.
Varieties of Carriages.-Distinguishing characteristics.-Coach with
Under-springs-Without Under-springs. Landau. Driving
Coach.-Town Chariot.- Post Chaise.- Landaulet. -Britzschka
Chariot.-Elliptic Spring Chariot.-Barouche.-Barouchet.-Britz-
schka.-Elliptic Spring Britzschka.-Droitzschka.-Driving Phae-
ton.
Elliptic Spring Phaeton. Pony Phaeton. - Britzschka
Phaeton.-Ancient Phaeton.-Cabriolet Phaeton.-Elliptic Spring
Cabriolet Phaeton.-Curricle.-Cabriolet.-Tilbury.-Stanhope.-
Open framed Stanhope.- Dennet.-Gig.-One-horse Chaise, or
Whiskey.
Nor many years back, the varieties of carriages were
very limited in number, and there was little room for the
exhibition of taste in form. But this fault has of late been
corrected, and the varieties of shape and make have be-
come so numerous that it is difficult even for practised ob-
servers to be familiar with them all. The convenience of
those who ride in carriages is now the first thing the builder
has to study; and after that, to accommodate the form
to it with as much of elegance as his taste will allow him
to produce. Very ugly specimens are of course occasion-
ally produced; but, on the whole, the increase of practice
tends materially to the increase of good taste. Art has
shaken herself loose from the trammels, and it is not sur-
prising that she should make a few ungraceful gambols in
the first burst of unrestrained energy.
VARIETIES OF CARRIAGES.
221
Though it would be difficult to describe every particular
variety of carriage now in use, it is comparatively easy to set
forth the leading features,-the original models, as it were,
of each particular class. The distinguishing characteristics
are to be found in the form of the bodies, and not in the
mechanism of the springs or framework. Thus a parti-
cular shaped body entitles a carriage to the term Chariot,
whether it be constructed with under-springs or C springs,
or with both, or whether it be with or without a perch.
This rule obtains throughout the whole varieties of car-
riages; and in those bodies which are formed by a combi-
nation, it is customary to call them by a double name,-as,
Cab-Phaeton, Britzschka-Chariot, Britzschka-Phaeton, &c.
The chief carriage of all, and from which the trade
takes its name, is the Coach; though it is now little used as
compared with other carriages.
A Town Coach, after the best models, is constructed
with C springs and under-springs, hammer-cloth seat,
Salisbury boot, and hind standards. The colours may be
filled in according to taste.
The form of this body is agreeable to the eye. The
central horizontal line should be straight in the middle, to
correspond with the framing of the door, and the elbows
should curve upwards into elliptic lines. The loops or
hanging brackets should come outwards from the lower
quarters, like the insertion of a flower-stalk. The rocker
or false bottom beneath the bottom framing, intended to
give greater height, scarcely shows at all in perspective.
The sword-case, though a great convenience, is an ungrace-
ful lump. The curved lines of the Salisbury boot are
222
VARIETIES OF CARRIAGES.
curve.
pleasing; but the base line of the hammer-cloth, ranging
below the elliptic curve, verging from the central horizontal
line of the body, is a marked defect. The blocks on which
the hind standard rests are usually rich and of graceful
The standard itself, though composed of pleasing
curving lines, does not harmonise well with the outlines of
the spring. The serpentine line of the perch, corresponding
with the general outline of the body and loops, is very
pleasing in its effects; but the under-springs are not
graceful, being placed at two different heights. Wheels
of differing heights are an anomaly. The C springs are
pleasing lines, being in form about two-thirds of a circle,
with a tangent for a base. The braces which connect them
with the loops, and also with the body, are far from un-
sightly. If it be intended to use the coach for the pur-
pose of travelling, the Salisbury boot and hammer-cloth
are removed, and a platform substituted in its place, which
carries a trunk inside, and an imperial on the top of it.
The standard behind is also removed, and a boot on two
light springs is substituted for it, capable of carrying
two persons and a small box beneath their seat. At the
back of the body is placed a cap-case, and on the roof
either one or two imperials.
A reference to the drawing of the Town Chariot will
enable the reader to comprehend this description.
A Coach of a simpler kind is devoid of under-springs.
A platform in front, and a boot behind, are suspended on
the C springs. To make a Town Coach of it, the impe-
rials and cap-case are removed, and a hind standard substi-
tuted for the boot. In front, the platform is removed,
VARIETIES OF CARRIAGES.
223
and a hammer-cloth seat is fixed to the horn of the loop
by means of branch iron-work. To do all this work, of
course, the C springs must be made larger and heavier than
where the servants and luggage are carried on the under-
springs. For the servants this kind of carriage is prefer-
able, inasmuch as they ride on the same springs as their
employers: whereas in the other carriage they are commonly
placed on the under-springs alone, which are hard and jar
violently.* The total weight of this carriage is less than
when under-springs are used; but it is much less durable
and is harder to the draught, unless where the roads hap-
pen to be very soft. Coaches are not materially heavier
than chariots in actual weight; but being constructed to
carry a double number of passengers, of course additional
strength is required. But they are not very pleasant vehi-
cles, as they have no convenient look-out in front.
A Landau in its general form is similar to that of a
Coach. But it is made with a jointed head to throw open
occasionally. The two S formed irons which appear on
the upper quarters are jointed levers for the purpose of
holding the head firmly together when closed. It is usual
to have a framed driving seat with a guard iron to this car-
riage, as it is more convenient; and when the head is down,
it has a better appearance. But hind standards are occa-
sionally used. Sometimes Landaus are made with under-
* The Macadamised streets of London, and excellent roads gene-
rally, permit of the use of springs which are found too hard on pave-
ments and rough roads. The author has understood that English
carriages with under-springs, when used in the streets of Paris, have
caused French servants to spit blood, from violent and continued con-
cussion.
224
VARIETIES OF CARRIAGES.
springs; but their weight then becomes very great. The
under side of the body is strengthened by very heavy iron-
work to support it when open; and, of course, for a heavy
body, heavy springs and heavy frame work are required.
This is an expensive carriage to build, and very liable to
get out of order, as the leather and wood work of the head
is affected by cold and heat, damp and dryness. The ex-
pense of repairs is considerable.
A Driving Coach is a vehicle formerly much used by
gentlemen fond of driving and attending race-courses. The
perch is short and straight, and the wheels nearer together
than in ordinary coaches. The body and boots are framed
together, and suspended on telegraph springs before and
behind, the connexion with the carriage being by means
of carved blocks. This carriage will carry four passengers
inside-two on the driving box, two on the seat behind, and
six on the roof, in all fourteen persons, besides possessing
great space for luggage. This is a very convenient carriage
for families travelling on the Continent. Sometimes this
Coach is constructed as a Landau, to open; but the weight
is much increased by it. It is an anomalous-looking ve-
hicle, as the lines are inharmonious. The perch is straight,
and the bottom of the body is circular; while every line of
the boots and springs is straight. The form of the perch,
and springs clearly indicate what the bottom line of the
body ought to be; but in this, as in many other cases, habit
prescribes. It would seem as though it could not be con-
sidered a Coach without a circular bottom line.
Plate No. I, represents a Town Chariot, generally es-
teemed above all others as a dress or court carriage when

TOWN CHARIOT.
PLATE I.
}
9
VARIETIES OF CARRIAGES.
225
highly ornamented, though commonly used for other pur-
poses. This carriage is by the French called a Coupé,
being in fact a coach cut down; a portion of the fore end
being cut away and only one seat left. The effect is pleas-
ing; the lines of the fore end falling into each other in
graceful curves, and the reduced portion above affording
space for the lamp without interfering with the outline.
In all other respects the carriage resembles the Town
Coach before described, and is capable of the same alter-
ations for the purpose of travelling, when it becomes a
Post Chaise.-In this drawing the skilful observer will dis-
cover several defects. The front under-spring is too low
down, and the distance is too great between the upper and
lower curves.
The front C spring does not rise gracefully
from its bedding. The front body loop is not delicately
tapered, and is badly set on to the body. The hind body
loop is defective also, and the bottom of the Salisbury boot
has no defined line. The bottom curve of the body is also
unequal.
A similar carriage is constructed, without under-springs,
and with a swinging fore and hind end; passengers and
luggage being all borne on the C springs. The hind end
has a boot for two servants; and the fore end has a plat-
form, which can carry a trunk inside, and an imperial on
the top. On the roof of the body is an imperial; and at
the fore end of the body is affixed a large splashing frame
covered with japanned leather, between which and the body
is carried a cap-case. This altogether forms the regular
Posting Chariot or Post Chaise. The lamps are black,
and made to shift and hide the glass in the day-time. For
Q
226
VARIETIES OF CARRIAGES.
town use, the travelling furniture can be shifted, and a
hammer-cloth seat and standard substituted. For persons
who wish to lie at full length, the front panel can be taken
away, and the fore end lengthened into a boot called a
dormeuse.
A Landaulet bears the same relation to a Chariot that
the Landau does to the Coach; and the remarks which apply
to the Landau will apply to the Landaulet also-if pos-
sible more forcibly.
A Britzschka Chariot is distinguished from the ordinary
Posting Chariot by the form of the body, the lower
part of which is shaped something like a Britzschka.
This is a very unsightly carriage; the lower lines being
ungraceful curves, which do not harmonise with the upper
part. But it is a very convenient carriage for travelling
in foreign countries, especially for those who experience
a difficulty in finding convenient beds, or who may be
obliged to travel by night. There is ample room to lie
at full length; and the step is placed outside, in order not
to incommode the interior. A projection behind is adapt-
ed for bedding, and the front part is an elongation for the
limbs. In addition to the ordinary lamps, a reading lamp
can be attached behind to the back light,-an import-
ant convenience for travelling. One or two servants may
be carried on the boot behind; and attached to the lock-
er before is a board, which, when let down, forms a foot-
board; a seat being placed on the locker, an arrange-
ment is thus made for driving. An imperial can go on
the roof; and if the hind boot be taken away, one or two
large trunks may be substituted. The front foot-board

WBADAMS det
BAROUCHE.
PLATE II.
VARIETIES OF CARRIAGES.
227
may also be let down to a horizontal level, and thus carry
a large trunk. This carriage is much better adapted for
diplomatic travelling than for family purposes.
can be made to open.
The roof
A light Posting Chariot is sometimes constructed on
elliptic springs. This carriage is light, but not grace-
ful, as the curved form of the body does not harmonise
with the elliptic springs. The lockers before and behind
are framed into the body, and form part of it. The seat
is projected backwards from the hind locker, to allow the
sitters' legs to go inside. The front locker is large and
roomy, for the purpose of containing abundant luggage:
an imperial goes on the top of it. The well beneath serves
for a dressing-case, and other light articles. There can be
a reading-lamp behind, and an imperial may be placed on
the roof if required. The use of this carriage is to travel
very rapidly with one pair of horses; but it is a noisy
vehicle, owing to the rattle produced by the wheel-plate,
which is communicated to the hollow boots, and thence to
the body, with full effect. It may be considered a bachelor's
or sportsman's carriage rather than one for family use,
being well adapted for the purpose of leaving town and
going to cover at a short notice.
[
The foregoing descriptions comprehend nearly every
variety of vehicle known under the name of "close car-
riages." The varieties of "open carriages" are more
numerous.
Plate II. represents the principal of all open carriages,
a Barouche. This was formerly a very fashionable car-
riage for the summer season, though little adapted for
Q 2
228
VARIETIES OF CARRIAGES.
Britzschkas
winter, or for travelling purposes. Of late
Of late years
have taken the place of Barouches, on account of their
greater applicability to various uses. The body of a Ba-
rouche is usually made like that of the Coach without the
roof. It is, properly speaking, only a town carriage, being
unprovided with travelling furniture. The driving seat
is similar to that of a Landau, and is intended for the
coachman and footman to sit together, the hinder part
being unprovided with a standard, which would be useless,
as when the head is down there is little convenience for
the servant's holders, and he would, moreover, be un-
pleasantly placed, looking down on the sitters within,
and listening to all the conversation. The lines of the
Barouche have for the most part a very graceful appear-
ance; but there is a striking defect in the hinder quarter,
which, owing to the dark head, appears much smaller than
the front, while it is in reality of the same size. This gives
the body something the appearance of a ship going stern
foremost, "cutting the waves with her taffrail."-Another
defect is the door-handle, which breaks the surface of the
panel in an unpleasing manner. For the purpose of
shortening the carriage and getting a high fore-wheel, the
front quarter line is sometimes turned sharp up from the
door line, and arched in a serpentine form, to give more
space beneath. This is called a "step-piece body." It is
advantageous as regards the mechanism, but exceedingly
ungraceful, and moreover inconvenient, as it interferes
with the leg-room of the sitters. The Barouche has two
seats, like a Coach; and when the head is thrown back and
the knee-flap elevated, it will hold four or six persons
표
​NB.ADAMS. Dal
J.JACKSON. Se
BRITZSCH KA.
PLATE III.
i

VARIETIES OF CARRIAGES.
229
inside; but in wet weather only two or three can be ac-
commodated, or the lining will be spoiled by the rain, and
the passengers wetted. Occasionally, to remedy this in-
convenience, the carriage is fitted with a mahogany roof
and sides, to close against the head, and provided with
glass windows. But this is a miserably inconvenient ex-
pedient, and exceedingly unsightly. For fine weather the
Barouche is one of the most delightful of all carriages.
It is sometimes made with under-springs; but the effect
is not so good, as it then makes a heavier appearance.
Much of the beauty of the Barouche depends upon its
light exterior. Of course it is not so light as it appears,
owing to the bottom strengthening plates.
There are several defects in this drawing. The broad
upper moulding shows a broken line; the back elbow
line is the same; the back quarter line is defective, and
the front loop and the stay branching from it to the foot-
board are clumsy and ungraceful.
A Barouchet is to a Barouche what a Landaulet is to
a Landau, and the same remarks apply to both. The Ba-
rouchet is, however, generally constructed as a very light
carriage of small size, to be drawn by one horse. It is now
but rarely built, as much lighter carriages can be construct-
ed with the elliptic springs so commonly in use. The
Barouchet is not a graceful carriage.
Plate III. represents a Britzschka. It is little more
than ten years since this carriage, or rather the original
model of it, was first introduced from Germany; and now,
after many succeeding modifications, it has become the
most common of all carriages. The reason of this is its
230
VARIETIES OF CARRIAGES.
exceeding convenience, and adaptability to a great variety
of purposes. This drawing shows a Britzschka after the
best models, as adapted for travelling. The body and
seats all swing alike on the C springs. The boot behind
will accommodate two persons. The body, when the
knee-flap is open, will hold four; but in wet weather it is
only fitted for two. The step is outside, to leave the
interior less cramped. The front part of the head has
a calash attached to it, which is easily put up and down ;
whereby the facility of entrance is increased, as the head
does not slope too far forward. The access of rain is thus
carefully guarded against; and in case of cold weather,
there is an ingeniously contrived glass shutter, which folds
up in a recess of the head, and which when let down
will fill the whole front, closing with an air-tight joint in
the front of the knee-flap. The sword-case behind is large
and convenient; and the leg-room in the interior is
abundant for reclining at full length if necessary, when
constructed without a front seat in the interior. The
front trunks can be taken off and replaced by a driving-
seat.
The lines of this carriage are pleasing to the eye and
harmonise well together. The marked distinction between
this and the foregoing carriages is the adoption of a straight
bottom line. This, and the end curves, together with
the deep panel behind and the long elbow sweep before,
tend to give it a ship-like and fast-going appearance; while
the foot-board in front points the line of progress. The
sword-case is unpleasing in its outline, beauty having given
place to convenience. The lamp is well arranged for use.
VARIETIES OF CARRIAGES.
231
A defect in this carriage is the unequal size of the front
and hind springs. The motive is to balance the weight
more equally. This defect would have been more per-
ceptible had the largest spring been in front; but the
small wheel and small spring being together, the de-
fect is lessened. What adds very much to the ge-
neral good effect of this carriage, is the broad elbow line,
which forms a distinct outline, like the shear line of
a ship.
It is said that the first German Britzschka was brought
to England by the Earl of Clanwilliam, who liked it for
its lightness;-for which reason it probably obtained,
amongst coachmen and mechanics, the translated name
"Brisker, or Brisky." But the German carriage was
light, being intended only for three persons, with little
luggage; therefore its low wheels were not a very serious
objection. English convenience afterwards required that
greater accommodation should be provided both for persons
and luggage; but the carriages, though they have attained
great convenience, combined with grace, have become in
reality as heavy to the draught as ordinary Posting Cha-
riots. Some of them are now occasionally made with
additional under-springs, like the Chariots. This increases
the weight and height at the same time. Owing to its
movable head and greater exposure of the lining to
the air, the wear is considerably greater than that of a
Chariot.
There are two slight defects in this drawing, the
curve of the hind spring, and the bottom line of the
body.
232
VARIETIES OF CARRIAGES.
Britzschkas are also made without a perch, and support-
ed on elliptic springs. The locker behind has a door to
put in luggage. It is also sometimes made to open at the
top, to form a servant's seat. In this case, the front seat
can be taken away, and a cap-case and imperials substituted
for it. This carriage has a pleasing light appearance in its
general lines; but in the fore part there is a great defect of
construction. In the hind part, the body rests on a curved
block, which is bolted to the centre of the spring. In the fore
part, there are two curved blocks on which the body rests;
but instead of being placed over the centre of the spring,
or the wheel-plate above it, they are usually placed behind,
whereby a considerable amount of mischievous leverage is
produced, and a most unsightly effect, which must imme-
diately become apparent to a practised eye. This kind of
carriage is calculated to run very light, but must necessarily
be very noisy.
A Droitzschka-or, as it is commonly called, a Drosky---
was in the outset of Russian origin; being in fact in its
simplest form an improvement on the sledge, by adding
springs and wheels, the single passenger sitting with his
legs on each side of the perch, as he would sit on a horse.
But the Droitzschka as made in England is a modification
of the elliptic spring Britzschka, by placing the passengers'
seat nearly at the level of the hind axle, and sinking the
central part of the body below the level of the axle, for the
legs. This carriage can only carry two persons inside, and
two on the driving-seat. The form of it is not graceful;
neither is the carriage convenient, as the space inside for
the legs is cramped by the necessity of shortening it in

POWT
O
MODERN PHAETON.
PLATE IV.
VARIETIES OF CARRIAGES.
233
front to allow the fore wheels to turn under and while
it appears light, it is in reality very heavy for its size, the
peculiar form necessitating very strong iron-plates to hold
it together. The principal utility of the Droitzschka is for
languid, aged, or nervous persons, and children, as it is low
on the ground, and consequently easy of access and difficult
to turn over. It is made for one horse, or two ponies, but
is very heavy to draw.
Plate IV. represents a double-bodied Driving Phaeton,
which was at one time in very extensive use, but has
been much superseded by the Britzschka.
This carriage
is not very graceful, the front and hind springs assorting
ill together, and the long black locker looking too like a
coffin. It is, however, a convenient carriage either for
town use or for travelling, being light and having propor-
tionately large wheels. It is generally used in town by
those who like to drive themselves; for which reason the
best seat is placed in front. But the seats are sometimes
made to shift, in order that a servant may drive in bad wea-
ther. It is only intended to carry four persons. For tra-
velling purposes, a large box is placed under each seat, and
one behind the front body: one also is suspended behind
the back seat. Like all open carriages, of course, it wears
out faster than a close one. The position of the lamp dis-
figures the panel; but it is the most convenient arrange-
ment, and appearance cedes to utility. The springs are
now usually connected by short leathern braces instead of
iron links, in order to reduce the noise.
A Phaeton of the same class, but borne on elliptic springs,
and without a perch, is in common use. It is consequently
234
VARIETIES OF CARRIAGES.
much lighter, and altogether less noisy, as the springs work
together on smooth centres; but the noise from the wheel-
plate is greater than in the other mode of suspension.
The fore carriage and springs are attached by carved blocks
in the same defective manner as the under-spring Britz-
schka before described, and consequently the same un-
sightly appearance is produced. This carriage is the very
simplest form of four-wheeled vehicle in ordinary use. It
is literally a long box, with an arm-chair in front, and a
bench behind. An arch in the locker is usually contrived,
to permit the fore wheel to pass beneath, and thus allow it
to be somewhat higher. This convenience is attained by
means of cramping the servant's leg-room.
Pony Phaetons of a Cabriolet form were at one time
very fashionable. They are intended for two sitters, one
of whom drives, and a boy may be seated on the bar behind
if required; or a boy may ride as postilion on one of the
ponies. The form of the half-curved body is graceful,
with the exception of the straight lines of the seat. The
branching iron stays, which connect it with the springs and
wheels, are also well managed after the pattern of the
growth of the tendrils of flower-stalks. The lines of the
hind spring also fall in well with the curl of the stay.
But there the beauty ends. The step is unsightly, and
the front framework looks like a mass of disproportioned
parts. The small fore wheel and the low fore spring are
seen in all their defects, being unrelieved by a driving-
seat. It appears at first sight that this carriage is light
and easy to draw; but such is not the fact.
between the fore and hind wheels is considerable, and con-
The space
VARIETIES OF 235
:
CARRIAGES.
sequently the branching iron stays, which are in reality
crane necks, must be very stout and heavy, to resist the
strain upon them. These carriages are principally used for
parks, where ladies drive themselves.
A Britzschka Phaeton rests its claim to the title of
Phaeton on the mode of hanging; the springs being pre-
cisely on the same principle, though not in the exact form,
as those used in the Phaetons of the last century. The
body is a modification of the Britzschka, and of rather
more elegant form. The drooping of the lines from the
front seat gives a pleasing effect, while the elevation of the
hind seat above prevents any nakedness of appearance.
The seats are constructed to shift at the pleasure of the
owner. Two persons can sit in front, and two or four be-
hind, according as the head may be shut or open. The
step is made to slide under the bottom, as an outside step
would much disfigure this form of body, and to fold it up
inside the door would be inconvenient. The object of
using the double springs in front, instead of the C spring,
is to leave the space perfectly free for ascending the front
seat without inconvenience. But the motion is far from
pleasant, as the points of the front springs form a centre,
around which the hinder part of the body moves in an arc
of a circle as it sways up and down, instead of an agreeable
horizontal motion. This carriage, though elegant in ap-
pearance, is heavy. If used for travelling, it could carry
little luggage, as there is no seat behind. Consequently, a
trunk behind, and a box under each seat, would be the
total amount.
A monstrous-looking vehicle was known under the name
236.
VARIETIES OF CARRIAGES.
of a Phaeton at the end of the last century, and the com-
mencement of the present. What connexion there could be
between this vehicle and the fabled car of the Sun-God, to
obtain for it such a title, it is difficult to conceive. It was
at one time a most fashionable vehicle, and the favourite
driving carriage of the Prince of Wales, afterwards George
the Fourth. The object in alluding to it here, is to serve
as a standard to show the great progress which a compara-
tively short period has developed in the art of the carriage
constructor. The vehicle looked like a mechanical illus-
tration of the play of "Much ado about Nothing." It
was a contrivance to make an enormously high and danger-
ous seat for two persons, inconvenient to drive from, and
at the same time to consume as much material and mix up
as many unsightly and inharmonious lines as possible. The
framework of the carriage was constructed with two iron
perches, the outline of which was hideously ugly; but the
camel-looking hump had at least the mechanical advantage of
permitting a higher fore wheel than could otherwise be used.
The shape of the body was as though the rudest possible
form capable of affording a seat had been put together.
An ungraceful form of upright pillar or standard was first
selected, into which was framed a horizontal ugly curve for
a seat, connected at the top by an ungainly-looking elbow,
and a formal serpentine curve behind, from which was pro-
jected like an excrescence an ugly leathern box called a
sword-case. The front of the upright pillar was continued
into a most formal curve, and from its point rose an un-
graceful bracket, to support a foot-board, on the extreme
edge of which was coiled an ugly piece of leather called
VARIETIES OF CARRIAGES.
237
an apron. The construction of the body was such that it
could not possibly hold together by the strength of its own
framing; and to remedy this, a curved iron stay was intro-
duced in the worst possible taste. The leathern head rose
from the body at an angle which seemed to indicate that it
could get no rest; and the black box or locker introduced
to fill up the under part of the body was made with straight
lines, as if to make the whole still more heterogeneous and
unsightly. The huge double curved hind spring, with its
leathern brace, was so contrived as to occupy one half of
the total length of the vehicle, and the odd-looking stay
which prevented it from falling over in front, marked its
total insecurity. The crooked-shaped iron loop which
connected the body with the brace looked as though it had
been partly wrenched away by violence, and were waiting
repairs. The fore springs rather resembled the flourishing
strokes made by a schoolmaster, when heading a copy-book
or Christmas piece, than any legitimate mechanical contriv-
ance; and the motion must have been detestable, rendering
the act of driving difficult, and lessening the power of the
drivers over their horses. The servant's seat behind, placed
on curved blocks without any springs, completed this ex-
traordinary-looking vehicle. To sit on such a seat, when
the horses were going at much speed, would require as
much skill as is evinced by a rope-dancer at the theatre.
None but an extremely robust constitution could stand
the violent jolting of such a vehicle over the stones of a
paved street.
A Cabriolet Phaeton is made with C springs behind,
and 'double-lever springs in front. The shape of the body
1
238
VARIETIES OF CARRIAGES.
is elegant; but this is its only advantage, the defects of the
springs being the same as in the Phaeton last described.
This carriage is heavy, and the fore wheels low: it is used
principally to drive from, but sometimes with a boy mount-
ed on one of the horses.
A Cabriolet Phaeton is also constructed on elliptic
springs, without a perch. From its great convenience this
carriage has been very much used. The seat in front is
conveniently high to give command over the horses; while
the seat behind is low, and gives great facility of access.
But it is not possible to give the lines of this carriage an
elegant appearance without making it very long and heavy;
and even then the fore wheel must be kept small, to ena-
ble it to turn. When made short, the straight lines of the
fore body and the curved lines of the hind ones can in no
way be made to harmonise. It is a light vehicle, though
not so light as it appears, and will carry four persons-two
on each seat.
There are various other four-wheeled carriages con-
structed and known under different names, either of sim-
ple or compound forms, some hermaphrodite, and some
nondescript; but those already described are sufficient for
all practical purposes. The range of invention is of course
very wide, and the artist or mechanic may modify or im-
prove according to will and capability.
The two-wheeled vehicles are less númerous than those
with four.
The Curricle is the only two-wheeled carriage used with
more than one horse abreast, and therefore approaches
nearest in its mechanism to the antique classic Car. In
VARIETIES OF CARRIAGES.
239
form, however, it is very different. The shape of the body
is extremely unsightly. The hinder curve and the sword-
case are positively ugly. The elbow and head are un-
gracefully formal, and the crooked front line and dashing
iron are in the worst possible taste. The lines of the car
riage framework and under-spring are graceful; but the
mode of hanging the body is unsightly and inconvenient.
The step preserves the general formal character of the
whole vehicle. The mode of attaching the horses is pre-
cisely that of the classic Car, only more elegant. A pole is
fixed to the square frame, and is suspended from a bright
steel bar, resting in a fork on each horse's back. In spite
of the ungraceful form of the vehicle, the effect of the
whole was very good. A seat for a servant could be at-
tached to the hind frame if required. This carriage fa-
tigues the horses much less than one with four wheels, on
account of its superior lightness; but it has been wholly
disused of late years, probably on account of the risk at-
tached to it if the horses become restive. The whole of
the security depends upon the strength of the pole, which
serves as a lever to sustain the weight of the vehicle and
passengers, as well as to guide it. It is not essentially ne-
cessary that the vehicle should be ugly in its form; for it
affords facilities for constructing the most elegant of all
vehicles.
A Curricle of another form was built many years back
for the well-known Mr. Coates. The shape of the body
was that of a classic sea-god's car, and it was constructed
in copper. This vehicle was very beautiful in its outline,
though disfigured by the absurdity of its ornamental work.
240
VARIETIES OF CARRIAGES.
Plate V. represents a Cabriolet, a vehicle much used in
the present day. It is in reality a regeneration of the old
One-horse Chaise, in a newer and more elegant, form,
which has been borrowed, together with its name, from the
French; and, as is common in most such cases, it has been
improved on. The principal reason why this carriage is
so much liked, is its great convenience. It carries two
persons, comfortably seated, sheltered from sun and rain,
yet with abundant fresh air, and with nearly as much pri-
vacy as a close carriage, if the curtains be drawn in front.
It can go in and out of places where a two-horse carriage
with four wheels cannot turn; and a boy is carried behind,
cut off from communication with the riders, save when
they wish to alight and give the vehicle into his charge.
This is a very convenient vehicle for unmarried men to go
out in at night, and return either from a dinner, or from
the theatre or opera, or houses of parliament: it saves the
inconvenience of a close carriage, two horses, a coachman
and footman, which, when out late at night, involve a
large amount of trouble as well as expense. The draw-
backs are, its great weight,—which requires very powerful
and expensive horses,—and the unpleasant movement aris-
ing from its mode of hanging. To run a Cabriolet about
town during a whole day, two horses are required; and to
use it day by day requires three in use. But this fact
gives a Cabriolet greater estimation than a Stanhope, in
the eyes of those who regard it as an indication of station
and wealth. It is, however, an impracticable vehicle for
those who wish to drive out of town frequently, ten or
twelve miles and back. Another disadvantage is the un-

CABRIOLET.
PLATE V.
1
VARIETIES OF CARRIAGES.
241
pleasant motion consequent on the mode of hanging the
body. To some persons this motion is excessively dis-
agreeable. As Cabriolets are much used at night and are
driven at a very rapid pace, many accidents have hap-
pened, in consequence of which some of those who use
them have adopted the practice of hanging bells round the
horse's collar, as is done in many countries where sledges
move rapidly and noiselessly over the hardened snow.
On paved streets the Cabriolets make noise enough; but
on those which are Macadamised, two of them may run
foul of each other at night before the sound can efficiently
warn the ear.
The peculiar feature of the Cabriolet is the graceful
form of the body, which resembles that of the nautilus
shell, and with which the shape of the head harmonises well.
The dark portion in front shows the side of the knee-flap,
which, instead of being flexible, as in the old-fashioned
aprons, is stretched tightly across a frame, to the great
convenience of the sitters. The lamp in front is usefully
placed; but it is unsightly, and harmonises ill with the
shape of the body. The shaft forms a graceful curve, and
the spring behind falls well in with it. The spring be-
neath the shaft also is well adapted to the line. The
straight leather brace which connects the spring with the
loop behind, looks defective and formal. The step looks
what most steps do-an excrescence; and the wheel ap-
pears small when compared with the size of the vehicle:
but necessity rules this. The wheel must be kept so far
back as not to interfere with the access to the vehicle;
and the axle must be kept so far forward as to balance it
R
242
VARIETIES OF CARRIAGES.
correctly, without throwing too much strain on the horse's
back. Other modes of construction might be adopted
which would prevent the necessity of avoiding one fault by
creating another. The motive for curving the shafts so
considerably, is to have the point at the level of the
horse's shoulder, and keep the hinder part low for the
convenience of the passenger.
The defects in this drawing are, that the bottom line is
too much curved, the front point throws up too much,
and the hind spring is not delicately enough tapered.
Plate VI. represents a Tilbury. This vehicle was first
invented by a carriage builder of that name, and was for
many years very fashionable. The probable reason for
its being liked, was its apparent lightness. In all other
respects it is an unsightly vehicle, and the mode of hanging
is still worse than that of the Cabriolet. The action on the
cross spring behind has a tendency to twist it. The dark
portion under the seat represents a drop-box, which in the
construction has a still worse appearance than in the de-
sign, while without it, the body looks as though it were
temporarily put together and never finished. The motion
of the body is most unpleasant, and lessens much the com-
mand of the driver over the horse. Originally these
vehicles were built without springs between the shaft and
the axle, instead of which a deep carved block was used;
but the jar was so great, that springs are now always sub-
stituted-i. e. for the few which are made, for the disad-
vantages of this mode of construction are now becoming
more obvious as the art of carriage building advances.
While apparently light, the Tilbury is in reality the hea-
WELLA DEL
TILBURY.
PLATE VI.
K


MIERDAMS
STANHOPE.
PLATE VII.
VARIETIES OF CARRIAGES.
243
viest two-wheeled vehicle which is constructed, except the
Cabriolet. It has altogether seven springs, and a consi-
derable weight of gibbet-looking iron-work besides, to
support the hind spring. In addition to this, massive iron
plates are attached all round the framework of the body,
to hold it together and resist the strain upon it.
In this drawing the central horizontal line of the body
is distorted, the under spring is too straight, the step is
too upright, and the general appearance of the body too
formal.
Plate VII. represents a Stanhope, taking its name from
the inventor, a brother of the Earl of Harrington. This
is a far more sightly and compact vehicle than the last.
The body is in reality of the same shape as that of the
Tilbury; but, resting on the dark locker, the space is agree-
ably filled up, while great convenience for luggage or par-
cels is obtained. It rests on two cross springs, whose
ends are suspended from two side springs. By this means
the body is placed at two removes from the concussion;
but the shafts, and consequently the horse, are exposed to
the whole of it;-over the stones this is considerable.
The connexion between the side and cross springs was
formerly merely by links, as in ordinary stage-coaches,
from whose construction the idea was taken; but the
jingling noise soon caused noiseless shackles to be con-
trived, working on smooth centres. When these shackles
become galled, of course they must be replaced by others.
Of late, short leather braces have been substituted for them,
as being less noisy, and yielding greater freedom of action
to the springs. One defect of this construction is, that
R 2
244
VARIETIES OF CARRIAGES.
if the horse falls on his knees, a violent jerk takes place
on the front cross spring, which yields, while the hind
spring offers no resistance, and the consequence mostly is
that the riders are pitched out.
In this drawing, the springs, instead of a graceful curved
line, look as though they had been forcibly bent in the
centre; and the hinder part of the shaft looks as though
it were weighed down.
Another variety of the Stanhope, adapted for town use,
has the light look of the Tilbury, with less real weight
than the ordinary Stanhope. A pleasing open outline is
given; and the upper part of the body, round the seat,
being wrought with a network of cane, has an agreeable
effect, especially for fine weather. The open part be-
neath is not unsightly, and, if required, can be filled in
with a drop-seat box for the purpose of carrying parcels or
luggage. In such case, this vehicle is well adapted for a
summer tour.
A Dennet has a body resembling the Phaeton in Plate
II. Instead of four springs, the Dennet has but three,-
two at the sides, and one cross spring behind. This
vehicle is easier for the horse, as it is lighter, and the
shafts rest on the side springs at their front points. For
this reason the hackney Cabriolets of the streets are thus
constructed. But they are uneasy to the passengers, on
account of the unequal motion; and if the horse falls, the
danger of being thrown out is greater than with a Stan-
hope. The origin of the name the author is unacquainted
with; but he has heard that the three springs were thus
named after the three Miss Dennets, whose elegant stage-
VARIETIES OF CARRIAGES.
245
dancing was so much in vogue about the time the vehicle
was first used.
The vehicle formerly known as a Gig was the lightest
one-horse vehicle used in England. It is simply an open
railed chair, fixed on the shafts, and supported on two
side springs, the hinder ends of which were connected to
the loop irons by leathern braces to give more freedom of
motion. The wheel was larger and the body kept higher
than the Stanhope; for which reason the shaft required
less curvature.
This vehicle ran exceedingly light after the horse; and
the shafts were usually of lance-wood, to give sufficient
play. The side-springs were long and easy, and the
whole vehicle was well adapted for travelling purposes, the
space underneath the seat conveniently holding a portman-
teau. Occasionally they were used for sporting, when the
locker was made with Venetian blinds to carry the dogs,
and then it became a "dog-cart."
"dog-cart." The American sulkies
are constructed on this plan, but without springs, and
with higher wheels, to carry one person. Their total
weight is from eighty to ninety pounds.
The old One-horse Chaise, or Whiskey, was as heavy
as the modern Cabriolet, without its grace of form.
The defects criticised in the drawings are not original
errors of design, but have arisen from technicalities of
execution not within the author's control.
246
CHAPTER XVI.
Purchasing and Jobbing Carriages.- Carriages made to order.-
Ready-made Carriages.-Judgment.-Preservation of Carriages.-
Sun.-Frost.-Rain.-Dust.-Mud.-Atmospheric Air.-Moist-
ure.-Dryness.- Metal-work.-Rust.-Leather.-Cloth.-Silk.—
Lace.-Paint and Varnish.-Coach-houses.
WITH very few exceptions, it is to be supposed that
the greater number of those who can afford to indulge in
the luxury of carriages are desirous of enjoying them on
the most economical terms, consistent with good taste,
not merely as an economy of money, but also of time and
convenience.
There are three modes of obtaining the use of carriages.
First, by hiring them for short periods, as a few weeks or
months; secondly, by taking them on lease for a term
of years; thirdly, by purchasing them outright, either
ready-made, or made to order.
The first method is the most expensive, and at the same
time the most inconvenient, as they are generally inferior
carriages, and charged at a high rate to make up for the
uncertainty of their being occupied except at intervals.
The second method is far preferable, as the builder, by
making sure of the consumption of his commodity during
a term of years, can afford it at a lower rate of profit : and
the customer has the advantage of a carriage built to suit
PURCHASE AND PRESERVATION OF CARRIAGES. 247
his own taste and convenience, knowing at the same time
the total amount of his expense for it for a certain term,
without any anxiety as to repairs. The usual plan is, for
an agreement to be entered into between the builder and
the customer for the term of four or five years, the car-
riage to be once painted during the period, and found in
all needful repairs, including wheels; but the customer is
responsible for all accidents. At the end of the term, the
carriage becomes the property of the builder, who sells it,
or perhaps enters into a new arrangement for three years
longer, at a reduced rate. A gentleman taking a carriage
on this plan, has all the advantages of a ready-furnished
house. It is essentially his own so long as he needs
it, without causing him any anxiety; and on the average,
unless of methodical habits, it will be a pecuniary saving
to him. He might certainly buy a carriage for about the
same price as four years rent' would amount to, and at the
end of the time he would have a second-hand carriage to
dispose of: but during the whole time the expenses of
repairs would fall on him; and of course he must be at
the trouble of directing his servants, and ordering his own
repairs. He in fact takes all the responsibility, and re-
lieves the coach-maker from it.
The third method-purchasing—is most for the inter-
est of the coach-maker, as he needs less capital to carry on
his business, and also of the purchaser whose habits are
regular. But in some large establishments where im-
mense capitals are employed, large premises are kept with
a view to carry on the system of jobbed or hired carriages,
and it is indifferent whether the customer purchases or
248
PURCHASE AND
jobs. There are some establishments where no carriages
are ever built except to order: there are others, again,
where few are built to order, and large quantities on spe-
culation. Occasionally, good carriages are built on the
latter plan; but as a general rule they are decidedly in-
ferior. The reason must be obvious. Carriages require
considerable capital for their construction; and being ar-
ticles of taste as well as convenience, their sale is uncer-
tain. Moreover, the rate of profit on an expensive article
is always smaller than on articles of little outlay. There-
fore, those who build carriages on speculation naturally
cut down their outlay all they can, and not unfrequently
use inferior materials, which could not be at all employed
in carriages made to order by those desirous of maintaining
professional reputation. A large portion of the carriages
got up for sale are of not only inferior materials, but of
inferior workmanship. Like Hodge's rasors, they are made
to sell. Poor men out of work get credit for materials
and put them together" anyhow." They then stand
them in some place of public sale, and reap a bare living
at most; the heavy expenses eating up their profit, and
frequently encroaching on the prime cost. Those who
purchase them as bargains find too late that they are
bitten, when, after a fortnight or three weeks' use, they
are obliged to send them at a heavy expense to be repaired,
or perhaps half rebuilt. The fact is, that all locomotive
vehicles are exposed to severe tests; and the badly-built
carriage has to sustain the same trials as that which is
first-rate. Plaster and ornament may conceal the defects
of a badly constructed house for a long period, but a carriage,
PRESERVATION OF CARRIAGES.
249
like a steam-engine, is required to perform work, and thus
the defects must become apparent.
Of course there are good carriages to be purchased ready-
made; but, generally speaking, the purchaser is ignorant
how to distinguish the good from the bad. If the purchas-
er be skilful in detecting the faults of carriages and possess
accurate judgment as to their excellence, he can go into
the market and purchase the best, at the lowest price for
which it can be obtained. If he be also a man of taste, he
will know how to select an elegant form without being con-
fined to any particular build. But few carriage purchasers
possess these advantages, and therefore the wisest way is
to pay a higher price and secure the best commodity. As
carriages are articles of taste as well as convenience, he
who merely requires convenience may go cheaply to
work; but whoever requires taste in addition, must in
fairness pay an additional per centage to the artist. If
a person ignorant of mechanism were to require a watch
for astronomical purposes, in which accuracy were para-
mount to all other considerations, his wisest course would
be to pay the highest price; and thus, though he might
pay more than was absolutely necessary, he would at any
rate secure himself against disappointment in his commo-
dity. And thus it is with carriages. We may use our
judgment in that which we understand; but when our
judgment is at fault, we must trust ourselves in the hands
of those who are of most repute in the matter.
After the purchase of a carriage, the next consideration
is, how it may be best kept in order and preserved from
the various atmospheric and other influences which tend
250
PURCHASE AND
to destroy its beauty and utility. To ascertain this, we
must remember the numerous materials which enter into
its composition, wood, metal, leather, wool, hair, cotton,
silk, linen, paint, varnish, &c.
Carriages are used in the open air, in sun, frost, rain, dust,
and mud; and all have a tendency to destroy their beauty.
The general temperature most congenial to the durability
of the carriage, is that of the workshop in which it has
been constructed. In atmospheric air of a given compo-
sition as to moisture, wood possesses a certain standard of
bulk. If it be removed to an atmosphere of greater
moisture, it increases in bulk, or swells in one of less
moisture it shrinks, and is apt to crack. To resist this
tendency, all the wood used in carriages is well covered
with paint, the surface of which will resist moisture. But
as the covering of paint is rarely perfect in all parts,
moisture will at last find its way to the wood, if care be
not taken; and so also, if the carriage be placed in too dry
a situation, the panels will split, just as a ship's decks
would leak if not wetted several times a day during the
heat of the sun. This should be a rule also with carriages
in very hot weather, and especially with their wheels.
The metal-work of carriages, on the contrary, sustains
no injury from heat, but much from moisture. Iron and
steel especially suffer. Where the paint happens to be
chipped from the surface of iron, rust seizes it, and gra-
dually insinuates itself beneath the whole covering of the
paint, which strips off in flakes. Beneath the surfaces of
the spring plates also, rust is continually working damage,
and disfiguring their beauty with dirty brown lines on the
PRESERVATION OF CARRIAGES.
251
f
exterior. The plated and brass work about the carriage
also suffers much from damp.
Leather suffers equally from exposure to sun and wet,
and in compound proportion when alternating between
the one and the other. Toughness and tenacity are the
qualities principally required in leather for carriages; and
these qualities depend principally on the presence of a
certain quantity of oil or fatty matter, which the leather
imbibes like a sponge. On this matter the oxygen of the
atmosphere acts strongly, and at length consumes it en-
tirely; and if it be not renewed, the leather cracks. If
the leather be exposed to wet, this process is still more
rapid but when leather is frequently oiled, it is apt to
look dull, and occasion much trouble to the coachman,
who prefers blacking it, and the materials of which the
blacking is composed tend to the decomposition and
destruction of the leather. Leather which is painted or
japanned possesses little or no tenacity, and is never oiled.
The patent grained elastic leather which has been so
much used of late for heads and knee-flaps is a very beau-
tiful substance to the eye, and is quite water-proof so long
as it is free from cracks; but if exposed long to heat, it is
apt to crack. Also, if one portion of the surface be kept
some time in contact with another portion during warm
weather, it is liable to adhere and strip away. When
cracks take place in it, the water gets in and it rots rapidly.
Altogether it is preferable to oiled leather for heads, if
ordinary care be used: for although it will not last so
long, the saving of labour is very great, and the appearance
is greatly superior.
252
PURCHASE AND
The cloth, silk, and lace, composing the lining and
hammer-cloth generally, combined with wool, hair, cotton,
and linen, suffer from the sun's rays by losing their rich
colours, and from the damp by becoming mildewed and
rotten. The cloth, hair, and wool suffer from another
cause-moths. In open carriages this last is a very seri-
ous evil. The patent India rubber cloth now so much
used as a waterproof cover for hammer-cloths has the
same effect on the moth as cedar shavings; but it is im-
possible to use it much for inside work, as the odour,
especially in warm weather, is very unpleasant. It would
seem a desirable thing, however, to introduce a portion of
cedar shavings into the stuffing of the linings.
Paint and varnish suffer little from simple damp, unless
it be salt water, which is very destructive. But heat,
especially that of the powerful rays of the sun, is very
destructive to them. The colour changes, and the lustre
of the varnish disappears amidst a multitude of intersect-
ing cracks; and to restore the beauty, there is no remedy
but repainting. Another mischievous influence to paint
and varnish are the various gaseous bodies to which they
are exposed. It is customary, for the sake of convenience,
to stand carriages close to the horses' stables, generally in
a mews, where large muck-heaps are piled up in all stages
of fermentation. During this process, various gases are
evolved, which act on the varnish much in the same way
that nitric acid acts on copper; though fortunately they
reach the varnish much diluted with atmospheric air.
It must therefore be clear that such coach-houses as
are at present commonly used are not the best that could
PRESERVATION OF CARRIAGES.
253
be adopted. The materials of a carriage are as delicate,
and require as much care, as the furniture of a drawing-
room; and therefore they should be as carefully preserved
from stable contact as the satin couches of the drawing-
room. After the carriage has been out, whether in the
sun or the rain, it should be carefully washed, and, above
all, dried, taking care to wet the leather as little as possi-
ble during the operation. It is a common practice to
wash the carriage, and then leave the water to drip away.
After drying, the leather, and especially the braces, should
be slightly rubbed with an oily rag to restore all that had
been consumed in the day; and the carriage should then
be placed to stand in a dry well-ventilated apartment
with a boarded floor, leaving a clear passage for the air
beneath it, and, if at all convenient, having warm air pass-
ing through to ensure its dryness. Above all, it should be
away from all stables, dung-heaps, cesspools, or open drains.
A gentleman should avoid placing his carriage in any situa-
tion where he would not wish to place his wardrobe; and
with regard to the interior lining, he should treat it much
in the same manner. If the carriage be laid by for a
time, it should occasionally be brushed out, and have a
current of warm air passed through it. Cedar shavings
should also be placed in it. If an open carriage, it will
require more care than a close one. The hammer-cloth
should be covered with the water proof India rubber ma-
terial, and cedar shavings should be interposed between
them. The blacking should also be washed off the lea-
ther work, and a composition of oil and tallow rubbed
into it to preserve it. The iron-work should be kept
254 PURCHASE AND PRESERVATION OF CARRIAGES.
painted wherever it may have been chipped, and the whole
of the wood-work, and especially the wheels, frequently
washed over with water,-this more particularly in the
summer time. The metal-work should be cleaned occasion-
ally with whitening or plate-powder, and rubbed every day
with a soft leather: it will thus last much longer than
when it is suffered to tarnish frequently. If common
axles, they should never be suffered to run more than
seventy or eighty miles without fresh greasing. If mail
axles, they should be looked to when new every three
weeks;—if old, every week. If the patent oil axles, they
will run between three and four thousand miles without fresh
oiling; and when this is done, it is better to send for the
carriage-builder or engineer to do it, if practicable, than to
trust to a servant, unless he has been previously well in-
structed in it. The wheel-plate will also require occasional
greasing, and new leather will be required to the transom.
The suspending braces should also be carefully watched,
as they are apt to cut and strain at the eyes and angles.
A carriage carefully attended to in this manner will yield
one third more service than one which is neglected.
255
CHAPTER XVII.
New Inventions.Imperfections of English Carriages.-Unequal
Wheels. Unequal Motion, unequal Wear, unequal Durability.
-Elastic and Rigid Wheels.-Modes of making Spring Wheels.
-Author's Invention of a Circular Spring Wheel.-Improved Oil
Chamber.-Author's Invention of Equirotal Carriages.-Equirotal
Phaeton.-Advantages of the equal Wheels.-Equirotal Cabriolet
Phaeton.-Equirotal Pony Phaeton.—The same with a low body.
-Equirotal Droitzschka. Equirotal Chariot; advantages.
Equirotal Carriages adapted for Posting with one Horse, being
very light.-Equirotal Omnibus; advantages. —Author's Inven-
tion of an Adjusting Bow Spring, adapted equally for light and
heavy loads in Carriages, and universally applicable.
Cabriolets and Omnibuses.-Hansom's Cabriolet.-Association Om-
nibuses.—Patent Cabriolet, with door behind and Boulnois' Elliptic
Springs.-Defects of the Patent Cabriolet.-Imitations.-Go-carts.
-Four-wheeled Cabriolet.-Deep-cranked Axles.-Author's In-
vention of a deep-cranked Axle.-Author's Invention of a Cabriolet
open or close at pleasure, and driven from behind.—Author's
Invention of a Coal and general Burden Waggon, adapted to
narrow Streets and Wharves.
IT has been asserted in print, that English pleasure
carriages are in their present condition specimens of per-
fection in the art of locomotion with animal power; and
very many persons there are ready to attest their belief in
this. It is, in short, a common error, the source of which
is not difficult to discover. English carriages, take them
altogether, are the most perfect carriages constructed in any
part of the world, and the mistake has been in confound-
256
NEW INVENTIONS.
ing high superiority in existing art with absolute perfec-
tion. To show that English carriages are still far short of
perfection will be no very difficult task.
"A large wheel following a smaller one without being
able to overtake it," is the description applied by some
quaint author to a carriage. Herein consists the source of
the principal part of the defects of carriages.
If two axles be made permanently parallel in a carriage,
it is evident that carriage can only advance in a straight
line, and that all power of turning will be precluded, unless
by a sliding motion instead of a rolling one; and even then
it can only turn in a very large space. To obviate this
difficulty, the front axle-tree is made to turn on a central
pivot called the perch-bolt. But inasmuch as the body is
made to hang between all four wheels, whenever the front
axle turns or is placed at an angle with the hinder ones,
the front wheels must necessarily strike against the body.
To remedy this second evil, the front wheels are so much
decreased in size as to pass beneath the body; and thus
a third evil is created, of so great magnitude, that to alle-
viate it as much as possible a fourth evil was devised; viz.
to raise the body to a greater height, and thus permit a
larger wheel to pass beneath it.
thus made higher than before.
ally been remedied by a sacrifice in the form of the body;
viz. cutting away a portion of the front under part, in the
form of what is technically called a "step-piece." The
numerous general defects of form incident to the unequal
size of the wheels have been already dwelt upon. The
great mechanical defects are unequal motion, and conse-
quently unequal wear, and decreased durability of the
The centre of gravity was
The last evil has occasion-
NEW INVENTIONS.
257
machine, together with want of ease to the passenger,
and an abundance of noise, arising from the necessarily
defective construction incident to a bad principle.
The attention of the author had long been drawn to
these defects; but he had not seriously reflected on the
best modes of remedying them till the pursuit of a colla-
teral object forced them on him. He had noticed the fre-
quent failures of wheels, especially in carriages used for rapid
motion; and all the reasons alledged by "practical men'
to account for it, seemed to him so unsatisfactory, that
he was led to pursue a series of experimental analysis in
order to discover the cause. He found by repeated ex-
periments, which were corroborated by every-day practice,
that the wheels which would bear the greatest dead weight,
when at rest, were not those which proved most durable
when in motion ;-that the most durable wheels were not of
the cylindrical, but the conical form; and that the principle
of the durability consisted in the absence of rigidity.
Further examination proved that the wheels called conical
were not really conical, but dome-shaped; the spokes being
bent into arches by the shrinking on of the hot tire. Thus,
each pair of opposite spokes really formed a bow similar.
to that of the archer; the nave representing the hand-
gripe, and the felloes the nocks. It was easy to deduce
from this, that the principle of elasticity was the true cause
of the durability of the so-called conical wheels, and that
the resilient action caused them to withstand shocks which
would have destroyed those of a cylindrical form. Sub-
sequent experiments confirmed this as a fact.
A definite object now offered itself for pursuit. In
S
258
NEW INVENTIONS.
what form of wheel could the principle of elasticity be
made the most available? It was clear that the principle
of the ordinary spoke wheel, with arms radiating from a
centre to a periphery, was that of a construction the nearest
approaching to rigidity, and some other form must be
adopted, in which elasticity might have free action in every
direction from which concussion would approach. But
other considerations were involved. It was necessary that
the wheel, though elastic, should be sufficiently strong not
to break, or permanently to alter its form. It was also
necessary that the periphery should be sufficiently rigid not
to lose its circular shape;-in short, the principle must be,
to confine the elasticity to the space usually occupied by
spokes, between the centre and the periphery, in such
manner that when the carriage was at rest, the axis might
remain in the true centre, and in case of concussion, might
slightly depart from it, and be instantly restored by the
elastic action. Having well considered this principle, the
author began to calculate the mechanical advantages which
were to be gained in a practical point of view; as, in case
they might prove trifling, the mere attainment of increased
durability would not have been an object worth pursuing,
at a considerable cost of time and expense. These advan-
tages he had reason to believe sufficiently numerous.
The increased durability of the elastic wheel over the
rigid one is sufficiently obvious: the former eludes con-
cussion, while the latter in resisting it is strained or
broken. The fable of the oak and the rush is familiar to
most people; and the boy who catches the cricket ball
NEW INVENTIONS.
259
knows that his hands suffer least when he permits them
slightly to recoil.
The object for which horizontal springs are placed be-
tween the axles and framework of carriages, is to diminish
the concussion caused by the wheels rolling over rough
surfaces. But such horizontal springs do not efficiently
relieve it, as their action is vertical, or at right angles with
the line of the spring; whereas the line of concussion is at
an angle nearly midway between the horizontal line, which
is the line of progress, and the vertical line in which the
spring acts. Consequently, to act efficiently, the springs
ought not to be placed horizontally, but at right angles
with the line of concussion; viz., at an angle of about 22°
with the horizon,-supposing the carriage to run on level
ground. Therefore, an elastic wheel acting in all direc-
tions would be a great and obvious improvement to meet
such a defect.
When a carriage has attained its maximum speed, the
horses draw it with a less exertion of power than is required
at first starting from a state of rest. As the carriage ad-
vances, every inequality of the surface over which it rolls
has a tendency to restore it to a state of rest,-or, in other
words, requires a greater expenditure of power to keep up
the speed. With rigid wheels, every concussion which the
periphery encounters is carried to the axis with undimi-
nished force; and thus the momentum is checked, and the
horses are baffled and fatigued. This evil would be mate-
rially lessened by the use of elastic wheels.
In most carriages, scarcely any provision is made to ease
$ 2
260
NEW INVENTIONS.
lateral concussion. Therefore it would be a desirable thing
to construct a wheel which might be elastic in all directions.
Having satisfied himself that the object was worth pur-
suing, the author began to investigate what had been done
by others before him in the same field of experiment. The
experimenters had been numerous, but unsuccessful; and it
is sufficient to notice a few of their plans.
One of the earliest was, to substitute leathern straps be-
tween the centre and the periphery, in lieu of the rigid
wooden spokes. Want of firmness, to say nothing of
want of durability, was quite a sufficient defect to render
any such plan ineffective.
Another plan was, to substitute spiral springs in lieu of
rigid spokes. This was quite as futile as the last.
Another plan was, to substitute, in lieu of rigid spokes,
springs formed in the shape of a double ellipse, radiating in
the direction of their length from the centre to the peri-
phery. It is evident that in action these springs must all
have a tendency to counteract each other; and thus to all
practical purpose the wheel would be as rigid as an ordinary
spoke wheel, and at the same time much heavier and less
firm.
Another plan was, to substitute, for rigid spokes,
ribands of steel bent into the form of an S, and securely
bolted at either end, to the centre and the periphery.
This plan is far better than the last, as the springs would
not interfere with each other's action, and would be capa-
ble both of extension and compression, and at the same
time of elastic resistance; which last is absolutely neces-
sary in order to restore the nave to the exact centre after
NEW INVENTIONS:
261
being disturbed by concussion. The wheel would also be
very sightly in its external appearance: but the expense of
construction, the want of firmness, the difficulty of effici-
ently securing the springs, and the necessity of constant
repairs, added to the great extra weight, furnish almost
insuperable difficulties to its practical utility.
The last plan that the author is aware of, is a proposi-
tion in the Mechanics' Magazine. It is, to form a double
wheel, consisting of a rigid cast-iron wheel of small size,
and a cast-iron ring of considerably larger size; the ring and
wheel being connected together by several small circular
hoops of steel, similar in form to those used to hold
bunches of keys together. These rings are not to be fixed
or bolted, but are to play loosely in semicircular grooves
prepared for them in the castings. This wheel would pos
sess free action, and the springs would not interfere with
each other but the defects are numerous. In action, the
upper springs would be loose in their bearings, while the
lower ones would have to sustain all the weight of the car-
riage. The noise consequent on all this would be intoler-
able, and the springs would be continually breaking. In
short, it would be a crazy, inconvenient, and unsightly com-
bination.
Having well considered all these different plans, the au-
thor came to the conclusion that the circular form of spring
was the only one which could be efficiently adapted for a
wheel, as only that form would permit free action in every
position of the wheel, and only that form was capable of
an efficient means of firm fastening, combining the prin-
ciples of extension and compression, resisting and yielding
+
262
NEW INVENTIONS.
at the same time. The train of experiments was then
commenced, and proved both costly and protracted, owing
principally to the difficulty of getting workmen to execute
well that which differed from their ordinary routine. The
first pair of wheels was constructed on the principle of
allowing the ends of the springs to play freely on rollers
at the centre, increasing or diminishing the size of the cir-
cles, the backs being made thick and secured to the peri-
phery. But the expense of construction and the rattling
noise produced by the rollers caused the author to abandon
this plan. Many experiments followed ere the author ac-
complished his object, for which he secured a patent right.
The present construction of the wheel is as follows:
A cylindrical iron ring, similar in appearance to an outer
tire, but of considerably less weight, is first prepared.
Around this ring are fitted eight felloes of wood, forming
true segments of a circle. The joints of these felloes are
accurately cut in radial lines converging to a centre; and
each pair of ends is connected by a dowel as in ordinary
wheels. Over these felloes an outer tire is shrunk on hot,
and the whole three strata are riveted together. An outer
circle is thus made, which by its mode of construction must
necessarily have a tendency to preserve its circular form
under all circumstances. It will be slightly resilient under
concussion; but nothing less than a positive crushing of the
parts could possibly make a permanent alteration of its
arched form. To the interior tire of this ring are firmly
bolted at equal distances four circular hoops of steel; a small
block or raiser of wood being interposed between the hoop
NEW INVENTIONS.
263
and the tire as a bedding or packing. The axle-box, which
supplies the place of the ordinary nave, is cast in the form
of a Maltese cross; and to the projecting arms of it the
four hoop-springs are efficiently secured on wooden blocks,
similar to those at the periphery. One very important ad-
vantage arising from this mode of constructing the axle-
box is, its capacity for containing a circular oil-chamber
round the centre of the axle-arm, so that the oil is in
actual contact with it, instead of feeding by a capillary
action, and the due lubrication cannot by any possibility
be impeded. In the naves of ordinary wheels this very
desirable advantage cannot be attained.
It must be evident that the four hoop-springs, being all
firmly bolted to the same centre and the same periphery,
must all act together. No one of them can alter its form
without the others doing the same; and those alterations
of form must be from exact circles into ellipses. But if
any alteration of form were to take place at those portions
of the springs which are bedded on the blocks, they would
soon work loose and probably break at the fastenings.
Therefore, the springs must be so contrived, that at the
bearing points the thickness and width of the metal may
be so increased as to prevent all movement by their rigi-
dity; while at the spaces between the bearings, the plates
may be gradually diminished both in width and thickness,
so as to afford the needful elastic action. In this mode
each spring does in fact constitute a double bow; the bear-
ings or blocks constituting the grips or hand-pieces. The
elastic action therefore takes place at about an equal dis-
264
NEW INVENTIONS.
3
tance between the centre and the periphery all round the
wheel. In Plate VIII. the wheel is shown front and
section.
A wheel of this construction, accurately made, is in the
author's judgment calculated to last as long as the carriage
to which it may be applied, with the exception of the wear-
ing part, viz. the outer tire, which of course would need
renewal from time to time. Their external appearance has
been generally admired by those who have seen them, as
they are far lighter to the eye than ordinary wheels. If
therefore their utility prove to be as great as the author
has endeavoured to show, two objects will have been
gained, mechanical advantage united with graceful form.
Having been thus far successful in applying the wheels
to a two-wheeled carriage, a difficulty occurred as to their
adaptation to four-wheeled vehicles. For hind wheels
there could be no objection, as the size leaves abundant
space for the springs; but in very small front wheels the
springs must necessarily be so much reduced in diameter
that they would cease to be springs, and become rigid in the
case of heavy carriages. For light carriages the objection
would not be so great, as the metal might be very consider-
ably reduced in thickness, in order to compensate for the
reduced diameter of the springs; but still it would be dis-
advantageous.
In this difficulty the author called to mind the fact that
wheels of unequal size in the same carriage were only a
proof of defective construction; equal-sized wheels being
really the desirable point to aim at. After much reflection,
he constructed some models for the purpose of experiment,
?


CIRCULAR SPRING WHEEL.
PLATE VIII.

EQUIROTAL PHAETON.
PLATE IX.
DAS
NEW INVENTIONS;
265
2
and ascertained that the lock or turn could be attained
much more advantageously, by placing the central pivot or
perch-bolt near the centre of the perch, between the front
and hind wheels, instead of placing it over the front axle,
as is commonly the case. In the common mode, the front
wheels lock round on the perch-bolt nearly at a right angle
with the hind ones; and in turning, one of the hind wheels
serves as a pivot around which the front wheels describe a
large circle. But when the perch-bolt is placed at the cen-
tre of the total length, in the act of turning, both front and
hind wheels lock together, and stand on lines forming the
circumference of the circle in which the carriage is intend-
ed to turn, the two axles radiating towards a common
centre. Thus not only is the circle described by the com-
mon carriage larger than the improved one, but the resist-
ance is greater ;-in other words, the improved carriage will
require less force to turn it. In the common carriage also,
as the wheels must necessarily turn beneath the body, they
must be kept small. In the improved carriage, with the
perch-bolt at a nearly equal distance between the wheels, the
fore wheels have so large a radius that they do not touch the
body in turning, and therefore may be made of the full size,
After fully ascertaining the principles of construction,
the author proceeded to build a light Phaeton of the sim-
plest kind, with equal-sized wheels on elliptic springs, with-
out a perch, such as is shown in Plate IX.
:
By comparing this drawing with that of the Phaetons on
the common plan in Plate V., it will be at once seen that
the fore part of it possesses a much lighter appearance,
being devoid of the complicated mass of framework; while
266
NEW INVENTIONS.
the lines of the springs, being placed at the same horizontal
level, show much more gracefully. The central division into
two parts, with the curved outlines, also tends very much
to improve the appearance, and alter the coffin-like look
which is so great a defect in the common Phaetons. The
defects of this drawing are the ungraceful hind line of the
body and also of the elbow. The springs are harsh and
abrupt in their curves; and the spokes of the wheels make
the cords of the springs look as though they were dipping
downwards.
A pair of shafts were attached to this Phaeton, and a
single horse, of not very powerful make, was harnessed to
it. With a load of four stout men, the result was:
First. The horse drew it with great ease, as compared
with an ordinary carriage of similar form and weight.
Secondly. The driver was always square behind the horse,
whether locking or not, as his seat turned with the front
wheels, and consequently he had the same command over
his horse as in a Stanhope. In ordinary four-wheeled vehi-
cles, serious accidents frequently arise from restive horses
when locking, as in that position the driver loses the
greater part of his power over them.
Thirdly. The springs, being all at one horizontal level,
played exactly alike, with uniform motion, very easily, and,
as one of the men remarked, "Like a boat on the water.'
""
Fourthly. In consequence of the smoothness of the turn-
ing centres and the absence of a wheel-plate, there was
none of the unpleasant rumbling noise common to ordi-
nary carriages. For persons of delicate nerves this is a
most important advantage.

EQUIROTAL CAB-PHAETON.
PLATE X.
NEW INVENTIONS.
267
Fifthly. The carriage, though turning with perfect free-
dom, was yet perfectly firm, and free from tremulous mo-
tion from end to end.
It is evident that these carriages, from the simplicity of
their construction, require much less labour to cleanse
them; and for the same reason, their general durability
must be much increased. When fitted up with the cir-
cular spring-wheels, and the improved springs hereafter
described, the author conceives that they will leave little
to be desired so far as regards ease of motion. The
name by which he proposes to distinguish them from car-
riages of the ordinary class is,
EQUIROTAL CARRIAGES.
Having successfully conducted his experiments to their
conclusion, the author commenced a series of designs for
the purpose of applying the principle to every variety of
carriages.
One, is a design for a Phaeton, with a Cabriolet-shaped
body in front, for the purpose of driving from, and a locker
seat behind, for servants. This design is not in good taste,
for the sea-shell form of the body does not harmonise with
the straight lines of the locker; but it would be a conve-
nient carriage for any one wishing to enjoy easy driving.
Plate X. is a design for a Pony Phaeton, with the
connecting framework of the lockers so constructed, that
the bottom is within fourteen inches of the ground; the
ends being arched upwards to rest on the elliptic springs
above the axles. On the hinder locker is placed a sea-
shell-formed body, behind which there is room for a boy
268
.NEW. INVENTIONS.
to stand when the head is up, or to sit when it is
thrown back. A low platform is placed on the front locker,
and to this is attached a driving-seat, capable of being
removed when the sitters wish to drive themselves from
the body. The lines of this carriage. harmonise well tỏ-
gether; the locker beneath being merely a basement, which
in the construction would scarcely be seen at all, as the eye
would look downwards at it in perspective; whereas in the
drawing it appears much more prominent, owing to the
the geometric elevation. This carriage would run very
lightly behind a pair of small ponies or cobs, and look
in good proportion. The locker beneath would serve as
a well to carry light luggage or parcels, without the slight-
est inconvenience to the sitters. By removing the front
driving-seat and platform, and placing a trunk there in-
stead, a convenient light travelling carriage would be at-
tained..
In this drawing the springs are shown extremely clumsy
and ungraceful. The platform beneath the front seat pro-
jects too far forwards; the bottom curve of the body is too
straight and irregular, and the elbow line at the fore
part breaks abruptly into the front line; while the leather
head shows too heavy in front.
A light Phaeton may be so constructed by means of
cranking the axles, that the locker will be within a foot
of the ground, and the level of the hind seat but a few
inches above the axle-arm. The driving-seat can be raised
on a platform to a sufficient height. With the knee-flap
thrown up, this carriage would accommodate four persons
in the hinder part, and two on the box. With the knee-
NEW INVENTIONS.
269
flap closed, two only could sit behind; but the head
might be entirely closed by means of a folding glass shut-
ter, and thus all the convenience of a close carriage be
attained. Under the seat there would be considerable
space för luggage, and also in the front locker. For
travelling, the driving-seat might be removed, and very
large trunks placed on the front locker. This carriage
would be well adapted for infirm or nervous persons, or
young children, and there would be as much leg-room as
in an ordinary Britzschka, though it would require but a
single step to enter it, and the centre of gravity would be
so low that it would be a very difficult matter to overset
it even were any one to try, while all the advantages of
high wheels would be retained. It might be drawn either
by a large horse or two ponies.
•
The
Plate XI. represents an equal-wheeled Droitzschka,
the bottom within fourteen inches of the ground.
lockers are arched upwards to clear the axles. The lines
of this carriage harmonise well together, the various curves
falling in to each other with good effect. This is a far
more convenient carriage than the ordinary Droitzschka,
as the leg-room is not impeded by the necessity of allow-
ing space for the wheels to turn under. The driving-seat
is on a platform, like the Pony Phaeton; and that plat-
form might be made deeper, if required, for the convenience
of carrying parcels. Taking the driving-seat away, there
would be plenty of room for trunks and luggage. Two per-
sons could be accommodated inside; and with the knee-flap
up, two children besides. Behind, there is accommodation
for a servant boy; and two could sit on the box. This car-
270
NEW INVENTIONS.
riage is exceedingly safe, and would run very light, either
with a horse or two ponies: The head could, if required,
be fitted with a folding shutter to form a close carriage.
The defects in this drawing are, the too great thickness
of the springs, the too great flatness of the door-top,
and a want of ease in the lower curve of the door.
Plate XII. represents a Chariot adapted for town or
country use. At first sight, the lines of this carriage do
not appear so graceful to a superficial observer as those
of the ordinary chariots, on account of the straightness of
the bottom; but a closer examination will show, that with
elliptic springs placed at the same horizontal level, no other
line could be so advantageously adapted. The carriage is
a whole, composed of parts of equal sizes and proportions,
and not filled in with heterogeneous ornaments for the
purpose of covering defects. The central parts join to-
gether in lines which are portions of segmental curves; thus
preventing a heavy appearance. The hind end curves up-
wards in an elliptic form; and the front, with a return curve
somewhat resembling the light figure-head of a ship; thus
denoting the line of progress. The lower line of the
* These carriages can be constructed so light that they might be
easily posted with one horse; the postilion not riding, but driving from
a very small and light seat in front of the luggage. By this means
many persons who keep light carriages might be induced to travel by
them on excursions, instead of using public vehicles. Two travellers
with light luggage might thus travel in their private carriage nearly
as rapidly and as economically, and with much more convenience,
than by the mail. In this age of progress such a plan is well worth
the attention of post-masters, the total amount of whose business
might thus be much increased. The necessary arrangements would
not be difficult.

여
​EQUIROTAL TOWN CHARIOT.
PLATE XII.
NEW INVENTIONS.
271
hammer-cloth is made to range with the central horizontal
line of the body. The lamp, instead of being ungrace-
fully attached to the fore part of the body as is com-
monly the case, stands on a branching iron in the open
space left for it between the body and the hammer-cloth ;
thus becoming a prominent object, like a classic Pharos.
The general harmonious appearance of the vehicle would
with unprejudiced observers immediately obtain for it a
preference over ordinary carriages, saying nothing of its
mechanical advantages; but the eye, after being long accus-
tomed to arbitrary forms, seldom remains unprejudiced,
and it is difficult to divest ourselves of attachments that
have grown on us by the force of habit. Thus, many
persons are still found to prefer the barbarous grotesquerie
which has caricatured the true Louis Quatorze taste, and
to look with contempt, alike on the beauty of Greek sim-
plicity and Gothic art.
But, leaving all questions of external appearance to be
decided on their own merits, and taking the mechanical
advantages for granted, the question of comfort remains to
be considered. In this point of view, the carriage will be
found to possess qualities not attainable in any of the or-
dinary vehicles. Though appearing larger than an ordi-
nary Chariot, it actually stands on a less space of ground,
the axles being one foot nearer to each other than is com-
monly the case. But the whole of the length is usefully
occupied. The body for the sitters, instead of being a
cramped box confining the limbs, as the ordinary chariots
do, is in reality more nearly approaching the form of an
apartment, being sufficient for two persons of the very
272
NEW INVENTIONS.
largest size to recline at full length, without incommoding
each other; while the bottom is straight, like an ordinary
floor. Britzschkas, it is true, also afford a facility for re-
clining at full length; but from want of space above for
air, they are almost suffocating to the passenger: whereas
in this kind of chariot ample space is afforded for air. On
looking at the drawing, it will be seen that the ordinary
appearance of the side door is preserved, though it is not in
reality a door, but merely a window to draw up and down
as usual. From the fore part of this apparent door, the
body is continued forward in a circular form; and thus the
interior presents a large bow front, with a window on either
hand, through which a perfect view is obtained on all sides.
The floor of the body is in fact in the form of a horse-
shoe. The doors open in the bow front on either side.
This body is well capable of accommodating four or six
people; and the locker in front will hold a very large quan-
tity of luggage; while the coachman and footman go on the
box. If required, a stand for the footman might easily be
attached behind, by light iron stays or brackets. On a
journey, imperials might be placed on the roof, and also
on the fore locker; and supposing two persons only to oc-
cupy the interior, they might have a very convenient table
before them. In addition to this, the author has contrived
a very simple arrangement, by means of a large lamp below
the bottom, to heat small water-pipes carried round the in-
terior, and thus maintain a comfortable warmth in the win-
ter-time. The ordinary mode of constructing carriages
will scarcely permit this.
The principal defects in this drawing are, the absence of

EQUIROTAL OMNIBUS.
PLATE XIII.
NEW INVENTIONS.
273
a graceful curve in the springs, and the enormous dispro-
portion of the mouldings which composed the outlines of
the body.
This principle of carriage construction is well adapted
for Stage-coaches, as well as the Omnibuses with which the
streets are crowded, and which with the advent of rail-
roads will continue to increase.
Plate XIII. is a design for an Omnibus. It is jointed
in the middle, where the circular sides are made flexible
like a leathern head or hood. It will turn with facility in
the narrowest streets, without impeding the passage-way
along the interior, as the flexible sides move in a circle.
With this omnibus two horses would do the work of three:
there would be great facility of access and egress; per-
fect command over the horses; increased ease to the pas-
sengers; greater head-room, and more perfect ventilation;
greater general durability, and absence of the usual rat-
tling noise, accompanied by entire safety against overturn-
ing. This design is calculated for the accommodation of
twelve inside passengers, but it might easily be lengthened
to hold twenty; and two horses would draw it with the
same facility as fourteen are drawn on the present plan, on
account of the height of the wheels, which so much aids the
draught.
After completing these designs, the author was led to
reflect that the novel mode of locking was not well adapt-
ed for the use of C springs. This induced an analysis of
the ordinary elliptic springs, with a view to their improve-
ment. Upon further reflection, the reason of the double
elliptic springs being easier than the single straight springs
T
2774
NEW INVENTIONS.
seemed to be, the fact of the body placed on them being
two removes from the concussion. It immediately struck
the author that a flexile medium attached to a single spring
would be a more perfect combination than a double spring,
and experiments with an archer's bow confirmed his ex-
pectations. He then constructed a spring of a single plate
of shear steel, and fitting the ends with adjusting screws,
applied a cord of sufficient size to draw the arch to the
right span. The result was, a very perfect spring of uni-
versal action. In Plates IX. to XIV. it is shown, attached
to the equirotal carriages, and the annexed cut defines it
more clearly.

REGULATING BOW-SPRING.
The spring is a single plate of steel tapered both ways
from the centre to the ends, which are forcibly curved by
the adjusting bolts. The spring is firmly fixed by the
back to the cross-bar of the carriage, and the cord is at-
tached to the axle by proper fastenings. Consequently,
the cord, being flexile, will relieve the concussion of the
wheel in whatever direction it may strike. It will also be
seen that this spring has no tendency to break, and that
by the action of the cord it will resist the upward rebound
as easily as the downward pressure. There are also three
other material advantages attending it. One half the usual
weight of steel will suffice for its construction—the ad-
justing screws will adapt it at pleasure for a light or heavy
NEW INVENTIONS.
275
load-and being a single plate, it may be efficiently co-
vered with paint to preserve it from rust. The author
has reason to believe that this spring will be found a very
perfect substitute for the unwieldy C spring and leathern
brace. *
It is now upwards of two years since the attention of
the author was drawn to the probable increase of public
vehicles, and more especially Cabriolets and Omnibuses,
which must be the natural result of railroads and other
improvements in distant locomotion. With this motive
he prepared the designs for the improved Omnibus, and
also one for an improved Cabriolet for street use.
These designs were lying by him, when Mr. Hansom,
the well-known architect of the Birmingham Town-hall,
gave the first active impulse to the dormant spirit of pub-
lic improvement in street vehicles, by introducing the Ca-
briolet which bears his name. Mr. Hansom had remarked
the defects of the common Cabriolets, their inconvenient
height, and danger to the passenger as well as driver. He
was well aware also of the mechanical advantage of high
wheels, accompanied by a low body for the sitters; but he
assumed, without verifying, the common error of most car-
riage constructors, "that it was impossible to make a deep
cranked axle to stand its work, without being enormously.
* If it be desirable to convert swords and spears into ploughshares
and pruning-hooks, it must be equally desirable to convert cross-bows
into carriage springs. The death weapon of former ages will thus
play a new part in a sphere of extensive utility, administering to the
pleasures of mankind, instead of adding to their sufferings.
T 2
276
NEW INVENTIONS.
heavy." This error led him to contrive the very ingenious
but very complicated and inefficient framework which sup-
ports the convenient though inelegant body. The quantity of
wood and iron used in this framework was so great as to coun-
terbalance nearly all the friction saved by the high wheels.
The invention was taken up by a company, and the public
mind was immediately excited, so that an Omnibus Asso-
ciation was forthwith set on foot. The disadvantages of the
old Omnibuses were so great, and especially in their great
height from the ground, that a new design was planned for
them in which the horses were entirely sacrificed to the
convenience of the passengers. The axles were cranked
to get the body low; and the front wheels were so reduced
in size, that the friction was very considerably increased,
and what the passengers gained in ease of access, they lost
by increased jarring. The horses also suffered in compound
proportion; for the front springs were placed at the extre-
mity of the crank instead of the centre of the axis, so that
a considerable leverage power was added to the resistance of
the front wheels.* In spite of these disadvantages, the gains
of the Association were, or were supposed to be, so great,
that all kinds of rival schemes were set on foot.
It was soon found that Mr. Hansom's Cabriolets, though
an improvement on the old ones in public use, were far
from perfect. One of the disadvantages was the mode of
* The planner of this vehicle would seem to have possessed the
favourite fallacy of many carriage constructors,—" that a large hind
wheel pushes on a small front wheel." This prejudice has been humor-
ously satirised by the author of the "Pickwick Papers," who makes
a cab driver-describe "a pair of big wheels" as forcing on a horse
against his will.
NEW INVENTIONS
2777
entry, close to the very large wheel. A foreign patent was
transplanted to England, and the vehicle being united to a
newly-invented spring of English growth and patent, the
first of those Cabriolets plied for hire, which was not inapt-
ly designated as a "Slice off an Omnibus." It was then
first acknowledged that a deep-cranked axle "would stand
its work." This vehicle was found exceedingly convenient :
it was comparatively light, not weighing more than five
and a half hundred weight; the entrance was from behind,
free from mud and risk on entering; and the springs, which
were patented by Mr. William Boulnois, were found easier
than the common springs. They were double ellipses
acting both vertically and laterally; a great improvement
on the old method of constructing elliptic springs, which
only admit of a vertical action. They must of course be
more expensive to construct, from having more moving
joints, and at the same time they require more frequent
repairs; but still they were a considerable improvement.
The defects of this Cabriolet were that the passengers
must necessarily sit sideways,—that they were exposed to
continuous public view from behind, instead of the passing
glances of foot passengers,—that they were much exposed
to mud from vehicles following,-that their forward vision
was prevented-and that the risk to the driver from the
horse falling, was very great indeed. From this last defect
Mr. Hansom's Cabriolet is free, inasmuch as if the horse
falls, the bottom almost instantly rests on the ground.
The advantages, however, of this "Slice off an Omnibus"
were so great, and the mode of construction so simple and
economical, that a shoal of imitations were instantly put
278
NEW INVENTIONS.
forward. Old Chariot bodies were cut down, and number-
less transformations made, some with judgment and some
without. The truth is, they all more or less bear a strong
resemblance to the vehicles called "go-carts" which ply
for hire as a sort of two-wheeled stages in the neighbour-
hood of Lambeth, the deep-cranked axle being the princi-
pal distinction.
The next attempt in the "service of the public," was
the introduction of a vehicle with the somewhat anomalous
title of a Four-wheeled Cabriolet. This is a modification of
the vehicle not long introduced under the name of a Pilen-
tum, which, again, is a Droitzschka with a curved bottom
line instead of a straight one. This Four-wheeled Cabriolet
is, for passengers, the most convenient vehicle which has
yet been introduced. It is a close carriage, with win-
dows to give sight and air on each side; it is easy of ac-
cess, and of more easy motion than the common two-
wheeled vehicles, and is as perfectly free from mud and
the intrusive gaze of foot passengers as though it were a
private vehicle; and it is, moreover, safe for the driver.
This is well for the public; but its great expense, weight,
and consequent consumption of horse-flesh, will probably
demand a larger sum per mile than the Cabriolet fares
established by law, in order to remunerate the capitalists.
If those who upheld the error respecting cranked axles
had analysed the subject, they would have found that the
only difference in strength between a cranked axle and a
straight one, consists in the extra length, and therefore the
compensation must be made for it, by giving extra thick-
ness in the direction of the strain, just the same as though
NEW INVENTIONS.
279
it were straight. In constructing cranked axles, the author
uses a combination of wood and iron where great strength
is required, similar to the mode of making ordinary perches,
by which means he gets lightness combined with strength;
and for very light axles, he increases the width in the direc-
tion of the strain, at the same time diminishing the thick-
ness in the other directions. By this means he constructs
axles sufficiently strong, and much lighter than by the ordi-
nary methods.
The Author's Improved Cabriolet, to be drawn by one
horse, is a two-wheeled vehicle, with the wheels from four feet
six inches to five feet in height. The wheels are connected
together by a deep-cranked axle, upon which the shafts are
suspended by a bow-spring. The shafts are connected toge-
ther by a single bar in front of the body, and to which the
horse is attached. The body is suspended between the
shafts, resting on the elbow projections on each side. The
form of it is adapted to the form of the human body when
in a sitting posture. It hangs within a foot of the ground;
and the entrance is from behind, by a door which when
closed is air-tight. The front is provided with ample glass
windows above the level of the knees, made to open or close
at pleasure; and one half of the roof above the windows
is made to fold back on the other, so that in fine weather
it becomes an open carriage. The two passengers sit with
their faces forwards, so that the vision is unimpeded. The
driver is placed behind, on a standard, with his back reclin-
ing against an elastic brace, in the same mode in which
post-chaises are driven; and his arms recline on the hind
part of the roof as on a desk, the reins going over the roof,
280
NEW INVENTIONS.
so that he can observe his horse and wheels equally well, to
steer clear of obstacles. Should the horse trip, the driver
can exert his whole force to save him, without fear, as he
cannot possibly be thrown off by any jerk; and the bottom
being so close to the ground, even if the horse falls no risk
can occur either to passenger or driver. When the vehicle
stops, the driver can open the door with one hand and re-
tain the reins with the other, conveniently dismissing his
fare without leaving his place. This Cabriolet therefore
comprises the six points of, lightness-ease-safety-isola-
tion between the driver and the passengers-and an open
or close vehicle at pleasure.
Upon the same principle as the Omnibus and the other
Equirotal Carriages, the author constructs Four-wheeled
Waggons for the conveyance of coals, flour, wheat, and
other heavy burdens. This kind of Waggon is entirely of
sheet iron, and requires less draught power than ordinary
Waggons. It has all four wheels each five feet in height ;
the bottom is within a foot of the ground; it may be
drawn from either end at pleasure; it discharges at the
side instead of the end, and one man can unload it with
perfect facility.
With the present Waggons, all the coals and other heavy
burdens carried, are lifted four feet high on loading, and
lowered four feet on discharging. With the Improved
Waggon, they are lifted one foot high and lowered one foot ;
so that there is a saving of human power equivalent to a
six-feet lift on all the heavy burdens carried by waggon.
The advantages to be gained by the facility of shifting the
horses to either end, in narrow streets and wharves, need not
NEW INVENTIONS.
281
be dwelt on.
Narrow wharves without extended sweeps or
turns, are with these Improved Waggons equally available,
as the larger wharves are with Common Waggons. In
crowded cities, where every foot of space is valuable, this
is an important advantage.
誊
​1.
282
CHAPTER XVIII.
Existing Mail Coaches.
Their defects.-Author's Invention of an
Improved Mail Coach.-The advantages of it.
THE attention of the author having been drawn to the
subject of the public Mail Coaches, he proposed the design
shown in Plate XIV.; and he will now give a statement of
the imperfections of the existing Mail, and the advantages to
be gained by the use of the one he proposes. This will serve
the reader as a general summary of the principles on which
the art of carriage construction should be based, and which
have been stated more diffusely in the foregoing chapters.
A succinct statement of the errors in principle on which Rail-
road Carriages and Railroads are constructed, with several
new propositions for their improvement, will conclude his
work.
The construction of the Coaches hitherto used for the
conveyance of the Mails has not developed to the greatest
possible extent the qualities they ought to exhibit; viz.
ease of draught with the minimum of friction-facility of
turning round in the smallest possible space-security
against oversetting, by keeping the centre of gravity low—
an advantageous position for the driver to ensure his power
over the horses ease to the passengers-sufficient and se-
cure space for the mail-bags-general durability—simpli-
EXISTING MAIL-COACHES.
283
city-little liability to derangement-and lastly, economy
in the first cost.
Ease of draught they have not to the greatest possible
extent; as the fore wheels are considerably smaller than
the hind ones, and the friction is thereby increased.
Facility of turning in a small space they have not; for
the fore wheel is so close to the body that it can make but
a small angle, and consequently the coach must describe a
large circle in going round. An unskilful driver, who
would be apt to turn too short round, would therefore over-
set the coach.
The liability to overset is also increased by the weight
being considerably above the axles, even as regards the
dead load, and, above all, by passengers being carried on
the roof, causing the coach to sway about with every ine-
quality of the road.
The power of the driver over his horses, though suffi-
cient when in a straight line, is almost lost when turning
an angle. The leaders may in fact defy his efforts to
control them by the reins, and the whip is his only re-
source.
The space for the luggage and mail-bags is small, and
insecure, as is evinced by the frequent robberies which
occur.
The durability is not great, as is shown by the constant
repairs which are needed to the carriage framework.
They are far from simple, inasmuch as a double frame-
work, called the upper and under carriages, is used to sup-
port the springs on which the body is fixed. The axles are
also imperfect, and complicated in their wheel fastenings;
284
IMPROVED MAIL-COACH.
a great disadvantage, as to guard against accidents it is ne-
cessary to examine the wheels after every journey.
The carriage represented in Plate XIV. is calculated to
obviate the foregoing defects.
All four wheels being of equal height-i. e. the front
being made as large as the hind ones; the axle friction,
and the rolling friction also, are considerably diminished.
When the front wheels are smaller than the hind ones, a
portion of the horses' power is expended in a tendency to
lift their centres into a line with the centres of the hind
wheels, and the trace fastening at the collar, unless relieved
by the clumsy expedient of raising the splintrebar above the
wheel-centres. The small wheel also has less power of over-
coming obstacles, by reason of its diminished leverage ;
it has also to make more revolutions round the axis.
tire consequently wears much faster. From these defects
the high front wheels are free.
and
The
The facility of turning round in a small space is ensured
by the substitution of central pivots or axes nearly in the
centre of the framework, connecting together two separate
bodies, in place of the ordinary perch-bolt usually placed
at the foremost extremity of the framework.
By this
means the carriage is enabled to turn in little more space
than its own length, without the smallest risk of overset-
ting it, and at the same time without increasing the length
between the axles. The friction of the central pivots is
also much less than that of the ordinary perch-bolt, and
the carriage will follow the horses more easily, as it will not
be so stiff.
The centre of gravity is kept low, by reason of the lug-
IMPROVED MAIL-COACH.
285
gage being placed in wells beneath the axles. The outside
passengers also are seated very low, and neither passengers
nor baggage are carried on the roof: and if one of the
wheels should chance to come off, the carriage would not
overset, but rest on the well.
The ease of the carriage is greater than that of the or-
dinary Mail Stages, inasmuch as it is supported on four of
the regulating bow-springs, which yield readily to all in-
equalities of surface over which the carriage may pass :
and the pole also being on springs, will not fatigue the
horses by concussion.
The power of the driver over his horses in this coach
is far greater than in any other four-wheeled carriage.
As the horses turn, his seat turns with them, and he is
constantly behind them, with his whole force capable of
exertion in a straight line; whereas in ordinary coaches,
when in the act of turning, the driver loses his command,
and is occasionally pulled off his box by restive horses.
The advantage here gained seems most important, as a
means of avoiding risk from unquiet cattle, independently
of the facility in turning, which on level ground renders
it almost impossible to overset this coach.*
The space for the mail-bags is a well or wells below the
axle centres, with doors opening at the ends-the hinder one
* "Be it remembered that if the body of a coach could be made to
lock with the carriage, she would go round a corner at full speed without
danger. BUT AS THIS CANNOT BE DONE
Nimrod. The Road, p. 120.
The author having shown that this can be done, calls upon this clever
writer to aid with all his influence the introduction of these vehicles
into the service of the Post-office, for all lines of road not traversed
by steam, and also into the service of private proprietors.
286
IMPROVED MAIL-COACH.
immediately beneath the feet of the guard. These wells
are attached to the bodies; but all chance of cutting through
the floor for the purpose of robbery may be prevented by
the application of a sheet of thin iron loosely fastened
beneath the floor-boards. The wells may be made of or-
dinary wood-work; but the author would recommend thin
sheet iron in preference, tinned and painted, and conse-
quently not so liable to get out of order, besides being
much safer.
The general durability of this coach must be greater
than that of ordinary coaches, inasmuch as the whole is
upon springs except the axles and wheels. The facility
of turning, and the height of the wheels also, tend to re-
move much of the concussion. If required, the height of
the wheels may be increased still farther without raising
the bodies,―by cranking the axles.
This coach is simpler than ordinary coaches, inasmuch
as all the under framework, which adds so much to the
weight of ordinary coaches, and gives them so clumsy an
appearance, is entirely removed.
The expense of building this coach, as a branch of
manufacture, would be less than that of ordinary coaches,
as it is less complicated; but that of course does not refer
to a pattern coach, which must necessarily be more ex-
pensive on account of the loss of time caused to the work-
men while learning a new branch of art.
The seat of the guard is so arranged, that when seated
he is sheltered from the wind in front; and when standing
up, he can look over the roof of the coach to survey the
road in front and he is also in close attendance at the
door.
:
IMPROVED MAIL-COACH.
287
The facility of access to the interior is rather more than
in ordinary coaches, the body being larger, and far more
safe also, as the inside passengers run no risk of being
thrown under the wheels by the horses starting sud-
denly.
The outside passengers can also gain their seats with
greater facility; and both they and the inside passengers
are less cramped in their limbs while sitting.
As before stated, if a wheel comes off by accident, the
coach would not overset, but rest on the well.
The whole of the fore body beneath the feet of the
outside passengers is contrived to contain a very large
quantity of luggage.
When ordinary coaches break down in an unfrequent-
ed district, there is sometimes great trouble experienced
in forwarding the letter-bags. But this carriage is so con-
structed, that if an axle or wheel were to break, the two
bodies might be separated by taking out the pivots or
bolts, and thus the horses could proceed with one half;
the pole being so adjusted as to fit either, and thus form
a kind of curricle. In heavy falls of snow this would be
an advantage, for the horses might force their way with
a two-wheeled carriage where a four-wheeled one would
be impracticable.*
*The impediments to inland communication during the late winter,
and the stoppage of the Mails by the snow, was partly owing to the
form of the vehicles. The small fore wheels act on the snow some-
what like a plough. In mechanics, the worse the road, the higher
should be the wheels; and soft snow is about the worst of all roads.
Had the coaches been worked with the large wheels in front, the fric-
tion would have been found considerably diminished. A very small
288
IMPROVED MAIL-COACH.
The axles used for the present Mails are only greased;
and the wheels require taking off every journey,
which is a very destructive process, and increases the risk
of casualties. Collinge's patent oil-axles will run from
four to five thousand miles after once oiling, if no acci-
dent occur. But the very best axles at present in use
for ordinary wheels are those known as Mason's Improved
Patent. These axles have all the advantages of Col-
linge's patent axles; and in addition, the boxes have three
longitudinal grooves, which contain a supply of oil,—in
actual contact with the axle-arm: whereas Collinge's axle-
arms are supplied by a capillary process like a pumping
action, which is liable to be checked, and then the wheel
sticks fast. From this defect Mason's Improved Patent
Axle is free.
The distance between the axles, and also the width of
the wheel-tracks, are precisely the same as in the present
Mail Coaches.
A pamphlet was lately published by Mr. Rowland
Hill, advocating the reduction of all postages on letters
to a penny. It has been objected to this, that the Mails
would thereby either be overloaded, or would be too small
for the amount of correspondence. If so, the plan the
author proposes would, by the very great increase of lug-
gage-room, remedy the defect.
portion of contrivance would have sufficed to remove the pole and
spliutre bar from the front and attach them to the hinder end, and
then coachman, guard, and passengers, would all have marvelled
alike at the effect, as the collective wisdom of Spain did at the egg of
Cristoval Colon.

EQUIROTAL MAIL COACH.
PLATE XIV.
289.
CHAPTER XIX.
Railroad Transit.-Clashing Opinions. Engineers and Carriage
Builders.-Railroads still only experimental. — Manchester and
Liverpool Railroad. Railroad Bubbles.- Steam versus Horses.
-Iron-tired Wheels an argument for Iron Bearings on Roads.
Defects in the Original Construction of the Manchester and
Liverpool Railroad and Carriages.-Great Destructive Wear.
Causes.―Absence of Elasticity. — Springs. Relative Speeds.-
Diameter of Wheels.-Enormous Weight and Unscientific Con-
struction of Railway Passenger Carriages. — Parallel Axles.
Flanges.- Coned Wheels.-Advantages. Sledge-like Motion.—
Improvement in the Position of Rails. Author's Invention of a
Railway Train to pass freely round a Curve.—Propositions for in-
creased Speed on Railways premature.-Stephenson's Six-wheeled
Engine.-Earl of Dundonald's Two-wheeled Engine.- Methods
of constructing Railroads.-Analysis of Common Roads. - Mac-
adamised Roads.-Imitations.-Combination of Wood and Iron
for Railroads.-Durability of Wood.-Artificial Means of increas-
ing Durability.—Author's Inventions of a Railroad of Wood and
Iron-of a Mode of keeping the Wheels on the Rails without
Flanges-And of a Mode of keeping the Bearings of the Axles
abundantly oiled without waste.-Summary of the Defects of Rail-
roads and Railroad Carriages, and the Remedies which are desir-
able.-Conclusion.
As the public mind is at present largely occupied with
the subject of inland transit in the particular form of Rail-
roads, any remarks tending to elucidate details connected
with their economy will not be out of place in this work.
With respect to the question of national advantage in-
volved in the general application of railroads to the
purposes
U
290
RAILROAD TRANSIT.
of inland transit, the disputes have been long and bitter.
The advocates for railroads proclaim them all that is excel-
lent; their opponents a ruinous absurdity. The truth lies
between. They cannot be in a state of perfection, for as
yet there is no existing railroad which can be considered
more than experimental, either in the roadway, or
the vehicles used on it. No conclusion is yet ar-
rived at, and the experiments are costly. The engineers
accustomed to stationary machines had much to learn
in locomotion, and laughed to scorn the practical carriage
builders. The carriage builders, on the contrary, thought
it presumption in the engineers to interfere with their
trade; and the result has been, that they have separated
the branches of the art :-the carriage builder for railroads
has become a mere wooden box maker; and the engineer
has gone through a part of the process of getting at what
will do, by consecutively finding out what will not do.
That under such circumstances any railroad should have
proved a source of profit, and especially of large profit, is
remarkable.
The excitement of the public mind after the success of
the Liverpool and Manchester road, called forth a host of
projectors of new lines of roads, many of them more anxi-
ous to sell shares than to promote commercial transit.
That speculations of this kind should prove unfavourable
to the shareholders, was not to be wondered at; and there-
fore railroads generally were decried, because some plans
for railroads were a failure. It must be clear that all roads
which are not wanted must cause an unprofitable expen-
diture, whether rail-roads or common roads. But it is
RAILROAD TRANSIT.
291
also clear that for the purposes of stationary work, steam
is a cheaper and harder working servant than animals,-
provided there is constant work for it;-otherwise, animals
are the best. The same principle holds good in locomo-
tive work; and therefore common roads must be continued
where the transit is limited, and not capable of sufficient
increase. To make a steam-road is more costly than an
animal road, because it imperatively requires a more exact
level; but the nearer an animal road approaches to a level,
the better it is for purposes of economy. Where the
amount of transit is unlimited, and the saving of time is the
saving of money, the steam-road is undoubtedly the best;
and though the first cost is greater, the expense of main-
tenance is less, when once it has been made durable.
The question can hardly yet be fairly tried. The expe-
riments on railroads have been condensed into the space
of a few years, and we look at the cost of them in a mass;
but we say nothing of the cost of the experiments spread
over a long number of years, by dint of which our com-
mon roads have attained their present state of perfection.
The same reasons which hold good for applying iron to
the bearing surfaces of our wheels, will be found ulti-
mately to hold good with regard to the bearing surfaces
of our roads, whether our draught power be steam or
animals.*
* One important item in swelling the cost of railroads, is, the in-
creased value of the land purchased for them, saying nothing of the
jobbing. The common roads have been made by small portions at a
time, and improved gradually. To make a new line of common
road now, for a great distance, would be found a sufficiently costly
undertaking.
U 2
292
RAILROAD TRANSIT.
Railroads are not a late invention, as has been supposed
by many persons: they have long been in use in the coal and
iron districts, where steam vehicles have also been employed
on them; but in their adaptation to the purposes of general
locomotion, they date their origin from that between Man-
chester and Liverpool. That undertaking was a costly
one; and while its practicability was practically unproved,
the difficulty of getting capitalists to embark in it was
great. Therefore, the economy of outlay was more studied
than the economy of after efficiency. The lines of rails were
laid so close together, in order to diminish the expense of
the embankments and deep cuttings, that subsequently it
was found impracticable to place the carriage bodies,—at
least for passengers-between the wheels. They were
therefore placed above the wheels; and then, in order to di-
minish the risk of oversetting, consequent on the centre of
gravity being placed too high, wheels were used of a reduced
size, varying from three feet to three feet six inches. For
moderate speeds-under twenty miles-these wheels might
answer well enough; but when the speed varies from twenty
to thirty miles and upwards per hour, they tell quite per-
ceptibly their defects in the heavy items of repairs, both
* Since this was written, it has been stated to the author, by a Man-
chester resident of some eminence, that this error in the width of the
rails arose, not from a consideration of cost, but simply from the
sheep-like habit of imitation so strongly implanted even in the most
original human beings. The rail-tracks and coal-waggons of the
North of England were used of a certain width and pattern; they
had been found to answer in practice, and—they were imitated. It
was not taken into the account that coals and cotton required differently
shaped vehicles for convenient transport, and the profits from passen-
ger trains were not anticipated.
RAILROAD TRANSIT.
293
of rails and carriages. Curiously enough, the fault has al-
ways been laid on the rails, while the carriages have been
overlooked. As fast as failures took place, the weight of
the rails was increased; and new varieties of supports and
keys and fastenings were introduced, and rewards offered
for discoveries therein.* Then came forth the "fish-bel-
lied rails," and a large amount of discussion, ending in the
experiments of Professor Barlow; one main feature of whose
report is, a recommendation to leave the rails as lightly fas-
tened down as possible, and to place the chairs or beddings
on felt, or some such material as may yield slightly to
pressure. The object of this is evidently to obtain the
principle of elasticity, the only true means of eluding con-
cussion when it is found impracticable to resist it. But
the costly wear and tear still continues, and will continue
till the carriages shall be better constructed.
Springs are used in carriages to avoid concussion on
rough woods. As a consequence, the rougher the road, the
* Much trouble was experienced at the commencement of running
on the Manchester and Liverpool railroad, owing to the frequent
failures of the wheels. They were at last made strong enough; but
then the rails were found to fail in a greater proportion. The simple
fact is this: When wheels are put in motion over a plane surface, great
speeds and slight inequalities are equivalent to slow speeds and great
inequalities. Where the inequalities exist, concussion must take
place; and the only means of eluding concussion-for resisting it is
out of the question-is by elasticity. Not taking this fact into the con-
sideration of the subject, one person makes wheels by substituting rigid
plate iron drums in lieu of spokes; and another, as the author has been
informed, makes solid welded wheels of wrought iron. What then?
The wheels will endure; but concussion will transfer its attacks to the
remainder of the carriage, if the rails be made too strong for it to act
on them.
294
RAILROAD TRANSIT.
greater is the amount of elasticity required. The smoother
the road, the lesser is the amount of elasticity required.
This is supposing a given speed in both cases: but if the
speed be increased, the amount of elasticity must also be
increased, as the concussion will be greater in proportion.
The speed of twenty miles an hour on a common road
would be destructive to a carriage furnished with the short
heavy springs advantageously used for that velocity on the
railroads; and when the twenty is increased to thirty on
the railroads, concussion and destructive wear take place.
As the speed increases, small obstacles and inequalities be-
come magnified in proportion; and therefore it becomes
necessary to increase the counteracting power. The elastic
agency of springs is not the only counteracting power. An
obstruction which proves a formidable obstacle to a small
wheel is comparatively enormous when opposed to a large
one; a fact which is proved by the circumstance that as roads
have improved, small wheels have been substituted for large
ones: or,-where the same sized wheels have been retained,
the loads have progressively increased in weight, or-the
speed has been increased. Thus, on a railroad, if a wheel
three feet six inches in diameter be sufficient to carry a
given load twenty-five miles per hour without destructive
wear, as a maximum, it must be evident that if the speed
be increased, the size of the wheel must also be increased,
as a compensation, in order to avoid destructive wear.
That the wheels of railway vehicles are not at present of
sufficient size for the speed used, is one great cause of the
destructive wear and tear experienced on railroads. It
were a task worthy of the scientific and experimental accu-
RAILROAD TRANSIT.
295
racy of Professor Barlow, to construct a table of the pro-
portions which the diameter of wheels should bear to the
weight they are intended to carry, and the speed at which
they are intended to travel, in order to prevent destructive
wear either by axle friction or rolling friction. If this be
not done, costly indeed will be the experiments which must
be gone through on a large scale ere the velocity of fifty
and sixty miles per hour, which has been pronounced
attainable,-will be verified in ordinary practice.
It may be perhaps objected, that increasing the size of
the heavy metallic wheels in use on railroads would add
very materially to their weight. This however, even if
true, might be more than compensated for by subtracting
from the passenger carriages a quantity of surplus weight
arising from their imperfect construction; and thus, even
supposing the mean weight of the vehicle and wheels to
remain the same, a great advantage would undoubtedly be
gained by the diminution of the axle friction. But, if we
take as an example the passenger carriages of the most
approved kind, now used on the Greenwich railroad, we
shall find that a considerable reduction of the total weight
may be made. It is a curious thing, that on common
roads, the heavy lumbering framework in four-wheeled
private vehicles, technically called the "carriage," is now
for the most part dispensed with, and the axles and wheels
are attached directly to the body; and yet upon railroads,
where there is still less necessity than on common roads, as
the bearing surface is always comparatively level, we find
an enormously heavy "carriage," constructed entirely of
metal, supporting a "body," which, if properly framed,
296
RAILROAD TRANSIT.
would do all the work required of it, without needing any
carriage whatever.
Another disadvantage attending the vehicles used on
railroads is, the permanent parallelism of their axles, and
their consequent unfitness to move in any line but a straight
one. During the first experiments made by the elder Mr.
Stephenson on the Manchester railroad, he found consider-
able difficulty in preventing the wheels running off the
rails, notwithstanding he used very large flanges. It soon
occurred to him to make the external circumference of the
tires conical instead of cylindrical, the smallest diameter of
the cones being on the outside of the wheel. An advan-
tage was thereby gained, more than he had calculated on,
by the comparative facility these wheels afforded for mov-
ing in a circular line, though still a circle of very large
diameter. It must be evident, that if a double cone, ta-
pering from the centre to the ends, be strongly impelled
with a rolling motion on two straight parallel and horizontal
bars or rails, there will be a tendency in the centre of the
cone to keep a central line parallel to the two bars; but if
the bars, instead of being straight, be made portions of two
concentric circles, then the double cone, being violently im-
pelled with a rolling motion, will have a tendency to a
straight line, and the centrifugal force it possesses will
cause the cone to increase on the outer circle, and diminish
on the inner one; thus compensating by an increased and
diminished diameter for the increased and diminished
length of road. The wheels used on the railroad being
fixed on their axles, each pair represents the double cone
just described. But when four wheels are used to a car-


PLAN.
XIX
母
​b
a
Lateral Elevation of a portion of a very light flexible carriage-train for a railroad, adapted to follow easily round
very quick curves, the railway being formed of brick piers, sustaining edge timbers surmounted by a capping of
iron; the timber and iron breaking joints alternately.
PLATE XV.
RAILROAD TRANSIT.
297
riage, with the axles permanently parallel, they cannot
move in a circular track without their rolling motion being
partly converted into a sliding one. This is one forcible
reason why curves on a line of railroad are so much depre-
cated, and especially when of small diameter. The sliding
motion, though scarcely perceptible, must add very consi-
derably to the friction; and the coning of the wheels must
also act like a wedge, tending to thrust the rails outwards,
and unsettle them from their bearings.
It must be evident that a four-wheeled carriage running
in a circle, should have its axles, not parallel to each other,
but in lines radiating towards the centre of that circle.
This, together with the coning of the wheels, would make
a nearly perfect railway carriage. But, as the coned wheels
act like wedges on the rails, the rails ought to be so rein-
forced on their outer sides as to compensate for the outer
thrust of the wheels: or perhaps a better method would be,
to make the upper bearing surface of the rails parallel to
the cones of the wheels, instead of a horizontal surface,
and of course making the rib of the rail at right angles
with that bearing surface. Stones or dirt would thus be
less apt to lie on the rails.
The mode of constructing the passenger carriages which
the author would propose, and which he would much like
to see verified by experiment, is, to construct a body of
wood properly framed, and capable of containing, say
twelve passengers, like an ordinary omnibus. This body
should be placed on two springs of the bow and string
principle before described, crossing the axle on either side.
The cords of the springs should be secured to the axle, and
298
RAILROAD TRANSIT.
the whole placed between two wheels, four feet or four feet
three inches in height. Two carriages being thus prepared,
they should be coupled together by the jointed iron-work
used for the equirotal carriages before described, leaving
about three inches of space between the bodies, in order
to allow the axles to accommodate themselves to the line of
draught.
With carriages of this description, a whole train might
be jointed together, without the necessity for buffing
springs. There would be no jerks, as the train would be
continuous, though jointed, like the vertebræ of a snake.
The elasticity of the springs would be found to act in all
directions, and the wheels would revolve with a greatly
diminished amount of friction; thus permitting, without
detriment, a greater amount of speed. The general ap-
pearance of such a train is shown both in elevation and
plan in Plate XV.
Plate XVI. shows the train in a circle, and a back ele-
vation of the train carriage.
It is a constant theme amongst those connected with
railroads, to enlarge on the desirability of increasing the
speed used on them. This is somewhat premature, while
the speed already attained is not absolutely devoid of risk,
owing to the wheels getting off the rails. To diminish
this risk was the object of Mr. Stephenson in constructing
his engines with six wheels,-the two first and the two
last being provided with flanges, and the centre ones,
which are the propelling wheels, being left without. But
this method is very imperfect, inasmuch as it increases
still further the difficulty of passing round sweeps, and of

a
Hind Elevation of a Railway Carriage, shewing the timber edge rails
and their capping set at an angle corresponding to the coning of the
wheels.

TAI
IVI
I
THE FLEXIBLE CARRIAGE-TRAIN DRAWN INTO A CIRCLE.
PLATE XVI.
RAILROAD TRANSIT.
299
course increases the lateral friction, by placing axles which
are permanently parallel at a very wide distance from each
other. And moreover, the difficulty of making the pro-
pelling wheels adhere efficiently on the rails when they
are two out of six, is greater than when they are two out
of four. Even with four-wheeled engines the difficulty of
getting sufficient adhesion is considerable; and this led the
Earl of Dundonald to patent a method of making two-
wheeled engines, connecting the engine with its tender by
a similar contrivance to that used in the army for connect-
ing a gun-carriage with its tumbril. But the contrivances
the Earl has resorted to are so extremely clumsy and in-
artificial, that they do not mend the matter.
The question has been much agitated as to what is the
best method of constructing a railroad so as to ensure the
greatest amount of durability united with efficiency and
economy. In order to decide this, it will be well first to
examine what are the common roads which have been found
in practice to exhibit the largest amount of these qualities.
The most durable, without adverting to cost, have been
those constructed of the heaviest blocks of stone with large
bearing surfaces. A road of solid granite would of course
be still more durable than this. But such a road would be
inefficient for horses to travel on, for want of hold for their
feet; and the larger the blocks used, the heavier would be
the expense. And when smaller blocks are used, which
give joints at sufficient intervals to prevent horses' feet
from slipping, it has been found in practice, that the
weights of heavy waggons which occasionally rest on a sin-
gle stone, force it down below the level of the others; and
300
RAILROAD TRANSIT.
thus the softer material in which it is embedded is forced
upwards. This process, repeated on stone after stone,
aided by the fluctuations of wet and dry weather, at last
breaks up the continuity of the pavement, and the whole
is destroyed.
We may therefore assume it as a principle, that all
paved roads, constructed of separate blocks of stone which
do not mechanically key or bond together, must have each
stone of so much bearing surface as to prevent it sinking
with the heaviest weight which may be put upon it-con-
cussion included-in the course of traffic; and if the
stones be of less bearing surface, such a road must be ex-
posed to destruction by other than fair wear.
The stones of pavements are usually bedded on gravel;
and this gravel is sometimes made into concrete by the
addition of lime. If an artificial bearing be thus or other-
wise made, of course smaller stones may be used than
when the bearing is less solid or firm. When properly
constructed, such a pavement becomes a solid mass.
Were it not for the consideration that it is frequently
necessary to dig up the pavement in order to get at the
water and gas-pipes for the purpose of repairs, the most
permanent mode of constructing it would be, to lay a sub-
stratum of flag-stones well bedded in cement, and upon
that—with a sufficient depth of concrete first placed on its
surface-to bed the ordinary stones forming the roadway.
This would be expensive; but it would always be dry and
very permanent, and save much of the expense in scaven-
gers' work, as mud would not force up between the stones.
But, inasmuch as such a pavement would be very ex-
RAILROAD TRANSIT.
301
pensive, it would not be available for long lines of road,
and it is necessary to seek some cheaper substitute. Mr.
MacAdam has found this for us in the process which goes
under his name. Granite, which is a tough solid stone,
the fracture being very rough, is broken up into angular
fragments about the size of walnuts, and is then spread on
a road in depths varying from eight inches to twelve. By
the gradual pressure of the wheel vehicles rolling over its
surface, the fragments of granite are shaken and pressed
till the flat sides for the most part bear against each other;
and being rough, they do not slide, but hang together, and
thus preserve the position which is least adapted to be dis-
turbed. The small particles which are ground in the
course of this process slide into the few interstices; and
thus, after a time, a road is formed whose upper surface is
one continuous crust, resembling a solid rock of an arching
form, from which the rain-water will run off instead of pe-
netrating through it. By the action of the wheels, por-
tions of the upper surface are continually ground away;
and this powder thus formed should be carefully scraped
off, or it will form mud, acting as a sponge to keep the
road wet. After long wear, the central portion of the road,
which is most used, becomes too thin to sustain the weights
running on it, and the arch or crust breaks into holes.
The remedy then is, to pick it up and incorporate with it
a fresh layer of broken stone.
Granite being expensive on account of its distant car-
riage, it is customary, under a system of false economy—
in lessening the first cost without regard to the ultimate
results —to substitute for it other and cheaper material;
302
RAILROAD TRANSIT.
such, for example, as Thames gravel, and nodules of flint,
the latter broken into pieces, like the granite. The former,
from its being composed of rounded instead of angular
forms, must, it is evident, continually shift its position
under the pressure of heavy weights, and can never bond
together. It therefore always remains a loose and heavy
road. The flints, though angular, being polished on their
surfaces, slip past each other on pressure being applied,
and are thus continually loosened; and moreover, being
very brittle, and not tough, like the granite, they are
rapidly crushed into powder, forming mud in wet, and
dust in dry weather, the mass never binding together. To
call a road of this description a Macadamised road, is a
libel on the inventor.
It is clear, therefore, and it has been verified by long
practice, that the Macadamised road, taking all things into
consideration, is the cheapest and the best for although
the outlay is more considerable in making and keeping up,
still it will enable wheel carriages to do more work in a given
space of time, and with a less amount of destructive wear;
so that the balance of the whole account will give a large
amount of savings. The principle of the road, as before
shown, consists in making it one continuous crust in an
arched form, which most probably is prevented from crack-
ing under the concussion of the wheels, by having within
itself a power of vibration on the soft under surface. After
a heavy rain has washed a Macadamised road quite
clean on a declivity, it presents an appearance much re-
sembling a Mosaic work.
The same principle which is found good on a common
RAILROAD TRANSIT.
303
road must also be good on a railroad; viz. a continuous
equable surface. If this surface can be made perfectly
solid and unchangeable, it may answer; but in default of
this, it is absolutely necessary that it should possess the
quality of vibration. The earliest railroads were made of
wood; and to prevent rapid wear from friction, plates of
iron were affixed to them. Wood was found to decay,
and heavy cast-iron plates were substituted for the com-
bination of wood and iron. For slow speeds they answer-
ed; but when greater speed became necessary, cast-iron
was found unavailing. Wrought-iron bars were there-
fore resorted to; and these bars were firmly attached to
large blocks of stone not continuous. The result was, that
the bars vibrated between the intervals of their supports,
but not on the supports themselves; and this, together
with the alternate contraction and expansion of the bars.
from cold and heat, were found to be defects causing the
roads rapidly to get out of repair. The evident imper-
fection of the roads so constructed has now led some
of those connected with them to consider the practica-
bility of using wood and iron in combination.
To consider this well, we must refer to analogous cases;
i. e. the results obtained by the use of wood and iron in
combination, where concussion has been found destructive.
In ordinary carriages used on common roads this prin-
ciple is very commonly applied, and it is found effective,
and this is a case of very great concussion. In machinery
also, it is found that for cog-wheels, wood and metal work
far better together than metal alone,-that noise and concus-
sion are removed by the use of wooden teeth working with
304
RAILROAD TRANSIT.
metal ones. Here, again, is another case of destructive
concussion.* If we assume, then, that it is desirable to use
wood and iron in combination, the next question is as to
the quality and durability of the wood.
It is essentially necessary that it should possess a tole-
rably straight fibre, and not be disposed to warp with
wet or dryness, or change of temperature. If subject
to warp, the strength will be impaired by unequal strains.
The durability of wood is artificially affected, principally by
moisture, and more especially when the moisture is con-
fined and cannot escape. The natural durability of wood
when not exposed to artificially-hastened decomposition de-
pends much on the quality of the glutinous substance which
unites the fibres together. If it be a resin not soluble in
water, as is the case with the fir tribes, the durability will
be greater than in those woods whose fibres are united by
gums which are soluble in water. Thus, pitch-pine, which
contains much resin, will last longer than ash, which con-
tains none. Another quality resistant of decomposition,
is the quantity of tannin the wood may contain. Thus, the
red cedar, which is a very light wood, will resist decom-
position as long as oak, which is a very heavy wood. A
third quality in wood resistant of decomposition is its de-
* At the Rotherhithe ironworks the concussion of the heavy tilt
hammer was found very destructive to the engine which worked it.
The intelligence of the proprietor devised a simple remedy for this.
He applied two cross bars, or arms of elastic timber to the main
shaft, which connects the engine with its work, at right angles with
each other, and loaded the ends with heavy weights, so that they
presented the appearance of four hammers. The result was, that the
concussion was expended in the vibrating timber, which intercepted
its progress towards the engine, and the destructive wear ceased.
RAILROAD TRANSIT.
305
gree of density, and freedom from pores, which prevent
moisture from acting on it. But this last quality has
little to do with the question now under discussion, inas-
much as the hard woods are too expensive to use commonly
in large quantities, and for railroad bearers they would be
too brittle.
As durability is so essential a quality in wood, means
have of course been resorted to, to make it artificially dura-
ble. The commonest means have been, by covering it
with substances impervious to moisture; such as paint,
grease, pitch, or varnish. In carriages this plan answers
very well, for the paint is laid on with such care that
the wood is hermetically sealed against the atmosphere;
but in ordinary painting this is not the case. In spite
of the greatest care, flaws, cracks, and shakes remain open
like mouths for the admission of moisture, which cannot
again exhale, because the paint keeps it in like a cup.
Therefore, for all exterior work, wood which is unpainted
will generally prove the most durable.
As it must be clear that the chief natural resistants
to decomposition in wood are resin and tannin, or other
antiseptics, endeavours have consequently been made to
impregnate wood artificially with antiseptic substances,
just as fishermen and barge-owners on fresh water are
accustomed to tan the sails of their vessels. The mode
adopted by Mr. Kyan, for impregnating wood with a solu-
tion of arsenic is said to be effective; but the author has
no data to found an opinion on, whether this be correct
or not.
The ordinary process of decomposition in wood by what
X
306
RAILROAD TRANSIT.
is technically termed "rotting," is in reality a kind of co-
lonisation of the pores of the wood by tribes of animals or
vegetables which feed on the juices uniting the fibres toge-
ther. If therefore the wood be impregnated with any sub-
stance destructive to animal and vegetable life, such as
arsenic or copper, or other mineral substance, or with
alkalies uniting with the acids of the wood, it is evident
that decomposition may be protracted for an indefinite
period.
But supposing wood not to be very durable, one cer-
tain way of not unfairly diminishing its durability is, to
leave it as far as possible free to the action of the atmo-
sphere when it must be exposed at all; so that where
moisture gets in, it may at least have the same chance of
getting out. And this will bring us to the consideration
of the best form of rail, and the best mode of securing it
in its place. If this can be done simply, without fasten-
ings involving expense of material or skilled labour, a
great advantage will be gained.
In railroads newly constructed, the road varies in soli-
dity. In some parts it consists of deep cuttings, where
of course a solid foundation may mostly be obtained; in
other parts it consists of lofty embankments, made of un-
firm earth which can scarcely be expected to become firm
till two or three years have passed away; in other parts
the road is permanently unfirm by reason of the swampy
and boggy nature of the ground. Therefore the mode of
construction which is good in one case is not good in
another. On the unfirm road, a bedding of timber work
must be constructed, on which to lay the rails, and the
RAILROAD TRANSIT.
307
same on the swamps; on the firm ground, other means
may be used.
For fixing iron bars, stones of considerable weight placed
at short distances have been found the most eligible, be-
cause holes could be drilled in them to drive wooden plugs
in, to fasten the chairs to; but the author would not re-
commend them in combination with wooden rails. The
mode he would adopt as the best, not taking cost into the
consideration, will be readily understood by a reference to
Plates XV. and XVI.
The elevation in Plate XV. represents the edge line of
the rail with a portion of the carriage train on it.
The hind elevation, in Plate XVI. shows the end sec-
tion of the road, with the back of the carriage.
The plan, shows the road, with the carriages turned up-
side down.
a a are brick and cement piers or basements of suffi-
cient bearing surface to sustain the weight to be placed on
them, constructed with a deep groove on their upper sur-
face to receive the longitudinal wooden rails bb. The end
of the wooden rail is placed half-way upon one basement,
runs quite through the next one, and half-way on the fol-
lowing one, where the end of the next wooden rail abuts
against it, and so on throughout the line. When in their
bearings, the rails are to be cemented in the joints to ren-
der them firm against the brick-work; and they are placed
in their beds with a slight outward thrust corresponding to
the angle of the coning of the wheel, as shown in the back
elevation Plate XVI.
The joints of the wooden rails are covered by plates of
308
RAILROAD TRANSIT.
cast or wrought iron, enclosing the top and clipping down
both sides of the rails. They are the exact length of the
rails, allowing for expansion; and they are secured to the
side of the rail by a single screw or nail in the centre on
each side, and by a key through a slot cut at each end of
the bar affording longitudinal motion with expansion or
contraction. The plates are so placed that their abutting
joints are over the pier which supports the centre of the
wooden rail; and the centres of the plates cover the joints.
of the wood on the alternate piers.
If the piers can be made sufficiently secure without
earthing up to the bottom of the wooden rails, so as to
leave the whole of the wood within the piers exposed to
the action of the atmosphere, the durability will be in-
creased.
The portion of the train which is shown represents two
pairs of carriages. Each pair has a turning centre above
and below, so that they form a jointed four-wheeled car-
riage. But each pair is connected with the following pair
by means of a ball and socket joint giving universal action.
For this joint might at certain intervals be substituted a
buffer spring, on the bow and string principle, if required,
to give facility of overcoming the vis inertiæ at starting.
If as the author believes-these vertebrated trains will
be found adapted for more rapid speeds than those hitherto
used, the next question that occurs is, how to diminish the
risk of accidents, from the flanges of the wheels surmount-
ing the rails by their great lateral adhesion on curves, when
the speed is increased. The best method that occurs to
him is to dispense with the flanges altogether, and substi-
RAILROAD TRANSIT.
309
tute in place of them horizontal guide-wheels, running
on vertical axles attached to the bearers or brasses of
the horizontal axles opposite each wheel. The form of
these guide-wheels should be similar to that of the present
running-wheels, viz. a conical edge terminated by a flange.
The wheel being placed on the fixed vertical axle with the
flange side downwards, and the upper part just level with
the surface of the rail, will, when the train is going round
a curve, bear against the outer rail; and if the rail be form-
ed with a side lip or moulded edge, in extreme cases the
flange of the guide-wheel will clip beneath it, and thus
prevent the possibility of the train escaping without abso-
lutely tearing the rail up from its bedding. And if by
any accident a train were to get off the rail, in such cases
the flat surfaces of the guide-wheels would take a bearing
on the ground, and the further progress of the train would
be arrested. The annexed woodcut shows the lateral
framework of the carriage with the bow-spring attached,
and the vertical axis and horizontal guide-wheel suspended
from the bearing brasses, and passing through side bearers

2
OLO
MODE OF APPLYING HORIZONTAL GUIDE WHEELS ON VERTICAL AXES,
TO DISPENSE WITH THE FLANGES OF THE RUNNING WHEELS.
310
RAILROAD TRANSIT.
attached to the framework to preserve it in a vertical posi-
tion. Using these guide-wheels, the running-wheels would
merely be made conical on their circumference, with the
smallest diameter outward, as at present, but omitting the
flanges altogether.
The present mode of oiling the axles of railway car-
riages is by keeping a continual stream of oil pouring over
them by means of a syphon wick, one end inserted in an
oil-can, and the other lying on the axle as it revolves.
The oiling is thus very perfect, but very slovenly and
wasteful. To obviate this waste, the author proposes to
construct the bearers in the mode shown in the wood cuts
below. A recess or chamber of large size is formed in the
lower half, to contain oil, and a similar channel of small
width is formed in the upper one. Two vanes or slips of
thin metal are then attached to the axis, and revolving
within the chamber, pass continually through the oil in the
lower chamber, and thus throwing it on the surface of the
axle, make the lubrication perfect. The upper cut represents
the bearers laterally, with the side of the chamber removed,

IMPROVED MODE OF OILING THE BEARING BRASSES, BY AN OIL
CHAMBER AND REVOLVING DIPPERS ATTACHED TO THE AXIS.
RAILROAD TRANSIT.
311
to show the chamber and vanes. Above, there should be an
oil-pin for feeding. The cords of the springs are attached
by shackles. The lower cut is the chamber seen in cross
section.
The author has not entered into any question of cost in
this construction. His object has merely been to point
out what seems to him the best mechanical arrangement
for producing a firm and durable road, with sufficient vi-
bration in the wood to elude concussion, and sufficient free-
dom in the plates to permit the necessary contraction and
elongation, without any troublesome or expensive fastenings
or framings. The plates and rails are alike simple in their
construction. The proportions of parts and the estimates of
expense must be regulated by the weight to be borne and
the means at command. The summary of the conclusions
arrived at in this brief analysis is as follows :—
That roads with an iron surface are as desirable in prac-
tice as wheels with an iron surface.
That railroads in their existing state are imperfect, be-
cause
They are neither perfectly rigid nor perfectly vibratory,
but are alternately rigid and vibratory at intervals corre-
sponding to the distance between the supports of the rails.
That even supposing it practicable to make a perfectly
rigid road, it is not clear that it would be desirable, as con-
cussion would be much more mischievous than on a slightly
vibratory road.
But inasmuch as it is not practicable to make a perfectly
rigid road, the desirable object is to construct a road slightly
312
RAILROAD TRANSIT.
vibratory, sufficient to elude concussion, but making the
vibration equal in all parts.
The rails are usually fixed down; so that the alternate
expansion and contraction from heat and cold tend to loosen
them.
The rails are usually fixed in a vertical position, while
the wheels are coned at a considerable angle with the
horizon; so that the lateral thrust, when the wheels strike
against the sinuosities, obtains a considerable destructive
leverage.
Therefore it is desirable to fix the rail down with an out-
ward thrust corresponding to the coning of the wheels, and
by a combination of wood clipped with an iron rail, to
maintain a continuous under-structure, while the metal
above is free to expand and contract; and by this process
a rail may be obtained with fewer lateral sinuosities.
That railroad carriages in their existing state are imper-
fect, because
The quantity of material used in them gives an enor-
mous amount of superfluous weight, without corresponding
strength or other advantages.
The wheels are of a diameter too small for the weight
they bear and the speed at which they are made to travel.
The bulk or volume of the body being raised above the
total height of the wheels, the centre of gravity is thereby
placed so high as to cause violent oscilations when the
wheels strike the lateral sinuosities of the road.
The springs which are used to relieve the concussion of
the wheels act imperfectly, and that only in a vertical
RAILROAD TRANSIT.
313
position. With respect to the advancing motion of the
carriage they are scarcely of any service; and laterally,—
in the direction in which the flanges strike the rails,-they
are of no service whatever.
The two axles in each carriage, being permanently paral-
lel, are only adapted to advance in a straight line; so that,
when drawn round a curve, the rolling motion of the wheels
is partly converted into a sliding motion.
In consequence of the great extra weight of the carriages,
it is necessary that they should be loosely attached to each
other, or the engine cannot otherwise overcome their iner-
tia at first starting. The result of this is, that the car-
riages strike against each other with considerable concussion:
to obviate which defect, the clumsy expedient of a heavy
"buffing apparatus" is resorted to; thus increasing still fur-
ther the total weight.
Therefore it is desirable so to construct the carriages, that
they shall not weigh proportionably more than the Omni-
buses which ply on common roads-by which means the
buffing apparatus may be dispensed with; that the wheels
may be of sufficient height for the desired speed, without
the centre of gravity being placed too high; and that the
springs be of universal action, to alleviate equally, forward,
vertical, and lateral concussion, while the axles are left free
to adjust themselves in radii, or at angles with each other,
suited to the lateral sinuosities or curved line of road.
It is left to those who are or may be interested in rail-
roads, to determine how far the proposed plans of the au-
thor comply with these conditions.
Y
314
CONCLUSION.
If upon
THE author's task is ended. It was not taken up with
the desire of merely "making a book." That could, of
course, have been better performed by any one pursuing
literature as a profession. The desire of the author has
been to give to the public in simple language the results of
his own experience, with the view of adding something, if
possible, to the general stock of knowledge.
examination it be found that he has in any way contri-
buted to remove physical obstacles to either animal or ele-
mental locomotion, or to economise individual or national
expenditure in this most important branch of progressing
civilisation, his labour, so far as it has been a "labour of
love," will have been rewarded.
With regard to the new inventions he has put forth, the
author is aware that he must be open to the same objec-
tions that are urged against all projectors, of being “paper
planners”—that is, projectors of false theories which can-
not be verified in practice. He trusts that in giving a
practical answer to such an objection he shall not be accused
of the leading commercial vice of the age-Puffing.
A patent has been taken out for the improvements; and
the brother of the author, who is a dormant partner in the
firm of Hobson and Co. of Long Acre, has fitted up conve-
CONCLUSION.
315
nient working premises attached to his offices, situated No.
159, Drury Lane, where the Equirotal Carriages for private
use are manufactured in the best manner, and where orders,
personally or by letter, will be promptly attended to.
The Equirotal Carriages are particularly recommended
to the attention of merchants and others who may wish to
convey them a distance by sea, on account of the facility
they offer for packing, by their simple mode of separation
into two equal parts. Their facility of turning in narrow
streets also renders them peculiarly advantageous for the
Continental cities.
With regard to the Railway Trains, Omnibuses, Stage
Coaches, Cabriolets, and Burden Waggons, the author will
readily give any further information which may be required
by those interested in them.
Mr. John Buchanan, of Glasgow, is manufacturing the
Equirotal Carriages for private use, under the Scotch pa-
tent; and the author has appointed him his sole agent in
Scotland for granting licences to those who may wish to
build or use any of the other vehicles.
=
LONDON
PRINTED BY SAMUEL BENTLEY,
Dorset Street, Fleet Street.

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