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THE GIFT OF
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VI* International Inland Navigation Congress.
T H E H A G UE, 1894.
Tolls on Navigable Ways,
REPORT BY
H. A. N S HAT'S C H E K, Dr. jur.,
Chairman of the Magdeburg Chamber of Commerce.
I must unfortunately commence this report by excuses, for being
called at the last hour to replace as reporter for Germany Mr. STRöHLER,
the Director of Railways and Navigation in Berlin, from whom it was
at first hoped this work would emanate, I recognised immediately how
great would be the difficulty of a profound study of the question. In
fact it appeared impossible in the short space of time remaining to
collect the tariffs of all dues in force and to become acquainted with all
the various data, which have been gathered concerning canal dues and
Other questions of the same kind. Besides this the exercise of my
usual functions and other literary work left me very little leisure for
the preparation of the present report.
Nevertheless, I did not believe it my duty to decline the friendly
offer of the charge, being convinced that my work would, in spite
of its deficiencies and its insufficient data and although restricted to
principal questions, still find favour with the Congress.
It is with pleasure also that I have drawn upon the reports presented
from other countries to the Paris Congress.
I have found among them some valuable information. I have likewise
made use of the fact that the question of tolls on fluvial ways was
debated on several occasions last year in Prussia.
In this way I have found it possible to insert in this report Some com-
munications which will not be void of all interest even for other
assemblies.
The question whether the existence of dues on navigable ways (I
employ purposely this current expression in order not to enter imme-
diately on the discussion of the designation of these dues as Customs
2
dues or taxes; my opinion on this subject is given in the first part of
the report) rests on a good foundation has not been treated here more
than was necessary, as I consider it has been resolved by the debates in
Paris. -
I have taken the liberty of treating more amply the question of the
amount of these dues and other points named as being debatable at the
present Congress. As regards other countries I have been able to refer to
the data of the work of the Paris Congress. That which I advance con-
cerning the situation in Germany is based on statistics, official as well as
private and the communications which I have received are most reliable
and are derived from the best sources.
I have the pleasure and the agreeable duty of returning my hearty
thanks for the documents which have been kindly placed at my disposal.
To the representatives of the Central Berlin Union for the improve-
ment of River Navigation; to Mr. EMIL ANDRAEA, ship-owner of Magde-
burg and Mr. GECK, engineer of Hanover, whose experience has been of
great assistance to me in various instances, and finally to my colleagues
Mr. GOTHEIN of Breslau, Dr. WERMERT of Halle, Mr. HIRSCHBERG of
Bromberg and Mr. SIMON of Königsberg, who have so obligingly obtained
for me tariffs of dues and other documents.
Perhaps in judging this report with the indulgence which I solicit for
it, my readers will find, in spite of all its imperfections and deficiencies
some things useful to render more clear the question we are studying.
(signed) HANS HATSCHEK, Dr. jur.
Magdeburg, May 7th 1894.
3
1. FUNDAMENTAL OUESTION, CHARACTER OF DUES ON
NAVIGABLE WAYs.
The 5* International Congress at Paris has already examined the ques-
tion of tolls and taxes on canals. It has expressed as a principle that
navigation should be as far as possible exempt from all impositions. But
it adjudged admissible the establishment of certain dues in cases where
means were wanting to cover the cost of extensions required by naviga-
ble ways.
This resolution of the Congress, regarded as general, was the opinion
of the majority, if not of all of the delegates. A great number of
them voted for the complete liberation of navigable ways from all im-
positions. .
If we analyse the resolultion of the Paris Congress and the debates to
which it gave rise, we draw the following conclusions:
1* Dues are admissible under certain conditions.
2" They are only admissible in default of means for the extension of
navigable ways, or for the construction or improvement of a naviga-
ble way.
3* The dues collected are destined solely for the execution of works
on navigable ways.
Besides this, all the delegates having adopted the resolution, were
unanimous in acknowledging that dues should never take the nature of
a tax, that they should never be a source of revenue to the State, but
should only help to cover the expenses connected with the navigable
ways. Without entering deeper into this general question, which has been
SO entirely solved by the Paris Congress, I think it still my duty to add
briefly my opinion. In the first place I must state that I entirely share
this opinion that navigation dues should never become taxes, but that
dues levied for works of canalisation are admissible on account even of
the urgency of these works. It appears to me to be right, also, to con-
sider differently the question of dues accordingly as it refers to private
navigable ways or to ways of communication constructed by the State
(or the communal committees, provinces, districts and communes).
While as regards the first, the dues collected furnish the interest of the
capital as well as amortisation and public interest is not concerned
except in So far as it is necessary to guard against any abuse of monopoly
in an undertaking of this nature, in the second case on the navigable
ways of the State (and by this word I include works of communal com-
mittees, provinces, districts etc.) it is public interest alone which has to
be taken into consideration.
The State or the communal committees should build canals, render the
rivers navigable or regulate their course, when it is a question of general
interest, but not when it is a matter of speculation.
4
The return of a canal, which is for private persons of first importance
should be for the State merely a secondary consideration and then only
when the parties interested themselves benefit by the tax.
But who are the parties interested ? Not only the persons who navigate
the way, but their supporters, industry and commerce, which feel
the advantage of the diminution in prices of transport on the naviga-
ble ways.
Certainly the manufacturer or the merchant cannot pay this tax
directly in the shape of a navigation toll on the canalised ways; at least
this measure would present very great difficulties, for it would necessitate
a search for the unique freighter etc.
For this reason the dues are imposed on the person using the canal,
who can arrange that they are shared at least in part, by means of the
freight, by his supporter, who is certainly in some way an interested
party and perhaps even the principally interested party in the affair.
This therefore is the basis of the establishment of navigation dues. The
due is not imposed for the benefit of the persons using the waterway and
can consequently not be regulated with regard to the prosperity of their
affairs. Neither is it compensation for expense occasioned to the founders
by the construction of the canalised way; consequently it cannot be
based on the cost of construction of the canalised way or any part of it.
If this principle were admitted the dues imposed would have to be much
higher on canals, the construction of which had been costly and would
have to be raised for each part of the canal the respective construction of
which had caused great expense. No reason exists for any such system if
we lay aside the question of convenience and practical execution. The only
right principle seems to me to be rather that the dues are a tax resulting
from the profits of the canalised way and its navigation.
The navigation and indirectly those interested in navigation have to
pay only for the economical advantage which the canalised way affords
them ; for the other part is borne by the State, which has to take
into consideration the public interest connected with the construction of
the navigable way, the benefits which will be eventually realised by
other branches of industry and the common taxes which are enforced by
these facts.
In one word, navigation dues should be a tax, not for the use of navi-
gable ways and their plant, but a tax for the general economical utility .
of navigable ways.
In this way we regard the dues as a contribution towards taxes, which
according to these principles should not press too heavily on those
interested, but be a sort of participation on their side.
In cases where the dues are so high that the natural benefit resulting
from the much lesser cost of transport by water, compared with transport
by land, is lessened, or even entirely disappears, the dues are false
5
and unfounded; the economical advantage disappears, as a due is
claimed for which no compensation is given. -
In this manner we may take as a basis the general principle of a
tax for economical advantage and deduct from it the principles neces-
sary for the regulation of dues, their suppression and several other
questions. -
Among the questions to be here discussed that of the amount of the
dues and their limitations seems to me to be the most important. On
the one hand the amount depends on the construction and on the
prosperity of the navigation; on the other hand, precisely in regard to
this question of the amount of the dues, there has been lately — at least
in Prussia — a demand made for a higher tax on navigation, at a
time when the railways are endeavouring to take away as much traffic
as possible from navigation by reducing their tariffs often to cost price
and sometimes even below it. In conclusion, I will observe that the
continuation of this report will treat only of navigation dues. The question
of port dues and dues for the use of navigation plant is here neglected
on account of the divergence of these subjects from the principal Subject,
as well as for want of data concerning tariffs of ports etc.
II. AMOUNT OF DUES. UNIT OF THEIR APPLICATION.
In accordance with the remarks already made we possess the elements
for solving this question.
The bases of limitation and fixation of navigation dues (we are of course
understood always to speak of canals and navigable rivers) are derived
from, on the one hand, the first principle expressed, viz. a tax that may
be imposed on interested parties for the expenses of establishment and
working, for interest on and amortisation of the capital, and for
expenses of maintenance and management; and, on the other hand, in
accordance with the second principle expressed above that the dues are
merely an indemnification, a tax for economical utility.
The limits of the amounts of dues may be fixed on the one hand by
taking into account that the State (we do not speak here of private navi-
gable ways for which there are other rules which we shall mention
later on) will take upon itself a part of the expense; and on the other
hand, the fact that by the payment of these taxes the parties interested
reserve to themselves an economical advantage. The first principle which
we have expressed has been until lately unanimously accepted; its appli-
cation also always gave a good result, inasmuch as it was admitted
that the amount of the tax should only reach the sum necessary to cover
the expenses of maintenance and management and at the most render
a moderate return to the capital. -
One of the reporters at the Paris Congress, Mr. SYMPHER, Inspector of
6
Navigation Construction, stated in his report that the total of the sums
devoted by the German government to the maintenance and management
of navigation ways during the years 1881 to 1890 amounted to an average
of about 12 millions of marks, and this total only differs from that of
the amount received as dues by 2 millions of marks. For Prussia alone,
Mr. SYMPHER gives an excess of ordinary expenses over receipts of 6.5
millions of marks and that with a total outlay of 8.3 millions of marks;
there is here no question of unforeseen expenses.
I have been allowed to have at my disposal a document (1) communi-
cated by the Prussian Government to the Commission on the Budget in
Parliament treating the subject of the canalised ways of the Kingdom on
which tolls are collected for the benefit of the State. It appears from this
document (See Annex I) that the expenses of the maintenance and im-
provement of these canals reached in the years 1889 to 1891 a capital of
78,063,928 marks, for the technical part, and the collection of tolls on
the canals and foreseen expenses to 1,375,166 marks.
The interest at 3"/, "ſo on the capital and the amount of expenses
of management and maintenance would give together 4,107,404 marks,
while the total receipts collected were 1,160,999 marks and thus less
by 214,167 marks than the total of the expenses of maintenance and
management. -
These figures agree with those given by Mr. SYMPHER.
They present again a deficit in dues received, as compared with expenses
of maintenance and management.
That the difference shown here is not so important, is explained by
the facts that the expenses only of canals on which tolls are levied are
mentioned and not the total expense of maintenance and management
of all navigable ways. Besides, in the figures given by Mr. SYMPHER is
included a sum of 732,000 marks derived from the collection of port dues.
It is very clear from these figures that up to the present neither
Prussia nor Germany has had the intention of drawing from the navi-
gation dues levied on canalised ways any interest or amortisation
whatever for the expense of construction.
The same was likewise said in Paris by the reporter from Holland, the
chief engineer Mr. DEKING DURA, as well as by others from different
countries.
France, where canals being the property of the State have been hitherto
Open free to traffic, and England, which suffers from a want of naviga-
ble ways, being left out of account, I believe I may state, that up to
the present time no country has any intention of drawing from a fiscal
(4) For the use of these very interesting data I am indebted to the kindness of my
respected colleague Mr. GoTHEIN of Breslau.
7
point of view any return whatever from its canals, but merely the sums
necessary for their maintenance.
In Prussia the views of the Government have so much changed that
on certain canalised ways, for instance on the canal of the county of
Marck between the Elbe and the Oder, the tolls, which were formerly
not high, have been raised so much that it is estimated that this
augmentation of receipts will cover, not only the expense of maintenance,
but also a part of the interest of the capital.
According to the above mentioned document, notwithstanding the
moderation of the estimate, the receipts of the canals of the county of
Marck for the year 1893–94 will amount to
1,017,758 marks, against
873,285 marks for expenses of maintenance and management, and
1,938,289 marks, amount of interest on the capital engaged at 31/., Ojo.
So that there is a surplus of 144,473 marks over the expenses of
management and maintenance.
That is according to the estimate of parties interested, but probably
there will be still much more. For the great canal now projected from
the Rhine to the Elbe there is a prospect of heavy navigation dues,
which will much exceed the toll of 9 pfennigs per kilometric ton, the toll
spoken of by Mr. SYMPHER and which is about the average toll in force
on canalised ways at the present day.
It is calculated that with these higher tolls and the probable navigation
there will be found a return of 3"|, 9/o on the capital.
Persons interested in the canal named the Mittelland Kanal (which
will run from the canal from Dortmund to Emshafen, now in course of
construction, to the Elbe and the Weser) have in a report (1) proposed
and demonstrated the utility of raising the tolls by 5 pfennigs per
kilometric ton, which will give for the canal an interest on the capital of
3*/2 "lo and an amortisation of "10 °ſo.
In the project recently submitted to, and unfortunately rejected by,
the Prussian Landdag of a canal from Dortmund to the Rhine, the
basis was formulated on a toll of 1 pfennig per kilometric ton.
According to the opinion of the Government and many interested parties,
these dues would be sufficient to produce and even assure a return on the
canal. At the time of the discussion on the project of this canal the
conservative party emitted the following resolution.
That the Government should be requested:
1st. When fixing canal dues to take into consideration the covering of
(1) ) Der binnenländsche Rhein-Weser-Elbekanal mach den neuen Entwurfen) com-
missioned by the KVerein für Hebung der Fluss u. Kamalschiſtfahrt für Niedersachsen)
in Hanover, and published by FRITZ GECK, Engineer, Hanover, 1894.
8
the expense of management and maintenance and of a corresponding
interest on the capital, and to make a trial of the application of the prin-
ciple to the tolls on eaſisting canals in so far as it may be practicable, to
unite it with the conditions of agriculture and traffic.
2nd. To take into consideration the establishment of taxes destined to
cover expense incurred by the improvement of natural waterways.
After the minister of Finance had in the course of the debate declared
that the general idea of this resolution was right and that it was shared
by the Government, it was witdrawn, because, as was said by a delegate
in the name of his party, the object of the resolution was found to be
fulfilled by the declarations of the Government.
If we consider that the Prussian Government has up to the
present remained deaf to all claims concerning the said elevation of
navigation dues on the canalised ways of the county of Marck and that
according to a declaration of the Minister of Finance to the Parliament
the question of tolls is about to be examined by the Government (cer-
tainly not with a view to the reduction of dues), we may be convinced
that the views of the Prussian Government are changed.
The opinion of the representative body is also changed. While in
the year 1886 it voted all the Rhine–Weser—Elbe canal, at least in the
sense that ,the Government was authorised to apply so many millions of
marks to the establishment of a navigable canal destined to connect the
Rhine with the Ems and the Elbe with the Weser in the way most bene-
ficial to these rivers; and later to the construction of the canal from Dort-
mund to the lower Ems”, we see that a few days ago it rejected the
project of the construction of a canal from Dortmund to the Rhine, that is
of a part of the Rhine—Elbe–Weser canal which was decided on in 1886.
The causes of the rejection are principally, apart from a few purely
political questions, an agrarian agitation in the East which, astonishing
as it is (it may, nevertheless, be attributed to the withdrawal of certain
railway tariffs favourable to the east) at a time when agriculture is in
want of canals, has become an adversary to navigable ways.
But apart from this, which emanates from the management of the
State railways, a current of opinion has been raised in certain circles
favouring a severe fiscal tax on navigable ways, and this unfortunately
also in competent circles, and a very interesting political campaign of
railway tariffs is opening in direct opposition to navigable ways.
However interesting and useful it might be I will not dwell on this
subject; it is the question of navigation dues only with which we are
now concerned.
This question, as we have Said, has certainly been regarded in Prussia
in a new and different light, which tends to seek in canal dues a com-
plete return for the interests of the capital devoted to the execution of
the works.
9
With regard to the tendencies of the Governments and Parliaments of
other countries, I will not allow myself to judge them. Perhaps the dele-
gates from these countries will give us some information on this subject.
England is not interested in the question, as the State does not possess
any canals. In France, as far as I could deduce from the debates at the
Paris Congress and from other indications, the treasury appears to raise
certain claims. In any case we have here full reason, as an International
Inland Navigation Congress, to occupy ourselves with such indications.
But let us return to the principle of the amount of navigation dues.
It is, in my opinion, as I said above, thoroughly unjust to endeavour
to draw from navigation dues the complete interest on the capital.
It is much more reasonable that the State, as the party taking the
management of the canal, be charged with a part of the interest to be pro-
duced; for the canal, when it is a canal having a raison d’étre (and if a
canal has no raison d’être it should never be constructed), does not only
benefit the parties directly interested, but also the State and other branches
of the population belonging to absolutely distinct branches of industry.
In constructing a canal the State performs a work which, far from
leaving it indifferent, concerns it and the mass of the population, as also
the welfare of the State and of the public.
It follows from this that it is incumbent on the State to support, at
least in part, the expenses of the work.
An important canal brings profit to the State, for in proportion as
commercial relations are developed by this canal, the taxable resources of
the parties interested in it increase and new enterprises are formed, which
are liable to be taxed by the State, the fiscal receipts of which are thus
augmented.
This indirectly benefits other classes of the population, for the canals
are of great importance to agriculture; giving every possibility for the
adoption of improvements, they cause a rise in the value of large fields
Sometimes of many millions; and finally, owing to the moderation of
their prices of transport all classes of consumers benefit by the canals,
receiving by their means products of which they are constantly in want,
such as coal, wheat and iron.
Besides this, social economy is benefited, for products localised in one
place are promptly decentralised, the distribution of production becomes
equal, especially as regards the demand for coal, the transport by boat,
economical, but less rapid, giving rise to more uniform orders.
Finally, if we consider that in case of war each canal has to play its
part, will be utilised for transports or for the establishment of military
hospitals, the removal of which would thus be more easy, it must be
acknowledged that the advantages which the State may derive directly
or indirectly from every canal of any importance are really numerous
and of great consequence.
10
The only question which might be considered by the State before
proceeding to the construction of a new canal would be a deficit in the
receipts from railways in countries where the whole or a considerable
part of the railway system belongs to the State.
I will not go further into this question, which has already occupied
several Inland Navigation Congresses and has recently been frequently
discussed in the Prussian Landtag, as well as in other assemblies and in
the press. Only this should be said: even if we do not thoroughly sup-
port the view of complete harmony of interests between railways and navi-
gation, which has been so often talked of, the advantages which a large
new waterway offers to railways are so important, that a loss to them of
Some freight (which is the natural consequence of the construction of a
new way of communication) is nearly, if not entirely, compensated.
In fulfilling their rôle as agents for the bringing of traffic to the canal,
the railways attract a great deal of new freight and burdens are taken
off the railways, which they themselves would scarcely care to carry or at
least not without increase of the means at their disposal.
The canal gives birth to new enterprises and to new commerce, which
contribute also to the prosperity of the railways. Thus, the case of the
damage caused by a canal to the State railways is not very defensible.
We may, however, considering the consequences which the construction
of a canal might have for the State railways, contest the principle that
the State should derive from navigation dues, not only the cost of main-
tenance, but likewise all the intrest of the capital engaged.
From this it follows logically that it may not claim from the interested
parties a guarantee of this interest until the amortisation is complete.
A certain guarantee may, however, be with all justice demanded and is
also reasonable, for the directly interested parties have a right to expect
the first as well as the last advantage and the great interest attached to
the construction of the canal will even be strengthened and assured by
this guarantee.
A guarantee of the entire return would be especially unjust in
a State possessing its own railways, because in this case the interest which
the State must necessarily have in the return of the canal would be
lessened and the danger might arise that the State should menace the
canal in the matter of tariffs and thus lessen the navigation of the canal
the return of which was guaranteed.
Even when the return of the canals appears guaranteed with the exis-
ting railway tariffs, the interested parties are not in a position to take
Over the undertaking or to guarantee the complete return, so long as it
remains possible that the canal and its commerce may be injured, for
instance by exceptional tariffs at less than cost price for transports on the
railway running in competition with the canal.
11
It is worthy of remark that the Prussian Minister of Finance, Mr. MIQUEL,
expressed his opinion in the same sense in the Prussian Landtag during
the course of the debates concerning the canal from the Rhine to Dort-
mund. Besides, in the case that the complete interest on the capital
sunk in the waterway is covered by the dues levied or guaranteed
to the State, it is very doubtful whether there be any justification for
granting to the State a monopoly with regard to canal construction; or
if it should not rather be left to the parties interested, as is done in
England, America and other countries, at least in countries with a large
railway system, under the guarantee of the State as regards rates of tariffs,
which might compete with the canal.
In any other circumstances, as will be seen by the considerations above
mentioned, the establishment of a canal by private persons is not possible.
I will return now to the consideration of the first principle, the amount
of navigation dues. -
From certain considerations, which we take as principles, these taxes
may not be so high as to entirely cover the interest of the capital,
as the navigable ways are directly and indirectly a source of great
advantage, so that it is only just that the State should be responsible for
a part of the expenses or for the interest of the capital.
With regard to the amount of navigation dues the Second principle,
equally important and self explaining, is that the amount must never
become so high that the natural advantage resulting from the moder-
ation of prices by water compared with prices of transport by land
may be lessened or disappear.
In other words, the taxes may not in any case increase the price of
transport by water to such an extent that it would no longer be possible
to compete successfully against a well-directed arrangement of railway
tariffs.
A canal which could not be constructed without such great expenses
should not be undertaken, because in that case, the principle object,
viz. cheap transport, is not attained.
To what extent may canal dues be raised in order to successfully
compete with railways, is a question which must be decided according
to the manner of the competition between the canal and the railway
and according to the extension of commerce which may be expected.
In all the projects concerning the canal from the Rhine to the Elbe
and the Weser (probably with a view of obtaining an interest of 50 °/o)
a canal due of 8 pfennig per kilometric ton is charged.
In the above mentioned report on the Mittelland canal a toll of a
pfennig is recommended as sufficient, and in the proposal for the canal
from the Rhine to Dortmund (compare page 28) the Government held
in view a toll of 1 pfennig per kilometric ton and also established in
opposition to the railways the following tariff;
12
For coal and coke is levied a canal freight of 1 pfennig and a toll of
the same amount, and the charge per ton is placed at:
For a distance Of: By railway : By canal:
10 Kilometros 0.80 Marks 0.20 Marks.
15 in 1.00 º 0.30 53
20 n 1.10 º 0.40 †)
30 * 1.50 ty 0.60 º,
40 * 1.80 r) 0.80 ºr,
and by taking as base 5 pfennigs per kilometric ton on the branches
for a distance on the branch of 4 kilometres:
I'Or a distance of : I3y railway : By canal:
8 Kilometres 1.05 Marks 0.36 Marks
19 º 1.38 * 0.58 º
26 º 1.55 Tº 0.72 n
32 * 1.68 º 0.84 r
35 sº 1.78 * 0.90 º
54 * 2.63 sº 1.2S
Supposing these figures to be right for freights by rail and by canal,
we see that the canals could always compete successfully with the
railways with a toll of 1 pfennig per kilometric ton.
The normal tariff actually in force on the railways, amounts, at least
for coal, to 2.2 pfennigs per kilometric ton and 6.12 pfennigs for shipping
dues. A few special tariffs have gone lower than these figures, which
however are not perceptibly higher than the canal freight of 2 pfennigs
augmented by the canal dues.
The canal freight ought really to be a little less than fixed above
(1 pfennig per kilometric ton).
On the Mittelland canal it is in the report of the interested parties
calculated at 7 pfennigs.
It is unfortunately impossible to regulate the dues on the navigation
ways in Prussia on a unit of 1 kilometric ton, for all these dues are
established according to the tonnage of the ship and not according to its
real cargo and only collected at certain locks without the distance
traversed being in any way calculated in the amount.
According to the calculation of Mr. SYMPHER the sum paid on canals
where tolls are levied is only 2 pfennigs per kilometric ton. If we take
into account the recent increase in these dues on the canals of the
county of Marck, which on the average must be estimated at much more
than half of the amount hitherto charged (see particulars below), the
average of dues on all navigable ways will certainly amount to 4 or 5
pfennigs, if not more.
From what has already been said it may be concluded that it is nearly
impossible to establish for the dues a uniform unit which would fix
18
exactly the amount to which they might be raised without danger to
the vitality of navigation.
This depends again too much on the economical conditions of the
region and of the possible and probable extension of traffic etc.
Leaving on one side possible cases of exceptionally prosperous traffic
a unit of dues of from 2 to 5 pfennings may be considered as possible.
For canalised ways of less dimensions and of insufficient construction
this unit will be found to be amply sufficient, as such navigable ways
do not admit large vessels with lucrative freight.
With this question is connected the system, which we will study later
on and which is easy to apply, of a navigation tax based on the ton-
nage of the vessel.
A question which also attracts much attention is the increasing of dues
on a waterway which is already in working.
I may be allowed to touch upon this subject.
If a canal has for some time been levying certain fixed and invariable
tolls on its navigation it is probable that these tolls have been taken
account of in the calculation of freights; the navigation has thus acquir-
ed the power of supporting these taxes, for what has been found to be
above its means has been placed to the charge of the freighter in the
price of the freight.
But if an increase of dues takes place when the freights have been
long fixed, it is invariably very difficult for the boatman to comply
with this new state of things without himself supporting the increase.
Therefore an increase of dues is only equitable in cases where new
expenses for the welfare of the canal render it necessary and the State
requires a much larger amount for maintenance and interest on the
increased capital.
But even in this case it is desirable that a notice should be given at
least about six months before the new tariff takes effect, in order that
running contracts and freight calculations based on the former tariffs
may not cause heavy loss to those interested in them.
In concluding this part of my report I would add a few words on the
Subject of dues and their amount on waterways which are private property.
In the above remarks we have continually referred to canals belong-
ing to the State (Provinces, Communes, etc.) which have their own parti-
cular interests and on which the conditions are quite different to those
existing on private canals.
The reporters at the Paris Congress in treating the question of dues on
navigable ways which are private property, have drawn the conclusion
that the dues should cover the complete return of the interest of the
capital.
It is unnecessary for me to express an opinion on this general question.
Nevertheless, as regards the amount of dues, we may fix the rule that
14
on canalised ways which are open to the public (and with such only
we are now concerned) navigation must not be hindered or rendered diffi-
cult by measures emanating from private persons.
It should also be insisted upon that on canalised ways constructed
and worked by private parties and according to law open to the public,
the State has a right of control with regard to the levying of tolls.
The State should have the power of fixing a certain maximum of tolls
in proportion to the capital and be able to prevent any arbitrary meas-
ures being imposed.
It is true that the owners of the canal in their own interest would
avoid an excessive demand of tolls, still it is advisable to take into con-
sideration the possibility of such an abuse of the monopoly and for
this reason we refer to the question.
I will now offer some observations relative to the amount of dues and
the basis of their unit:
1. Navigation dues on a canalised way belonging to the State (communes,
provinces, etc.) may not be so high as to bring into the State the entire
interest and the amortisation of the capital and still less to allow it a
profit on the speculation ; for every canal which is really of service — and
only such should be constructed — gives rise to such direct and indirect
profit to the finances of the State that it is only right that it should forego
a part of the interest on the capital. -
Also the interested parties must only be ea pected to partly guarantee the
interest on the capital.
2. The amount of the dwes is limited by the consideration that the price of
transport by water, although increased by the navigation dues, must still
Temain essentially less than the lowest rate of competing railway lines. The
natural advantage of the canal resulting from the moderation of the prices of
transport must not be reduced by excessive dues.
3. The basis of the unit of navigation dues is to be determined according to
the respective conditions of the waterways. According to observations made wp to
the present day, leaving on one side particular cases and situations exceptionally
advantageous, the dues should scarcely eaceed 2 to 5 pfennigs per kilometric
ton. The unit must be less where the waterway is less able to bear the charge.
4. Great care should be exercised in applying any increase of dues to a
canal which has for a long time been used for navigation. Such increase is only
justifiable in a case where important eaſpenses are necessary for the improve-
ment of the navigation of the canal.
Again, attention must be given to the case of owners who are unable
by means of their freight to cover this increase of dues; and in any case,
they should be advised by circular about six months before any such alteration
is put in force. -
5. With regard to navigable ways whalertaken and directed by private
parties the state retains the privilege of controlling the establishment of dues
15
and of their collection. Although the principle of levying dues for the entire
interest on the capital be admitted, the State should have the right
of fixing the maa'imum of these dues so as to obviate any possible abuse of
"monopoly.
|||. CALGULATION OF T0LLS.
Apart from the question of the amount of the dues, that of their cal-
culation has its particular importance on the one hand, because the
levying of heavy or light dues may be sometimes crushing and at others
Supportable, and on the other hand because it is only by rational
calculation that an equitable division of the dues can be guaranteed.
Hence arise several distinct points to be debated in this part of our
report.
In the first place there is the general question should dues for the
navigation of waterways (as we have already said, we will refer later
on to Port dues etc.) be collected in the form of one single tax, or in the
form of tolls for the use of locks, lifting machinery etc. or perhaps in
both ways. -
The other questions relate to the principles of the calculation of dues
and the different systems which may be adopted, such as calculations
based on the tonnage, on the real cargo of the vessel, on the nature and
value of the cargo, on the distance traversed, etc.
Then there is the question of the abolition, of the moderation of dues
and of the levying of special dues; and finally the question of collection
and control.
Another part will be devoted more particularly to floats.
A. Collective dues or partial tolls.
This question is comparatively easy of solution.
If we admit the principle of collection of dues for the use of a canalised
way as compensation for economical advantage resulting from it, it
follows that these dues should be levied for the use of the canal as a
total and not only for the use of the various navigation plant, locks,
levers, etc.
The economical advantage afforded to persons using the waterway con-
sists in the faculty of using the whole or a part of the canal as a means
of transport and not in the passing through a lock, or of having recourse
to the Services of any apparatus. º
The boatman cares little whether be has to pass through many locks
or no locks, his object being to reach his destination at the end or on
the course of the canal.
On the contrary, a number of locks cause delay on the journey and
therefore it is less profitable than when there are few or no locks at all.
16
Thus, although the principle of regarding lock-money as compensation
for expense caused may be right, it cannot be admitted in this idea of
general economical advantage, and one total and general toll for the use
of the waterway is much more just.
The same reasons which apply to economical advantage must also
have an influence in the calculation of dues, such as the quantity of
cargo carried, perhaps also in Some degree the nature of the cargo, the
distance traversed on the canal, etc.
This calculation of the dues into one collective and general toll for the
use of the canal has a great advantage over the levying of tolls for locks,
lifting machinery etc., in that it is much more equitable.
It obviates the inequality resulting from the fact that one boatman
may on perhaps a much shorter journey have to pass through twice as
many locks as another, and renders systematic the levying of the tolls
which might otherwise become arbitrary or dependent on accidents.
It may be also the means of collecting in a more just manner the
money necessary for special expenses, such as locks and lifting machinery
and thus there would be no question of these being gratuitous.
On the other hand, a toll would be levied in a reasonable manner on
boats using those parts of the canal on which there are no locks.
It does not follow from this that the levying of a special toll for locks
in addition to the general toll is to be in every case excluded.
A case might occur in which the construction of a new and larger lock
would be dependent on the imposition of a toll for this purpose. Perhaps
in such a case it would be justifiable to claim from those who use this
new construction, built expressly for them, a special lock due and that
especially in a case where a general increase of dues would be inad-
missible.
B. Sytems hitherto in vogue for the calculation of dues.
As it is now only a question of determining the true basis of the cal-
culation of dues we must naturally first consider according to what prin-
ciples and if possible according to what systems we should proceed in
calculating dues on canalised ways in the countries where such dues exist.
From this the different systems of calculation of tolls may be determined
and we may base on this material an examination of each particular
system and of the entire question with the view of recommending one or
the other of them with or without alterations.
We will attempt in the following reflexions to determine this question.
The calculations of dues, fixed in former times on taxed waterways,
were very different. This is explained perhaps partly by the fact that
the composition of the tariff was not guided by theoretical principles,
and partly because the theoretical fundamental ideas were influenced by
17
various practical considerations, and finally the conceptions of the cha-
racter of the dues were very various.
Accordingly, as the dues on waterways were considered as a tax on
the traffic or as a toll for the use of an organisation directed by the
Government, very various principles for calculation of dues in different
countries have been suggested and amongst them the already mentioned
practical considerations of facility and certainty in collection.
The country which above all others, has favoured the imposition of
navigation dues in the form of a tax upon the water traffic is Russia,
where nearly throughout the country, at least until very lately (some
reform was projected in 1892), dues were levied on the value of the
goods transported and then, according to circumstances, in most various
ways, as for instance ||, "ſo on the canal from Sebesch to the Dwina,
1 9/o on the Dniester etc. (1)
Besides these, there are in Russia dues fixed according to certain cal-
culations per ton. On the other hand the distance traversed is not taken
into consideration. -
Every boat entering the canal has to pay dues, either according to its
tonnage or the value of its cargo without reference to the distance
traversed.
And this system is absolutely unjust for the following reasons:
a. It is a tax on commerce, because it is based on the value of the
goods; b. it does not take into account the distance traversed or to be
traversed, and because c. the calculation of tonnage and of value being
furnished by the owner himself is, as will be easily understood, very
unreliable; and this has been already acknowledged in Russia.
Numerous propositions have been made, among them that of the per-
manent commission for the examination of questions relating to inland
navigation, which suggested the levying of dues on steamboats in pro-
portion to their force of impulsion (number of horse power), otherwise
according to the cubic measurement and the draught of the vessels, or
according to the tonnage of the goods carried, which should be divided
into at most three classes, or according to the distance traversed, or
according to the number of passengers, or the distance they travel.
The commission was averse to the imposition of any dues, which were
not to be devoted to the improvement or maintenance of the navigable
ways, and was thus unfavourable to any tax on traffic.
We do not know how the question has been solved in Russia.
Holland has viewed the question in a different light than Russia has
done (2).
(4) These data are taken from the report of Mr N. von SyTENKo to the Inland
Navigation Congress at Paris.
(2) Taken from the report of Mr DEKING DURA to the Paris Congress.
PIATSCHEK. 2
18
In Holland the dues levied on canals belonging to the State have
completely the character of tolls and are really nothing but a compen-
sation for benefit derived.
They are levied according to the cubic measurement of the vessel
without regard to the nature of the goods carried, at the most with
exemption from toll or from half of the toll for empty boats or for boats
with certain classes of cargo, such as manure and dung. The levying of
dues in their intirety has, however, been projected for all canals where
dues are imposed. On many canals they have been already entirely
abolished. Still, the dues levied by the communes, the provinces and
the companies called Waterschappen would remain in force. The
distance traversed is not taken into consideration, and the due fixed is
only levied at the passing of locks and bridges in accordance with the
cubic measurement of the vessel, which is either gathered from official
documents or is calculated. The tariffs are moderate, averaging only
5 cents per cubic metre.
In France (1) all tolls on canals belonging to the State were abolished
by law in 1880. Before that time there existed on some conceded canals
(the Briare canal, for example) dues calculated on the tonnage of the
goods and on a unit of distance of 5 kilometres, that is on a system
which took into account the distance traversed. Later on a general navi-
gation due calculated specially for each canal was introduced.
A law of the year 1837 established on all canals and rivers a simpli-
fied and uniform due still calculated by the ton and the unit of 5 kilo-
metres.
At present there are about 805 kilometres of canals and canalised
rivers, not belonging to the State but conceded”, on which dues are
calculated on the same system of toll collection according to the kilo-
metric ton and the real cargo. In a few isolated cases tolls are levied
at locks, as on the St. Denis and the St. Martin canals, without regard
to distance traversed.
On a few of these canals the tariffs make mention of only two classes
of goods, while others have extended tariffs for all sorts of different
merchandise.
In Germany, where the dues formerly in force on the Elbe, as a last
vestige of taxes on fluvial commerce, were finally abolished in 1870,
there still often exist Some dues for the use of canals, the majority being
in the form of lock dues.
Navigation dues for large canals projected or in course of construction
have also been under consideration. -
The constitution of the German Empire does not authorise dues on
natural navigable ways, except for the use of material or plant established
(1) According to the report of Mr L. Couvreur to the Paris Congress.
19
for the facility of the traffic; and in the same way, as is the case with
the artificial navigable ways belonging to the State (canals which are
private property are not referred to), only such dues are allowed as do
not exceed the expenses necessary to the establishment and maintenance
of the service.
In different German States, numerous laws and regulations relating to
navigation dues on artificial ways have been decreed, but all based on
the spirit of this constitution. It is only in the Grand Duchy of Hesse,
in Wurtemburg, in Hamburg and in Alsace-Lorrain that there are no
dues on navigable ways.
The regulations and tariffs established for the calculation of dues in
Prussia, in Bavaria, in Mecklemburg and in other German States, are of
a very different nature. -
I must refrain from thoroughly analysing them here. (See the tariffs
in Annexes II, III, IV and V, and the report of Mr SYMPHER to the
Paris Congress).
The basis of calculation is nearly always the tonnage of the vessel.
The toll is calculated on a unit of 5 tons burden. The Bavarian canal
from the Danube to the Maine is an exception to this system, for the real
tonnage of the cargo is calculated in the same way as it was on the
Gallalised 8aar up to the time whon tho duos were abolished. -
In some navigation tariffs 10 and sometimes 12 net cubic metres are
spoken of instead of 5. The system is however the same.
The distance traversed is not taken into account except on the canal
from the Danube to the Maine (Ludwig Canal) and a toll only is levied
at different locks, according to fixed and uniform tariffs.
For the most part, the nature of the cargo is not taken into consider-
ation, except for the distinction of a few classes, such as raw material,
stone, coal, ore, etc. and manure, which have only to pay one half, or
at least a very low proportion of the usual tariff.
We may mention as characteristic the rule existing up to very lately
on certain navigable ways in Prussia, on the canals of Marck, according
to which tolls were calculated up to a limit of 116 tons; larger vessels
had only to pay a maximum due of 115 tons, although their tonnage
was sometimes as much as 400 tons.
This rule was abolished on the Marck canals in 1892 as well as on
some other canals, at the same time as the tariff of tolls was raised in
such a way that the larger ships had to pay dues much higher than
formerly.
This is more fully explained in the report of the Central Comittee on
Inland Navigation of Berlin, the table of which we give in Annex VI.
With this generally ruling system of calculation according to tonnage
some tariffs take into consideration the incompleteness of the cargo of
the boats (caused by insufficient depth of water etc.), so that when the
20
cargo is less than one half, only one half of the dues are levied.
Empty boats for the most part pay one sixth and latterly even less.
Finally, there are certain exemptions from dues for vessels belonging
to the State and for others which are not destined for the transport of
merchandise, for small boats, etc.
For the present, we will not further pursue this subject.
Protestations have lately been repeatedly made against the system
by persons using the waterway, as well as against some ways of
calculating navigation dues in Prussia and principally in consequence of
the elevation of dues projected in 1892. We will refer more fully to
the subject of these difficulties when examining the different systems.
Finally, in England (1), where there are no canals belonging to the
State, dues are in force on different canals.
The systems are very various.
There are simple lock dues and general canal dues per ton per
mile. Usually the nature of the goods is classified into various sorts.
Compared with those of the continent, the units are very high, varying
between one halfpenny and two pence per ton per mile.
To my great regret it has been utterly impossible for me or obtain
details of the dues levied in other countries.
But, although this sketch of tariffs and rules for the levying of
dues has been given as concisely as possible (for details I must still
refer my readers to the Annexes of the report as well as to those of
the reports to the Paris Congress), it may be inferred that three different
systems are in use, viz.
1st The calculation of dues according to the value of the cargo.
2nd The calculation in accordance with the tonnage and in proportion
to the cubic measurement.
3rd The calculation in proportion to the real cargo carried and gener-
ally taking into consideration the distance traversed.
In the first system the nature of the goods is most fully considered,
whereas in the second and third systems only certain classifications are
given which are nearly the same. The distance traversed may be taken
into consideration and combined with all the systems, although this has
not hitherto been done under the first and second systems. We have,
therefore, now only to critically examine these different systems and in
connection with them the various important rules to be considered in
the compilation of a tariff of dues.
(4) Report of Mr. CLEMENTs to the Paris Congress.
21
C. EXAMINATION OF SYSTEMS.
1. Examination of the principles of calculation.
From a consideration of the modes of calculation hitherto employed in
various countries it is easy to determine which system can be recommen-
ded as the most fundamentally just, and at the same time practically
useful. -
From the fundamental as well as from the practical point of view
the fixing of dues according to the value of the cargo should be absolutely
rejected, even if these dues were moderate, but still more so if they
complied with the requirements mentioned in the previous chapter.
From the fundamental point of view, because dues established according
to the value of the cargo constitute a tax on commerce and not simply
a compensation for the use of the advantage offered by the waterway.
Besides, the value of the cargo could never be otherwise considered
than in so far as it influences the amount of the freight, that is the
economical advantage which the canal affords to the freighter.
But this is certainly not the case; even when certain articles of higher
value are obliged according to their rule to pay a higher freight than
masses of goods of low value, the amount of the freight and the value
of goods are not in such even proportions that the value of the goods
paying the higher tariff may be taken as a basis for fixing the freight
to be charged on them. -
This principle does not, however, require any further examination.
Also from - a practical point of view this system must be absolutely
put on one side.
It has proved in Russia, according to the reports made to the Paris
Congress, very defective in practice.
In fact the fixing of the value of the cargo can only be effected in
two ways, viz. either by an official valuation, or according to the decla-
ration of the owner himself.
Both of these ways present difficulties and are very unreliable.
An official valuation by the means at present at the disposal of the
administration of waterways and of their finance department, to which
is confided the collection of tolls, is simply impracticable as their staff
has not the requisite knowledge of markets and prices. But even if a
competent staff of experts for the valuation of goods should be appointed,
differences and claims would certainly arise from the diversity of the
nature of the goods and of the continual fluctuations in the market
prices. Also as the decision of the experts could not be left without
right of appeal, long and tiresome proceedings would inevitably result.
To this must be added the great delays which would be caused to traffic
by this system of valuation by experts, the difficulty in its administration,
22
the uncertainty of a correct result on account of changes which might
be caused by embarkment or discharge of cargo in the course of the
voyage etc. Even if the amount for which the cargo was insured were
taken as a guide nothing would be gained, for it might occur that some
of the goods were not insured at all, or only covered by a general policy,
and further, the amount of the insurance itself would probably be
influenced by the consideration that the dues would be based upon it,
The estimation of the value according to the declaration of the owner
would be equally impracticable.
Apart from the fact that for want of sufficient control a way would
be left open to a wide field of fraud, the owner would often with the
best of will be unable to furnish a reliable account of the value of his
cargo. Neither could the bills of lading, which are frequently not taken
on the boat, serve as a guide even if they contained any declaration of
value. For these reasons it will be seen that an effective control is
practically impossible and even the most superficial examination of the
contents of the vessel would cause delay to traffic and result in
great inconvenience.
It will thus be seen that, apart from fundamental considerations, the
collection of dues on canals or other waterways according to the value of
the goods transported is practically very unreliable and cannot be main-
tained.
The second and third systems are much to be preferred, basing the
dues on the tonnage of the vessel and its cubic measurement.
In fact, a system of this kind corresponds much more with the funda-
mental principle of the due being a compensation for an economical
advantage, for this advantage increases in proportion to the amount of the
cargo or the size of the vessel. -
Also, from a practical point of view this system is incomparably pre-
ferable. Its introduction will give the best results and be more easy of
application. The size of the vessel and the quantity of the cargo are
points which can generally be easily and correctly estimated.
The first point is determined according to papers of measurements now
in general use and which are rendered obligatory. They show the exact
measurements of the vessel and the boatman must always have them
on board. - - -
If these papers should be defective an approximate valuation can
always be made by means of a comparison with other boats of the same
construction, at least if the traffic be of any importance.
Apart from the consideration that a declaration by the boatman is
more easy of control, there would be less likely to be any opportunity
for fraud.
There are besides, other very practicable means of determining exactly
the cargo of a vessel by reckoning its depth of immersion with the aid
23
of a specially constructed guage (See Annex VII). The calculation
of dues according to the quantity of the cargo or the size of the vessel
is used in two systems, both in calculation according to the tonnage of
the vessel and according to the tonnage of the cargo.
As we naturally cannot expect to find the full tonnage of the vessel
always utilised, there is an essential difference in the two systems.
The first is easy of execution, for as we have said above the tonnage
of a vessel is easy to determine.
From a fundamental point of view it might be alleged that whether
loaded or not vessels of all sizes equally profit by the canals and the
works established on them. Likewise, it might be averred that the dimen-
sions of artificial waterways are calculated especially as regards their
least depth of water, according to the draught of the largest ships
expected to use them when fully loaded, and that it is desirable that
the dimensions of the canals be entirely utilised. º
But these considerations are not consequent and do not agree with the
principle indicated as the only correct one for the calculation of dues.
For dues should be fixed not according to the use made of the canal or
the works established on it, nor according to the expense incurred by afford-
ing facilities to larger vessels, but, as we have said above, directly in
accordance with tho economical advantage offered to owners. This econo-
mical advantage having no connection with the tonnage of the vessels,
hut on the contrary lessening as soon as the complete tonnage is not
utilised, it results that the calculation of dues according to tonnage is incor-
rect and not in accordance with the fundamental principle we have indicated.
If this calculation has been used and maintained up to the present
day in Prussia, it is because, in consequence of the existence of papers
of measurement, it was practical and easy of application; and on account
of the moderation of the units of tolls the injustice and inequality of the
system were not so perceptible. There is, however, a strong current of
opinion in Prussian navigation circles against the systern.
By the system of calculation of dues according to the actual quantity of
the cargo, the dues are justly higher in proportion as the cargo is larger.
The amount of the due is thus more in proportion to the economical
advantage, for the latter undoubtedly increases with the increase in the
quantity of the cargo, while by the system of taxation according to the
tonnage of the vessel it lessens in proportion as the cargo decreases and
the dues remain the same. -
From the fundamental point of view this system is the most correct
of all those which we have examined up to the present. To become
absolutely in accordance with the principle of calculation in proportion
to the economical advantage obtained, it certainly requires still some
modifications with respect to classification of goods and the distance
traversed. Of this we will speak later on.
24
It is true that many difficulties are met with in the application
of this system, but it must not therefore be put on one side as
impracticable, for it exists and appears to answer very well in a
large number of countries, among others in Bavaria on the Ludwig
Canal.
It is, however, true that this system demands a deeper acquaintance
with the circumstances of navigation, for in its application it would be
necessary to examine the bills of lading and at times to check the
cargo. Only at places where the statistics of interior navigation are
sufficient and where note is taken of the transport effected, an account
must be given by the boatman of the quantity of the cargo and the
changes it may have undergone in the course of the journey; and here
we have at once a ready means of verifying with ease the quantity of
the cargo at the time of collecting the dues.
In Germany there exist statistics of traffic on canalised ways, but they
are insufficient to fix the traffic per ton and per kilometre. They relate
more to loading and discharging, arrival and departure of vessels at the
more important points of inland navigation.
The German government has, however, in view a reform which aims
at the formation of complete statistics of inland navigation, and pro-
positions worthy of attention have been received from various competent
circles, principally from the central committee for the improvement of
German river navigation.
A study of the entire question would here lead us too far and it has
already been considered at several Congresses.
Besides the possibility of discovering the quantity of the real cargo by
means of the data furnished for the statistics of inland navigation there
is another method for the same purpose. That is, to require an exact
account from the boatman and to establish at the same time a com-
petent control by compelling the boatman to affix to his vessel a certain
number of water guages of an obligatory type from which the real cargo
could be immediately read off. -
I need not here enter further into the purely technical questions of
the calculation and the testing of guages, of their correctness in showing
the weight of the cargo in proportion to the depth of immersion etc.;
Some detailed reports on this subject have been published by the Berlin
Central Committee for the improvement of inland navigation, which I
have added in Annex VII for the use of those interested in the subjet.
It is certain that the real cargo of the vessel can thus be estimated
Within a few tons, and even exactly, and easily determined if the
guages be constructed on a correct and uniform basis.
The declaration of the boatman is thus controlled in the most simple
manner; to this may be added another control, certainly less easy and
not desirable, viz. the revision of the bills of lading or even the inspection
25
of the interior of the vessel. We should hesitate long before employing
such means of control.
In the first place the intrusion of strangers into private business affairs
concerning only the sender and the receiver of the goods is not agreeable
to the owner or to any of the parties concerned.
Again, it frequently occurs that the bills of lading are not on board or
are not complete, especially at the time of a hurried loading or departure.
It is evident that considerable delay would result from these methods of
controlling the declaration of the boatman. This method of control cannot
be entirely rejected, but could only be exercised in conjunction with
measures affording protection to the boatman, such as the requirement
of the most scrupulous discretion on the part of the examiners. It will
be understood that such control should only be exercised when it is
indispensable and, if possible, only in cases where there is a suspicion
of fraud. ,-
After what has been said it will be seen that calculation of navigation
dues according to the real cargo of the vessel is very possible, although
it cannot be denied that there are difficulties in its application. If we
now admit the possibility of its application (and the possibility seems to
be demonstrated by the example of countries where the system is in force),
we must absolutely give if the preference above all other systems for the
collection of dues according to the tonnage of the vessel, because all other
systems diverge too much from the fundamental idea of a tax imposed
as compensation for an economical advantage obtained from the canal.
Nevertheless, it would scarcely be right to maintain the wriform estab-
lishment of this system on all navigable ways without restriction and the
withdrawal of all the others, even though it has been acknowledged as
the most equitable and the most practicable one possible. We ought
rather on the contrary to retain the principle that, with the exception
of systems which are absolutely impracticable, on canals where any
other system (such as for instance calculation according to the tonnage
of the vessel) is in force, changes should be effected with the greatest
circumspection and only when they are in accordance with the wishes of
the persons interested. For usually the owners have been for many years
accustomed to the system in force and have based on it their tariffs
of freights; thus as a general rule the establishment of a new system
greatly disturbs their trade and from a material point of view effects
rather an aggravation than a decrease of the charges they have to bear.
Following up this principle we may now demand the rejection of
insupportable systems, such as the levying of dues according to the value
of the goods, which constitutes a tax upon commerce and in practice
gives rise to a mass of difficulties. -
The question of calculation of dues according to the tonnage of the vessel
presents itself in a different light. Even if we admit that this system is
26
not equitable, that it does not take into account the height of the water,
a point so important to boatman, we must not decide on its rejection,
except in cases where really great difficulties are presented. We might
for instance regard canals the dimensions of which allow to vessels a
complete or almost a complete cargo, and many other great difficulties
arise when the tax remains the same for small cargoes.
The question of the establishment of a new tax on navigable ways is
entirely different. Of all modes of collection the preference may be without
hesitation given to the system based on the real cargo.
Thus for example in Prussia, the real cargo is considered as the basis
of dues on all the projected ways. For the canal from Dortmund
to Emshāfen (unfortunately not yet commenced) and for the Mittelland
canal, which will run from the canal from Dortmund to Emshäfen to
the central Elbe, mention at least is made of the system in the propo-
sitions of interested parties.
2. Consideration of the distance traversed.
All the systems of calculation already mentioned including even the
system of calculation on the real cargo are incomplete, so long as the
distance traversed, or to be traversed by the vessel on the canal, is not
taken into consideration. The question presents many difficulties, especially
with regard to collecting offices.
When the collecting offices are placed at different distances from each
other along the canal, as is the case on the Marck canals of Prussia,
where the dues are collected at a series of locks, each office has to make
a complicated calculation of the dues to be collected for the distance
traversed by the vessel. The question could be simplified, it is true, by
the establishment of fixed and invariable tariffs showing the sum to be
paid according to the distance, and for the total distance from one
office to another; but this would not suffice, for vessels which had tra-
versed only a part of any of these distances ought not to be required
to pay for the total distance, but still they should pay something. The
most practical system would without doubt be to collect the toll due for
the distance to be traversed as declared by the boatman as soon as the
vessel enters the canal, and this declaration is easily controlled. An inter-
mediate office for collection and control on the canal – on the largest canals
there may be several offices — could collect the dues imposed on ships
which traversed only a distance between two points of the canal and also
verify whether passing boats had paid their dues and for what distances.
In order to make sure that a vessel had not traversed more than the
distance it had paid for, the staff of officers of the canal would have the
right to verify at the times of landing, loading or unloading, the amount
of the dues paid. -
27
In this manner and under these conditions the distance traversed would
be taken greatly into consideration in the calculation of the dues, even
on canalised ways, on which the distance traversed would not otherwise
be taken into account and the system of calculation per ton per
kilometre would be brought into practice.
If, however, we neglect to include the distance traversed in the canal
dues, we meet, especially in the case of canals of great extent, with
injustices and difficulties which the owner has been so long accustomed
to in some places that he no longer considers them as injustices, but
they might very well be dispensed with.
On the other hand for canals of great length we must examine whether
the multiplication of the unit of dues by the number of kilometres
traversed on the entire length of the canal, or on great parts of the canal,
would not give a total relatively too high of dues to be collected, and
if in this case, especially where moveable tariffs are in use on rival
railways, we should not recur to the system of moveable tariffs.
3. Classification of goods transported.
It is a difficult point to determine whether the classification of goods
embarked is useful in the different compilations of dues and up to what
point it is practicable. According to the principle we have indicated the
justice of such a measure can hardly be contested. From the fundamen-
tal principle which we have laid down, that navigation dues should
as far as possible correspond with the economical advantage afforded by
the canal, the classification of goods in proportion as they bring a higher
average freight to the owner is essentially well founded. If the calcu-
lation of dues according to value must be acknowledged to be funda-
mentally wrong, the gradation of dues in different units for goods which
bring a higher or a lower freight will not only be equitable, but entirely
founded on the same principle. -
It is true that principle and practice clash violently in this case, for
the collection of dues is rendered difficult by this classification of goods
transported and the more difficult in proportion as the classification is
more detailed and more exact.
Classification as well as gradation of units of dues both being applied,
it would be necessary in order to determine the tax to be paid, by a
vessel to establish its cargo, not only according to its total tonnage, but
according to the different sorts of goods and the tonnage of each of
these sorts .
Such calculation, however, would be so difficult, tedious, vexatious, and
often impracticable for want of knowledge of the real cargo, that the
execution of such troublesome work could only cause serious injury to
navigation. -
28
Nor can there be any question of a special tariff for each sort of goods,
for in navigation tariffs there are generally but few gradations, goods of
very different kinds and often of very different values being classed in
one freight.
On the contrary, in order to arrive at the most just possible tariff of
dues, taking into account the highest, the medium, and the lowest units
of freight, it is admissible and right to fix a few gradations and to clas-
sify goods according to these general groups.
A distinction of this kind is already in practice on many canals in
Russia, where raw material (distinctly classified) pays only one half of
the dues fixed for other goods.
A classification in three sorts might perhaps be possible :
1st Goods in bales (packages).
2nd Goods in bulk of higher value (for example wheat, sugar, etc.).
3* Goods in bulk of low value (raw material as coal, stone, ore,
dung etc.).
A classification of this kind admits the hypothesis that an examination
of the contents of the vessel and a detailed list of the different consti-
tuents of the cargo being obviated, the total cargo should be clas-
sified and not any part of it, or any part of the goods (according to sort
and weight).
This has up to the present time been strictly adhered to in Russia
and must be strictly adhered to whenever any alterations in the system
OCCUIT,
If it were made obligatory to specify the nature of the cargo and to
classify distinctly the different sorts of goods according to the different
tariffs, navigation would be paralysed and the loss incurred would be
much more important than the surplus of dues paid by the owner on
account of a part of his cargo being placed on a higher tariff. The only
remaming course is to place the cargo in the highest class to which any
of its goods belong, when these goods exceed a certain minimum quantity.
If it should be desired to take for the classification of the cargo any
other basis than the part which has the greatest weight, recourse would
have to be had to an examination of the goods loaded and a calculation
of their quantity, whereas according to the system explained above, if
there should be any suspicion a glance at the cargo would suffice to
determine whether it does or does not exceed the minimum allowed for
goods belonging to the higher classification.
A few hundredweight or a few tons on either side would not
make any difference. The result of this rapid classification of the total
cargo would be that when its heaviest part belongs to one simple class
of goods of a higher tariff — the quantity to be admitted without incur-
ring the higher tariff should hardly be more than 50 or a 100 quintals
(say 2'ſ, to 5 tons) — the entire cargo of the vessel would fall under
29
this same tariff. This difficulty which has been so often pointed out is
however inevitable, but as I have said above it is in any case less
serious than the injury which would result from a detailed classification
of the cargo. We may briefly recapitulate the observations which we have
made.
A classification of the cargo of a vessel according to the different sorts
of goods without prejudice to navigation is only possible when it is con-
fined to a classification of the total cargo in one of the principal groups:
goods in bales (packages), goods in bulk of a higher value, and raw
material (goods in bulk of low value). We must entirely refrain
from a classification of all the respective constituents of the cargo. If the
vessel contains various sorts of goods (for instance, goods in bales and
goods in bulk) the dues are fixed on the goods coming under the higher
tariff as soon as the total of these goods attains a certain minimum
quantity, which is to be determined.
D. Particulars of the calculation of dues on floats.
The dues at present in force for floats are extremely various.
In France, according to the law of 1836 the dues were levied per ten
cubic metres (décastère). On the present conceded ways the dues are levied
partly per trunk, according to the average circumference, and partly per
metre in length. In Holland the dues are generally calculated on floats in
the block, sometimes per Square metre instead of per cubic metre.
In Germany there is great difference between the canal from the
Danube to the Maine and the Prussian canals.
On the first, floats pay on the same system as boats, that is per ton
per kilometre and the weight is calculated by taking as basis the cubic
contents as follows:
Oak and beech wood . * te & :* & g 14.58 cents per cubic metre
Wood of frees wifh a Giºll lar leaves . e & * 2.65 º º *
On the canals of Prussia the surface is mostly calculated in square
metres.
For instance on the Marck canals it was formerly per 2"|2 Square metres
for floats of square cut wood and per 3 square metres for all other wood.
Now the calculation is per 9 square metres of surface.
On some canals the dues are levied according as the locks are
entirely filled or merely to the half or one quarter.
For floats of less dimensions than is generally calculated to fill one
quarter of the lock payment is made according to surface.
With these different methods of calculation, implanted in different
districts and which often give rise to inconvenience, it is hard to decide
which is the best; for besides considerations of principle there are prac-
tical considerations to be attentively examined.
30
According to the principle hitherto admitted of the levying of naviga-
tion dues as compensation for an economical advantage offered, float
dues should be determined strictly according to the floating quantity.
In a certain measure (as is done on some French canals and the
Ludwig Canal in Bavaria) the cubic contents of the float should be taken
into consideration and on this the dues should be based. On the other
hand observations gathered in practice sufficiently prove that if the
cubic calculation be left on one side, it is only the surface of the float,
easy to measure and determine, which can be taken as basis for the
Calculation of the dues. - -
The distance traversed or to be traversed may be taken into account
in the same way as it is for vessels. -
The float dues could be paid at the collecting offices according to
the tariffs of Surface, multiplied by the number of kilometres.
If a want for a gradation of tariffs should be felt, this must of course
be arranged in the same way as is done for vessels. On the other hand,
as we have said above, we may for practical considerations leave out of
account the nature and the weight of the wood.
E. Conclusions on the methods of calculation of dues.
1. Of the existing systems it appears that the system of calculation on
the value of the cargo cannot be maintained.
Calculation according to the tonnage of the vessel in spite of its simpli-
city from a practical point of view gives rise to difficulties and irregula-
rities on waterways where the height of water may sometimes be
unfavourable.
The system of calculation according to the real cargo is to be recom-
mended as most correspending to the character which it is desirable to
give to the dues, that is a tax for the economical advantages obtained,
and is the most just towards the owners.
The difficulties in its application, which are not small, will disappear by
the aid of just measures for the calculation of the cargo and a proper control.
2. When navigable ways which are subject to dues are to be worked
this method of calculation according to the real cargo may be recommen-
ded as the most just. For navigable ways on which dues are collected
according to tonnage we cannot advise a change in the system or the
introduction of the method mentioned above, except in the case that diffi-
culties occur and a change is in accordance with the expressed desire of
the persons using the waterway. -
Generally speaking the greatest prudence should be exercised in making
changes in the system of collecting dues, for changes are or might be
prejudicial to navigation.
3. In a perfect method of calculation of dues the distance traversed or
31
to be traversed on the navigable way should also be taken into account
and the tariffs should be reckoned par ton per kilometre, including
also gradations, if such are rendered necessary by railway competition.
The consideration of the nature of the goods forming the cargo should
be circumspect. -
Classification without prejudice to navigation is only possible when it
is limited to the classification of the total cargo according to certain prin-
cipal groups, as goods in bales, goods in bulk and raw material.
Any classification of the different goods forming parts of the cargo
should be absolutely avoided.
4. Dues on floats are fixed according to the real quantity calculated in
cubic metres, or, what is in practice more simple, by the surface measure-
ment. Here too, in the same way as for vessels, the distance traversed
should be taken into account, but for practical reasons the nature and
the weight of the wood cannot be taken into consideration.
IV. EXEMPTION FROM AND REDUCTION OF DUES. ADDITIONAL DUES.
After the consideration of the principle of the calculation of dues there
remain to be discussed the necessary exceptions, and in particular the cases
of exemption and reduction. Here as in all cases of public dues the
fundamental principle that exceptions be as limited as possible must be
insisted upon and only authorised when they are well founded, for
example when the refusal of exemption or reduction of dues would give
rise to difficulties.
At the present time exemption is allowed on the Prussian canals only
to vessels or floats which are the property of the State, or are transporting
goods for the account of the State, to fishing boats, boats worked by
hand and Some other small boats of the same kind. On some canals
also to vessels which navigate the canals for the purpose of taking orders,
or in consequence of damage received, or for the purpose of affording
help to other vessels; in one word, for any other purpose than the trans-
port of goods.
In Holland also exemption is allowed to vessels belonging to the State,
as in general to vessels transporting material for public works, and on
Some Canals to vessels transporting fodder and manure.
This last exemption is also allowed on certain canals in Great Britain.
The justice of this exemption allowed to vessels belonging to the State
and to vessels transporting for the account of the State may be disputed;
although for canals belonging to the State it is a question of form, for
the State in collecting the dues would merely receive what it was called
upon to pay.
The principle of cheapness should be taken into consideration and it
should be admitted that the owner of the canal always has the right
to favour vessels from which he himself derives advantage; likewise no
32
objection can be made to exemption being accorded to vessels transport-
ing materials for the use of State works, etc.
The principle here established that dues should be merely a tax for
an economical advantage obtained will also justify the clause already
mentioned of certain tariffs according to which exemption is allowed to
vessels not occupied in the transport of goods, but having other objects
(although they may be related to the transport of goods) such as taking
orders, collecting information or affording help. etc. For in using the
canal for these motives no economical advantage is obtained and therefore
navigation dues cannot be claimed in virtue of the principle established.
The case is different if the dues be considered as a compensation for
the use of the navigable way.
Exemption and reduction for empty vessels and vessels in ballast
require special consideration. It is also a question if empty boats should
be entirely free or pay a reduced rate. At first sight and according to
the principle of cheapness entire exemption would appear to be the
right course; but there is much to be said in favour of a reduced rate.
Apart from the consideration that empty boats use the canal and should
therefore pay the dues — which principle has in no way been presented
here –- it may be suggested also (considering the dues as compensation
for an economical advantage obtained) that the navigation of vessels with
the object of seeking a cargo has also its economic value for the merchant.
From a point of view of purely practical opportunity it may also be
taken into consideration that the total collection of dues from empty
vessels might lead to a small increase of dues on loaded vessels.
The fact that the imposition of dues on empty vessels would fall directly
and solely on the captain who had not been able to find a return freight
and was therefore obliged to return empty, speaks in favour of complete
exemption from dues for empty vessels. The navigation of empty vessels
does not per se produce any economical advantage and the principle of the
levying of dues for the simple use of the navigable way is not admissible.
In the tariffs in force this point is regulated in very various ways. In
France the dues are greatly reduced. In Holland empty boats are sometimes
free and sometimes pay half the dues or enjoy a large reduction. In
Prussia up to quite lately it was nearly always one sixth of the tariff and
according to the latest regulations still less. On the Bavarian Ludwig canal
(from the Danube to the Maine) fixed reduced tariffs, according to different
classes, are established for such vessels.
In some canal tariffs there exist besides reductions for vessels which
traverse the entire length of the canal and those which make a regular
use of the canal or some part of it. But these reductions are only admissible
in so far as the advantages afforded to persons using the canal have regard
to the competition presented to the canal by railways or rival canals.
No great importance can be attached to them, for these conditions are
33
rarely presented, and it is not admissible that this reduction (small as
it may be) should be allowed to influence in any way whatever the traffic
on the canal. There is another and more important point to be discussed,
namely, whether reductions in favour of vessels of extraordinarily large
dimensions or, on the contrary, in favour of those of small dimensions
should be declared equitable or otherwise. An example of the first method
was in existence until six months ago on the Marck canals — it is now
abolished — according to which dues were only collected on a certain
relatively moderate maximum of 116 tons (at the present day these
canals are used by vessels of 400 tons). And in this way larger vessels
had to pay a comparatively very reduced rate, sometimes only a third or
still less of the sum they would have to pay if charged at their full
tonnage. -
The inequality resulting from this method of charges to the small
owners often caused great difficulties, and at last a reform was decided
upon which, however, did not really relieve the small owners, but
only placed a much higher tax on large vessels by the elevation of the
maximum taken as the unit. (Figures relating to this elevation will be
found in the report of the Central Committee for the improvement of
fluvial ways in Germany. See Annex IV.)
But even if a tax of this kind really imposed a more heavy burden
on small vessels, and on the other hand there was no serious motive
for favouring large vessels, this measure must nevertheless not be con-
sidered as unfounded.
Another question, which we will not further examine here, is whether,
in view of this large increase imposed suddenly on large vessels, it would
not have been preferable to have recourse to a reduction of the units
of dues rather than to an elevation of them. Favour should not be
accorded to large any more than to small vessels.
Even if it were desirable for social or political considerations to favour,
by reductions of this nature, the small owner who is too heavily
burdened, it must be acknowledged that the classification presents
difficulties; for frequently these small owners carry on the transport
for large owners and navigation companies, so that these only would
be benefited. Finally, too numerous reductions would lead or might lead
to an elevation of the units of dues in cases where the collection of dues
must produce a fixed total. -
There remains to be considered the question of secondary dues in
addition to the general dues for navigation on fluvial ways. -
At the commencement of our work we rejected this.
From the point of view of the principle of a compensation for an
economical advantage obtained from the use of the canal, these secondary
dues, which at the present day are often applied, should be avoided,
even when the service established on the canal, such as locks, lifting of
IIATSCHER. 3
34
boats, working of bridges etc. are the cause of expense to the owner of
the canal.
Only a very few special tolls should be admitted, such as for the use
of locks etc. during the night, for this service would only be demanded
by the vessel when the extra speed which it would obtain would bring
an extra profit. On the same principle are founded dues collected for
privileges on locks, as for example on the navigable ways in Prussia.
We will sum up the conclusions on exemption from and reduction of
dues and on secondary impositions in addition to the general dues.
1* The exemption from and the reduction of dues should be linited
as much as possible. Exemption accorded to vessels not occupied in the
transport of goods — as is allowed by some tariffs for certain cases —
is legitimate, and ought to be maintained. Empty boats should be
exempt from dues, or be but moderately taxed when their object is
partly to seek for transport.
2* In general all other reductions and favours to vessels carrying
goods, whether it be the fixing of a maximum for large vessels, or
Special reductions for small vessels, should be avoided. As far as possible
the placing on an equality of all vessels carrying goods is the most just
principle.
3* The collection of special tolls for opening locks, raising vessels,
working of bridges etc. is contrary to the principle of compensation for
the general use of navigable ways. Still a certain moderate due may be
levied for the working of plant during the night; a right of privilege in
locks should also be specially taxed.
W. COLLECTION OF DUES. CONTROL.
I may be allowed to make a few brief remarks on this subject, a
detailed report being more in the province of those gentlemen who have
for years made a study of these purely practical points. The collection
of dues must be, and will be, different according as the calculation is
made at the collection office with or without consideration of the distance
traversed. In the second case — as is now almost generally the practice
— the dues should be paid according to the tariffs at certain points of
the canal, generally at the most important locks, which are practically
suitable for the purpose, on account of the continual presence of
employés, the necessity for stopping, etc. In the first case certain
changes would be necessary.
At the beginning and at the end of the canal collecting offices should
be established, and on longer canals also one or more offices in the
course of their length. A suitable point is just before or past a lock.
At the first collecting office the owner should pay in advance the
dues for all the distance which he proposes to traverse.
35
The collecting offices would only have to control the payment. The
collecting office where the boatman pays the dues should give him a
receipt in the form either of a list which can be easily and rapidly
filled in or by suitably stamping the bills of lading.
Besides the control at the offices, another should be established at
the places where vessels discharge between two collecting offices and
should be confided with proper instructions to the harbour masters,
inspectors or other functionaries of the canal, who will see that no
farther distance has been traversed than that for which dues have
been paid.
The dues according to the distance from the collecting office to the
place of destination should be established in tables, so as to simplify the
calculation and allow it to be rapidly made.
The control of the real cargo should be made by functionaries who
are always present at the place of collection. Any claims or difficulties
which might arise could be cleared up later on.
If, on account of damages, the sale of cargo, orders to return, or any
similar reason the entire distance to the place of destination be not
traversed, a claim for reimbursement should be made at the first
opportunity.
Translated by G. J. Row LAND, Amsterdam.
A n n e x e s I to VII,
A n n ex I.
*...*-*…*-*.*
F E V I E VV
of the artificial navigable ways in Prussia, for the use of which
dues are collected for the account of the State; of the sums
devoted to their repair, essential improvement and enlargement,
to the technical service, the regular maintenance and the col-
lection of tolls, according to the average drawn from the State
budget for the period 1889 to 1890/91 ;
as also of the amount of the dues collected according to the
average figures of the same period.
40
Length Number EXPENSES FOR REPAIRS,
Nº. C A N A T. in Of ESSENTIAT, IMPROVEMENT AND
km. locks. ENIARGEMENT.
!. |}. ill. i\}. W.
1. Canal between Memel 104 For essential improvement and exten-
and Pegel by way of the Sion.
canalised Gilge, the Seck- The expense for repairs has not yet
enburg canal, the great been determined. As regards the great
Frederic fosses and the Frederic fosses, which were established
Deime. from 1688 to 1696 by the Count o
Waldburg, they were acquired by the
Government in accordance with a decree
given at Charlottenburg the 29th of
August 1709 for the sum of 60 000
thalers.
2. Oberland-canal. Navi- 134 4.
gable way between the locks
Oberland lakes and Elbing and 5 aul
including the Schilling— inclined
Drewenz Canals. planes.
3. Vistula Haff canal. 20 2
4. Uecker canal. 0.325
5. The canalised Upper | 105 8
Netze.
6. The Bromberg canal à5 14
with the Brahe and the
lower Netze.
7. Klodnitz canal. 46 18 For repairs 2392.134 M.
,, essential improvement - |
and enlargement 665857.67 , .
The expense of the works commenced
in 1889/90 for putting this canal in
Order is estimated at 1120000 M.
8. The Oder from Cosel 157 6
to Breslau including the
entrance to the Oppeln
harbour (Mühlgraben
locks.)






41
Expense of
technical Total Of A.
Capital Interest onservice, ordi. the sums Amount
'apita t arv mainte- d
p Capital at *...* º Of tues REMARKS.
*** ~~~ a vil-r 3/9 off" | collection ſ e received
in marks. . .."...". VIII in k
in marks. || "... marks. In marks.
Wi. VII. VIII. IX. X. Xi.
1937850 67825 52786 120611 4.5911 || Deficit 74700 M.
, against column VIII 6875 M.
§785.500 | 200743 120798 321541 9012 || Deficit 312529 M.
-. ,, against column VIII 111786 M.
1079000 37765 36429 74.194 30988 || Deficit 4.3206 M.
, against column VIII 5441 M.
60786 2126 31.56 5282 12680 Profit 7408 M.
In consequence of this a reduction of
dues was made by the tariff of July
- 25th 1892.
3626522 126928 §9750 186678 4597 || Deficit 182081 M. -
,, against column VIII 55153 M.
25.12611 87941 140397 228838 112898 || Deficit 115440 M.
, against column VIII 27499 M.
3057992 107030 32301 13933} 3700 | Deficit 135631 M.
, against column VIII 28607 M.
On account of the interruption to
traffic caused by the repairs of 1889/90
and 1890/91 figures corresponding to
the years 1886/87 and 1887/88 are
taken as a basis.
1980668 69323 19554 88877 12997 || Deficit 75880 M.
against column VIII 6557 M.
} )
42
Length |Number EXPENSES FOR REPAIRS,
No. C. A. N. A. L. in of ESSENTIAL IMPROVEMENT AND
km. locks. ENLARGEMENT.
!. |. |||. IV. W.
9. The Marck canals (be- 1003 84
tween the Oder and the
Elbe) as follows:
1. The interior dike | 10.5 2 7122488 M
canal.
2. The Louisenstadt 2.2 1. 2501762 ..
canal. -
3. The Spree-canal (Kup- 2 1. Expense of repairing locks, 159633 ...,
fer fosses.) remainder unknown.
4. Canal from Berlin to 8.3 2 Expense of repairing one
Spandau. lock 403221 M., for deepen-
ing and widening in the
years 1889/90 and 1890/91
160000 M. together 563221 -
| remainder unknown.
5. Canal between the 3.2 Unknown.
Spree and the canal from -
Berlin to Spandau.
6. The Spree from 176 3 Repairs to the Cossenblatt
Leibsch to its junction locks 122000 M., Charlot-
with the Havel. tenburg locks 680000 M. and
• Expense of deepening and
enlarging the lower Spree
1751000 M. together 2553000 :
rest unknown.
7. The Havel with the 61 7 2248000 ,
Voss canal from the
Mecklenburg frontier to
the Liebenwald.
8. The Templin canal. 23.2 3 Expense of repairing the 3 tº
locks 270000 ,
9. The navigable way 55.6 14 Expense of canal unknown.
from Liebenwald to Ho- For locks 6180000 M., for
henSaaten (Finow canal.) enlargement and improve-
ment during the last 15
- years 3535000 M. together 9715000
10. Malzer canal and 47.8 4 Expense of canal un-
the regulated Havel to known.
Spandau. Expense of locks 1617000 :
43
Expense of
technical Total of
C } Interest onservice, ºil. the sums Amount
ita o Il 3, I’ inte- f di
Uap Capital at ...”. º S. O sº REMARKS.
n marks 31|, 9/o oplection virT in receive
in marks. ºn marks, in marks.
WI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI.
5537.9566 1938284 || 873.285 2811569 887556 || Deficit 1924013 M.
Profit against column VIII
14271 M. --
In consequence of the increase of tariff
in the financial year 1892/93 the
amount of the dues for 1893/94 is esti-
mated at 1017758 M. Taking this
amount as basis we find a
Deficit of 1793811 M.
and the
Profit against column VIII
144473 m.
if the amount of expenses has not
increased, and this cannot be immedi-
ately established.
44
Length |Number EXPENSES FOR REPAIRS,
No. C A N A I. in Of ESSENTIAL IMPROVEMENT AND
km. locks. ENLARGEMENT.
l. II. |||. |V. W.
(9) 11. Verbillin Canal. 11 2 453000 M
12. The regulated Havel 181 3 In the last 10 years for
from Spandau to the Elbe the improvement of the
including the Sacrow- Havel 200000 M. Rest un-
Paretz canal and the Bran- known. For the Sacrow-
denburg lock canal. Paretz canal and the locks
2101000 M. together 4101000 ,
13. Niederneuendorf 15.2 2 For the canal unknown.
canal. For the locks 125000 ,
14. Rheinsberg-Zechlin 21.5. 1 804000 ,
canal.
15. Lychener canal. 9 1 Expense of canal un-
known. Improvement of
Same 17000 M. For the
- locks 90000 M. together 107000 ,
16. Wentow canal. 11.6 1. For the locks 70000 M.
For the establishment of
the canal unknown. For
improvement 6900 M.
together 76900 .
17. Ruppiner canal and | 66.5 b For the canal unknown
the Rhine waterway. For the locks 592000 .
18. Fehrbellin Canal and 17 3 196620 ,
the Schwarzer fosses.
19. The regulated Dosse. 17 1. 4000 ,
20. Rüdersdorf waters. 9 1 For the canal unknown.
For the locks 436000 ,
21. The Dahme. 89.5 2 For the canal unknown.
- For the locks 215000 .
22. Storkow canal. 23 3 For the canal unknown. .
For the locks 297.000 ,
23. The Oder-Spree canal. 100.6 8 12825000 .
24. The Friedrich-Wil- 27 S For the canal unknown.
helm canal. For the locks 1030000 ,
25. The Old Plauer 64,6 6 Expense of establish-
canal (Parey canal) and ment of old canal unknown.
the new Plauer canal (Thle For the establishment of
canal). the new canal and the im-
provement of both canals 7366942 ,
General total . 5537.9566 M.

45
Capital
n marks.
WI.
Interest on
Capital at
3"|2 °/o
in marks.
VII.
Expense of
technical
service, ordi-
nary mainte-
nance and
collection
of dues, in
marks.
VIII.
Total of
the sums
of columns
VII, and
VIII in
marks.
|X.
Amount
of dues
received
in marks.
X.
REMARKS.
XI.
46
Length |Number EXPENSES FOR
No. C A N A L in Of REPAIRS, IMPROVEMENT AND
km. locks. ENLARGEMENT.
l. |. III. IV. W.
10. The Saale and the 241 29 For the locks at Halle and Alsleben
Unstrut. Rest unknown.
11. Haale Aue with the 7 1 Unknown.
Bastenberg lock. -
12. The Treene with the 22 1. For the locks and draw-bridges.
lock at Friedrichstadt.
13. Ernst August canal with 2.5 1.
the lock at Wilhelmsburg
(Elbe).
14. The river Schwinge with 6.2 1.
the Salzthor lock at Stade. -
15. Fangstaken fosses near 4 Expense of establishment unknown.
Osterholz. For improvement 6218 M. *
16. Hamme-Oste canal with 16 1.
the lock at Bremerförde.
17. Bederkesa-Geste canal 11.4 1.
with the lock at Bederkesa.
18. Georgsfehn canals. 17.3 4
a. Georgfehn canal.
b. North Georgfehn ca-
nal.
c. South Georgfehn ca-
nal.
19. Sielmönker deep. 7 Expense of establishment unknown.
For improvement in 1886 10000 M.
20. Spoy canal. 10 1

47
Expense of ,
technical || Total of
* Interest onservice, ordi- the sums Amount
* |capital tº º REMARKs.
3"|2 °/o Collection º received
n marks. |. of dues, in VIII in . k
in marks. " ...s. marks. in marks.
VI. VII. VIII. |X. X. XI.
634341 22202 13977 36179 30064. | Deficit 6115 M.
Profit against column VIII
16087 M. .
900 900 147 | Deficit 753 M.
360000 12600 1203 18803 1066 | Deficit 12787 M.
,, against column VIII 137 M.
140000 4900 4773 9673 957 | Deficit 8716 M.
,, against column VIII 3816 M.
167565 5865 1656 7521 1596 || Deficit 5925 M.
,, against column VIII 60 M.
6218 218 33 251 18 || Deficit 238 M.
,, against column VIII 15 M.
55000 1925 1344 3269 2306 || Deficit 963 M.
Profit against column VIII 962 M.
518000 18130 4550 22680 437 | Deficit 22243 M.
* ,, against column VIII 4113 M.
363000 12705 274 12979 76 || Deficit 12903 M.
,, against column VIII 198 M.
10000 350 350 900 | Profit 550 M.
The profit represents interest on a
capital of 15914 M., which would not
cover the unknown expense of estab-
lishment.
439859 || 15378 8000 23378 3093 || Deficit 20285 M.
,, against column VIII 4907 M.
78063928 2732.238 4107.404 || 1160999 || Deficit 2946405 M.
1375166
,, against column VIII 214167 M.
48
A nnex II.
*~~~~~~
TARIFF FOR COLLECTION OF LOCK Due
FULLY LADEN ONE HALF ONE SIXTH VESSELS BOUN
With EMPTY B OR. 7.
TOn- With cargo less TOn- º FULLY
I\8,962 than nage Ton ---- Ton- - -
85 full half of º Amount. º With
in cargo. º II]. * Amount. * full
tons stream. tons tons - tons Cargo.
up to. | M. Pf. | M. Pf. up to. M. Pf. up to. M. Pf. up to M. Pf.
5 --- 30 || – 15 5 - 15 5 - 5 5 - 08
10 -- 60 — 30 |{} - 30 {{} - 10 |0 - 15
15 — 90 || – 45 15 - 45 15 -, 15 |5 - 23
20 1 20 | – | 60 | 20 - 60 20 — 20 20 - 30
25 1 50 || – 75 25 — 75 25 - 2. 25 - 38
30 1 80 | – | 90 30 — | 90 30 — 30 30 - 45
35 2 10 1 || 05 35 | | 05 35 - 35 35 - 53
40 2 40 || 1 | 20 | 40 1 | 20 40 | – | 40 | 40 — 60H
45 2 70 1 || 35 45 1 35 45 --- 45 45 - 68
50 3 — 1 | 50 50 1 || 50 50 -- 50 50 - 75
55 3 30 1 || 65 55 1 65 55 -** 55 55 ------- 83
60 3 60 1 | 80 60 1 | 8() 6{} — 60 60 - 90
65 3 90 1 95 65 1 || 95 65 - 65 65 -*. 98
70 4 20 2 || 10 662/3] 2 || – 70 - 70 70 1 || 0
75 - 4 || 50 2 25 Over not taken 75 — 75 75 1 | 1
80 4 || 8() 2 | 40 66°/s into account. 80 — 80 80 | | 20
85 5 10 || 2 || 55 — 35 | | | s= | 85 1 28
90 5 | 40 2 || 70 90 — | 90 90 1 || 3.
95 5 || 70 2 | 85 95 — 95 95 1 || 43
100 6 — 3 — |00 1 — 100 1 50
105 6 || 30 3 | 15 105 1 05 #05 1 58
|10 6 60 3 || 30 |10 1 || 10 |0 1 || 65
| 15 6 90 3 || 45 ||5 1 | 15 ||5 1 73
116°/s 7 || – 3 || 50 |20 1 20 1162/3 1 7
OVer OVer OVer
116°/s not taken into account 120 || not taken 116°/s . not taken
- into account. into account
Observation. The basis of dues for vessels taxed in Hamburg or Anstalt is the declared
table. -









49
N THE SAALE AND THE UNSTRUT.
FOR GTAUCHAU.
ONE SIXTH. .
HATSCHEK.
I, AIDEN ONE HALF
With cargo || Ton- *...º. OR
less than TIGEITERS.
one half of * Amount. T.
capacity. tons ge in Amount.
M. Pf. up to. M. Pf. º, M. Pf.
- 04 5 - 04 5 - O1
- 08 10 - 08 10 - 03
- 11 |5 - 11 15 - 04
- 15 20 - 15 20 - 05
- 19 25 - 19 25 - 06
- 23 30 *-4 23 30 - O8
-*. 26 35 - 26 35 - 09
— 30 40 - 30 40 - 10
- 34 45 - 34 45 - 11
- 38 50 - 38 50 - 13
— 41 55 — 41 55 — 14
- 45 60 - 45 60 - 15
- 49 65 - 49 65 - 16
--- 53 66°/s — §0 70 - 18
- 56 Over not taken 75 t- 19
- 60 662's into account. 80 -> 20
— 64 85 — 21
- 68 90 - 23
- 71 95 - 24
- 75 {{)0 - 25
- 79 105 - 26
- 83 |[0 -- 28
-* 86 ||5 - 29
- 88 |20 - 30
not taken OVer not taken
into account. 120 into accomt.
maximum capacity according to the above
R E M A R K S.
1. Wessels with a cargo of not more than
300 kg. are accounted as empty.
2. Wessels going down stream do not enjoy
the favour as for cargo less than the half of
capacity”.
3. Steamers enjoying privilege in locks
are charged "/, of the lock dues of the tariff.
Amounts under '/, Pf. are not taken into
account.
4. Treatment of documents. Every boat-
man has to furnish a declaration and a dupli-
cate of the same. After these have been ex-
amined by the officers the boatman receives:
a. only the duplicate when :
tº. going up stream,
£3. going to Glauchau,
y. down stream with cargo fully laden.
b. The declaration and the duplicate in every
other case. -
The declarations are attached to the register
of collection of navigation dues.
In case b the declarations are called in for
this object by the lock-master at Gimritz.




Annex III.
T A R | FF
for the collection of navigation dues on the Uecker canal
near Ueckermunde.
Canal dues are fixed:
I. For sea-going vessels:
a, with Cargo :
On entering . † g * e º 3 pf.
On leaving . & g & e g 3 n
lo, in ballast or empty
on entering .
on leaving . * , & g º * 1 ºn
for every two or part of two cubic metres capacity.
II. For river boats, at least when carrying cargo, either on entering or
leaving the canal: for entering and leaving together 5 pf, for every 2000
or part of 2000 kilogrammes burden
III. For tow-boats without reference to their tonnage 25 pf, for entering
and leaving together for each vessel.
IV. At night (one hour after sunset until one hour before sunrise) an
additional toll of 30 pf. for each vessel.
Exceptions.
1. Vessels of which the amount of the cargo does not exceed one fourth
of their capacity are considered as in ballast.
2. For tow-boats the choice is left open instead of paying toll for each
journey according to the tariff, to pay a yearly subscription, the amount
of which is fixed by the administration according to the circumstances
of the case.
Exemptions.
Exemption from canal dues both on entering and leaving is accorded to:
1. Vessels navigating the canal only for the purpose of procuring infor-
mation or taking orders and those leaving the canal without taking in or
discharging cargo.
2. Vessels which put into the canal on account of damage suffered or
other difficulties, as ice, storm or contrary winds, and leave again without
discharging or taking in any part of their cargo. -
3. Vessels which leave or enter the canal for the purpose of affording
aid to vessels stranded or in distress. If in this case the vessel affording
51
aid be employed in discharging stranded goods, it is only exempted
when the partly unloaded or lightened vessel uses the canal for the
purpose of again embarking the goods or for entirely discharging.
4. Vessels which -
a, are Royal property, or the property of the German Empire or of
the Kingdom of Prussia, or
b, without any other cargo but objects for royalty, the State or the
Kingdom, or leave the canal empty, either with the sole purpose
of transporting such objects, or after having discharged such
exclusively.
5. River vessels which enter the canal empty or in ballast and leave
again without taking cargo. -
6. Boats belonging to ships and all vessels of not more than twelve
cubic metres capacity.
7. All vessels which are entirely used for fishing purposes with the
exception of tow-boats.
Additional regulations.
1. The capacity of the vessel is, according to the regulations of July
the 5th 1872 and of June the 20, 1888 respecting ship measurements,
to be understood as the average net capacity. In cases where for the
application of the tariff it may be necessary to resolve the cargo into
capacity, 500 kilogrammes are to be taken as equivalent to one cubic metre
capacity.
2. The canal dues including the additional tolls both for entering and
leaving are collected by the office at Ueckermünde.
Stettin, July the 25th 1892.
The provincial director of dues
L. S. as representative
(signed) HERRosſ.
A D D, E N D U M.
By virtue of special authority granted to me on the 2" of May of this
year – III 5221 – by the Minister of Finance and approved by the
Minister of Public Works, the following additional exemption from dues
for the navigation of the Uecker canal is granted:
Vessels which only visit the canal as a refuge in distress and are in
the interest of safety directed by the inspector to lay to at a place inside
the bar are exempt from the additional night due (IV) on entrance as
well as on departure, provided the latter takes place the same night.
Stettin, June the 7th 1893.
The provincial director of dues
as representative,
(signed) HERROSá.
A n n e X IV.
*-*-*.*, *, *,
T A R | F F
for the collection of dues for the navigation of the canals between
the 0der and the Elbe.
Dated December the 27th 1871.
(With the changes made by the order of August 1892.)
A. From every vessel each time that it passes any one of the
following collecting offices (locks):
on the Finow canal at Liebenwalde or Neustadt-Eberswalde,
on the Friedrich-Wilhelms canal at Neuhaus or Brieskow,
on the Spree at Cossenblatt, Fürstenwalde or Berlin,
on the Havel at Zaarenschleuse, Zehdemick, Oranienburg, Spandau,
Brandenburg or Rathenow,
on the Ruppin canal at the Theirgarten lock near Oranienburg,
On the Templin canal on the Kannenburg lock,
on the Plauer canal at Parey or at Plaue, at each office 40 pf (1)
for every 5000 kilogrammes or five tons tonnage is levied.
Less amounts than 5000 kilogrammes are counted as 5000 kilogrammes.
Exceptions.
1. Vessels loaded entirely with the following material pay only one
half of the dues noted under A.:
Fuel (as wood, turf, coal, coke), boards up to a length of one metre
etc.; fodder, rushes, reeds, sea-grass, faggots, planks, bark, tan, tiles,
drain-pipes, granite stone, plaster and cement, milled fire-lime and
gypsum stone (including rough works in same); with earth Sand, clay,
earthenware, gravel, heavy timber, pig and cast-iron, brick-dust or
gypseous earth, milled stone, lime or cement; with broken glass, loam,
ashes, iron ore; or with manure as dung, marl, gypsum, lime, refuse
(1) Formerly 30 pf.
§3
from Sugar refineries, bones etc.; with salt, Glauber's salts, saltpetre, soda,
potash, waste Salts; with empty casks, cases, baskets or sacks (1).
2. Vessels which, apart from their rigging, food for the crew and
certain indispensable objects, such as bords and tubs, do not carry more
than 300 kilogrammes and provided they do not carry passengers, pay
only one pfennig for every five tons or part of five tons tonnage.
The same reduction is made to vessels which only serve as lighters.
Observations on 1 and 2. If the cargo consits partly of the class men-
tioned under 1 and partly of other objects, or if it be used for carrying
passengers, full dues are charged.
B. Timber floats each time they pass any one of the offices named
under A pay as follows:
I. 1. Floats consisting wholly or partly of square cut wood or beams
16 pfennigs (formerly 12) for every 9 Square metres of surface including
the propelling apparatus.
2. All other floats 13 pfennigs (formerly 18) for every 9 square metres
of surface including the propelling apparatus.
In calculating surface, an area of less than 9 Square metres is charged
as 9 full square metres, while an excess of less than 4!/2 square metres
is left out of account, and an excess of 4/9 Square metres or more is
counted as 9 Square metres.
II. If the floating wood is loaded with staves or felly wood or with
objects named under list 1 of exceptions under A, no further dues
are charged except those quoted under B, 1.
III. If the float, apart from the rigging and provisions for the crew,
carries other objects such as staves or felly wood, or such as the excep-
tions under A 1, of more than a weight of 300 kilogrammes, it has to
pay a due of five silbergroschen at every office in addition to the dues
noted under B, 1.
Observation. When the float consists of several parts each loaded part
coming under B III is treated as a separate float.
Exemptions.
Dues are not levied on :
1. Vessels or floats belonging to the State or transporting for the State
on production of a pass.
(1) But in no case is a higher due levied than a total of one thaler and five Silber-
groschen (350 pf). (Since 1875 : 700 pf.)
54
2. Fishing boats, pleasure boats, dingeys, rowing boats and such
small craft which according to the nature of their build do not carry
cargo, when they do not require any special lock service, if they give
notice of their intended journey at the first lock passed.
3. Vessels and floats leaving the Landwehr and the Louisestadt canals
at Berlin when the dues have been paid on entering.
Addional regulations.
1. Dues are to be paid by the master of the vessel or float at the
appointed collecting office before entering the lock unless the payment
has been arranged beforehand.
2. The Minister of Finance shall decide on the places at which pay-
ment is to be made, where and in what way the tonnage of the vessel,
nature of the cargo, and exemptions to be allowed are to be determined.
3. According to the rules under N9 10 of the tariff for the Plauer canal,
dated November the 14th 1824 (parliamentary records S 220), and under
N9 4 of the additional rules for tariffs on the canals, between the Oder
and the Elbe dated June the 18th 1828 (parliamentary records S 110).
A n n e X V.
"--, -, see -e ºr ~~~~~~ *
T A R | FF
for the collection of dues on the Ladurig canal.
S P E C | A L R U L E S.
A. Navigation dues.
*
1) Loaded vessels per Sporro-Zollcenter (50 kilogrammes) per kilometre
traversed:
I. Class 0.05775 pfennigs.
a) Fuel, as:
Firewood,
Charcoal,
Turf,
Tan-cake,
b) Building materials, as:
Loam,
Marl,
Sand,
Gravel,
Potters clay,
Gypsum,
Lime,
Cement,
Slates, tiles and bricks,
c. Lead, iron and copper ore :
Spar,
Peat,
Litharge,
Pig-iron,
d) Refuse and manure as:
Ashes,
Guano,
Lime,
Bones,
Powdered bones,
Peat,
Coal,
Coke,
Mortar,
Drain pipes,
Worked and unworked stone,
Quarry and plaster stone,
Building wood and cabinet wood,
Wood from local saw mills, as :
Boards,
Planks and laths.
Wrought-iron,
Iron-filings and forge scales.
Graphite,
Black lead,
Bone manure,
Poudrette,
Phosphorates,
Gypseons soda,
Sugar refuse.
(1) To this belong the principal objects named above.
56
II. Class 0.077 pfennigs.
All goods not mentioned in the first class.
2) Empty vessels pay per kilometre as follows:
Wessels of the 1st class . . . . . . . 7.70 pfennigs.
sº n n 2nd n . . . . . . . 6.16 º
30 n n 3rd v . , . . . . . 3.85 *
* n 4th m . . . . . . . 3.08 *
* * 5th n . . . . . . . 1.92 7)
Y, * m 6th n . . . . . , . 1.54 º
A loaded vessel for which the canal dues would not be so high as if
it were charged in its class as empty, is charged as empty.
3) The weight of the cargo is determined from the guages of the vessel
with the aid of the bills of lading and other available indications.
By mixed cargoes some goods must be weighed if the proportion of
weight cannot be determined from the tariffs.
5) A reduction of dues to as much as 10 "ſo is allowed to vessels doing
a regular Service.
A reduction of 10 °lo is also allowed to:
a) All vessels (not doing a regular service) loaded and with bills of
lading direct from the Rhine, which travel the whole length of the canal.
b) Wessels loaded with wood and planks entering from the Danube and
travelling the whole length.
c) All other goods coming by ship from the Danube and using the
canal at least as far as Neumarkt.
6) Dues on floats and their burdens are arranged according to the above
tariffs, the weight being calculated on the cubic measurement as follows:
Oak and beech wood . . . . . . . . . 14.58 cwt. per cubic metre.
Pine and Other timber . . . . . . . . 9.65 m n * º
§
Review of the navigation dues in force on the Marck Canals since September the ſº 7892 Compared
with those previously in force.
(A report of the Central Comittee of Berlin for the improvement of fluvial navigation dated December 1892).
1. From Breslau to Hamburg or to Magdeburg and vice versa through
the Oder-Spree or Plauer canal there are 7 tolls to be paid, namely in
Fürstenberg, Kersdorf, Fürstenwald, Wermsdorf, Berlin and Branden-
burg for the Breslau-Hamburg way and on the five first named
locks and those at Plaue and Niegripp for the Breslau-Magdeburg
waterway. Latterly (since Sept. 1st 1892) a vessel of 400 t. has to pay
for goods I, Cl. 7 × 32 M. = 224 M., for goods II. Cl. 7 × 16 M. =
112 M., for each ton of cargo
against formerly I. Cl. 7 × 7 M. = 49 M., II. Cl. 7 × 3.50 M. =
24.50 M., thus for each ton of cargo
ſº. " therefore an increase on each ton of
. From Breslau to Berlin and vice versa using the Berlin town lock
and the Oder-Spree Canal there are 5 locks (Fürstenberg, Kersdorf,
Fürstenwald, Wermsdorf, Berlin), since Sept. 1st 1892 they charge
for a vessel of 400 tons
ON VESSELS OF 400 TONS IS CHARGED FOR NAVIGATION
DUES FOR, EVERY TON OF CARGO :
1. At high "water
2. At mean water
3. At low water
& fully laden level “ſ, cargo */s cargo
I. Cl. II. CI. I. CI. II. CI. I. Cl. II. CI.
Pf. Pf. Pf. Pf. Pf. Pf.
56.- 28. – 84.— 42. – || 168. — | 84.—
12.25 6.13 18.37 9.30 || 36.75 | 18.37
43.75 21.87 65.63 || 32.70 || 131.25 || 65.63
i

§
thus for each ton of cargo
against previously I. Cl. 5 × 7 M. = 35 M., for II. Cl. 5 × 3.50 M =
17.50 M., thus for every ton of cargo
therefore an increase on each ton of
3. From Breslau to Berlin and vice versa without using the Berlin
town locks there are 5 tolls to be paid. Since Sept. 1st 1892 these
are for vessels of 400 tons
for goods of I. Cl. 4 × 32 M., = 128M., for goods II. Cl. 4 × 16 M. =
64 M., thus for each ton of cargo
against formerly I. Cl. 4 × 7 M. = 28 M., II. Cl. 4 × 350 M. = 14 M.,
thus for each ton of cargo
therefore an increase on each ton of cargo Cf
. From Hamburg to Berlin and vice versa, using the Berlin town
lock there are 3 tolls to be paid (Rathenow, Brandenburg, Berlin),
since Sept. 1st 1892 the amounts of the same for vessels of 400 tons,
for goods 1 Cl. 3 × 32 M. = 96 M., for goods 11 Cl. 3 × 16 M. =
48 M., thus for each ton of cargo
against previously I. Cl. 3 × 7 M. = 21 M., II Cl. 3.50 M. =
10.50 M., thus for each ton of cargo
therefore an increase on each ton of cargo of
. As said above there are 2 tolls to be paid without the use of the
Berlin town lock, namely since Sept. 1st 1892 for a vessel of 400 tons
for I Cl. goods 2 × 32 M. = 64 M., II Cl. 2 × 16 M. = 32
M., thus for each ton of cargo
against previously I. Cl. 2 × 7 M. = 14 M., II. Cl. 2 × 3.50 = 7 M.,
thus for each ton of cargo
therefore an increase on each ton of
40. — 20.- 60.— 30.- 120.- 60. –
8.75 4.37 13.12 6.56 26.25 13.12
31.25 15.63 46.88 23.44 93.75 46.88
32.- . 16.- 48.— 24.— 96. — 48.--
7. — 3.50 | 10.50 5.25 21.- . 10.50
25– 12.50 37.50 18.75 75. – 37.50
24. — 12.— 36.- . 18. – 72.— 36.-
5.25 2.625 7.88 3.94 15.76 7.88
18.75 9.375 28.12 14.06 56.24 28.12
16.- 8.— 24.— 12.- 48.- 24.—
3.50 1.75 5.25 2.625 10.50 5.25
12.50 6.25 18.75 9.375 37.50 18.75
3.

6. From Magdeburg to Berlin using the Berlin town lock or vice
versa there are 4 tolls to be paid (Niegripp, Plaue, Brandenburg,
Berlin). They are since Sept. 1st 1892 for vessels of 400 tons
for I. Cl. goods 4 × 32 M. = 128 M., for II. Cl. 4 × 16 M. =
64 M., thus for each ton of cargo
against previously I. Cl. 4 × 7 = 28 M., II Cl. 4 × 3.50 = 14
M., thus for each ton of cargo
therefore an increase on each ton of cargo of
. As above, but without using the Berlin town lock, there are 3
tolls to be paid. They are since Sept. 1st 1892 for vessels of 400 tons,
for I. Cl, goods 3 × 32 M. = 96 M., II. Cl. 3 × 16 M. =
48 M., thus for each ton of cargo ~
against previously I. Cl. 3 × 7 M. = 21 M., II. Cl. 3 × 3.50 M.
= 10.50 M., thus for each ton of cargo
therefore an increase on each ton of cargo of
. From Stettin to Hamburg or vice versa, there are 6 tolls to be
paid (Eberswald, Liebenwald, Oranienburg, Spandau, Brandenburg
and Rathenow). They are since Sept. 1st 1892, for vessels of 170 tons
for goods of I. Cl. 6 × 13.60 M. = 81.60 M. II Cl. 6 × 6.80 M.
= 40.80 M., thus for each ton of cargo
against previously I. Cl. 6 × 7 M. = 42 M. II. Cl. 6 × 3.50 M.
= 21 M., thus for each ton of cargo
+k) oroforo ºn tº ++, ozoa cle z-A * ~~~~}= 4 ..ſº ..ſº
ON WESSELS OF 400 TONS IS CHARGED FOR NAVIGATION
D'UES FOR, EVERY TON OF CARGO :
1. At high water
2. At mean water
3. At low water
fully laden level “ſ, cargo */, cargo
I. CI. II. CI. I. Cl. II. Cl, I. Cl. II. CI.
Pf. Pf. Pf. Pf. Pf. Pf.
32.- . 16.- 48.- 24.— 96.— 48–
7.— 3.50 10.50 5.25 21.— | 10.50
25. — | 12.50 37.50 | 18.75 75.— 37.50
24.— 12- 36.- 18.- 72.— 36.-
5.25 2.625 7.88 3.94 15.76 7.88
18.75 9.875 28.12 14.06 56.24 28.12
48.— 24.— 72. — 36.- 144.— | 72.--
24.70 12.35 47.05 23.525 94.10 - 47.05

3:
10.
11.
From STETTITIATETTEF-Tº-wºrsº-msm-m-ren wºr-ºwer
there are 5 tolls to be paid (Eberswald, Liebenwald, Oranienburg,
Spandau or Plötzenzee and Berlin). They are since Sept. 1st 1892
for vessels of 170 tons
for goods of I. Cl. 5 × 13.60 M. = 68 M., II. Cl. 5 × 6.80 M.
= 34 M., thus for each ton of cargo -
against previously I. Cl. 5 × 7 M. = 35 M., II. Cl. 5 × 3.50 M.
= 17.50 M., thus for each ton of cargo -
therefore an increase on each ton of cargo of
As above, but without using the Berlin town lock there are 4 tolls
to be paid. They are since Sept. 1st 1892 for vessels of 170 tons
for goods I. Cl. 4 × 13.60 M. = 54.40 M., II. Cl. 4 × 6.80 M.
= 27.20 M., thus for each ton of cargo
against previonsly I. Cl. 4 × 7 M. = 28 M., II. Cl. 4 × 3.50 M.
= 14 M., thus for each ton of cargo
therefore an increase on each ton of cargo of
From Stettin to Magdeburg or vice versa, there are 7 locks to be
paid (Eberswald, Liebenwald, Oranienburg, Spandau, Brandenburg,
Plaue and Niegripp). They are since Sept. 1st 1892 for vessels of
170 tons -
for goods I. Cl. 7 × 13.60 M. = 95.20 M., II. Cl. 7 × 6.80 M.
= 47.60 M., thus for each ton of cargo
against previously I. Cl. 7 × 7 M. = 49 M., II. Cl. 7 × 3.50 M.
= 24.50 M., thus for each ton of cargo
therefore an increase on each ton of cargo of
40.- 20– 60.- : 30.- || 120. — 60. –
20.59 10.29 30.88 15.44 61.76 30.88
19.41 9.71 29.12 || 1456 58.84 29.12
32.— 16. – 48.- 24. — 96.- || 48.-
16.47 8.235 24.705 | 12.45 49.41 24.705
15.53 7.765 23.295 || 11.65 46.59 23.295
56.- 28. – 84.— 42.— || 168. – | 84.—
28.- . 14.412 43.285 21.618 86.47 || 43.235
27.177 | 13.588 20.382 81.653 | 40.765
40.765
Annex VII.
Report of the Central Committee of Berlin for the improvement of
/n/and Mavigation in Germany.
0n ship measurement and water-guage.
(Extract from a report to the Congress of December 1892).
1) If canal dues are to be calculated, not as up to the present accor-
ding to the tonnage, but in future according to the weight of the cargo,
the calculation of the capacity and the application of a guage is
necessary. -
2) The guage should be fixed to the side of the vessel just above
the water-line. It is to be recommended that the guage should be so
divided that the weight of the cargo can be immediately read off for
every or 10 tons.
3) It is advisable that the guage should be in connection with an
immersion guage divided in degrees of ten metres, from which the depth
of immersion can be immediately read off. The greatest admissible depth
of immersion should be plainly indicated in this guage.
4) The guage can be most easily checked and corrected if the
measurement of the vessel is arranged according to the proposals of the
Commission on interior measurements of vessels, as contained in the report
of the Central Committee of June the 18th 1888.
If in this calculation the surface area of the upper, middle and lower
sections (Eo, Em and Eu) be fixed with regard to the tonnage, we may
for a vessel, which is more than half loaded, use the following formula :
E. H)
A = *" ºr "w * (v-/6)
in which y represents the actual free-board, yo the same in cm. when the
vessel is fully laden and /\ the difference between the full tonnage and
the real weight of the cargo in tons.
63
For a vessel with less than half its full cargo on the contrary
L = Eu. sº (h—ho)
is applicable, where h represents the real depth of immersion, ho that
of the vessel in cm. when empty and L the weight of the cargo in tons.
According to the above formulae the weight of the cargo for any depth
may be calculated and the distances between the dividing lines of the
degrees of the guage can be made to correspond in round numbers
by intercalation with the degrees of weight.
In the same way by the use of the above formulae the correctness of
the guage may be tested.
5) The measurement table mentioned in the Report of July the 18th
1888 may be retained and only requires completion by the addition of for-
mulae for the weight of the cargo after the manner of the following examples.
6) Example. Given or found by measurement :
Depth of empty vessel ho = 30 cm.
Depth of fully laden vessel with 40 cm. free-board = 170 cm.
Therefore, difference between higher and lower levels = 170 – 30 =
140 cm.
Area of the floating levels :
Eo = 290 sq. m.
Em = 200 , ,
Eu = 160 , ,
Therefore the tonnage Q is :
- 140 v 220 + 4, 200 + 160
** ºsº 5 +
Q == 6 2 N. 10() = 275 tons.
and the weight of the cargo I, with the free board y, so long as y is
< 110 cm. *. -
. 220 –– 2
L = 275 — *...* (y—40) = 275 – 2.1 (y 40)
and when the depth of immersion h is 3 100 cm.
200 + 160,
L = h — 30) = 1.80 (h — 30).
200
Hence the following results:
Depth of immersion in cm. no low 140 10|º 110 | 100

Height of free-board in cm. 40
Weight of cargo in tons 275 254 || 233 212 | 191 170 || 149 || 128
50 60 | 70 80 90 o 110
64
and according to the second formula:
Depth of immersion in cm. 30 | 40 50 | 60 | 70 || 80 90 |io
Weight of cargo in tons 0 | 18 || 36 54 || 72 90 || 108 || 126
Height of free-board in cm. 180 | 1.70 | 160 tº 10 130 wono
Thus a cargo of 100 t. corresponds to a depth of immersion of 85.6 cm.
and a height of free-board of 124.4 cm.
A cargo of 200 t. corresponds to a depth of immersion of 134. 3 cm.
and so forth.
The tonnage of the vessel with 40 cm. height of free-board is 275 tons.
So long as the height of the free-board remains under 110 cm. the
weight of the cargo diminishes by 2.10 tons for each cm. less of immersion
and further by 1.80 ton for each cm. The following diagram may be of
Servl Ce

A A A
i tº
fully laden ; , ;
water-level s
* . . = - - - - - - - - - - - - - Å"
: c
: 33
=
empty :
\ } =
Y W. Y
7. As no very great exactitude is necessary in the calculation of the
weight of the cargo and a difference of a few tons would not be of
importance, and as on some inland navigating vessels the area of the
floating levels Eo, Em and En do not differ so much as on sea-going
vessels, the calculation of the weight of the cargo may be simplified and
can be found as nearly as is necessary without taking fresh measurements
of the vessel.
For example let the tonnage according to the table of measurements
be as above Q = 275 tons and the depth of a fully laden vessel
with a free-board of 40 cm. 170, and of the same when empty 30 cm.,
65
cm., or what is the same thing the free-board for loaded or empty be
respectively 40 cm. and 180 cm., we can apply this formula:
Or
in which L represents the
275
L
sion h and the free-board y.
This formula which however does not differ
one gives the following values:
275
180 – 40
(y – 48)
weight of the cargo with the depth of immer-
much from the preceding

Depºrtion 170 loſiou wºno 100 90 80 70 60 50 | 40 || 30
Wºłºgº 275 **** intº 137 || 118 98 || 79 59 || 39 20 || 0
Height of free- ©
. . . . 40 o 60 70 80 90 100 110 | 120 130 10|o 160 170 180
these simplified means of verification can be applied while the vessel is
passing through the lock. -
BATSCHEK.
TAXES AND TOLLS
ON
N A WIG A B L E W A Y S IN B E L GIU M.
R. E POR T
BY
M. A. DUFOURNY,
Ingénieur principal des ponts et chaussées.
S U M M A. R. Y.
I. Preface.
II. Rates of toll.S. – Ways administered by the State. — Ways administered by the Provinceg and
the Communes. – Tariffs successively applied on the system of navigable ways of the Belgian
State. — Tarifs on conceded ways.
III. Influence of the distance traversed on the different ways of Belgium.
IV. Influence of the tonnage of the boats.
W. Exemption from or abatement of tolls.
VI. Mode of Collection. — Control.
VII. Dues for working locks, bars and bridges.
VIII. Supplementary dues at night.
IX. Quay dues.
T. PREFACE.
I propose to reply briefly and in the order in which they have been put
to the questions contained in the third section of the work of the Con-
gress, which refers to tolls on navigable ways.
The remarkable reports, which were presented at the Paris Congress
in 1892, have rendered much easier the work which remains to be done.
They have cleared the ground of discussion and resolved, or thoroughly
examined, questions of principle. We have now only to establish
the facts of the present situation in the different countries, the rate of
tolls, the mode of their collection, control, and the successive phases
which have led up to the present state of things. -
Viewed from this restricted, but practical point of view, the study is still full
2
Ways admini-
stered by the
State.
of interest. This we are going to try and prove, but without leaving the
bounds which have been assigned to our work and which embrace solely
the navigable ways of Belgium.
II. RATES OF TOLLS.
One of the Orators most listened to in the Belgian Parliament (1) said
in 1859 in a well studied speech and supported by documents, that the
uniformity of tolls on the canals and rivers of the Country appeared to
him a most far off contingency and that he did not hesitate to say that
it was absolutely unrealizeable.
,It has been laid before you”, he said, as a thing wich would be eminently
desirable. Well, I reply to those who have expressed themselves in this
sense, that they have imagined a Utopia; that the uniformity of tolls on
Canals and rivers is utterly impossible, and that their dream will never
be realized.”
What appeared impossible in 1859 has been accomplished, not in one
day but gradually, and each step of progress has been influenced by the
force of circumstances. A royal decree of June 1st 1886 orders
uniformity of tolls on all canals and uniformity of tolls on all rivers
administered by the State.
We will say later on what were the circumstances and the necessities
the pressure of which brought about this result.
We will somewhat develope this part of our work as we wish to show
the various trains of ideas, the different opinions which have been
manifested and the successive points of view from which the rights of
navigation in Belgium have been regarded in this country of industry
and exportation, where the question of transport and tolls has always been
regarded, and rightly So, as an essentially vital one.
At the present day, as we have just said, the rate of tolls is uniform
on the whole of the system administered by the State. There is one sole
rate for canals, one sole rate for canalised rivers. The exceptions to the
rule are confined to two or three particular cases.
After a long period of trials and experiments it is recognised that the
tariff of dues should be very low and as simple as possible in its
application.
The principle of the tariff is elementary. It consists in charging the
boats in proportion to their cargo, in tons of 1000 kilogrammes and on
the length of their journey in kilomètres.
The kilometric ton is therefore the sole basis of the duty.
(4) Chambre des Représentants, p. 56, Séance du 18 Novembre 1859.
3
The boats are charged at the rate of five millimes per kilometric ton
On Canals and one millime and six tenths on canalised rivers.
Altogether the kilometric tonnage transported on the system of the State
– strictly limited to canals and rivers, on which tolls were levied, and
therefore not taking into account maritime traffic — amounted in 1892
to 409,098,611 kilometric tons, which brought into the Treasury in round
figures 1,200,000 francs. The kilometric ton paid thus a rate of about 3
millimes. We shall see farther on that this figure is justified and that the
rate levied represents very approximately the price of the service ren-
dered to navigation.
Unloaded boats are free from tolls and pay in all only 20 centimes
for permission to travel. No tax is levied on rivers which are under the
influence of the tide, nor on maritime canals in so far as regards maritime
navigation in its proper sense.
Rafts and floats of wood are subject to the same charges as laden boats.
A cubic metre of wood is calculated as a ton. - -
The masters are allowed to decide for themselves whether they pay
the dues for the entire journey on one single waterway at the office of
departure, or from office to office as the journey proceeds.
In addition to the system of ways administered by the State, which consists
of about 1800 kilometres, there are conceded ways with a total length of
95 kilometres, and a system of secondary ways of a local character, which
are administered by the provinces, the communes and private syndicates,
generally the So called , Wateringues”. This system is constituted as follows:
Provinces . g - & * g * . 119 Kilometres.
COImmunes . g - & tº § * & 92
Wateringues . . . . . . . 101 y)
ways admini- It is seen that the system of canals administered by the Provinces is of
lº lº limited extent. It only now exists in Flanders and is of small importance.
the 9°mmunes. Most of these canals date back to a remote period. They have long since
repaid the cost of their establishment, and in East Flandres they have
long since been freed from all dues. In West Flanders the ancient dues
have been maintained up to a later date and it was only on the 15th
of June 1887 that the decree was issued which freed all provincial canals
from tolls.
The communal ways are for the most part, and notably so in Flanders,
of very small importance and their traffic is very limited.
On the Callebeek, on the Ghistelles Canal, on the Handzaeme and
Zarren Canals and on the Oudenbourg Canal, no dues are levied.
On the other communal canals tolls are charged for the passage of bridges
aud locks, which are based on complicated, difficult and divergent tarrifs,
the irrational origins of which can only be justified by their antiquity.
This is the case on the Eecloo Canal and on the Eeeloosch Leiken
administered by the town of Eecloo, and on the Lieve, the Meerhem, the
4
wooden quay canal, and the canal connecting the Lys with the canal
from Ghent to Terneuzen, administered by the town of Ghent.
On the Eecloo canals the bridge dues are fixed by the Royal decree
of February 21st and of December 12th 1862 as follows:
for all craft of 25 tons or under * * * g & e 10 Centimes
sº wº m n 26 to 75 tons . * t; g e g e 20 º
ºn 25 * * 76 ºn 150 m & º * * g e & 40 ºr)
in n n n 151 ºn Or Over . & e e g & e 60 º
Rafts and wood floats per mêtre e e º e * & 5 *
At Ghent also tolls are collected at the passing of communal turning
bridges with the exception of those on the canal connecting the Lys, with
the canal from Ghent to Terneuzen.
These dues are fixed by the Royal decree of March 31st 1849 of which
the tariff is still more complicated than that of Eecloo.
A Quay due of two centimes per ton, fixed and approved by the decree of the Regent of March
1st 1831, is levied on all watercourses traversing the territory of the town, with the exception of those
which communicate freely with the Canal from Ghent to Terneuzen and which are considered as
'belonging to the port of Ghent.
For these waters the dues approved by the Royal decree of December 1st 1880 are fixed at eight
centimes per ton for each boat loaded or unloaded at the side of the quays or banks, and at four Cen-
times for every boat in the basin onployed in the work of trans-shipment.
The canal from Brussels to the Rupel and the canal from Louvain to
the Dyle have been dug at the expense of the towns of Brussels and
Louvain respectively. They are both of great importance.
The first of these, generally called the Willebroeck canal, is the oldest
in the country and one of the oldest in Europe. It was dug by the town
of Brussels in consequence of grants allowed by Marie de Bourgogne on
June 4th 1477, and of Charles Quint on November 7th 1531.
The Louvain canal dates back to the time of Marie Thérèse. Its estab-
lishment was authorised by a grant of January 21st 1750.
Willebroeck Canal.
Bvery boat or ship navigating on the Willebroeck Canal is subjected by the Royal decree of Decem-
ber 30th 1871, Chapter IV, to a navigation due calculated on its tonnage and the importance and nature
of its cargo.
The ton is a cubic metre or 1000 kilogrammes for all vessels without distinction.
IBoats and ships are with respect to theirs cargo divided into three classes.
The 1st class comprises boats laden with materials, merchandise or other objects than those
mentioned below.
The 2nd class comprises boats laden with coal of all kinds, bricks, briquettes, tiles, fire-
wood, marl, cinders, paving stones, hay, straw, broken glass, bones, sea-water, dung and manure, earth,
sand, dike stones, soda, rough and fine salt, rails and sleepers, rough castings, old castings and Old
iron, skins, rags and Old ropes.
The 3nd class comprises empty boats.
The navigation dues are fixed per ton and per reach, viz.:
1st class & º 4e e * ... • g 6 centimes
2nd * e & g & * • * * 4% º
3nd n e * s g e & * 2 º,
10 centimes is charged for each receipt under 10 francs and 35 contimes, including the cost of receipt
stamp, on each receipt for a higher sum than 10 franc.
I'Or boats laden with merchandise belonging to more than one class the dues are charged on the
cargo of each class. Boats of less than 10 tons pay for a cargo of this capacity.
5
Canal from Louvain to the Dyle.
The navigation dues are fixed by the Royal decree of October 17th 1868 at 8 centimes per ton
per reach, or 40 centimes for the whole length of the canal including a return journey for ships and
boats arriving and departing with cargo.
A reduction of One third is allowed 011 empty boats and on boats doing a regular service (battawa,
messagers). A reduction of one half is allowed on boats arriving and departing empty.
The particulars given above show the diversity of the principles on
which the dues on the Communal Canals have been fixed. The dissimi-
larity would have appeared much more complete, if, after the tariffs
establishing the tolls, had been inserted the long list of exceptions, rebate-
ment of charges, exemptions and reductions.
Many of the Communal Canals are completely free. Others only partially
So, the liberty applying to empty boats, manure-laden boats, boats of
which the tonnage is below a certain limit, boats employed in dredging
transports for public works, for the administration of the State, to sailing
boats, and even regulated by of the number of masts carried. (1)
The unit basis of the application of tariffs is essentially variable
according to the navigable way and the conditions of navigation.
At Eecloo and at Ghent it is not the ton of cargo, but the ton of capa-
city which is taxed. The dues are invariable on certain limits of the way
traversed, as the collection only takes place at the passing of certain con-
structive works. This collection is again complicated by the fact that it is
not proportional to the tonnage of the boat, but varies according to a
tarrif a paliers (landing stages) to employ a term used on railways and
applicable in this case.
Another complication, but a much larger one, exists on the canal from
Brussels to the Rupel. On this way, as is the case also on the canal from
Louvain to the Dyle, the unit is the ton of capacity and not the ton
weight, and the unit of distance is the reach, the length of which varies
considerably. But this is not all the difficulty in the application, the
greatest resulting from the fact that the tariff is differential according to
the nature and class of the merchandise. |-
It is easy to imagine to what confusion such a system must lead when
it is a question of mixed cargoes belonging to several different classes.
What is then for each of these the quota in tons to be taxed 2 What
should be the volume which any parl of the cargo should attain before
it is subject to the tariff of its class? What reduction should be made
for empty boats? How arrange the tolls when partial dischargements are
made in the course of the route?
The arrangement of the tariff on navigable ways administered by con-
cessionary companies reminds us in many respects of the one in force on
(1) Art. 2 of Royal decree of May the 31st 1849 (town of Ghent).
6
the Willebroeck Canal. We will refer to this point, which requires some
development, at the end of this chapter.
We have dwelt rather long on the subject of the principles and rules
applied for the collecton of navigation dues on communal Canals; we have
pointed out their discordance and their complications with the object of
bringing more into relief the simplicity and the facility of application
of the taxes applied by the government in 1886 on the whole of the
State system. These uniform taxes reduced to an average of three
millimes per ton per kilomètre have only been brought to this rate and
to this uniformity after many years of discussion, repeated trials and
innumerable experiments. - -
There was a time, and it is not very remote, when the tariffs of the system
of the State were still more confused, more complicated and more incohe-
rent than those in use on the Communal ways.
If we look back only thirty years, and study the tariffs of the State
at this period, we find between the rates of neighbouring lines and even
between sections of one and the same line such dissimilarity, want of con-
Sequence and connection, such striking diversity and confusion, that order
has really disappeared.
We think it might be useful to show to what an extent these tariffs
were entangled, and to take a rapid retrospective view of the different
phases which the Belgian tarification has passed through. We will point
out how by successive steps of progress, how in eliminating, simplifying
and resolutely pruning in the bewildering heap of exceptions and parti-
cular cases, which seemed created merely for amusement, the rules at
present in use have been arrived at. -
In order to render the reading of this report less difficult we have
drawn out and grouped in the form of a table (1) the important dates
and the most usefull elements in the history of tolls on the principal
navigable ways of Belgium.
We can thus be more concise and need only dwell in the course of
our report on prominent points which it is necessary to bear in mind, in
order to have a fair view of the chain of facts and to comprehend the
motives which have brought about the successive transformations and
reductions in the tariffs. We shall thus follow step by step the way that
has been traversed and we shall see how, by degrees, light has been im-
perceptibly shed on the question,
It was at the beginning of the present century that the Belgian system
of Canals underwent its greatest extension. With the development of the
coal trade it was necessary to find an easy and economical means of
bringing the coals of Mons and Charleroi to the markets of Paris and
Tariffs sucC0S-
sively applied
on the system of
navigable ways
of the Belgian
State.
(1) Annex No. 4.
7
the North of France, as well as to the markets of Brussels, Ghent and
Antwerp.
With this object, and almost simultaneonsly, the excavation of the
canal from Mons to Condé and the work of canalising the Sambre were
taken in hand. These waterways were to serve the French markets. The
following direct communications were also effected: by the canal from
Pommerseul to Antoing the basin of Mons was connected with the markets
of Flanders and the province of Antwerp ; and by the canal from
Charleroi to Brussels the basins of Charleroi and the Centre were
joined with the principal markets of Brabant and the north of the country.
A little later the works of the ,Canal de l’Espierres” were commenced,
which placed the chalk basin of Tournai in communication with Roubaix,
Tourcoing and Lille, the most populous and busiest centres of the North
of France. The Campine canals were only commenced in 1850, their purpose
being to serve at the same time agricultural and industrial interests.
Originially the tolls levied on the coal canals were very high ; reduced
to the ton-kilomètre tariff they were as follows: 5% to centimes on the
canal from Pommeroeul to Antoing, 47/10 centimes on the canal from
Charleroi to Brussels, 5 centimes on the Sambre, and 11 centimes on the
,canal de l’Espierres”. -->
A general principle governed this tarification. An endeavour was made
to discover a rate of tolls which would according to a presumed, hypothe-
tical tonnage serve to redeem the capital employed, pay interest and
cover the expenses of maintainance and working.
A certain balance, to adhere to the expression of the period, existed
between the rates in use on the coal canals, because they had been
regulated by one and the same administration.
Soon, however, this balance was broken, and this was not by virtue of
a system of commercial calculation, nor was it caused by the influence of
competition, but it was the consequence of considerations completely
foreign to any idea of this nature.
The decree of December 17th 1819 had relieved the State of the
administration of navigable ways and placed it in charge of the Pro-
vinces.
From this moment, which it is important to note and which consti-
tutes a conspicuous date in the history of tolls in Belgium, every canal 7
and every river was in some way subjected to a particular tariff. There
was no longer any general idea, no collective view in the tarification. It
was entirely delivered over to chance and the unforeseen, to provincial
and local interests. At the end of merely a few years the most complete
confusion reigned in matters of tariffs, it was a veritable chaos, an
inextricable labyrinth. — The tariff annexed to this report speaks Vol-
umes on this subject.
It was impossible for shippers of goods, as well as for boatmen,
8
to understand the figures and arrangements of tolls and to make a calcu-
lation of rates, even approximately, for journeys comparatively limited.
Not to speak of exceptions and reductions, which very much complica-
ted the problem, all calculation was hindered by the diversity of the
bases and units employed.
On one and the same waterway, for example, on the Scheldt all was
changed when a boat passed from one province to another, the units of
measure, the monetary units, the units of distance and the number
of units.
Very often money was counted differently on the different services
working these rivers. The ton of the Meuse was calculated in cubic ells,
and the ton of the Scheldt in cubic metres, the gauge serving as basis
for the license (patente) and the gauge according to which navigation
dues were collected were constituted in different tons; the Belgian ton
on maritime ways and the cubic ton were likewise different.
With regard to distances, the toll was generaly fixed by league of five
kilometres traversed; but there was a payment also by reach with sup-
plementary dues in certain provinces at the passing of particular con-
structive works.
On the canal from Charleroi to Brussels the dues were the same for
vessels coming from the Sambre and traversing all the Canal as for
those coming from the branches of the Centre, although the distances
were in the relative proportion of 15 to 3.
There were anomalies still more inexplicable; thus, for instance, if a
boat went out of its way, and consequently made a longer journey, in
order to avoid a Canal oppressed with exhorbitant taxes, the Canal from
Pommeroenl to Antoing, or the Canal de l’Espierres for example, it was
obliged to pay a special tax for the profit of the way which it had not
followed, and therefore, for the traverse of a distance which it had not
covered. Long distances were surtaxed for the benefit of shorter ones
and the traffic, an evident injustice, paid for a service which had not
been rendered.
Finally, to give an idea of the incoherence which ruled in the collec-
tion of tariffs, it must be added, that on many waterways the tolls were
differential according to the nature of the merchandise and the tonnage
of the boats. A difference was made again accordingly as the boat was
laden, half-laden or empty and as it was ascending or descending.
It was the more difficult at this period to think of establishing uniform-
ity of dues as the different provinces endeavoured in the first place to
take local interests into account and had to consider the object with
which the canal was constructed and customs which had existed perhaps
from times immemorial.
The canals of Flanders, for example, having been constructed at a
remote period by the communes at their own expense to serve at the
9
Same time for land-drainage and for navigation, it would have seemed
Contrary to equity to abolish the dues, although they were small, and a
most lively opposition would have been raised if with the sole object of
uniformity any attempt had been made to touch dues consecrated by the
use of centuries.
The country was soon burdened by the numerous inconveniences pre-
Sented by the system of rivers and canals abandoned to the rule of the
provinces and thus deprived of the strength and power which concentra-
tion and unity of rule and management afford.
From 1840 the Government was constrained, so to speak, to take back
under its own charge sucessively one after the other all the waterways
which had been handed over to the provincial administrations. And now
commenced the era of relief and reduction.
In 1840–1847–1849–1852 the dues on the Sambre were lowered step
by step.
It was the same in 1842–1846–1852 on the canal from Maestricht to
Bois-le-Duc ; in 1849 on the canal from Charleroi to Brussels; in 1851
on the canal from Pommeroeul to Antoing and on the canal from Mons
to Condé.
One circumstance, an unparalleled stimulant, forcibly led up to these
reductions, the competition of railways, which, born yesterday, already
covered the country and affected transports with profit at a rate so cheap,
as to be surprising for that period and due to a collective organisation
strongly and wisely combined and at tariffs logically and rationally
based on the service rendered.
The navigable ways had from this time forward a redoutable compe-
titor, a model which it was necessary to follow, or to suffer decay.
The enormous influence which the example of the railways exercised
on the tarification of navigable ways in Belgium cannot be denied.
It required this example as an incentive to well-doing, to advancement in
the way of progress, for the release of our tariffs from the faults and
complications in which inertia and routine had held them bound.
In the beginning at the retaking of the canals and rivers by the State,
this body confined itself to reducing the tolls, but there was no question
of unifying or simplifying them.
Ideas on this subject were most confused. The Government believed
that it was its duty to maintain the equilibrium, the balance between
the different industries of the country. It was admitted in principle that
the State could at will divide and limit wealth and notably the trans-
ports of the different coal basins; and so strong was the conviction of the
equity and justice of this rôle that one of the most powerful men in the
country (1) declared in 1847 from the parliamentary tribune that it was
(1) See parliamentary Annals. December the 22 1847 p. 1269.
10
an essential condition and first necessity to have inserted in the act of
concession of the Charleroi Canal that the basins of Charleroi and of
Brussels should not enjoy the position which their typographical situation
was about to afford them, and that the coals of the Centre, although
traversing only the half of the canal should pay the total of the dues,
the same as paid by the coals of Charleroi, which traversed the entire
length.”
Why so, said he 7
;In order not to annihilate the coals of Charleroi, which would no
longer be able to sustain competition with those of the Centre in markets
of which they were already in possession. It is in the same act which
created the canal that is found this equitable and truly paternal sentiment
80 preservative of acquired positions.” -
Such were the ideas which prevailed in 1847. But they made rapid
progress; the railways were there, competition kept the game alive, true
economical principles came to light and the Belgian Government began
to be imbued with this doctrine, which has since been so well consecrated
by facts, that commercial liberty is the most fruitful source of wealth,
and that the removal of obstacles gives to means of transport, and conse-
quently to the production of industry, their greatest sum of usefulness.
Canals are not made, it was said in 1859, (1) to create revenues for
those who make them ; but to multiply relations, productions, exchange,
to develope commerce and render industry more active.
When the expenses of establishment, the interest on the capital fur-
mished and the expenses of maintainance have been regained on a public
Service, is it right to require complementary receipts 7
As soon as these are no longer merely remuneration for a service long
since paid for, they become a tax. They become a tax on commerce and
industry, a tax on the real tools of production, a tax from that moment
arbitrary, unjust and anti-economical. Under the influence of such ideas
progress was necessarily incessant. The deputies of industrial centres too
allowed to the Government no rest on the subject, but required at any
price reform of the toll-tariffs on canals and rivers.
The question was repeatedly the object of important discussion in the
Chambre and from 1853 to 1858 the discussions were renewed each year
at the discussion of the budget of Ways and Means.
Repeated petitions furnished with numerous signatures were constantly
presented to bear witness to the extreme eagerness of the interested
parties to obtain a solution. --
In 1856 the draught of a Bill was submitted and for the first time a
central Section expressed a wish to see navigation dues simultaneonsly
unified and lowered on the entire system of the country.
(1) See parliamentary Annals, Chambre des Représentants, p. 13, 10 Novembre 1859.
11
With this object the Government instituted two years later a com-
mission whose study and work were most remarkable and which caused
a great step to be taken in the question of tariffs.
The commission of 1858 thoroughly studied the subject; it produced a
completely collective work on navigable ways, at the present day still
most valuable, embracing at once an examination of the hydraulic System
from technical, historical and financial points of view. (1)
Such a work could not fail to bring into full light the want of similarity
of dimensions and form adopted for the canals, the incoherence of their
tariffs and the shocking manner in which they were established from the
point of view of distributive justice, of equality before the law, and of
the interest of our industries.
It was then seen, and it was a revelation, that certain canals had reim-
bursed several times over and long since their cost of construction and all
expenses relating to them. The Charleroi Canal had furnished in certain years
more than one million net profit to the State, all expenses and interest
deducted. It gave again 81/4 0ſo interest in 1858; at the same date the
canal from Mons to Condé gave 70ſo. And these important ways, of which
the expense had been so liberally reimbursed to the Treasury, were the
most taxed and the most heavily oppressed by tariffs.
The enquiry, while pointing out the faults of the existing situation, brought
forth a series of measures for remedying them. It proposed to reduce by
40 "o the dues on the Charleroi canal and by 50 "o the dues on the
Campine canals.
The so-called ,equilibrium” tariffs, that is to say the tariffs which were
constant, whatever might be the distance traversed, were actively attacked,
as were also the differential tariffs and the double gauge for licence and
for navigation dues.
A distinguished engineer, a member of the Commission, taking his
inspiration from the mode of tarification adopted for railway traffic, main-
tained with talent and energy, without, however, rallying his colleages, to
his idea, that the toll-tariff should decrease in proportion to the distance
to be traversed and include a fixed due payable at the point of embar-
cation. In addition he examined the question of the realization of an
ideal very difficult to attain for transports on waterways, that is the
reduction of freights in proportion to the distance traversed.
With this view he subdivided the hydraulic system in categories of ways,
according to the facilities which they respectively offer to navigation and
(1) The lengths and forms of the ways, dimensions of plant and especially of locks,
anchorages, dates of construction of retaking or repurchasing and of working, the mode
of collecting tolls in 1858, and previous tariffs, expenses of construction, expenses of
maintainance and of staff, ordinary receipts and accessory produce and finally statistics of
traffic, were objects of carefully compiled reports and of attentive discussion,
12
he calculated the rate of tolls in inverse ratio to the difficulties of towage
or of traction. This theoretical conception remained without result.
The conclusions of the Commission of 1858 were sanctioned by the law
of February 19th 1860. -
By the terms of this law the Government was authorised:
19. To substitute for the different modes of collection one uniform
system according to which the dues should be collected per league in
the following manner:
A. Per ton of cargo . g g e g g e 4. 3/5;
B. m. m n capacity e g ge e * g º 115;
C. r. ºn 3% r) (returning empty) . e e 115;
29. To apply on every river a due per league of distance traversed
equal to the average of the different dues which were at that time in
force.
39. To establish on every navigable way one sole rate, without distinc-
tion of class, taking for basis the rate applied to pit-coal.
49. To reduce by 40 0|o the rates levied on the canal from Charleroi
to Brussels and by 50% those on the canals from Liége to Antwerp.
The law of 1860 did not solve the question of tolls; it was left open.
An important step had been taken in the sense of greater uniformity, and
a more just assessment; but it was desired to go further; the reform was
incomplete and the progress realized insufficient.
There remained in fact two bases of application for the collection of
tolls: the ton of capacity of the boat and the ton burden; hence arose
difficulties in calculations and in documents, long delays at the collecting
offices, great confusion in the application of the rates, and anomalies such
as, that a boat fully loaded was taxed, for example at a rate of 5 centimes
per league per ton of cargo, while the tax amounted to 7 centimes when
the boat was only half loaded.
On the other hand, as we have already observed, the 2nd article of the
law of 1860 had only made uniform by averages the dues relating to one
and the same way. At this time there remained 37 different tariffs in
use on the systems of the Belgian State. The rate of tolls varied on the
canals in the proportion of 1 to 15 (1).
The tolls on certain canalised rivers were eight or nine times higher
than on certain canals.
On comparing the tolls on rivers only we find that they varied in the
proportion of 1 to 4.
Immediately after the vote of the law of 1860, its result was questioned,
and its revision was voted by an order of the day. With this object a
commission was instituted by the decree of June 29th 1864. It showed
(1) See Chambre des Représentants, séance du 14. Avril 1863, n”. 132.
13
diligence and a few weeks after its institution it submitted for the appro-
bation of the Government, as the result of its labours, a collection of
wishes, some of which indicate ideas very advanced for the period and a
profound acquaintance with the necessities of interior navigation.
The following were the wishes exppessed:
1. That the Belgian Government determine by an international convention dimensions for a
uniform type of constructive works on canals of interior navigation, that these dimensions be for locks in
every case equal to those adopted on the way from Liège to Antwerp, viz., 50 metres in length, 7
metres in width and with a draft of water of 1 m. 20.
2. That the Government establish towing-paths at the sides of the rivers, in the same Way as On
the sides of the canals in such condition as to admit of the employment of horses for the to Wage
of boats.
3. That trematage be allowed to boats drawn by horses.
4. That the Government consider the question of the application of steam to towage.
5. That there be published a general toll tariff for transport by water from the principal
points of departure to the principal points of arrival, according to the system in use on railways, in
endeavouring, if possible, to realize differential and reducible tariffs in proportion to the distances
traversed.
6. That the tolls may be paid in one sum for the entire distance as on railways.
7. That exact and reasonable statistics be established to record the movements of transports
effected on waterways.
8. That the Government reduce the tolls on conceded canals to a uniform rate, as on the State Ways.
9. Finally, and this wish is most important with regard to tolls: that the Government modify the
lmode of collection prescribed by the law of 1860, and substitute one sole tax based solely on the
cargo, to replace the fractional rate in proportion to the cargo, to the capacity of the boat and to
boats returning empty”.
The Government admitted this last wish and requested from the Legis-
lature the necessary powers for simplifying and reducing the tariffs in
force.
The law of July 1st 1865 conferred these powers. By its 2nd article
it abolished the tripartite division of the basis prescribed by the law of
1860, retaining as, basis the real cargo
The kilometre was substituted for the league and a maximum was
assigned to the kilometric tax.
The law said, in fact :
The Government is authorised to regulate the tolls on navigable ways administered by the State in
Such manner that the maximum of these tolls reduced to kilometric tons does not exceed the following
units of transport :
One centime for Canals :
Three-quarters of a centime for canalised rivers ;
Two-tenths of a centime for rivers.
The Government is authorised to take the necessary measures for modifying the present system of
collecliug ſlavigation dules by the substitution of one tax based solely () in llue cargo, in place of the
fractional rate in proportion to the cargo, to the capacity of the boat and to boats returning euply.
This law of 1865 has been the point of departure of all the progress
since accomplished in matters of tolls. Numerous reductions and simpli-
fications of rates have been realized in proportion as reductions were
accorded on the railways. It was necessary to follow this terrible adversary
on the field of competition, to counterbalance his influence and to endea-
vour by the low price of transport and the reduction of tolls to retain
14
for the navigable ways the advantages they possessed for long distances
and heavy transports.
Thanks to successive reductions it has been possible to maintain and
even to develope the movement of traffic on the navigable ways.
According to the calculations of the Government Commission of which
we have spoken, this movement amounted in 1858 to a total 336,062,755
kilometric tons on ways administered by the State and subject to toll. In
1880 on the same ways the traffic was 362,116,000 kilometric tons, in
1888 it reached the figure 367,551,508, and 409,098,611 in 1892.
The total movement of transports on the navigable ways of Belgium,
including the provincial, communal and conceded ways, and ways
exempted from tolls was in 1888, 587,118,251 kilometric tons; in
1892 it amounted to 623,434,111 kilometric tons and in 1893 to 660
millions.
The decree of June 1st 1886, the essential points of which were
applied to the Sambre on April 25th 1887, is the last and most impor-
tant of the acts of the Government in application of the law of 1865 to
unify as completely as possible the tariff in use in Belgium on the
hydraulic system.
It was in virtue of this decree that the dues levied were reduced by
ton and by kilometre to 5 millimes on canals, and to 10/10 millimes on
rivers. - -
The average rate is 3 millimes, and its application to the State system
produces annually about 1,200,000 francs (1).
The expenses of maintainance on navigable ways administered by the
State, deducting tidal rivers, on which no tolls are levied, is in round
figures 1,500,000 francs (2). &
If from this sum be deducted the cost of dredging, of consolidation of
the slopes necessitated by the efflux of water, for as we have said, most
of the Belgian canals are evacuation canals, we find that the receipts
cover almost exactly the expenses caused by navigation.
The receipts thus pay the service rendered.
We have shown, also, in our report before the Manchester Congress
that the salaries of the administrative staff attached exclusively to the
service of navigation find their counterpart in the indirect receipts accru-
ing to the administration, and notably from the letting of land, fishing,
plantations, pasturage, ferries and water-crossings etc. (3).
Of the foregoing, a point not to be lost sight of is, that in Belgium the
(1) 1,200,609 in 1889, 1,162,509 in 1890 and 1,495,092 in 1891.
(2) 4,502,477 in 1890 not including expenses relating to tidal rivers.
(3) In 1890 the total of these receipts amounted to 308,929 francs and in 1891 to
248,377; the effective staff attached exclusively to the navigation service cost 445,000
francs.
15
dues levied on navigation are strictly limited to the taxes neccessary to
cover the expenses incurred by the administration for the benefit of the
barge traffic. e
Conceded ways have not had the benefit of the reductions effected by
the State on its own administration. They have, however, by force of
circumstances obtained successive partial exemptions, the list of which is
not of great interest.
At the present day the rates levied on conceded ways are as follows:
Canal from Blaton to Ath:
The rates are fixed per kilometre in proportion to the distance actually traversed, but with a
Iminimum of 2 kilometros, in the following manner:
per ton of cargo e g * e e fr. 0,024
m n : capacity of the boat tº g * e n 0,008
ºn n ºn º (returning empty) . . . n 0,008
Canalised Dendre.
On this river the dues are levied in the same manner but the rate is lower. It is:
per ton of cargo . wº * * e e fr. 0.006
r n : capacity * * * & * n 0,002
* , (returning empty) . e g & n 0,002
These tariffs are, bowever, differential and variable according to the distance traversed, as we
shall see later On.
L’Espierres Canal.
The rate varies with the distance traversed, the nature of the merchandise
transported and the importance of the cargo. The tariff of the company
is fixed as follows:
a. For the entire length of the canal (8.403 km.).
fr. 0.16 per ton of cargo on manure, cinders and lime for agricultural use.
loaded ſ * 0.24 per ton of cargo on sand, paving stones, broken stones (déchets) and ballast.
n 0.30 per ton of cargo on all other merchandises.
fr. 0.10 per ton capacity of the boat up to a depth of 1.80 m. with a maximum
empty |
19ty of 22 francs.
b. Tor a partial distance per kilometre :
fr. 0.03 per ton of cargo on dung, cinders and manure for agricultural use.
* 0.04 per ton cargo on sand, paving stones, broken stones (déchets de pierres) and
ballast.
loaded |
| * 0.07 per ton of cargo on all other merchandise.
fr O.02 per ton of capacity of the boat up to a depth of 1.80 m. with a maximum
of 22 francs.
Remarks. – Concessionnary companies are allowed to reduce their
tariffs in a general manner and without exception on the authority of a
decision of the Minister of Public Works.
Ill. INFLUENCE OF THE DISTANCE TRAVERSED.
The developments which we have given to the first part of this work
will save us from entering here into very long details.
16
We have seen by our historical sketch, how, by successive stages, after
having had applied the so-called ,equilibrium” tariffs, by which the tolls
remained the same on One and the same way whatever might be the
distance traversed, and how, after the tariffs by reach, the present tariffs were
arrived at, by which the dues are levied on all the State system in propor-
tion to the distances traversed. It is now only the communal canals which
deviate from this rule. On the communal canals of Ghent and Eecloo
dues are collected for the right of passage without reference to the distance
traversed. On the canals of Brussels and of Louvain the tolls are established
by reach and are even not then in mathematical proportion to the
distance traversed.
On the ways conceded to the Canalised Dendre Company the tariffs have
been very cleverly combined ; their base is differential, they decrease
with the distance traversed and they are studied in manner to attract
towards the Dendre transports which would without these tariffs naturally
go to the competing ways, the Scheldt and the Lys.
The Dendre Company, whose concession is very limited, extending to
Scarcely 85 kilometres of way between Blaton and Termonde, has suc-
ceeded by a profound study of the conditions of transport on the lines,
which border its own, or which rival it, to indirectly extend its
concession to a zone of a large radius. With this object in view the com-
pany has made itself not only concessionary of tolls, but forwarding
agent and contractor of transports. The tariffs are calculated, so as to
give the line its maximum of traffic ; they are inspired by the example
of the railways. They foresee all the cases of a service administered by
water, winter, Summer, ascent, descent, total or partial traverse, with
and without traction, loaded and empty; they form a very complete
collection and apply to all the operations and alls the constitutive parts
of transport: the boat, its capacity and cargo. These multifarious
combinations and these complicated tarifications are not possible
except on a small system and to a company of well organised admi-
mistration. We should like to lay special stress on this point. -
The following are the most important parts of the tariffs of the cana-
lised Dendre and of the canal from Blaton to Ath, which it is the
Subject of the present chapter to make particularly prominent.
Tariff no. 1. – For intermediate distances between Blaton and Termonde in both directions:
a. On the canal from Blaton to Ath.
Per ton of cargo fro,022 to fro,024 per kilm. according to the point of embarcation.
n n n capacity fro,008 per kiln. ‘n
* * * º returning empty fro.008 per killm. ºr, ** sº
b. On the canalised Dendre.
Per ton of cargo fro,006 per kilometre.
n n n capacity fro,002 per kilometre.
* r * n (returning empty) fro.002 per kilometre.
17
Tariff n°. 2. — For the entire distance from Termonde to Blaton and for the entire distance
from Blaton to Termonde for boats in destination to all points below Termonde.
C. For the ascent (winter season).
Per ton of cargo - º * - & • • e - e º fr. 0.894 for the entire distance.
T m w Capacity . - º º & • - e - - g n 0.306 m ºr, T) 7)
ºn r ** * (returning e111pty) • - e - º * n 0.306 m º º º
Ascent (Summer season).
Per ton of cargo - tº e - º º º g º - * fr. 0.853 n ºr, ºn n
n m r capacity . º º - e e - • - - º * 0.306 m * º n
Y) * Y, º (returning empty) - - ſº © • g n 0.306 m º r) 7)
d.
Descent (all seasons).
Per ton of cargo e º º º & e º º - º * fr, 0.728 m ºr, * r)
* * in Capacity e - e º - m 0.306 m * ºn n
º, n in º (returning empty) g º * - & t m 0.306 m ºr, 17 ºn
Tariff no. 3. — For the entire distance between Blaton and Termonde, for boats in destination
to localities situated on the Scheldt, above Termonde, up to Wetteren (Wetteren not included):
Per ton of cargo • * e - * - - * • - * fr. 0.638 for the entire distance.
º 7? m CapaCity º - t º - m 0.306 n * r r
* º, * r) (returning empty) . º g e º m 0.306 n n ºn r;
Tariff no. 4. — For the entire distance from Blaton to Termonde, boats loaded for the localities
of Wetteren up to Ghent. (Ghent not included);
20. For the entire distance from Blaton to Termonde, Of all boats coming from France and from
the basin of Tournay.
Per ton of cargo w g . . e º e º t º º - fr. 0.508 for entire distance.
1) m n capacity . * g - s * º e • - • - n 0.220 m n º
º ** * º (returning empty) º - e & º g º m 0.306 m ºr) r)
Tariff no. 5. — For the entire distance from Blaton to Termonde for boats loaded for Ghent and
further :
Per ton of cargo . - tº- - - * * - e - - * fr, 0.458 for the entire distance
m m n capacity * & * - * e - sº * - * n 0.170 m m r) 7)
7, n in 7) returning ompty . - - t - - º n 0.306 m ºn n T,
Tariff no. 6. — For the entire distance from Termonde to Blaton for loaded boats coming from
Ghent or further :
2. For the entire distance from Termonde to Blaton for boats coming from the Lower Scheldt in
destination to places in France situated between Douai and Roubaix and further:
Winter Season:
Per ton of cargo . - - * > • • - º s 4. e fr. 0.724 for the entire distance
m n n capacity - - e - • e - º º - º n 0.270 m n 1) ºr,
7, n r, r) returning empty º e º e - - e n 0.300 m n $% m
Summer Season :
Per ton of cargo . w º • * e - * g 6 s e fr. 0.683 for the entire distance
n n n capacity - - e - º & - e • - * * 0.270 m n * T.
ºn r, ſº r) returning empty º º - 4. - - - m 0.306 m n Tº ºr,
General observations. – Loaded boats to which the tariffs noš 2, 3, 4, 5 aud 6 are applied arc drawn
along the canal hy horses and towed on the Dendre at the charge of the company.
The same rule will be applied to loaded boats Only making a partial journey on the canal and
navigating under article 2 of tariff A. no. 1.
It is understood that boatmen on board of boats carrying a cargo less than the tonnage of capacity
shall pay :
1. traction dues for the cargo as it is ;
2. º r m n ton of capacity forming the difference between this cargo and the total
Capacity.
They may not demand to be towed or drawn without having previously paid the traction dues
on the tonnage of capacity forming this difference. -
DUFourNY. 2
18
Special traction tariffs.
Tariff no l Special. — For all intormediate destinations between Blaton and Termonde :
1. On the canal from Blaton to Ath both ways and at all seasons:
For all loaded boats.
Per ton of cargo º º * g * e ‘p fr. 0.002 per kilometre.
r m n capacity . e e g g e & n 0.002 m jº
2. On the canalised Sambre ascent in winter.
Per ton of cargo * * ë. & g & º fr, 0.0072 per kilometre.
* ºn ºn Capacity. e & n 0.0020 n *}
Tor loaded boats in destination of Lessines.
Per ton of cargo . g s g g g . fr. 0.005561 m *',
* n n capacity. s & n 0.002000 m º
3. On the canalised Dendre Ascent Summer Season.
Per ton of cargo . g is e g & & fr. 0.0060 m *
º m n capacity. e * * e $ º n 0.0020 m º
For loaded boats in destination of Lessines.
Per ton of cargo . g g & e e . fr. 0.04361 m º
* m n capacity. • & © e g ... n ().002000 m º
4. On the canalised Dendre descent. All season.
Per ton of cargo . * * g & & * fr. 0.0031 m º
º, m n capacity. * 0.0020 m *
5. On the canalised Dendre for ascent in all seasons:
For all boats loaded at the banks of Acren, Lessines and C. Houbain of wich the boatmen wish to
CImploy means of traction on the whole length of the canal te supplement will be charged.
1st. I'Or Acren. Per ton of cargo and per kilometre of the canal fr. 0.00260;
2nd. n Tuessines. 3) n º º n * ºn º º r) º 0.00196;
3m d. n C. Hubain. » * n º n p m ºn º m n 0.00176 :
Observation. – Loaded boats traversing the entire distance or the Dendre as well as those in
destination to Ath or any point whatever of the canal pay traction dues according to tariff no. 2.
IV. INFLUENCE OF THE TONNAGE OF THE BOAT,
Generally speaking in Belgium and without exception on the State
System the tonnage of the capacity of the boat is no longer taken into
account in the fixing of navigation dues.
The law of February 19th 1860 applied at the same time the ton-
nage and the cargo as bases for the charging of dues. We have shown
to what complicated calculations and anomalies this double basis led,
and how already in 1865 the system being condemned by practice had
been entirely abandoned on the State system. The system remains,
however, still in force on the canals of Brussels and from Louvain to the
Rupel, and on the conceded ways, viz. the l’Espierres, the canal from
Blaton to Ath and the canalised Dendre. The application of a complicated
tariff is more easily conceived on conceded ways than on those of the
State, because on the one hand the traffic is more restricted and limited
to short distances, and on the other hand the work of collection is per-
formed by a special staff.
On the Dendre and on the canal from Blaton to Ath not only the
tonnage, but even the draft of the boat, which is really only one of the
19
factors of the tonnage, is taken into account to modify the amount of
the dues in the measure hereafter indicated.
Draft of boats. – Loaded boats traversing the waterway either the entire distance or only partially
in both directions and having a draft of 1.50 m. up to 1.80 m. or more pay for their capacity the
Same tonnage as for their cargo.
Boats loaded Sto 1.50 m. and under up to 35 tons pay for their capacity a tonnage corresponding
to a draft of m. 1,50 and the cargo such as it is. &
Boats loaded with less than 35 tons pay for their capacity a tonnage corresponding to a draft of
1.80 m. and the cargo such as it is.
For returning empty is collected the tonnage of the capacity and a draft of 1.80 m.
Influence of the Equally with the double basis, the classing of merchandise with the
.."... view of tarification has been long since abandoned on the State system
Iue and quantity
of the merchan: for two motives, viz. too great and useless complication, considering that
dise transported
classification of transports by water are for the greatest part, not to Say nearly totally,
*** heavy transports. -
There is now no trace left of the differential tariffs according to the
nature and value of the merchandise, except on the canal from Brussels
to the Rupel and on the l’Espierres canal, and the number of classes is
exceedingly reduced, as is shown in the tables of the first chapter in
which are given the subdivisions in which different products were
divided. -
The quantity of merchandise transported, that is, the cargo tonnage of
the boat is one of the two factors, which serve to determine the
amount of the tolls; the other factor is the distance traversed.
W. EXEMPTION FROM OR REBATEMENT OF TOLLS.
On the navigable ways administered by the State exemption from
navigation dues is granted by the general regulations of police and
navigation approved by the royal decree of May 1st 1889. Art. 82:
1. To all vessels belonging to the army or serving for its operations or
transports, as well as to all other State vessels navigating under the
national flag;
2. To tenders empty or loaded of vessels obliged to discharge a part of
their cargo on account of a reduction of the regulation draft of water or
for any other accidental cause, such as average etc.;
The tolls are due on the total of the cargo of the vessel before it is
discharged;
3. To vessels employed by the service of the navigable ways, and put
in movement on a written order of an agent of the administration ;
4. To craft with a tonnage less than three tons;
5. To towing boats and ice-breakers;
6. To vessels which at time of rising or falling tide are displaced by
order of the administration and return to their point of departure when
20
the cause which necessitated their displacement has ceased to exist;
7. To boats loaded exclusively with manure; matters which are con-
sidered as such, and are thus exempt from transport dues are at the
present day many in number and are enumerated in the Royal decree of
October 6th 1890.
Reduction of tolls is also accorded to boats doing a regular service. Thus,
boats which are exclusively employed in a regular passenger service and
carry only passengers and their luggage are subjected only to a quarter
of the tax due in proportion to the complete cargo they are able to carry.
If they carry passengers and merchandise the dues are paid at the rate
of three eighths of the complete cargo.
If they do a regular service for the transport of merchandise the dues
are payable on three quarters of their complete cargo.
As we have already said, masters of empty boats need only provide
themselves by a payment of 20 centimes with a permit to travel empty.
This permit is available for the journey to the destination; a new permit
is necessary for the return journey if the boat is still empty.
As indicated on pages 4 and 5 reductions of toll are granted to boats
travelling empty on the communal canals from Brussels to the Rupel and
from Louvain to the Dyle as well as on the conceded navigable ways.
The tables inserted in the first chapter show, also, that considerable
reductions of tolls are granted to empty boats on communal canals and
conceded ways.
On the canal from Blaton to Ath and on the conceded Dendre the
regulation reductions are as follows: -
Reductions. – The matters considered as manure are not allowed any reduction, but pay the Same
tariffs as other products. – Nevertheless, exception is made for boats laden with lime for manure,
*. Those coming from Blaton in destimation for places situated between Alost and Termonde (not
including Alost) and
2nd. Those coming from the basin of Tournai for Alost which pay the rates of tariff no. 3.
3rld. Those, coming from the basin of Tournai for destinations between Alost and Termonde pay
the rates of tariff no. 4.
IFinally, boats loaded with fecal matter entering at Blaton for the entire distance pay the rates
Of tariff no. 3.
It should be remarked that merchandise destined for exportation, as well
as merchandise imported from abroad by maritime way, enjoys special
favours. Thus on the canal from Ghent to Terneuzen and on the canal
fron Ghent to Ostend ,boats coming from the sea and vice-versa and those
which without coming from the Sea are employed in the transport of cargo
from such boats, are exempt from navigation dues and the permit for
travelling empty”. (1)
By an analogous arrangement on the canal from Brussels to the Rupel (2)
(1) P. 75 Guide du batelier, réglements particuliers.
(2) Royal decree of March 25th 1882.
21
a reduction of 50 "o on navigation dues is granted for every steam or
sailing vessel doing a regular service between Brussels and any foreign
place and carrying merchandise from the interior for exportation. The
same reduction is granted on the return of the same ships bringing
merchandise from abroad for the interior or in transit.
VI. MODE 0F COLLECTION. – CONTROL.
All along the navigable ways administered by the State the navigation
dues are collected by agents who are ordinarily at the same time lockkeepers
and collectors.
On one and the same line payment is made at the office of the place
of departure, or from office to office.
The real cargo of the boat is determined from the indications given
in the gauging manifest (proces verbal de jaugeage)and from the standards
with which every boat should be provided. The distance is determined
by the tables of distances annexed to the regulation of navigable ways.
The guaging of the boats is effected by following an elementary and
practical method, which without aiming at an extraordinary and entirely
mathematical decision of the useful capacity of the boat, is the more
satisfactory as the unitary rates have now become very reduced and that
a slight error of volume is thus not of great importance.
The method is simple and rapid; those are two essential qualities and
it is sufficiently exact, as may be judged from Annex II (1).
The gauging manifest is signed by the gauging expert and by the boat-
man. It is examined by the Chief Engineer of the service and by a
Director of registration. With regard to collection control is exercised from
lock to lock by reading the scales and the guaging manifest. The general
regulations stipulate a series of clauses for intermediate distances between
the collecting offices, for fractions of decimetres of draft, for cases of
difference of water-line fore and aft, for the case of absence of gauging
manifest, for loading and unloading in course of route, and finally for
distance traversed beyond the extreme point mentiomed in the declaration
made at the point of departure. It would be too long and of no great
interest to relate here how all these difficulties of detail have been over-
come. However all these exceptional cases are enumerated in the general
regulations which we have frequently mentioned.
VII. DUES FOR WORKING LOCKS, FLOODGATES AND BRIDGES.
The only ways which still levy bridge dues and tolls for passage are the
communal canals of East Flanders; it is necessary to add two small
(1) Royal decree of March 25th 1882.
22
canals in West Flanders, the Blankenberg canal, administered by a
company of Wateringues, which levies a toll for passage at the Speyelock,
and the Martje canal, administered by third parties, who levy a toll at the
passage of the Merkem bridge. At Termonde the communal administra-
tion levies rates on the Dendre at the Bogards and Augustins bridges.
The legality of these taxes is questioned by the State. Finally there exists
on the Dyle a toll for passage at the Moulins floodgates sanctioned by a
decree of 1819. This tax will soon disappear and at the same time the
work itself. Everywhere else local taxes for manoeuvres have been
Suppressed.
VIII. SUPPLEMENTARY DUES AT NIGHT.
===s-s-s-s
Navigation at night is not yet practised in a regular manner on all the
ways of the State system. It is simply tolerated on several canals and gives
Occasion for special dues which are not handed in to the State, but which
Serve to compensate the staff performing this supplementary labour.
These dues, paid at the passing of constructive works, amount to 75
centimes for each lock-keeper and 50 centimes for each bridge-man or
assistant lock-keeper.
IX. 0UAY DUES.
In conclusion, and in order that we may omit nothing concerning tolls
collected on canals and rivers, we must say a word respecting the quay dues
which are collected in inland navigation ports.
These ports are subdivided into three categories, those established by the
State, those constructed by communes entirely at their own expense, and
finally, and these are the most numerous, those executed by the aid of a
subvention from the Public Treasury.
The State does not collect any tax in inland navigation ports, which
it has established at its own expense; it provides for expenses of main-
tainance, takes no part in the administration, and does not require
repayment either of the expenses of maintainance nor interest on the cost
of the first establisment.
The communes on the contrary endeavour to obtain a return of their
Outlay, and they are authorised to do so by the Government; but as a
rule at the present time they cannot make any profit by the administration
of the quays.
The tariffs of quay dues are consequently in each particular case arranged
in such manner that the receipts do not exceed the total of ordinary and
extraordinary expenses caused by these quays. The receipts and expenses
connected with these works are the subject of a special account. This
23
account is presented to the superior administration at the end of each
year. At the commencement of the working and during the first three
years the tariff is only provisional and it is revised, if there is cause for
this to be done, in the course of the third year, in order to place the
receipts in harmony with the expenses.
The public quays constructed by the State are for the use of all, without
favour or exception, and without any other restriction for the users than
that the latter conform to the regulations of navigation, and to those of
the local police.
Translated by G. J. Row1AND. .
Annex No. I.
T O L L S.
Brief review of the modifications applied to
bases and modes of collection of
tolls in Belgium.
26
DESIGNATION OF THE NAVI-
GABLE WAYS.
H | S T O R | C A L.
Canal from Charleroi to
Brussels.
Commenced March, 15th
1827.
Opened to Navigation
September 22nd 1832.
Repurchased by the
State by virtue of the
law of June, 1st 1839.
Canal from Ghent to Ter-
Ii BUZ011.
Commenced January
24th 1825.
Opened to Navigation
November 18th 1827.
Constructed by the State.
Royal de cree 17 th 1 83 2. — Fixed and
uniform tax of fl. 1.45 per ton from Charleroi or from the Centre to
of September
Brussels and vice versa.
Royal decree of June 28 tº 1833. – Reduction of 16 p.c. of
the preceding tax.
Royal decree of March 31 st 1849. – Reduction of 35 p.c. of
the tax of 1833.
Law of February
19th 1860 and Royal decree of
February the 20th following. – Radical modification of the
system of tolls previously in use. The dues are fixed per league of
5000 m. and per ton of cargo and capacity in the following manner:
francs.
Per ton of cargo . . . . . . 0.0480
Per ton of capacity of the vessel 0.0160
ditto ditto (returning empty) 0.0160
Total 0.0800
Law of July 1st 1865 and Royal de cree of July 26th
following. — Modification of the basis of the law, and of the Royal
decree of 1860. — The tax is fixed at fr. 0.01 per ton of cargo per
kilometre.
Roy a 1 decree of June 1 st 1886. — Reduction of the tax
from fr. 0.01 to fr. 0.005.
Royal decree of April 9th 1830. — Sea-going vessels: For
the whole length of traverse fl. 0.48 to fl. 0.38 per sea-ton (according
to the direction and season of the year); bridge-tax fl. 0.20. Inland boats:
fl. 0.20 to fl. 0.35; bridge-tax fl 0.10.
Treaty of April 19th 1839. — Sole tax for sea-going ves-
sels, ascending fl. 2.3704 per ton; for those descending fl. 0.38.
1842. — Suppression of all taxes
Treaty of November 5th
on maritime navigation. Suppression of the bridge-tax and reduction by
*/, of the taxes charged on inland navigation.
Royal decree of February 17 th 1852. – Reduction of
50 p.c. of the previous tariff.
Royal de cree of June 5th 1871. – Putting in execution of
the law of July 1st 1865 (see above the canal from Charleroi to Brus-
sels.) — Tax of fr. 0.005 per ton of cargo per kilometre.
Canal from Pommeroeul to
Antoing.
Commenced June 19th
1823.
Royal de cree of July 27 th 1827. – Fixed and uniform tax
of fr. 0.396 per ton of capacity and fr. 1.285 per ton of cargo.
Royal decree of January 9 th 1831. – Reduction of 50 p.c.
of the previous tariff.
Royal decree of April 15th 1834. — The tax is fixed at
fr. 0.1481 per ton of capacity and fr. 0.444 per ton of cargo.
27
DESIGNATION OF THE NAWI-
GABLE WAYS.
H | S T O R T C A L.
Opened to Navigation
June 26th 1826.
Repurchased by the State
by virtue of the Royal
decree of June 9th
1828.
Canal from Maestricht to
Bois-le-Duc (Belgian part).
Commenced June 19th
1822.
Opened to Navigation
August 24th 1826.
Constructed by the State.
Canal from Liége to Maes-
tricht (Belgian part).
Commenced March 4th
1846.
Opened to Navigation
October 21st 1850.
Constructed by the State.
Royal de gree of March 13th 1852. — Reduction of 60 p.c.
of tho tariff of 1884,
Royal de cree of September 2nd 1863. – Putting in execu-
tion the law of February 19th 1860 (Charleroi to Brussels). — The
taxes are fixed per league of 5000 metres per ton of cargo and
capacity in the following manner:
francs.
Per ton of cargo . . . . . . 0.03
Per ton of capacity of the vessel 0.01
ditto (returning empty) . 0.01
Total 0.05
Royal decree of July 26th 1865, putting in execution of the
law of July 1st 1865 (Charleroi to Brussels). The tax is fixed at
fr. 0.01 per ton of cargo per kilometre.
de C re e o f June 1 st 1886. — Reduction of this tax to
Royal
fr. 0.005.
Royal de cree of October 3rd 1828. – Loaded boats fl. 0.025
per ton and per league from Maestricht to Bois-le-Duc.; fl. 0.045 in reverse
direction. Empty boats: half.
Royal de cree of October 12th 1839 and July 9th 1842.
— The preceding tariff is modified as follows: From Loozen to Hocht
fl. 0.9015; from Hocht to Bocholt fl. 0.451.
Treaty of November 5th 1842. – Reduction of the preceding
taxes, respectively, to fl. 0.4265 and fl. 0.2845.
Treaty of July 9th 1846. — The taxes are fixed per ton
per league in the following mauner. Loaded boats: fr. 0.03175; empty
boats fr. 0.01587.
Treaty of March 15th 1852. – Reduction by 50 p.c. of the pre-
ceding taxes.
Royal de cree of May 3rd 1880, putting in execution of the law
of July, 1st 1865. (Charleroi to Brussels). Tax of fr. 0.0025 per ton of
cargo and per kilometre.
Royal decree of September 1st 1850. — The taxes are
fixed per tom of capacity per league as follows: Loaded boats: fr. 0.10;
empty boats fr. 0.05.
Royal decree of February 20th 1860, putting in execution
of the law of February 19th 1860 (Charleroi to Brussels). The taxes
are fixed per league of 5000 meters per ton of cargo and of capacity
as follows:
- francs.
Per ton of cargo . . . . . . 0.0450
Per ton of capacity of the boat. 0.0150
ditto (returning empty) 0.0150
Total 0.0750
28
DESIGNATION OF THE NAWI-
GABLE WAYS.
H | S T O R I C A L.
Junction Canal from the
Meuse to the Scheldt.
Commenced April 3rd
1843.
Opened to Navigation
September 22nd 1846
(on all its length).
Constructed by the State.
Canal from Mons to Condé
(Belgian part).
Commenced October 18th
1807.
Opened to Navigation
October 19th 1818.
Constructed by the State;
ceded to the Province
by decree of December
17th 1819; retaken
Royal decree of October 24th 1860. — The above taxes
are reduced respectively to fr. 0.03, fr. 0.01 and fr. 0.01, in all fr. 0.05.
Royal de cree of July 26th 1865, putting in execution of
the law of July 1st 1865 (Charleroi canal to Brussels). — The tax is
fixed at fr. 0.0075 per ton of cargo per kilometre.
Royal de gree of June 1st 1886. – Reduction of the preceding
tax to fr. 0.005.
23rd 1844. — The taxes for
the 1st Section of the canal are fixed as follows: Per ton of cargo
per league fr. 0.05 for straws, hay, pitch-pine, trees, poles, fire-
wood and faggots; fr. 0.10 for pit-coal, stones and other merchan-
Royal de cree of November
dise not mentioned above. (This tariff has been made applicable to
the two other sections of the canal by the Royal decrees of October
12th and September 28th 1856). -
Royal de cree of February 20th 1860 putting in execution
the law of February 19th 1860 (Charleroi to Brussels). — For the 3
sections, the taxes are fixed per league of 5000 metres per ton of cargo
and of capacity as follows:
francs.
Per ton of cargo g g tº us 0.03
|Per ton of capacity of the boat . 0.01
ditto (returning empty) . ().01
Total 0.05
Royal de cree of July 26th 1865 putting into execution of the
law of July 1st 1865 (from Charleroi to Brussels). The tax is fixed at
fr. 0.0075 per ton of cargo per kilometre. -
Royal de cree of June 1 st
ceding tax to fr. 0.005.
1886. – Reduction of the pre-
Royal decree of December 14th 1815. — Provisional rates
of fr. 0.02 per ton per league for loaded boats, and fr. 0.01 for empty
boats.
Royal de cree of August 1822. – Augmentation by 50 p.c. of
the preceding rates.
Royal de cree of July 27 th 1827. — Rates payable to each
of the four offices fl. 0.07 per 10 tons of capacity and fl. 0.07 per 10
tons of cargo. -
Royal de cree of April 15th 1834. — The preceding tax is
fixed at fr. 0.14.
Royal decree of December 2nd 1839. — The rate is fixed
at fr. 0.05 per ton of cargo to be paid at each of the offices.
Royal de cree of September 2nd 1863, putting in execution
the law of February the 19th 1860 (Charleroi te Brussels). The rates
are fixed per league of 5000 meters and per ton of cargo and of capa-
city as follows:
29
DESIGNATIOM OF THE NAVI-
GABLE WAYS.
H | S T O R C A L.
by virtue of the law of
December 30th 1843.
Upper-Scheldt.
Canalisation not com-
pleted.
Retaken by the State
by virtue of the budget
of December 31st 1838.
Lys.
Retaken by the State
in virtue of the budget
of December 31st 1838.
francs.
Per ton of cargo. 0.03
Per ton of capacity . . . . . . 0.01
ditto (returning empty) . 0.01
Total . 0.05
Royal de cree of July 26th 1865, putting in execution the law of
July 1st 1865 (Charleroi to Brussels). The rate is fixed at fr. 0.01 per
ton of cargo per kilometre.
Royal decree of June 1st 1886. – Reduction of the prece-
ding tax fr. 0.005.
Royal decree of August 16th 1822, put in force January
1st 1823 and indefinitely maintained by decree of November 16th 1824.
Part situated in Hainault. Dues levied at the locks at Antoing and at the
Trous bridge at Tournay, varying according to the capacity of the boats
and divided into 9 classes.
Rate per ton of:
francs.
Empty boats . . . . . 0.01
ditto half loaded . * * * * * 0.015
ditto descending more than half loaded. 0.02
Royal de cree of December 13th 1819. – Part situated
in East Flanders. — Rate of fr. 0.0325 per ton of capacity at each of
the bars of Espierres, of Autryve, of Audenarde and of Semmerzaeke;
Rate of fr. 0.0125 at the Madon bridge and of fr. 0.850 at the locks
de la Pêcherie at Ghent.
Royal decree of March 13th 1852. –
pct, of the preceding tariffs. -
Royal decree of June 23rd 1886. — The navigation dues are
fixed, in consequence of the royal decree of June 1st (Same year) uni-
formly and on all the length of the river at fr. 0.0016 per ton of
cargo per kilometre.
Reduction by 50
Royal decree of September 30th 1839. – Part situa-
ted in West Flanders. — The rates are fixed per ton of capacity
and are payable on passing the offices, according to the following tariff;
frailcs. francs.
loaded 0.0635 empty 0.0212
ditto 0.0635 ditto 0.0212
ditto 0.1058 ditto 0.0635
, , Wive St. Eloi ditto 0.0635 ditto 0.0212
Royal decree of November 20th 1833. – Part situated
in East Flanders. — Tax of fr. 0.0425 per ton of capacity payable
at the locks of la Pêcherie at Ghent.
Royal decree of April 20th 1863. --- Putting in execution of
the law of February 19th 1860. (Charleroi to Brussels). The taxes
Toll of Comines
Menin .
Harlebeke.
}} 3)
3) 9)
30
DESIGNATION OF THE NAWI-
GABLE WAYS.
H | S T O R | C A L.
Meuse (Belgian part).
Retaken by the State in
virtue of the budget of
December 31st 1838.
Canalised from 1860
to 1880.
Sambre (Belgian part).
Canalised from 1824 to
1828.
Opened to Navigation
January 1st 1829.
Repurchased by the State
according to an arrange-
ment sanctioned by
the law of September
are fixed per league of 5000 metres and per ton of cargo and of capa-
city, as follows:
francs.
Per ton of cargo * * * * 0.012
Per ton of capacity of the boat. 0.004
ditto (returning empty) ().004
Total 0.020
It oyal de cree of July 26th 1865. — Putting in execution of the
law of July 1st 1865 (from Charleroi to Brussels). — The tax is fixed
at fr. 0.002 per ton of cargo and per kilometre.
Royal decree of May 7 th 1867. — Reduction of the preceding
tax to fr. 0.0012.
Royal decree of June 1st 1886. — Fixing of the dues of 1867
at fr. 0.0016 (with a view to uniformity).
of October 30th 1820. — The tax is payable
on passing the offices; it is fl. 0.03 per ton of capacity or cubic m. of
the Netherlands, for loaded boats and half for empty boats. Regulation
of May 20th 1843. – Putting in execution of the treaty of April
19th 1839 and of November 5th 1842. — The tax due on passing the
offices is fixed at fr. 0.008 per cubic metre of capacity of the boat per
league of 5 kilometres, for loaded boats, and half for empty boats.
Royal decree of January 6th 1870. – Reduction of this
tax for boats furnished with a scale of dimensions. For boats of which
the cargo does not exceed half the tonnage, the tax reduced to fr. 0.004
is levied on this half and the entire tax of fr. 0.008 on the other half;
in the contrary case the toll of fr. 0.008 is levied on the total of the tonnage.
C on v ention of October 31st 1885. — The tax of navigation
is fixed at fr. 0.0016 per ton of cargo per kilometre.
Royal de c ree
26th 1835.
of October 13th 1832. — The tax is fixed at
fixed at fl. 0.09 per ton and per league.
Royal de cree of September 1st 1840, November 1st 1849,
September 22nd 1852, April 5th and October 24th 1854. —
Reductions of this tax for pit-coals and various other materials.
Royal de cree 26th 1855. — Uniform tax, for
all sorts of merchandise, of fr. 0.06 per ton per league.
Royal decree of July 26th 1865. – Putting in execution
of the law of July 1st 1865 (Charleroi to Brussels). — The tax is
fixed at fr. 0.0075 per ton of cargo per kilometre.
Royal decree of July 1st 1886. – Reduction of this tax to
fr. 0.004.
Royal de cree
of September
3]
DESIGNATION OF THE NAV-
GABLE WAYS.
H | S T O R | C. A. L.
Dendre.
Conceded to the Provin-
ces by decree of Decem-
ber 17th 1819.
Taken back by the bud-
getary law February
18th 1840.
Canalised by the State
and conceded by virtue
of the law of September
8th 1859, by Royal
decree of January 8th
1863.
Royal de cree of August 25th 1887. — Reduction of the
preceding tax to fr. 0.0016.
Royal decree of August 13th 1822. — Part situated in
Hain a ult: The tax is fixed per ton, as follows: Office of Lessines:
Direction from Lessines to Ath and vice-versa; fully loaded fr. 0.06,
half loaded fr. 0.045, empty fr. 0.01. Direction from Lessines to Gram-
mont and vice-versa: fr. 0.02, fr. 0.105, and fr. 0.01 as above.
Roy a 1 de c ree of December 13th 1829. — Part situated
in East Flanders. — The tax is fixed at fr. 0.0175 per ton of the
boat loaded or empty payable before each of the 7 offices.
Royal decree of October 5th 1868. — The taxes are uni-
formly fixed for the whole length of the river, as follows:
francs.
Per ton of cargo per kilometre . . . . . 0.006
ditto capacity ditto . . . 0.002
ditto (returning empty) . . . 0.002
Total . . . . 0.010
Annex No. II.
M () DE 0 F (3 AU (; IN G B O AT S.
Total tonnage. — To arrive at a knowledge of the weight of the complete cargo
of a boat, we take four horizontal sections of the vessel, the first at the water-
line when empty, the second 50 centimetres higher, the third at one metre above
the water-line, and the fourth coincident with the plane of the highest water-line.
Between these planes of immersion when empty, and when fully laden the boat
is thus divided into three sections, of which the sum of the volumes represents the
number of cubic metres of water displaced by the full cargo of the boat, that is, the
maximum number of tons of 1000 kilogrammes which it can carry. -
The volume of each section is easily obtained by calculating the area of the two
limiting sections above and below the section considered, and in multiplying the half
of the sum of these areas by the height which separates them.
The following formulae serve to make the calculations in question:
The area of the 1st section equals:
a, + 2b, + c, c, -i- 2a, + 2e, H–2ſ, + g,
4 X l, + 8 x L., + "itºl tº x , = A.
The area of the 2nd section equals:
Cl2 ++ tº X l, +% + 2d, ++ + 2ſ., + g, X L, + 92 ++,+, X la = A.
The area of the 3nd section equals:
Cl3 +++. x 1, +* + 2d, + º + ºf + 9s X L. -- * ++,+, X l', - Aa.
And the area of the 4th Section equals:
a. **, + °. x , 16. -- 2d. +2e. -- *f, * g. X L, —H. ***** X l'. - A,.
4 4. 8
From these surfaces we deduce the cubes:
1st of the lower section:
AºA, X 0.50 m. – W. ;
2nd of the intermedial section:
**xosom.–v,;
3md of the upper section:
AºA, X (H — 1.00 m.) = Wa.
The sum of the cubes V, + W. -- Wa – T or the total tonnage of the boat.
In the gauge manifest the letters of the formulae and of the sections are replaced
by the corresponding figures.
The widths such as b and h are taken at mid distance between the widths a
and c, g and i.
The widths c, d, e, f, g are equidistant.
33
PROGRESSIVE TONNAGE. — The progressive tonnage of the boat at intervals of 5
centimetres in calculated as follows from the draft when empty to the draft when fully
laden :
Lower section. — From nought to the total volume of this section the volume
e - 1 e
increases every 5 centimetres by a fraction equal to 10. of the volume of the Section.
Intermediate section. – From the volume of the lower section to the volume of the
two sections united the volume increases every 5 centimetres by a fraction equal to
w of the volume of the intermediate section.
Upper section. — In this section the volume increases every 5 centimetres by a
1
fraction equal to the of the volume of the said section (n representing the number
of times 5 centimetres is contained in the height of the third section).
\* WHEN FULLY LADEN 4"Section.
\ - –3*—l UPPER SECTION__
sº 2!h ºf UNTERMEDIATE # -
SWATERLINE WHENIEMETYT IIſ TLâWERTI
-|
&
DUFOURNY. 3




VI* International Inland Navigation Congress.
T H E H A G U E, 1894.
Tolls on Navigable Ways in France,
REPORT
M A U. R. I C E R E N A U D,
Ingénieur des Ponts et Chaussées à Paris.
1. – INTRODUCTION AND DIVISION OF THE REPORT.
In France nearly all (93 9/o) of the system of navigable ways is in the
hands of the State, and is worked and administered by it.
The laws of December 21st 1879 and February 19th 1880 suppressed
all navigation dues on these ways, and at the present time only a few
customary tolls are levied.
Tolls, therefore, only exist on that portion of the system, which has been
made the object of concessions still in force, viz., the following:
Perpetual concessions.
RIVERS. RILOMETREs.
The canalised Lez or Grave canal . e - * {º g g g & e 10
CANALS.
Tunel '. º e e * º º º * ſº e g º * * e 9
Midi . e tº . .279
Ourcq, St. Denis and St. Martin (belonging to the city of Paris) e . 120
2
Temporary concessions.
CANALS. KILOMETRES. EXPIRATION OF
- THE CONCESSIONS.
Furnes to Dunkirk . e e • e e º 13 1899
Dive . e o - º e • e º - 40 1925,
From the Sambre to the Oise . e º - 71 1937
Bourgidon (Branch of the canal from the
Rhône to Cette) . * & - e º o 11 1939
Sylvéréal ( ditto ) s = - - - - 9 1939
Vassy to St. Dizier . e • º º • 23 º 1948
Beuvry (Branch of the Aire canal) . e - 3 1950
Canalised Souchez (Part of the canal from
Lens to the Deulle) . . . . . . 3 1950
Garonne Lateral - e e - e e . 213 1960
In replying to the fifth question of the programme of the work of the
Congress we think it will be useful to point out what were the tolls
levied on the State system of navigable ways before 1880, and what was
the mode of collection and control employed.
With regard to the conceded ways, we will select the principal ones
amongst them and briefly study them from this point of view.
For this purpose we have selected the following:
1* The Midi Canal and the Garonne Lateral Canal (administered by
the same Company).
2nd The Canals of the city of Paris.
3”" The Canal from the Sambre to the Oise.
4th The Canal from Vassy to St. Dizier.
We will give later on the general conclusions which we find to result
from the study of this subject.
li. – TOLLS LEWIED ON THE STATE SYSTEM OF NAVIGABLE WAYS
before 1880.
The rates of navigation dues levied before 1880 on navigable canals and
rivers administered by the State had been fixed in the most recent case
by an Imperial decree of 19th of February 1867.
The rate was per ton per kilometre.
The navigable ways were divided in two categories:
1. Rivers and canals assimilated to rivers.
2. Canals and rivers assimilated to canals.
A table annexed to the decree indicated for every navigable way the
category in which it should be included.
For the collection of the rates merchandise was divided in two classes.
The first class comprised generally wines, cereals, colonial wares, worked
metals, textile fabrics, provisions etc. -
The second class unworked metals, combustibles, wood, minerals etc.
and all objects not mentioned in the first class.
The tariffs were as follows:
PER TON PER KII.OMETRE.
~~"ººm-->- = "T--
1st Category. | 2nd Category.
1st Class * & g & * e tº } tº s f 0.002 f 0.005.
(two millimes) (five millimes)
2nd class g t º g * g e & & & f 0.001 f 0.002
(one millime) (two millimes)
For wood-floats and rafts there was a special tariff, by which they
paid by cubic metre, per ton per kilometre :
1st Category. 2nd Category.
f 0.0002. f 0.002.
Empty boats were exempt from all toll; and there were no Supplemen-
tary dues demanded for navigation at night.
Before entering on the question of the mode of collection it is neces-
sary to remark that in France all boats travelling on the navigable ways
were gauged and are still gauged according to the decree of November
17th 1880.
No boat is allowed to travel unless it has first been gauged and fur-
nished with a certificate.
This certificate declares:
18". The name or divice of the boat.
2nd. The name and place of residence of the owner.
3rd. The exterior dimensions of the boat.
4th. The draft of water when fully loaded.
5th. The draft of water when empty but with the rigging.
6th. The tonnage of the boat when fully loaded and the tonnage per
centimetre of immersion.
On each side of the boat is affixed a copper scale graduated in centi-
metres. The zero of the Scale corresponds to the draft of water when
the boat is empty and a mark placed higher up indicates the floating
line when completely loaded.
On iron boats the scale may be simply painted on the hull, on condi-
tion that it be on a part that is absolutely fixed.
Bargemen are forbidden to remove these scales, and, moreover, the agents
of the administration of Bridges and Ways may at any time of the year
proceed to a verification of the gauge.
In addition, every person in charge of a boat or float must be provided
on every journey with a declaration specifying the nature and weight of
the merchandise he is transporting, all loading or unloading, which has
been effected on the route as well as the points of departure and of
destination.
In connection with the collection of dues the importance of this gau-
ging certificate required from boatmen in France will be easily understood.
The collector is not obliged to rely on the bargemen’s declaration, nor to
take the gauge in every case. .
4
The immersion of the Scales gives the tonnage and the reading of these
scales at different points of the route is sufficient for the control.
These explanations given we return to te mode of collection and control
in use on the navigable system of the State before 1880.
The collection of dues was effected by a service absolutely distinct from
and independent of that of the maintainance, viz., the service for the
collection of indirect taxes administered by the Minister of Finance.
Collecting offices were established at the principal ports which served at
the same time for collecting and for control.
All boats travelling on the system, whether empty or loaded, liable to dues
or exempt, had to be provided with a document showing that they had
made at one of the collecting offices the declaration required by the law
and this document had to be produced whenever it was demanded.
This document, as we shall see further on, was entitled a pass (laissez-pas-
Ser) or provisional receipt, (acquit à caution) according as the boats were liable
to duty, or were empty boats, or exempted from duty, employed in the
work of repair and maintainance, boats belonging to the State etc. and
thus requiring only a pass.
Those in charge of the boats were not obliged to pay at the time of
departure. This could be done either at the place of departure, in the
course of the journey, or at the place of destination.
In the first case a pass with a receipt was handed to the boatman.
This document contained all particulars concerning the cargo, the places
of departure and destination and had to be controlled at all the collec-
ting offices passed on the journey and delivered up to the office at the
place of destination.
In the Second case the bargeman received a pass without a receipt ; this
had to be controlled at the first office reached, and payment made for
the distance traversed, for which a receipt was given. He could then
continue his journey until another collecting office was reached, where
the same formalities had to be again observed and so on from office to
Office until the destination was reached where the pass was given up
and payment of the last dues made.
In the third case the boatman took a provisional receipt (acquit à
caution) containing all particulars required by the control, the tonnage,
nature of the merchandise, places of departure and destination, and which
was controlled at all the offices passed on the way and delivered up at
the office of destination where the dues were paid.
The first and the third cases especially occurred when boats transported
a complete cargo from one point to another, and the second when partial
loading or unloading was effected in the course of the journey.
We must add that when any embarcation was effected in a port where
no collecting office existed the boatman had to provide himself with a
provisional pass, which he obtained at the nearest office; he took this
5
pass at the first office he reached on his journey and it was further
regulated as explained above.
Control was exercised at the collecting offices by the presentation and
examination of the pass or receipt, and at any part of the journey in
the same way; these documents could be inspected by any agent of the
administration of indirect taxes and even by the lock-keepers. -
The general control was administered in the following way:
The pass or provisional receipt was taken out of a register in which
was retained a corresponding coupon ; it might be obtained at any office
and had to be delivered up at the office of destination, or at one of the
offices in the course of the route, and there attached to the coupon of
the receipt delivered. A clerk checked these documents, and comparing
them with their coupons made certain that every delivery of a pass or
provisional receipt effected in one office corresponded to a receipt in
another.
It will be seen that this system was somewhat complicated. There was
no permanent control at the places of departure and destination except
when the loading or unloading took place in a port where there was a
collecting office.
In other cases the only means of guidance were the bill of lading and
the declaration of the boatman, and these declarations were only checked
by a roving control. It is thus clear that transports effected between
two offices might easily escape all payment of dues.
III. THE MIDI CANAL AND THE GARONNE LATERAL CANAL.
The Midi Canal begins below Toulouse, where it communicates with the
Garonne, and fhe Garonne Lateral Canal, and finds its issue in the lake of
Thau. Its length including the junction canal and the outlet of Narbonne
is 279 kilometres. The difference of water-level is regulated by 65 locks
on the principal line, 17 of which are on the Atlantic side, and 48 on the
side of the Mediterranean. The canal company holds a perpetual con-
cession. This company has, however, sub-led the working of the canal
for an annual payment to the ,Compagnie des chemins de fer du Midi”.
The Garonne Lateral Canal is a continuation of the Midi Canal; its
length including the Brienne canal, the Montauban branch, the feeding
canal at Agen, and the falls in the Tarn and the Baise is 213 kilometres.
It was conceded to the ,Compagnie des chemins de fer du Midi”
in virtue of the law of July 25th 1852 by a decree of August 4th of
the same year. A new decree on August 1st 1857 prolonged the
Original concession in such a manner that the concession does not expire
before December the 31st 1960.
The general tariffs of navigation dues on the Midi Canal are fixed per
ton per distance of 5 kilometres. .
They comprise 6 articles relating :
1st to travellers divided into two classes.
2nd to cattle also divided into two classes.
3rd to rafts comprising two classes.
4th to fish-boxes.
5th to empty boats divided into four classes.
6th to merchandise divided into five classes.
The table of tariffs gives the complete nomenclature of the merchandise
included in each class which is too long and useless to enumerate.
We will give some idea of the classification in naming the principal
objects of each class.
The first class comprises articles of luxury, Paris goods, cabinet-
work, Rouen haberdashery, fresh vegetables, wines in hampers and in
bottles, etc. -
The second class alimentary and colonial wares, oats, corn, maize, wine
in casks, hardware, machines, instruments used in husbandry, etc., etc.
The third class timber, railway sleepers, manure, rough castings, iron
rails, etc.
The fourth class slates, tiles, bricks, lime, cement, hewn stone, fire-
wood, etc.
The fifth class pit-coal, mill-stones, lime and sand-stone, broken stone,
sand, earth and fecal matter, etc.
We will give the tariffs concerning merchandise as these are the only
ones of real interest. They are as follows:
PER TON PER DISTANCE OF 5 KILOMETRES :
For the 1st class . . g e º e & 30 centimes.
º * 2nd n * * & & & e e 25 º,
ºn n 3rd n 20 *
n n 4th m 15 º
º n 5th m 10 º
It is stipulated that the navigation dues on each distance of five kilo-
metres shall be paid in full for every fraction of that distance traversed.
On the Garonne Lateral Canal the general tariffs are per ton per
kilometre. These general tariffs comprise seven articles relating to the
following objects:
The first to travellers divided into two classes.
The second to cattle comprising four classes.
The third to merchandise divided into two classes.
The fourth to wood-floats.
The fifth to fish-boxes.
The sixth to casks and barrels of every capacity each one separately.
The seventh to empty boats.
With respect to merchandise it will be sufficient to say without going
into details of the nomenclature that the first class corresponds nearly
7
to the first three classes of the Midi Canal, and the second to the last
two of that line.
On the Garonne Lateral Canal the tariffs are different accordingly as
the transport is effected ascending or descending.
For merchandise the tariff is as follows:
PER TON PER KILOMETRE,
--~~~~T"--~ *--~
ASCé11b. Desu Club.
For merchandise of the 1st class 4 centimes. 3 centimes.
*} * º Y) 2nd r) 3 r) 2 º,
As already Said empty boats enjoy a special tariff, which is as below:

→
ſ MIDI CANAL. | GARONNE LATERAL CANAL.
Per kilometre.
~ *---~~ *---
Per distance of
5 kilometres.
ASCending. Descending.
Empty boats of 80 tons or more and pleasure
boats . & * º 3 gº e & tº e e 50 centimes. 10 Centimes. 4 centimes.
Empty boats of 20 tons and less than 80 tº º 37% m 7% r) 3 º
Empty boats of less than 20 tons e ſe s 25 n 5 r) 2% m
On these canals boats navigating at night pay at each lock a supple-
mentary tax of 30 centimes whatever may be their tonnage or in whichever
direction they may be proceeding.
In addition to these general tariffs there are on these navigable ways
special tariffs applying to special kinds of merchandise and for fixed
distances. -
These special tariffs are 16 in number.
One of them applies to passenger boats on the canals and fixes a
subscription of fr. 150 per month for one boat, and fr. 75 for each
additional boat employed by the same contractor.
The others refer to the transport of certain kinds of marchandise and
may be divided into four categories:
1st. Special tariffs conceded to certain kinds of merchandise between
Cette and Bordeaux in both directions, and traversing the entire length
of the two canals. They are 10 in number and apply to steel, iron,
sleepers, wood, marble, Salt, oats, corn, maize, hemp, oil-cake, chemical
products etc.
The reductions made on the general tariff by these means vary from
15 to 60 °/2.
2". A special tariff for corn, rye, maize, combustibles, minerals,
wrought and cast-iron used in the construction of railways, Norwegian wood
going from a foreign port on the Mediterranean to a foreign port on the Atlantic.
This tariff is very low, the reduction being as much as 80 °/s.
3*. Special tariff to certain kinds of merchandise going from any one
8
point on the canals to any other point. These tariffs are three in num-
ber, and apply to sorgho-stalks, anthracite coal, mud, manure, and
timber-floats. -
The reduction on the general tariff exceeds 60 °/.
4th. Special tariff for certain kinds of merchandise between two fixed
points of the canal. This tariff refers to boats descending the Garonne.
The reduction made is about 30 °/s. -
The dues are collected by means of 21 collecting offices, but this ser.
vice has the assistance of all the staff attached to the maintainance of
the canal. *
When a boat commences its journey or enters the canal it receives
from the agent, guard, lockkeeper or watchman of the district, a des-
criptive document comprehending all the elements necessary for the
estimation of the amount of the dues, place of departure, nature
of the merchandise, immersion of the scales etc. This document is
sent by the agent who compiles it to the first collecting office which
the bargeman will reach on his journey, the bargeman taking his own
copy with him. -
He has to produce this at the first office and receives there a bill of
payment containing an account of the dues which he will have to pay at
the place of destination. This account is made out according to his
declarations and has to be controlled at every collecting office which the
boat passes, as well as at all the locks and moveable bridges. Every one
of these agents has to Satisfy himself that no alteration has been made in
the state of the cargo.
If in the course of the journey any supplementary dues have to be
levied, such for instance, as for passing a lock at night, the fact is
advised to the nearest collecting office by means of a report from the
agent, who has witnessed the operation and a notification of the same is
made on the bill of payment at the time of passing this office.
When any partial unloading or loading is effected in the course of the
journey a descriptive report is immediately made out by the agent of the
district in which it has occurred, and the nearest collecting office being
advised this office notes the alteration on the bill of payment.
Such events may either be notified in a special report or inscribed on
the bill of payment.
When the boat arrives at its destination or leaves the canal. the nearest
collecting office is advised and on the production of the bill of payment,
which it now withdraws, collects the amount of the dues and gives a
receipt for the same to the bargeman.
Under these conditions it seems that a good control on the journey is
assured, as no boatman can travel without a document, which must
be produced whenever it is demanded, and which is examined at many
points on the canal. Between the collecting offices supervision is exercised
9
by the agents of the administration who have to control and report all
movements and all operations made. .
A general control is easily exercised in the following manner:
Each collecting office sends every month to the administration an
account of the bills of payment it has delivered and of those it has with-
drawn. By comparing these two accounts from all the offices the certainty
can be obtained that all the dues have been collected.
The traffic on these canals was in 1892, 465489 tons, and was composed
as follows:
Midi Canal, principal line - e e • e ... 208725 tons.
Junction Canal and Robine de Narbonne . . . e 53 623
Garonne Lateral Canal º e & e - g e 203 136 m
The average annual receipts during the last ten years (navigation dues
only) have been in round numbers fr. 1 250 000.
The annual expenses (including general expenses) have been during the
same period in round numbers fr. 1080 000.
It should be added that on these Canals there are other sources of
income, such as those arising from plantations, letting, etc. of which the
annual amount during the same period was about fr. 310 000.
IV. — CANALS BELONGING TO THE CITY OF PARIS.
The canals of the city of Paris are three in number, viz.:
The St. Denis Canal,
The St. Martin Canal and
The Ourcq Canal.
They were remitted by a perpetual concession to the city of Paris by
the law of the 29th Floréal of the year X, and a decree of September
4* 1807. The town again conceded them, but bought them back in 1861
and 1876. They are at the present day administered directly by the city
Of Paris. -
The St. Denis and the St. Martin Canals form the two branches of a
canal crossing a watershed and running from the Seine (St. Denis) to the
Seine (below the Pont d’Austerlitz). The separating reach is formed by the
basin of la Villette. Each of the two branches has retained its special
denomination. Their principal object is to allow boats coming on the one
side from the lower Seine and on the other from the upper Seine access
to the basin of la Villette and the intermediate ports.
Their tariffs are not exactly the same and boats using the St. Denis
canal are allowed to be of larger dimensions than those navigating la
St. Martin canal.
The St. Denis canal from the Seine (St. Denis) to the basin of the
Vilette has a length of 6647 km.; the incline was formerly regulated by
M. RENAUD. 1*
1()
12 locks. At the present day this canal is so altered that it has not more
than 7 locks. .
The St. Martin canal starting from the Seine below the Pont
d’Austerlitz to the basin of la Villette has a length of 4.533 km. and
the incline is regulated by 9 locks.
The Ourcq canal is an alimentary canal. Starting from la Ferté-Milon
it issues in the basin of la Villette after a course of 107.9 km. It
brings to this basin water for the supply of the St. Denis and the St.
Martin canals, and at the same time water for the public service of the
town. The total incline of this canal is 15.35 m., which is regulated by the
incline of the reaches, as well as by 10 locks. It is only used by a
particular class of boats, called flûtes d'Ourcq which are 3 metres wide
and 28 metres long.
On the St. Denis and St. Martin canals the general tariffs are fixed per
ton per lock. The lock taken as the basis of the lock tariff is the
old lock, that is to say that, although in consequence of the alteration
of the St. Denis canal two or four locks have been replaced by one, the
boat pays for this one lock as much as formerly had to be paid for the
two or four old locks.
On the St. Denis canal merchandise is divided into five classes.
The first class includes sugar, molasses, timber, flour, wheat, corn, fruit,
metals, groceries and all merchandise not named in the other classes.
The 2nd class tiles, bricks, lime, cement, pottery and charcoal.
The 3” class building materials and combustibles.
The 4th class straw, fodder, earth and manure.
The 5th class water.
The tariffs per class are as follows:
PER TON PER LOCK.
1st class - e e º - - º 7 centimes.
2nd m - - e e - • c 6 *
3rd 3) - • e e - - • 5 r)
4th m - . . º - - º 4 n
5th m 2 r)
On the St. Martin canal merchandise is likewise divided into five classes.
The 1st class includes wines, spirits, and all liquids.
The 2nd class groceries, flour, wheat, corn, fruit, combustibles, timber,
wood-work, quick-lime, slates, tiles, etc.
The 3" class fire-wood, hewn stone, sandstone, flagstones and mill-stones.
The 4* class turf, old iron, rough castings, plaster-stone and lime-stone.
The 5th class water, earth, rubbish, etc.
The tariffs per class are as follows:
PEN TON PER LOCK.
1st Class . - © & © - s 20 centimes.
2nd n . e º g º - e 10 *
3rd n - e 7% 7,
4th m º - º e º - º 5 ºr)
5th m - 3 n
11
On the Ourcq Canal the general tariffs are per ton per distance
of five kilometres.
For the collection of the rates there are six classes of merchandise.
The first comprises charcoal and dried night-soil.
The second cement, water, dung, night-soil, sugar, molasses, liquids
and generally all merchandise not named in the other classes.
The 3rd class sawdust.
The 4” class carbonised turf, hewn stone, beet-root and pulp.
The 5" class turf, turf-dust, charcoal, paving-stones, straw, hay, lucern,
corn, flour, bran, offal and salt. -
The 6th class coal and coke.
The prices are different accordingly as the transport is effected ascend-
ing or descending.
They are as follows:
PER TON PER DISTANCE OF 5 KILOMETREs.
descending. ascending.
1** Class . g g s 10 centimes.
2nd º {º} g e 6 * |
3rd : 5 º * 4 Centimes.
4th r 4 º |
5th r) 3 - *
6th m 2 * .
Empty boats are exempt from all dues on the Ourcq Canal; on the
St. Denis and St. Martin canals they only pay when they have not
traversed or are not about to traverse the canal with cargo, that is to
say that an empty boat having discharged on one of the canals, or about
to load there is allowed freedom from dues in going or returning for the
same number of locks as it passed or will pass when loaded.
Empty boats are subjected to the following tariffs:
PER LOCK.
Sº Denis. St Martin.
Per boat gauging 200 tons or more . . . . f 3.75 f 5.00
r) ºr, H 150 to 199 tons . e tº * * n 3.00 n 4.00
ºn º º 100 n 149 * * e e t * 2.25 n 3.00
* * n less than 100 m * º g * º m 1.50 | n 2.00
On the canals of the town all boats whatever may be their tonnage
and their cargo pay a supplementary due of 50 centimes for each lock or
bridge passed at night. * * :
Special tariffs are very numerous on these canals and in reckoning
navigation dues they are applied more frequently than the general tariffs.
It would be long and useless to quote them, so we will confine ourselves
to pointing out their principles and to indicating the Seven categories in
which they may be arranged :
1* Category. — Special tariffs for merchandise of all kinds coming from
Some fixed point to any destination on the canal.
12
The most important of these tariffs is in force on the St. Denis canal
and applies to merchandise coming from Rouen. It is a fixed rate of 50
centimes per ton, which is equal to a reduction of 25 °lo on the general
tariff. -
2nd Category. — Special tariffs for certain kinds of merchandise coming
from Some particular place to any point on the canal.
We would point out, as coming under this category, a special tariff on
the St. Denis canal for merchandise from the Oise, and destined for any
place on the canal, provided it does not consist of hewn stone, building
materials, coal, wood or carbonised turf.
On the Ourcq canal special tariffs made by contract or per ton per distance
of 5 kilometres for rough stones, bricks, hewn stones, tiles, lime, plaster and
wood, special tariffs which are fixed according to the point of embarcation of
these goods, and solely for the descent. A certain number of these tariffs, and
especially those relating to rough stones, lime and plaster are zone tariffs.
3rd Category. — Special tariffs for certain kinds of merchandise going
from one fixed point to another.
In this category we find:
On the St. Denis canal a special tariff of 20 centimes per ton for
boats carrying sugar from Villenoy (Ourcq) and destined for the stations
of Aubervilliers and Flanders. The reduction on the general tariff
is 35 °/o.
A special tariff in exactly the same conditions is applied on the Ourcq
canal.
On the St. Martin canal there is a special rate for boats loaded with
bricks, tiles or slates coming from the lower Seine, and bound for la
Villette. This special rate is based on the superficial area of the boat.
4th Category. — Special tariffs for certain kinds of merchandise travers-
ing a certain minimum distance on the canal.
Under this category there is on the St. Martin canal a special tariff of
fr. 1.00 for wines, spirits and other liquids passing through at least six
locks. The reduction is sometimes as much as 20 °/o on the general tariff.
5th Category. — Special tariffs for merchandise traversing the entire
canal without discharging.
These tariffs are very complicated, as they depend on the origin and
destination of the merchandise.
For instance, on the St. Denis canal boats passing from the lower Seine
to the upper Seine with their entire cargo pay 20 centimes per ton, that
is, they enjoy a reduction which may reach as much als 75 9/o on the
general tariff.
On the St. Martin canal boats passing from the upper Seine to the
lower Seine pay as if empty.
6th Category. — Special tariffs for return cargoes when the boats have
already traversed the canal loaded.
13
On the St. Denis canal boats coming from the lower Seine, and destined
for the basin of la Villette, or for the St. Martin canal are free of all dues
for return cargoes.
On the St. Martin canal the same rule applies to boats having passed
at least six locks on this canal.
In addition to navigation dues proper on the Denis and St. Martin
canals harbour and wharſ dues are levicd.
These dues are rather complicated, and we do not consider that the
study of them comes within the scope of this report.
We must add that by a prefectoral decree of January 24th 1881
all navigation dues on the canals of the city of Paris were reduced by
one fifth ; the dues now levied are thus only four fifths of those given above.
On these canals the only collecting office is at la Villette. There is
however an auxiliary office for the purpose of receiving only on the Ourcq
canal. The mode of collection in practice on the st. Denis and St. Martin
canals is somewhat different to that on the Ourcq canal.
On entering the St. Denis and St. Martin canals at the locks on the
Seine each boat receives a pass. This pass contains all the information
necessary for the application of the tariffs: the starting place of the boat,
nature of the cargo, immersion of the scales, and the destination of the mer-
chandise according to the bargeman's declaration. This document is examined
at all the locks and moveable bridges passed by the boat, and the immer-
Sion of the scales and the nature of the merchandise is checked. If, however,
the boat effects a partial or total loading or unloading the fact is noted
on the pass by the agent of the district in which it takes place, together
with the name of the place and the dates of the commencement and
finishing of the operation. When a boat has discharged or taken in its
cargo and is ready to leave the canals, it has to make application at
the collecting office at la Villette, and state by which route it is desired
to depart. It has to produce at the same time its bill of lading, its pass
and its certificate. The account of the dues is immediately made out,
the bargeman pays the account, and obtains a receipt for it. The pass is
then stamped to show that it has been seen, and permission given to
depart up to a certain date and by way of a certain canal. Provided with
this document he can leave the canal; it is, however examined, under the
same conditions as on arrival at the departure locks, and if the exit is
not effected according to the conditions noted on the pass, supplementary
dues are charged, which have to be paid before the boat definitely quits
the canal.
The passes are delivered up at the last locks, and sent back by the col-
lecting office at la Villette, where they are again controlled.
On the Ourcq canal the mode of collection is nearly the same, the same
pass is used, the same details and the same indications are noted on it,
the only differences being the following: -
14
The passes are delivered on the ascending journey, and serve for this
as well as for the descending journey.
The pass is always withdrawn as soon as the descent is completed. If
the boat descends as far as the inside of the fortifications of Paris the
system applied is absolutely the same as described above.
In the contrary case the pass is withdrawn and is sent by the district
agents to the collecting office at la Villette, which makes out the account
and requests payment from the owner to be made either at that office or
at the auxiliary office on the Ourcq canal. This system is possible, because
the boats in question do not leave the waters of the Ourcq and conse-
quently cannot escape payment of the dues.
It will be seen that the control on the route is assured by the exami-
nation made at the locks and moveable bridges, as also by the obligation
of presenting the pass at any point, whenever it is demanded by an agent.
A general control is exercised by the return of the pass to the collec-
ting office as soon as the boat has left the canal or completed its journey,
as well as by the keeping at the locks of a record of the passages made,
and on the Ourcq canal of a record of the unloadings and loadings effected
each week in the different parts of the canal. By comparison made between
these records and the passes assurance is obtained that no dues have
escaped collection. -
The general tonnage on the canals of the town in the year 1892 was
3.509 358 tons, composed as follows:
Ourcq Canal . e & & * 743.922 tons.
St. Denis m e © e & # 1686 629 m
St. Martin n g e • e & 1078807 m
The average annual receipts calculated on the last ten years amount to:
For navigation dues proper in round figures 817 000 francs distributed
as follows:
Ourcq Canal g * º $ g 126 000 francs.
St. Denis n * e & * e 430 000 r)
St. Martin n g e e g e 261 000 r)
To this must be added various other profits which during the same
period have amounted annually to about 265 000 francs, thus bringing
the total receipts up to 1082 000 francs.
The annnal cost of maintainance, not including general expenses,
amounted to 440 000 francs.
During this last period of ten years the amount expended by the city
of Paris for repairs and improvements on the St. Denis canal and on the
basin of la Villette was about sixteen millions of francs.
15
V. – CANAL FROM THE SAMBRE TO THE OISE.
The junction canal between the Sambre and the Oise begins at Land-
recies and terminates at La Fère. It unites the basin of the Meuse with
that of the Seine. Its length is 71 kilometres and it is divided into reaches.
It has 38 locks of which 3 are on the side of the Sambre and 35 on that
of the Oise.
It is handed over to and administered by a private company.
The general tariffs are per ton per distance of five kilometres.
Merchandise is divided into six classes and we are about to show the
principal constituents of each of them :
1st class. – Charcoal, petroleum and all objects not named in the other
classes.
2nd class. – Corn, flour, hay, fruit, pit-coal, sugar, molasses, etc.
3" class. – Lime, cement, hewn stones and flagstones, wood of all
kinds, lead, zinc etc.
4th class. – Bricks, rough stones, iron bars, rails etc.
5th class. – Coke, chalk, coal-cinders, sulphates etc.
6" class. – Tar and pitch, old iron, old castings, plaster, manure,
earth etc.
The tariffs are the same for both directions and are as follows:
PER TON PER DISTANCE OF 5 KILOMETRES.
1st class e e * e & g 20 Centimes.
2nd n © & g † es As 15 y)
3rd m . 10 r
4th r) e & e * * g 8 *
5th ºn 6 r
6th º 5 r)
Empty boats whatever may be their size pay a fixed due of 2 francs
per distance of 5 kilometres.
No Supplementary dues are levied for navigation at night.
Special tariffs only exist for wood-floats, for which every tree of an
average circumference of one metre or more pays 20 centimes per distance
of five kilometres, while those of a lesser circumference pay 10 centimes.
Floats of fire-wood pay 10 centimes per metre in length.
We may add that the Company agrees in certain cases on the autho-
rity of the Administrative Council to reductions on the general tariffs,
and further, takes upon itself the gratuitous towage of empty or loaded
boats in accordance with the above rates.
There are also on this canal, as on the St. Denis and St. Martin canals,
harbour dues.
The collection of the navigation dues is effected by four offices, estab-
lished one at each end of the canal, and two others in the course of
the route.
16
Payment of the dues is made in advance and alterations made in the
course of the journey are regulated by Supplementary payments or
allowances. . -
When a boat enters the canal the boatman makes his declaration at
the receiving office. The collector gauges the boat, makes out an account
of the dues, and receives the amount of the same; hands to the boatman a
receipted pass, together with a control ticket. * -
These documents contain all particulars required for the control on th
route, such as place of starting, destination, nature of cargo and immer-
sion of scales.
If the boat traverses the entire length it delivers up to the receiving
office when leaving the canal the control ticket, keeping the pass, which
serves as a receipt. -
If, on the contrary, the destination is within the limits of the canal he
delivers up the control ticket to the nearest agent before any loading or
unloading is effected.
If a boat commences its journey within the limits of the canal, it must
in the first place be provided with a similar pass. For this purpose the
tonnage and nature of the cargo are controlled by the nearest agent, and
he reports the particulars to the nearest receiving office. When the
boatman reaches this office he receives his pass with the particulars
noted on it.
Control on the route is administered by the lock and bridge keepers
examining and certifying the pass, and by all the agents of the canal
who may demand its production at any point of the way. At the passing
of the boat each of these agents has to compare the nature of the mer-
chandise and the draft with the indications given on the pass. The
agent who receives in the last instance the control ticket compares the
indications given on the pass with the cargo. The locks are very close
together and the interior traffic somewhat limited, the control is therefore
comparatively easy.
General control is effected by verifying the entries and the calculations
of the receivers and comparing the sums collected with the control tickets
handed in by the bargeman. -
In 1892 the tonnage on this Canal amounted to 849 751 tons.
The average of the annual receipts for navigation dues proper during
the last ten years was in round numbers . . . . . . 843 000 francs.
Eor other profits (letting, trees, grass etc.) . e & g g . 26 000 r)
TOtal * * . 869 000 francs.
The cost of maintainance and administration including general expenses
averaged during the same period 482 000 francs.
17
WI. – CANAL FROM ST. DIZIER TO WASSY.
The canal from St. Dizier to Vassy is a branch of the Haute Marne
canal and its length is 23 kilometres. It begins at Brousseval, and extends
to Hoëricourt, where it joins the principal line. Its incline is regulated
by 8 locks. It was conceded to M. FESTUGIièR, who by a later decree
handed it over to ,,La Société des Forges de Champagne”.
The general tariffs are per ton per kilometre and merchandise is
divided into four classes, viz.
1st class. – Iron ore, stone and sand.
2nd , – Pit-coal and coke.
3rd , — Wood, cast-iron and rough iron.
4th — Merchandise not mentioned above.
}}
The tariffs are the same for ascending or descending and are to follows:
IPER TON PER KILOMETRE.
1st Class & e º e e e e & º & 3% centimes.
2nd ºn * & * (e. e © e º e º 4. sº
3rd ºr, ge & e & * e & s . & e 5 º
4th w g & e & g & e & g & 6 r)
Empty boats whether ascending or descending and whatever be their
gauge pay 50 centimes per kilometre. -
No supplementary dues are charged for navigation at night, which as
a matter of fact never occurs.
There are no special tariffs.
Collection is effected in a very simple manner, as there is no interior
traffic on the canal. There is only one collecting office which is situated
in the lock at the junction with the Haute Marne Canal.
When an ascending boat enters the canal the bargeman makes his declara-
tion and produces his bill of lading to the collecting lock-keeper, who
makes out an account of the dues, receives the amount, and taking a
receipt from a register, delivers it to the bargeman to whom it serves as
a pass.
This pass has to be shown whenever it is required by any agent, and
to the lock-keepers who enter in a register kept for the purpose the pas-
Sage of the boat, its starting place, destination and tonnage.
On the descent the first lock-keeper below the point of departure
delivers to the bargeman a ticket, whereon is stated the place of origin,
the destination and the tonnage. This ticket is controlled on the descent
by every lock-keeper on the route; he marks on it the hour at which
his lock was passed and enters the fact in a register.
On leaving the canal this ticket is delivered up to the collecting lock-
keeper, who collects and gives a receipt for the dues. In certain cases this
ticket may serve to rectify the account of the dues collected on the
ascent, when the place of destination is not the same as was indicated at
18
the time of ascending. The control on the route is effected by the lock-
keepers at the passing of the boat, and is further assured by an inspector,
and the Director of the Administration, who on their periodical visits
easily see that no boat has been omitted, that the destinations and
starting places have been properly noted and the dues regularly paid.
The general control is effected by comparing the account of receipts of
the collecting lock-keeper with extracts from the passage books kept by
the other lock-keepers. -
The administration of this canal is most simple, and in accordance
with the insignifiance of and the lack of variation in the tonnage.
In 1892 the tonnage amounted to 182676 tons.
The average annual receipts for navigation dues proper during
the last ten years were . {º g e * & º # e e 107 000 francs.
for divers other receipts . e º g * & g * & & 9 O00 r;
Total . * g e 116 000 francs.
The average of the annual expenses during the same period including
general expenses was 24 000 francs.
VII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.
From the above study of the system of tolls levied on navigable ways
in France the following general conclusions àppear to arise.
On nearly all the navigable ways the general tariffs are calculated per
ton and according to the distance traversed. The unit of distance is gene-
rally the kilometre, although on Some canals it is five kilometres. On the
St. Denis and the St. Martin canals, which are of short length and have
many locks, the general tariffs are, however, fixed per ton per lock.
Merchandise is divided into a certain number of classes and most fre-
guently in accordance with its value. The number of classes varies on
the different ways from 2 to 6.
The rate of tolls varies according to the navigable way, and to the
class in which the merchandise is comprised. It is generally lower in
proportion as the merchandise is less valuable. On ways where the tariff
is fixed per ton per kilometre the toll varies from 2 to 6 centimes,
on those where it is fixed per ton per distance of 5 kilometres it has
a minimum of 2 and a maximum of 30 centimes; and on those where
the toll is levied per ton per lock the rate varies from 2 to 20
centimes. -
On the principal navigable ways still subject to toll there are in addi-
tion to the general tariffs, special tariffs applicable to certain kinds of
merchandise of a fixed origin or destination. On these ways these special
tariffs are of more frequent application than the general tariffs, and allow
of reductions varying from 15 to 80 °ſo on the general tariffs.
They appear in the form of special reduced tariffs per ton per
19
distance traversed, also in the form of a special rate for a certain distance
or for the entire traverse of the canal, and again in the form of a tariff
per Zone.
Empty boats are either exempt from toll (in a general way or under
particular conditions) or are allowed reduced rates.
No special dues are collected for the manoeuvring of locks, weirs or
bridges.
It is only for the passage of locks and moveable bridges at night on
the Midi Canal and the canals belonging to the city of Paris that special
dues are charged, which are fixed and independent of the tonnage of
the boats.
The collection of dues is facilitated by the system of gauging applied
to every boat travelling on the navigable ways in France, the certificate
with which it has to be provided and the scales on the hull.
The calculation and the collection of the dues are effected in a certain
number of offices, generally established at each extremity of the way, and
at the principal points on the route; the work is aided by the co-opera-
tion of all the agents of the maintenance and the administration on the
canal.
Every boat travelling on a navigable way, on which tolls are levied is
supplied with a document without which it is not allowed to travel. This
document, which constitutes a pass for the boat, may be compiled in
various forms. If the dues are paid in advance it is a receipt pass; if the
dues are not collected until the course is effected, it is a bill of lading
which on certain ways indicates the amounts which the bargeman will
have to pay.
This pass is for a single journey and takes effect as soon as the boat
enters the canal, or commences a journey upon it. It is delivered by
the agent of the district in which the boat is, or at the first collecting
office on the route. In this latter case the boat is supplied by the first
agent with a provisional document, which lakes the place of the pass
until the nearest collecting office is reached.
This pass contains all information necessary for the collection of the
dues, such as the origin and destination, nature of merchandise and immer-
Sion of scales.
Any alteration of the particulars indicated is noted by the agent of the
district, in wich the alteration takes place, and the resulting change in
the calculation of the dues to be paid is made at the nearest collecting
office. If the dues have been paid in advance the difference is here col-
lected or returned ; if the pass indicates the sum due a modification is
made in the account; and if the account is to be made at the end of
the journey the alteration is simply noted on the pass.
When a boat leaves the canal or reaches its destination it delivers up
its pass to the nearest agent.
20
When the pass is receipted, the receipt is held by the bargeman, but
a part of the pass has to be given up. -
The obligation laid on the bargeman of having this document always with
him allows of control on the route. The pass is examined und stamped
at every receiving office and at every lock and moveable bridge passed.
The agents charged with this duty note in the pass the time of passing,
and the depth as shown by the scales.
This document must be produced on the demand of any agent in the
course of the route. -
No boat can load on the canal and commence a journey without being
provided with this document, nor can it discharge cargo without first deli-
vering up this document to the agent of the district in which the operation
takes place. The agent has then to Satisfy himself that the boat is in the
condition indicated in the pass. No partial loading or unloading is per-
mitted until the agent of the district in which the operation takes places
has properly modified the pass, or forwarded a report of the alteration
to the nearest receiving office in order that the modification may be
made there.
The general control is effected by the verification of the accounts in
the receiving offices; as well by comparing the sums received and the
receipts delivered at the offices with the passes, or portions of passes
delivered up by the bargemen to the agents, and which have been returned
to the same office, or to the central office.
(Translated by G. J. Row LAND.)
VI* International Inland Navigation Congress.
T H E H A G U E, 1894.
TOLLS ON NAVIGABLE WAYS.
BY
A. DEKING DURA,
Chief Engineer of the Provincial Waterstaat at Zwolle (Overyssel).
| N T R 0 D U C T || 0 N.
On account of the difficulty and the complication of the subject, it is
almost impossible in this report to treat in its entirety the question of
Tolls on Navigable Ways; we will therefore confine ourselves to searching
out the rational basis of a tariff of tolls on a system of canals of large
extent, administered by the owners (State, Province, Commune, Syndicate
Or concessionary company) who do not undertake themselves the working
of the traffic, but merely the construction and maintainance of the water-
Way and of the working of bridges, locks, tolls etc.
We will leave on one side also the subject of harbour and quay dues, as
well as that of tolls paid for the use of plant for loading, unloading, towage
etc. and consider Solely the question of navigation dues in its proper
Sense and of tolls for the working of bridges and locks.
Tariffs of tolls.
The six reports on tolls presented at the Paris Congress contain
important information concerning rates of navigation dues in use in the
authors’ own countries, namely, France, England, Germany, Russia and
the Netherlands. With regard to Belgium very complete information is
given in the ,Règlement de Police Sur les Voies Navigables” as it appears
in the ,Moniteur Belge” of May 29th 1889, No. 149.
Particulars are likewise furnished respecting navigation dues on the
German canals, those completed as well as those in course of construc-
tion and those projected, in the communications of the Central Verein
für Hebung der deutschen Fluss- und Kanalschifffahrt.” Lastly a report
to the Administration of the Danube Steamship Company by the Vienna
2
engineer J. DEUTSCH, a delegate to the Paris Congress, contains informa-
tion as to the tariffs in force on the Danube and on the Franzens Canal
in Hungary.
In order to compare these tariffs, it is necessary to calculate the tolls
paid at the kilometric ton rate (except in cases where this rate already
forms the basis of the tariff) and this calculation is not without some
difficulty. If an approximate calculation may be made with com-
parative ease for the tariffs of the Netherlands, where the tolls are
mostly reckoned by cubic metre per lock, it is not practicable to
do this with the Russian and Austro-Hungarian rates.
In Russia the rates are calculated at a percentage on the value of the
merchandise carried, without any reference to the length of the waterway
traversed. On the Danube the dues have rather a fiscal character, being
calculated at a percentage on the gross freight receipts. Finally on the
Franzens Canal the rates are fixed in proportion to the tonnage of the
vessel and the duration of the voyage.
The tariff shown in annex A, which is composed with the help of the
reports above mentioned, gives a view of the dues in France, Belgium,
England, Germany and the Netherlands.
An examination of this table shows:
10. That the dues on the English canals are generally higher than in
other countries.
20. That the dues on canals of concessionary companies are higher
than those belonging to the State or to other public bodies.
This is particularly the case with canals belonging to railway
companies.
39. That in a great number of cases the rates are proportionately higher
on canals of short length.
49. That on waterways not belonging to concessionary companies the
dues vary:
In Belgium, on canals from 0.2 to 0.5 centime.
º º on canalised rivers from 0.16 to 0.5 centime
the rule being 0.5 centime on Canals and 0.16 centime on canalised rivers.
In the Netherlands from 0.24 to 0.65 centime on the canals.
In Germany (with the exception of the Ludwig Canal) from 0.15 to 1.25 centime.
It can be easily understood that it is impossible to fix a tariff of dues
which should not in any case be exceeded.
The example of the canals of Paris shows that especially on canals of
short length, situated near large centres of population, a very high toll
may be applied and still permit of a large development of navigation.
It must be borne in mind, that canals used for transport at long dis-
tances have to suffer the competition of railways and that if the econo-
mical object of their construction is to be attained, it must be possible
to transport goods and especially raw material and cheap merchandise
cheaper than by rail. Now as the rate for such freight by rail is about
3
3 centimes per kilometric ton (see Sympher Wirtschaftliche Bedeutung
der Binnenwasserstrassen”), we must come to the conclusion that a toll of
1.2 centime does not leave margin sufficient for the transport by canal
to be the cheaper and that to attain the economical object of the con-
struction of the canals, it will be necessary to lower the rate by one half,
that is to about 0.6 centime. .
Still even this low rate would hinder the developpement of navigation and
render it impossible to transport by water to long distances, especially on
canals of insufficient dimensions and those inadequately provided with plant.
Influence of the distance traversed, of the tonnage of the vessel and
of the nature and quantity of the goods carried. Classification of
merchandise. Exemption from or reduction of toll for vessels travel-
ling without cargo.
In calculating navigation dues the above-mentioned points are variously
regarded in different countries.
To arrive at a just appreciation, it would be well to examine one after
the other what we may call the Franco-Belgian, Dutch and German systems.
In Belgium the navigation dues are fixed by tons of 1000 kilogrammes
per kilometre traversed, with a minimum of 20 centimes. They are
charged on the distance actually traversed and on the quantity of mer-
chandise carried. Empty vessels pay a toll of 20 centimes whatever
may be their tonnage and independant of the distance traversed.
All merchandise, whatever may be its nature or value, pays the same
dues. But for the advancelment of agriculture, vessels carrying manure
are exempted from all dues, even from the 20 centimes, when travelling
empty. w
Vessels employed in a regular service, pay a reduced rate, which is
based on the total of the cargo they are able to carry. The reduction is
three-quarters for regular passenger services, five-eighths for mixed services
and one-fourth for cargo services.
In Holland the duties are not in proportion to the quantity of mer-
chandise carried, but to the tonnage of the vessel.
The distance traversed is only indirectly taken into consideration. Toll
offices are placed along the sides of the canals and a fixed rate per ton
is charged at the passing of cach office.
Vessels travelling without cargo are sometimes entirely exempted from
toll, but more often they pay the half of the usual tariff.
The same reduction is often allowed to vessels running a regular ser-
vice and to such as carry only manure. On the other hand We Sometimes
find, as for example in Friesland, that steamers have to pay an increased
tariff to the amount of 50 or 100 90 on account of the damage they cause
to the banks of the canals.
In general the nature of the merchandise carried is not taken into con-
4
sideration and there is no classification. There are however some excep-
tions expecially in the tariffs of the canals in the turf districts.
The German system holds a middle place between the Franco-Belgian and
the Dutch. The dues are in proportion to the tonnage of the vessel and
to the distance traversed, with, however, a modification of a rather fiscal
character.
Every fraction of five tons or of five cubic metres is reckoned as five
tons and any fraction of a kilometre transversed is likewise counted as a
kilometre. This method of calculation presses rather heavily on some vessels,
especially on Small ones and those which travel only short distances.
Up to the year 1892 vessels of a large tonnage enjoyed an exceptional
privilege on the canals between the Elbe and the Oder (,Märkische” canals).
This was caused by the fixing of a maximum toll, corresponding to a tonnage
of 155 tons. The average tonnage of the vessels on these canals is 400 cubic
metres. The toll per kilometric-ton was by this means reduced by more
than one half, whereas on the smaller vessels it was charged in full.
Unloaded vessels on the Finow Canal pay one-sixth, those on the
canals of the left bank of the river Ems two-fifths of the ordinary toll.
They are thus more favoured than in Holland, but still far less so than
in Belgium.
Account is also taken of the nature and value of the goods carried.
On the canals between the Elbe and the Oder raw material pays only
one half of the ordinary tariff, whereas on the left bank of the Ems
boats so laden are treated as empty vessels. The latter however pay
higher dues on the left bank of the Ems than on the ,Märkische” canals.
When the above-mentioned privileges in favour of vessels of large
tonnage on the ,Märkische” Canals were abolished, the general rates were
at the same time increased by a third.
The justice of this abolition has been generally recognised, but at the
same time it was demanded, that the reform should be completed by
the dues being calculated on the actual quantity of merchandise carried,
especially as it often happens that vessels can only partly utilise their
carrying capacity, on account of the shallowness of the water in parts of
the rivers they traverse.
The raising of the tariff has been protested against and the adoption
of the Franco-Belgian system demanded. Until now however these demands
have not been complied with. The Minister of Finance has objected,
that the dimensions of the canal depend on those of the vessels and that
therefore one may doubt the superiority of the principle of proportioning
the toll to the quantity of merchandise carried to the one based on the
tonnage of the vessel. He also doubts the practicability of this last method
of calculation, a doubt which appears to require foundation after the
experience gained in Belgium.
Before discussing the consequences to be deduced from the above-
§
mentioned facts, it is right to remark, that the Dutch system, although
it is to be recommended for its simplicity and is well adapted to the
particular conditions of the country, could not be applied to a system of
canals of great extent. In fact the country on account of its limited size
possesses only short canals connecting natural rivers, or rivers with an
inland lake, so that the navigation is of a mixed character.
It is the Franco-Belgian and the German systems which must furnish the
basis of a rational tariff applicable to such a system.
In considering the question of the influence of the tonnage of vessels
and of the quantity of merchandise carried, we remark that those who
assert that the price of construction and maintainance of the canal
depends on the dimensions of the vessels, as well as those who main-
tain that it is unjust to make the boatman pay for that part of the
capacity of his vessel which, entirely independent of his own will, he is
unable to use, are both right.
Thence arises the question, whether it is not possible to combine the
two principles. We believe that this could be arrived at by reducing the
toll into a fixed tariff, independant of the distance and proportionate to
the tonnage of the vessel, the tariff to be applied to all vessels, loaded
or unloaded and a toll proportionate to the number of tons carried,
varying with the distance of the transport.
It must be acknowledged that empty vessels do profit by the canal
and that it is only just that they should pay a toll. At the same time
it is certain that a large vessel profits more than a small one and this
iustifies the proportioning of the tonnage. Still it cannot be denied that
a long journey without cargo is a disadvantage to the vessel, so that it
is unreasonable to tax it in proportion to the length of this unprofitable
journey. Empty vessels might therefore be charged a moderate fixed
toll — say 10 centimes per ton.
Then by obliging loaded vessels to pay this same toll, we obtain the
result that a large vessel, which uses the dimensions of the canal much
more completety and which in general will be the cause of much greater
expense for maintainance of the same, will pay more than a smaller vessel
carrying the same quantity of merchandise. In this way the principle
enunciated by the Minister MIQUEL in the discussion on the tariffs of the
,Märkische” canals will be complied with.
Having in this manner allowed all due influence to the tonnage of
the vessel, it is inevitable that the toll to be paid for the transport of
the merchandise should be proportionate to its quantity, viz., the number
of tons transported. The example of Belgium shows that the practical
inconvenience found in this method of charging dues is not insur-
mountable.
For this reason the system of gauging vessels used in Belgium should
be adopted and a concession made for vessels doing a regular service.
6
For these the application of this principle would meet with many
difficulties on account of the perpetual variation in the quantity trans-
ported, especially when the object of the service is exclusively the trans-
port of passengers.
But this difficulty is obviated in a very judicous manner by the
Belgian rules which charge on these vessels a reduced toll but which is
still calculated in proportion to the tonnage.
We have now to examine the following questions:
1. Is a classification of merchandise desirable 2
2. Should the toll be in proportion to the distance traversed, or is it prefer-
able to form a tariff in which the kilometric charge decreases with the
number of kilometres traversed?
The solution of the first question is simple. The freight of raw material
is lower than that of merchandise of less volume and greater value. The
latter can thus in general bear heavier charges and the toll should there-
fore be higher than that for the raw material. Still, if the classification
be pushed too far, many difficulties would arise in the calculation of the toll
especially for mixed cargo. Instead of determining the quantity transported
by means of gauging, a declaration concerning the nature and quantity
of each article should be required from the boatman. In this respect it
would be advisable to adopt the German system, which distinguishes only
two classes of merchandise, viz. raw material and other merchandise, the
toll due on the latter being the higher.
Of course it will be necessary to decide in each particular case, what
merchandise is raw material and what is to be the difference of the toll
for the two classes. In certain cases the classification might present such
important difficulties, that it would be better not to apply it,
The solution of the second question is less simple, but it is in our
opinion of the greatest importance.
Although until now, in Germany as well as in Belgium, the principle
of proportion to the distance traversed has been adhered to and in
fact the supposition has been generally allowed, that the damage caused
by a vessel becomes greater in proportions to the distance traversed, the
practical as well as theoretical objections that can be made to this prin-
ciple seem of So Serious a nature that its maintainance is not to be
recommended. &
To begin with, the expenses of maintainance are composed of a great
number of elements among which are some that do not depend in any
way on the number of kilometres traversed by the vessels.
Also, the freight is not proportionate to the distance. In general the
kilometric freight decreases with the distance traversed. Many cases may
be quoted, in which one and the same freight is charged for the transport
of the Same quantity of merchandise to very different distances.
It follows that the consequence of the application of the principle of
7
kilometric proportion is that with the increase of the distance a
gradually increasing proportionate part of the freight is absorbed by
the toll, and a limit is soon reached, whereat this proportion is such
that the transport of the merchandise cannot be effected with any
advantage.
Proof is abundant that the influence of the truth has not been without
its effect in the compilation of existing tariffs.
For instance in Russia with its enormous distances, it was immediately
perceived that the introduction of the principle of the proportion of
tolls to the distance traversed would lead to the formation of tariffs so
burdensome that all transport by waterway would become impossible
and the system of charging dues according to the value of the merchan-
dise has been adopted, a system which has moreover little to recommend
it. It has been already observed that the tolls on canals of short length
are generally the highest.
In a recently published pamphlet concerning the canal from the Rhine
to the Weser and the Elbe, the engineer Geck estimates that the average of the
toll per ton transported will be mk. 0.84 and he remarks ,that the
introduction of this average toll would be a great advantage to the trans-
port over long distances, although it would bear too hard upon the local
traffic”. That is also our opionion. For this canal, as well as for any canal
system of great extent, it would be better to adopt a medium rate, estab-
lishing on a kilometric basis a tariff decreasing in proportion to the
distance traversed. -
It is well understood that the taxing of the tolls, the degree of the
decrease as well as the classification of merchandise and the proportionate
tax on the tonnage of vessels should in each particular case be the object of
a special enquiry and it is merely in order to present clearly our ideas that
we give on annex B an example of a tariff, formed on the principles we
have enunciated and of its application to a canal of 600 kilometres in
length used by vessels of 400 tons burden.
By this table it will be seen that the toll per kilometric ton for short
distances is higher than the fundamental tax. That this tax corresponds
to a transport on a distance of 170 kilometres, while the kilometric toll
decreases very perceptibly with the increase of the distance.
The principle of proportion to distance traversed would lead up to
a toll total of 1200 francs for raw material and of 1800 francs for other
merchandise. The proposed decrease should be more or less according to
circumstances depending on the nature of the transport, the total length
of the canal and the development of the country. It should be the most
on canals constructed for drainage purposes.
In Some cases it will be advisable to suppress entirely the supplemen-
tary toll, when the distance traversed exceeds a certain limit.
8
Dues for working locks, weirs and bridges. Supplementary dues at
night.
It may be taken as a general principle, that dues for working mecha-
nical appliances should be included in the toll paid for the use of the
canal. Considerations of a practical nature may, however, justify the crea-
tain of separate tolls of this nature.
Dues for the working of locks are charged only in very exceptional
C8,S6S.
The only instance with which we are acquainted is found in the tariff
of the canals on the left bank of the Ems, where each vessel pays 20 pf.
for the working of a single lock and 30 pf, for a double lock.
For the working of movable bridges it is the custom in the Nether-
lands to charge a small fee, which does not exceed 5 cents (one penny)
for vessels of a tonnage of 50 cubic metres and is more often only 21/, or
2 cents in Dutch currency. In such cases the man placed in charge of the
bridge does not as a rule receive any regular wages, but he is allowed to
occupy rent-free a small house near the bridge and to keep for his own
use the money he collects in tolls. -
In many instances he agrees to pay a certain rent for the use of
the house together with the privilege of collecting and keeping the toll-
money. His rent sometimes amounts to more than 100 florins (200 francs)
a year on much frequented canals.
In places where bridges are not numerous and where the toll does not
exceed the tariſſ quoted the inconvenience caused to navigation is not
great and the system affords considerable advantage to the proprietors of
the canal.
The inconvenience is lessened by a custom which the Dutch boatmen
have of giving one or two cents to the worker of the bridge, even when
no toll is exacted or due. -
These practical considerations do not apply to locks, which must always
be worked by paid attendants; neither are they applicable to bridges built
after the construction of the canal which do not benefit navigation
in any way. When bridges are numerous and the rate of the tolls too
high, this may become such a tax on navigation as to sensibly augment
the usual expenses.
For instance on the left bank of the Ems, the charge is 10 pf. per vessel
per bridge, and one finds on the average a moveable bridge at every
kilometre. For vessels of 60 to 80 tons traversing these canals the charges
amount to a tax of 16 to 12"|2 pf, per kilometric-ton, whereas the toll in
itself is most often not more than 2 pf.; for smaller vessels the tax is
still more onerous.
The charging of dues for the working of weirs may be justified by the
consideration that it is often a matter of importance that the frequency
of these manoeuvres be diminished as much as possible.
9
In such cases a rather high toll is fixed for each time the gates are
worked, so that the boatmen find it to their own interest not to require
this to be done, until there are several vessels wanting to pass through
collected together and then each one pays a share of the toll, thus divi-
ding the burden.
With regard to supplementary dues at night two cases must be distin-
guished.
When the traffic is not animated and navigation at night only carried
on in exceptional cases, a moderate toll is justifiable and practical even
if it be only applied with the object of inducing the boatmen to refrain
from travelling during the night, except in cases of great necessity. In
this case it is only just that the profit of this night work should go to the
benefit of the lock and bridge workers.
When however the traffic is of sufficient importance to justify the in-
troduction of a regular night service, it is advisable to encourage naviga-
tion at night with the object of obtaining traffic as busy as during the
day. In this case all motive for the application of an extra tax at night
disappears.
Mode of collecting. Control.
The mode of collecting must comply with the following conditions:
1. It must cause as little delay as possible to the vessel.
2. It must render it impossible, or at least extremely difficult, for any
fraudulent connivance to take place between boatmen and collectors
and thus prevent any misappropriation by the latter.
3. It must permit of the formation of good statistics of navigation.
A system which in practice on the canals of the province of Overijssel
has given satisfactory results, is based on the following principles, which
may be modified or applied in a different manner accordingly as circum-
stances may differ.
Every boatman on entering the canal, or on changing the direction of
his vessel after loading or unloading a cargo, receives at the first office
he comes to a ticket, which is detached from a book of numbered leaves.
On the part left in the book, as well as on the ticket, are entered the
name and the maximum tonnage of the vessel, the name of the person
in charge of her, also if the vessel is loaded the depth of water she
draws, as indicated by the gauge, and the nature of the cargo with its
classification.
The boatman is obliged to show his ticket at every office he passes
and it is examined by a clerk, who signs it or clips it in a parti-
cular part in the same way as is done with railway tickets, and registers
the passage of the vessels in a book kept for the purpose. If the gauge
indicates that the cargo has been increased or diminished he notes the
fact on the ticket.
10
After having passed one or more offices the vessel may either pass out
of the canal or discharge its cargo and continue the journey or turn back.
In either case the boatman delivers up his ticket at the office
of the canal or at the first office he reaches. The clerk makes on the
ticket itself a calculation of the amount of the tolls due, which have to be
paid before the journey can be resumed.
If the vessel has not left the canal a fresh ticket is issued.
The tickets with the amount of the dues paid noted on them together
with the corresponding numbered leaves of the clerk’s book are sent in
at the end of each month to the general manager or Superintendent, who
checks them and compiles statistics from the tickets, which of course show
a complete itinerary of the journey of the vessel.
The system causes very little delay to the boats, especially when the
controlling offices are situated at the locks, bridges, or any of the usual
places of loading.
It renders it extremely difficult for any misappropriation or fraud to
be committed by collectors on boatmen, for it could not possibly take place
without collusion between several persons, and because all tickets have
to be sent in within a certain time, and the books show at any time on
what section of the canal and between which two offices any vessel may
be found. It would thus be easy to discover any fraud committed by a
collector.
The control is facilitated by the tickets being of two different colours,
one for each of the two directions. It is also found necessary to inflict
a heavy fine on any boatman who cannot or will not show his ticket
whenever it is demanded by any authorised person.
For the system to work well every vessel must be gauged and supplied
with certificates and a proper water-gauge. -
The calculation of the dues is not difficult, when tables similar to those
in use in Belgium are employed. They render it easy to trace the distan-
ces traversed and a table can be made out with double entries, from which
may be extracted at first sight the amount due by a vessel which has
transported a certain quantity of merchandise to any number of kilome-
tres of distance. -
The author of this memorandum holds at the disposal of members of the
Congress, who take an interest in the subject, a number of specimens
of the documents used by this system on one the canals in the Province
of Overyssel. -
Briefly, we recommend the Congress to adopt the following con-
clusions:
19. It is impossible to fia, a maximum taº per kilometric tom, which could
not be eſcCeeded. -
However, a toll of 0.5 centime or pfenning per kilometric ton may
11
20.
be considered as not to be exceeded without inconvenience on canals
intended to facilitate the transport of raw material to long distances
and which have to suffer competition from railways.
It is advisable to divide the toll into a moderate tax proportionate to
the tonnage of the vessel and independent of the distance traversed, to
be paid per journey by vessels loaded or unloaded, and a taa, on a
kilometric basis decreasing with the distance in proportion to the quantity
of merchandise transported to be charged in accordance with a classi-
fication of the merchandise. r
As a rule it is not advisable to distinguish more than two classes of
merchandise: a raw material, b. all other merchandise.
As a matter of principle, charges for the working of locks, weirs and
bridges and extra tolls for navigation at night are not to be recommended.
Nevertheless considerations of a practical nature may in certain cases
justify the establishment of such tolls on condition that they do not exceed
a very moderate rate, 80 that the total of the dues paid be not sensibly
increased.
Zwolle, March 31st 1894.
(Translated by G. J. Row LAND.)
Annex A.
|2
Rate of tolls per kilo-
Length of g
N A M E O F C A N A. L. canal in metric ton, R. E M A. R. K. S.
kilometres, , § t t
in centimes, in pfennings,
France.
Navigable Rivers 0.15 to 0.35|0.12 to 0.28||Before the abolition of tolls in 1880.
Canal du Centre 110 0.05, 0.18||0.04 ± 0.15 m 3) }} * * * *
,, du Midi * * * g e 279 3.6, 3.8 2.8 ± 3.0 | Canal worked by a railway company.
,, de la Dive et du Thouet . 40 2.5,10.0 |2.0 , 8.0 , belonging to a concessionary company.
,, latéral à la Garonne . 213 2.0 × 4.0 |1.6 x 3.2 7) }) 9, 2) 9) 7)
, de Vassy a St. Dizier . 23 3.5 , 6.0 |2.8 x 4.8 3) }) }} }} 3) 3)
,, de l'Ourcq # * * 108 0.2 x 2.0 (0.16, 1.6 }) }} , the city of Paris.
,, de St. Denis * * * * 6.6 5.8 x 10.2 || 4.6, 8.1 3) 3) 3) )) 3) × 3)
,, St. Martin . . . . . . ' 4.5 4.4 x 8.8 || 3.6 x 7.1 9) }) 7) 2) 7) )) ))
State Canals . * * B º sº 0.25 0.20 Tax proposed in 1887.
Belgium.
Canal du Centre tº e & 7.6 0.5 0.4 Canal owned by the State.
,, from Mons to Condé tº tº 20.2 0.5 0.4 3) 9) J3 )) 3)
25 ,, Pommeroeul to Antoing 25.2 0.5 0.4 35 3) 95 ºn 3)
25 , Charleroi to Brussels and
branches . e e º s 105.0 0.5 0.4 9) 3) 9) )) }}
22 ,, Ghent to Ostend via Bruges 70.1 0.2 (). 16 3) 3) 3) )) })
22 , Plasschendaele to Nieuport 21.0 0.5 0.4 }) 3) 3) y 3)
2) ,, Ghent to Terneuzen. 17.0 0.5 0.4 3) }) 9) 3) 3)
22 , Liège to Antwerp and
branches . . . . . . . 249 0.5 0.4 $) 3) 3) y) 3)
22 , Rouler to the Lys. 16.5 0.25 0.20 3) 3) *) )) 3)
Canals of the basin of the Yser . 90.0 0.5 0.4 3) 3) 7) ) 3) •
The canalised Lys 112.5 0.16 0.13 River canalised by the State.
The }) Meuse . 128 0.16 0.13 }} 3) 35 y) 3)
The }} Sambre. 94 0.16 0.13 3) 3) 3) y) 3)
The }} Ourthe . . . 106.5 0.5 0.4 3) 5) 3) 3) 3)
Canal from Blaton to Ath . 21.5 4.0 3.2 Canal belonging to a concessionary company.
22 , Bossuyt to Courtrai . 15.4 3.0 2.4 3) 3) 3) )) 3) 3)
The canalised Dendre 67.4 1.0 0.8 River canalised by , 3) 3)
England.
Junction Canal from Liverpool to
Birmingham . . tº gº & - 62 9.4 7 4 Canal belonging to a railway company.
Trent-Mersey Canal 95 3.1 to 6.1 2.5 to 5.0 }} }) 3) y) 3) })
Kennet Avon Canal & e º s 138 3.1, 12.4 2.5 × 10.0 3) 3) 9) J3 9) 7)
Canal from Bolton to Bury . . . 25 2.4 x 3.3 2.0 , 2.6 3) 3) 39 y) j) . 3)
7) , Birmingham to the Sever 153 4.0, 6.1 || 3.2, 4.9 , belonging to a concessionary company.
22 3) }) to Warwick etc. 250 3.1, 6.1 2.5 × 5.0 3) }) 3) )) 5) ... })
NB. The figures relating to the English Canals are
taken from the report of Mr. CLEMENTS to the
Paris Congress. The distinction between the Com-
panies which work the traffic themselves, and
those which confine themselves to the maintainance
of the Canal is not quite clear.
Netherlands.
Overijssel Canal 56 0.92, 1.0 (0.74 × 0.80 Canal belonging to a concessionary company.
Dedemsvaart . . . 48 0.27, 0.650.22, 0.53 ¢ 7) , the Province.
Zuid-Willemsvaart. 78 0.32 0.26 State canal
Drentsche Hoofdvaart 44 0.24 0.20 }} })
Apeldoorn Canal 55 0.47 (),38 3) 3)
Germany.
Finow Canal . * * 70 0.28 to 0.15|0.23 to 0.12|State canal.
Ludwig Canal . . . . . . . . 1.29, 1.75|1.16, 1.45| o 3)
Canals on the left bank of the Ems | 100 0.25, 1.250.20, 1.00 Canal belonging to a syndicate.
Average tariff on Navigable Ways in
Germany * e s is e s is a 0.25 0.20 |According to Sympher.
Canal from Dortmund to Ems and
the Mittelland Canal . 651 0.60 0.50 State canals projected and in course of con-
struction. Tolls in consideration as proposed
by the engineer F. GECK. Mittheilungen
Austria. des Vereins, January 1894.”
Danube-Oder Canal 274 1.66 1.33 |Projected canal. Average tolls in conside-
- ration. Mittheilungen des Vereins, Novem-
ber 1893, * -
13 Annex B.
Calculation of Navigation Dues according to the following tariff:
1. Fixed toll of 10 centimes or 10 pfennings per ton paid for each journey by all vessels
loaded or empty.
2. Toll paid by loaded vessels in proportion to the number of tons transported varying with
the distance traversed in the following manner:
Toll per kilometric ton in centimes or pfennings.
Raw materials Other merchandise
Up to 50 Kilometres 0.40 0.60
from 50 to 100 Kilometres 0.35 0,55
n 100 m 150 r 0.30 0.50
n 150 m 200 *} 0.25 0.45
n 200 m 250 * 0.20 0.40
n 250 ºn 300 º 0.15 0.35
n 300 m 350 * 0.10 0.30
r 350 m 400 *} 0.05 0.25
n 400 m 450 º 0.05 0.20
n 450 m 500 ** 0.05 0.15
n 500 n 550 º 0.05 0.10
n 550 m 600 º 0.05 0.05
Distance traversed Toll per ton. Total toll *º 400 tons Toll per kilometric ton.
in Kilometres Raw Materials. Mºise Raw Materials. Mºuse. Raw Materials. Mºuse
francs or marks.francs or marks.|francs or marks, francs or marks.centim. or pfen.|centim. or pfen.
25 0.2000 0.2500 80.00 100.00 0.800 1.000
50 0.8000 O.4000 120.00 160.00 0.600 0.800
75 0.3875 O.5.375 155.00 215.00 0.516 0.716
100 0.4750 0.6750 190.00 270.00 0.475 O.675
125 0.5500 O.8000 220.00 320.00 0.440 0.640
150 0.6250 0.9250 250.00 370.00 0.417 0.617
175 0.6875 1.0375 275,00 415.00 O.393 0.593
200 0.7500 1.1500 300.00 460.00 0.375 0.575
225 0.8000 1.2500 320.00 500.00 0.855 0.555
250 0.8500 1.3500 340,00 540.00 0.340 0.540
275 0.8875 1.4375 855.00 575.00 0.323 0.523
300 0.9250 1.5250 370.00 610.00 0.308 0.508
325 0.9500 1.6000 380.00 640.00 0.292 0.492
350 0.9750 1.6750 390.00 670.00 0.278 0.478
375 0.9875 1.7375 395.00 695.00 0.263 0.463
400 1.0000 1.8000 400.00 720.00 0.250 0.450
425 1.0125 1.8500 405.00 740.00 0.288 0.435
450 1.0250 1.9000 410.00 760.00 0.228 0.422
475 1.0375 1.9375 415.00 775.00 0.218 0.408
500 1.0500 1.9750 420.00 790.00 0.210 0.395
525 1.0625 2.0000 425.00 800.00 0.202 0.381
550 1.0750 2.0250 430.00 810.00 0.196 0.368
575 1.0875 2,0375 435.00 815.00 0.189 0.854
600 1.1000 2.0500 440.00 820.00 0.183 0.342

VIth International Inland Navigation Congress.
T H E H A G U E, 1894.
Connection between the depth of streams
and river beds.
IBY
R. JASMUND,
Inspector of the Waferworks at Magdeburg.
P A R T I.
Notes on studies relatively to bends and depth. Distan-
c e s between great and small bends and gre at and small
depth s. A graphical experimental method showing synop-
tical bends and diagrams of depths. Influence of width
and water quantities on sm all depths near be n dis.
The study as to the connection between bends and depth of the
stream is difficult for the river Elbe. It gives but little occasion to be
studied in the same manner as Mr FARGUE did for the Garonne, as this
river from the Gironde to Barsac, where these observations have been
made, is made regular by embankments along its shores and therefore
shows more precisely the proportion of its curves. The Elbe in the State
of Prussia has banks that do not always follow the natural course of
the stream and therefore suppositions can only be made on its bends.
Riversides can change even with banks as this depends on their force of
resistance. The more or less advanced position, even a few decimetres,
can change notably a bend. Often they depend on wharves, quays etc.
The line of the current will not be influenced by these irregularities,
its direction being pushed towards the middle of the curve. Changes in
direction of the stream can be regulated by the depth of the water but
the position of the line of the stream is more variable and unknown
than its shores. -
Circumstances that have effect on the movement of riverbeds and
on depths of rivers.
The question , where does the riverbed find its real course”? gives
way to hesitations. The banks along the Elbe reach above the water
2
only a little at its average height, and form borderings for the water
to about two metres above ebb, that is about 3 metres above the highest
point of its bed. From 2 to about four metres above ebb the stream
reaches to its ancient embankments which show themselves quite
different in certain curves than with the corrected banks. The whole
mass in its diversion is about the same, but different in certain parts
inward of the curve. -
It could be thought that on account of the great force of an over-
flowing river the influence would show itself not only on the corrected
embankments but also on the depth and its ancient limits. These thoughts
come back when we see high tides during which the water rises some-
times to 6'), metres above ebb and innndates the surrounding shores
two to three metres deep.
The strength of the current is greatest during high tide, the pression
at its utmost and the bed of the river easiest worked. At these moments
the water goes up to the dikes which have rarely the same direction as
the corrected embankments. When the water follows the upper grounds
along the dikes it crosses the real riverbed at different points and also
on a different proclivity. In the curves the two streams will meet, but
in other passages great deviations will take place. If it be accepted that
the direction of the stream changes the riverbed it must also be admitted
that the upper layers of water have influence on the under depths and
consequently increase or diminish the depth of the river.
During high waters the fall of the riverbed changes as well in width
as in depth, and varies in length in certain parts proportionately to the
depth of the middle. It becomes so much greater as the depth is great
in width at curves and in the middle of the stream. The width of the
traverse profile or the depth of the channel have less influence on the
fall as the middle depth. These notes are not taken from theory but
from practical observations and these lead to proclaim that the fall of
the river can change at different depths and if the direction of the middle
stream changes. These changes are also greatly different and sometimes
quite opposite with high water and that on account of irregularities
in width,
In consequence the fall of a river depends on the height of water.
The profile in length is also more or less influenced when high waters
pass over high beds. The surface of the water will not be more elevated
in the concave part than in a convex part, this is often the contrary.
High waters have influence on the formation of riverbed by the
different form of the fall but this also depends on the height of the
water. These influences of high waters on the formation of the channel
can be observed regularly on the different profile shapes of the Elbe.
It is also proved that the advanced constructions in a river have
influence on the depth of the channel. The relation between the correc-
3
ted and primitive riverbeds depend on subordinate powers and cannot
be considered with certitude; few examples exist where small distances
could serve as guide.
Choice of a place to study.
The time given to make this report was too short to examine the
485 kilometres, this being the length of the Elbe subject to the sur-
veyance of the State of Prussia. It was therefore necessary to choose a
distance and this abridgement was inevitable the whole course of the
Elbe being inconvenient for such a study.
The channel on the distance chosen, 175 kilometres is not straight
but has continual curves. The sand banks through which the river
passes move in following the course of the stream or balance from one
side to the other. These are the hazards on which depend the regulation
of the fall of the bed, the direction of the current and the depth of the
channel. Sand banks in continual movement' Although the study of
these moving matters is interesting there can be no question of this in
the present in this search.
Between Dessau and Havelmundung the channel is rather regular,
the river making but few curves and this part does not present so much
interest to be studied as the distance from the Saxon and Prussian
frontiers untill above Dessau. On this distance of 145 kilometres chosen
to be studied, the Elbe is generally regularised by banks and only in
some parts by heightened shores. The width of the river is:
1) from 120.8 kilometres to 198.5 kilom. : 100 metres.
2) , 198.5 }} ,, 233 ,, . 110 ;
3) , 233 ; ) ,, 259.5 , : 130 ,
4) , 259.5 2) , 290.7 ... : 150 ,
The width in the curves is about the same as the attaining parts.
The original form of the corrected river line is rich in curves of all
kinds. Some of these present a deviation of more than 180 degrees. Small
passages, sharp bends, arcs and straight lines are found often together;
these have had to be taken in consideration for the construction and
excavation of the bed with idea of their position and utility. The high
waters are kept back by the dikes which have been regulated or
advanced in different directions since they have been built 50 or 60
years ago. The depths of the navigable channel are very different, but
still do not go above 4 to 5 metres during low water. The water has:
1) during the lowest water, that is + 0.20 at the watermark at
Torgau = about 0.60 cubic metres,
2) during average water, that is + 1.4 metres at the watermark at
Torgau = 275 cubic metres. -
3) During ordinary high spring water, that is + 6 metres at the
watermark at Torgau = 2000 to 2500 cubic metres.
4
4) During the highest water of September 1890, that is + 7.40 metres
at the watermark at Torgau = 4450 cubic metres.
The ordinary fall of the bed is 0.000272 per metre.
The river gives in the upper part, Sandy earth and subsequently
gravel.
The means of study.
The means to study the connection between the primitive bed of the
river and the navigable channel can be taken from the map of the Elbe
containing the corrected lines, scale 1 : 5000 and also series of Sounds
of different years.
These are of recent date and permit to see the curves of certain parts
of the current. In drawing on transparent paper raduises of different
sizes and fitting these on the maps of the river, the sizes and develop-
ment of some of the curves.
The primitive riverbed, by this experiment, seems to be composed of
straight lines and curves. -
In reality this manner of compositing has only in a few cases the
preference. Practical rules or precise instruction for the distribution of a
curve do not exist for the Elbe. The corrected lines follow the primitive
plan in their cut; the spaces among one another are disposed between
different curves in the same circle according to the sight of the outline.
An effort seems to have been made to avoid straight lines especially when
these were between two curves in the same direction as experience shows
that on these points the current has a tendency to wind and form bad
passages. Another effort consists in avoiding as much as possible circular
curves when the position allows it without making too much expense.
It must also be considered that embankments must not be constructed
too low otherwise they have not weight enough and also that the cor-
rected shores must be paralell to these. The embankments must be as
much as possible of the same height.
These different considerations give to the primitive bed different
changes and forms that are difficultly demonstrated by circles. Notes on
curves can only be obtained by measurements on the discussed places
and this has been impossible on account of the want of time. But still
to be able to fill this first and important condition a space of the river
of 3.66 kilometres in length full of changes in direction has been chosen;
notes have been made on three bends following one another. These
notes are taken from the middle stream. As to the depth of the channel
the measurements have been taken by sounds. Yearly since 1883 these
have been made during low water by Stecher's sounding instrument on
the whole course of the Elbe. This instrument has been described in the
Centralblatt der Bauverwaltung in 1886; this is how it is composed.
5
A double armed lever is fixed between two boats tied together; one
arm is long and has a cycloid form which drags on the bed of the
river, while from the other arm a role of paper unfolds itself and notes
the depth of the water. The scale of reduction for the depth is 1:50 and
is conform to the length of the lever arm.
The measure of the length depends on the speed of the movenaent of
the boats and of the unfolding of the role of paper. This varies between
1 : 3000 and 1 : 5000. From distance to distance 2 to 500 metres fixed
points are noted on the paper role, for instance, corners of shores,
pillars, etc.; by a special mechanism to register these marked places.
As to the Soundings Some of the most important during low water
have been chosen.
Here are 5 examples.

- Height of water at the watermarks.
No. D A T E.
Mühlberg. | Torgau. Wittenberg.
1 September . . . . . 1883 1,07 0.66 1,10
2 August . . . . . . 1885 0,60 || 0,27 0.62
3 October . . . . . . 1887 0,66 0.34 0,46
4. November . . . . . 1889 1,02 0.81 1,35
5 August . . . . . . 1892 0.63 0.25 0.67
At each distance of 50 metres a sound was taken and noted on a
table. Thus for the 5 sounds of 145 kilometres an evaluation of 14500
sounds was taken. Of the 5 measurements on each point the average
was noted. No reduction was allowed for fixed waters, the original
measurements have remained without being changed.
Therefore the average depths of the channel are not based on the
lowest but on the average position of the low waters.
The average deepest measurements do not perhaps give the real greatest
depths but a little less. It is not possible to convey the instrument
always on the deepest parts of the channel although the greatest precau-
tions were taken. Sometimes the instrument follows the convex sand
embankments too near and at other times passes over the places of
anchorage near the quays or else it crosses the passage a little above
or under the current. These irregularities are possible in Some cases.
Therefore the average of five different sounds were taken.
The depths found were graphically noted, the Surface of the water
taken as horizontal. The measures of the length 1 : 20000, height 1 : 20.
If any analogy existed between the depth of the channel and the
6
curve of the middle stream it would have been proved when these
measures were noted. The size of the curve being proportionate to the
contrary value of the radius and to avoid to write decimal the following
way of calculation was used.
1000
& C = —
r
and the depth found was noted. If the concave form was on the right
or left the value of c was written down underneath or above the
horizontal. - -
The following diagram of curves and depths in the Elbe from Muhl-
berg to Rosslau 121 to 266 kilometres was the result.
Fargue’s precept.
In the Annales des Ponts et Chaussées of the year 1868 page 49
Mr. FARGUE proposed 6 precepts for the comparison between curves and
the line of middle stream and the depth of the channel; these will be
examined.
I. Precept of digression: The great and small depths are found
under great and small curves.
In a treatise published by the ,Annales des Ponts et Chaussées” in the
year 1882 page 315 Mr. FARGUE gave the measure 2 l, that is the double
width of the passage of the stream, at places where the river is more
or less deep up stream of corresponding great or small curves.
A well known fact results from the diagram of synoptical curves and
depths that greater depth is found in a bend than in the straight lines or
these were the bend begins. A reduction of the depth is found on the
right side between two curves having the same direction. That is why
Mr. FARGUE fixed points of inflexion and Surflexion next to one another.
If the parts of the current are divided where in the diagram the curves
k seem null, and these divided parts considered as being the smallest
curves, the result of the diagram is that the parts where the smallest
depths exist have undergone a displacement towards the upper part of
the current. But still great differences exist for some.
In 97 cases 7 have undergone a displacement towards the upper current
to an extent of 110 metres; and 4 have undergone comparatively no
displacement. With the 86 remaining cases a displacement can be noted
downwards the current to an extent of 595 mêtres. Ten of these have
undergone a displacement of more than 400 metres and even in these
cases it is apparent that this great extent is yet divided.
But in examining on the precise part of the divided parts under the
point of the tangent no accord is found. It is hoped that these irregulari-
ties will be effaced by the expression of averages of the following table.
TABLE no. 1.
the greatest and smallest curves.
Displacement of the greatest and smallest depths at
Distance Displacement. Length
Length
Number. from to * Of of (straight
- (*) smallest greatest line
kilomètres. kilomètres. depth. depth. ine).
4. 120,80 422,65 1850 + 595 | + 470 740
2. 122,65 123,47 820 + 290 | + 310
3. 123,47 425,40 1630 + 545 + 730 700
4. 125,10 126,10 4000 -H 60 + 30 360
5. 126,10 427,55 4450 — 20 | + 260 140
6. 427,55 129,25 4700 + 490 | + 400 140
7. 429.25 | 130,35 | 1100 + 350 | + 60 320
8. 130,35 131,50 4450 + 240 | + 40 200
9. 431,50 | 132,50 1000 + 200 | + 90 240
10. 132,50 133,50 1000 + 280 | + 140 200
41. 433,50 433,90 400 + 90 --- 240
A2. 433,90 435,70 4800 + 270 | + 300 480
13. 135,70 136,40 700 + 225 + 280 460
14. 136,40 137,03 630 + 440 | + 220 90
15. 137,03 137,40 370 + 75 0 140
16. 137,40 138,55 4450 | –– 240 | + 270 0
47. 138,55 140,45 1900 + 185 | + 130 370
48. 140,45 141,20 750 + 120 + 150 490
49. 141,20 143,35 24 50 + 260 — 125 240
20. 143,35 144,55 4200 + 200 + 200 260
21. 144,55 446,05 4500 0 | – 130 240
22. 146,05 || 148,47 2120 + 170 | + 190 210
23. 448,17 150,22 2050 || -- 580 | + 300 250
24. 450,22 451,70 1480 + 450 | + 300 290
25. 451,70 453,20 4500 +- 20 0 550
26. 453,20 154,48" | 1280 * + 250 990
27. 154.48 456,25 1770 - *s & —
28. 456,25 157,75 4500 + 230 -H 330 740
29. 157,75 160,— 2250 + 350 | + 250 400
30. 160,- 460.65 650 * + 230 500
31. 460,65 462,02 4370 + 120 + 440 200
32. 163,45 464,20 750 | – 110 | + 350 260
33. 164,20 165,60 4400 + 200 || -- 290 70

Distance Displacement Lenght
Length
Number. from to * of of (straight
(distance). smallest greatest li
kilomètres. kilomètres. depth. depth. ine).
34. 465,60 166,65 1050 + 220 + 0 260
35. 166,65 168,45 4800 + 50 — 60 380
36. 468,45 170,95 2500 0 + 60 500
37. 170,95 473,35 2400 +. 240 + 220 450
38. 473,35 174,00 650 + 200 + 300 450
39. 174,00 474,75 750 + 120 0 470
40. 174,75 175,95 4200 + 70 + 140 120
44. 175,95 477.00 1050 + 150 0 *
42. 177,00 180.25 8250 + 110 0 0
43. 480,25 181,30 1050 — 80 — 40 470
44. 481,30 183.60 2300 — 60 0 540
45. 483,60 484.80 1200 * gººses *
46. 184,80 487,35 2550 + 500 || -- 300 *
47. 487.35 188,45 800 + 450 + 500 460
48. 488.15 18895 800 + 80 + 280 390
49. 188,95 190,45 1500 + 330 + 370 550
50. 490,45 192,35 4900 + 80 — 30 250
51. 492.35 493,30 950 + 70 + 90 230
52. 493,30 494,85 1550 + 450 — 50 450
53. 194,85 495,50 650 + 150 + 120 0
54. 195,50 196.25 750 - + 270 1060
55. 196,25 498,45 2200 + 380 + 440 660
1—55 : a verage : + 2 O1 + 187
56. 498,45 200,80 2350 + 260 + 100 320
57. 200,80 202,70 1900 + 380 * 0
58. 202,70 204,15 4450 + 340 + 250 0
59. 204,45 205,90 4750 + 430 * 0
60. 205,90 207,10 1200 + 480 + 280 ()
61. 207,10 208,05 950 + 270 + 420 250
62. 208,05 209,00 950 + 230 + 200 550
63. 209,00 210,45 4450 + 300 -- 440
64. 210,45 214,40 4250 + 250 + 260 260
65. 214,40 212,05 650 + 300 + 320 520
66. 242,05 243,85 1800 + 420 + 320 400
67. 213.85 214,90 4050 — 60 + 300 590
68. 214,90 215.95 1050 + 130 * 480
Distance Displacement. Length
Length
Number. from to e Of Of (straight
(*) smallest greatest li
kilomètres. kilomètres. depth. depth. ine).
69. 215.95 217,25 4.300 + 230 + 260 -
70. 217,25 219,50 2250 + 120 +- 0 0
74. 219,50 224.90 2400 + 100 — 160 ()
72. 221,90 223,55 A 650 + 200 + 270 0
73. 223,55 225,90 2350 –– 260 + 260 320
74. 225,90 227,80 4900 + 0 + 410 200
75. 227,80 229,60 4800 + 210 + 0 210
76. 229,60 230,60 4000 + 380 + 210 270
77. 230,60 231,80 4200 -H 400 + 560 0
78. 231,80 233,85 2050 -- 300 +- 200 340
56–78; a verage: -- 232 || -- 235
79. 233.85 236,00 2150 + 410 * 500
80. 236,00 238,05 2050 + 360 + 320 460
81. 238,05 239,35 430ſ) *-* + 350 840
82. 239,35 240,30 950 + 300 + 400 240
83. 240,30 241,65 1350 + 420 — 260 580
84. 241,65 243.25 4600 + 190 + 60 460
85. 243.25 245,85 2600 — 90 + 150 620
86. 245,85 247,85 2000 — 20 + 280 0
87. 247,85 250,00 2450 – 290 + 340 480
88. 250,00 251,45 1450 + 250 + 450 400
89. 251,45 252.25 800 + 50 + 220 0
90. 252,25 253,30 4050 + 430 + 260 0
94. 253,30 253,90 600 + 440 + 430 440
92. 253.90 254,50 600 + 290 + 260 0
93. 254,50 255,30 800 + 300 + 290 160
94. 255,30 255,70 400 + 200 + 120 ()
95. 255,70 256,40 700 + 310 + 300 480
96. 256,40 258,05 1650 + 250 - 840
97. 258,05 259,25 1200 +- 200 + 260 300
79–97: a verage : + 221 + 231
98. 259,25 260,40 850 + 300 + 280 480
99. 260,40 260.95 || 850 + 280 || -- 390 ---
100. 260,95 261,75 800 + 370 + 360 240
104. 264,75 263,25 4500 + 80 + 470 (530
102. 263,25 264,75 4500 + 80 + 420 350
403. 264,75 265,45 700 + 50 – 480 200
98—103: a verage; + 19.3 + 29O
1–103: general average : 211,2
211,0
10
It is curious to notice that although great differences in the measure-
ments exist, the average gives nearly exactly the double width of the
river 211,2 kilometres. On the distance above 121 kilom. to 198,5 kilom.
the width is 100 metres while the distances between 1 and 55, the
distance of displacement of the smallest depth is 201 metres, thus also
the double width of the river. From 198.5 kilom. to 233 kilometres the
width is 110 and the displacement 232 kilometres. Therefore the essays
prove that the average approaches the double width. The same compa-
rison may be noticed in considering the relation between the greatest
depth and the greatest curve. Also from the middle point of the greatest
curve to the extreme point of displacement, the distance of the greatest
depth varies in some cases from — 260 to + 730 metres. The displace-
ment down the current must also be taken in consideration. The average
of 94 cases is 211 metres therefore as much as the average displacement
of the smallest depth.
High waters that influence in some cases the regularity in the relation
between the primitive depth of the stream and the depth of the channel
have no more that influence in the mouth of a river.
The first precept of Mr. FARGUE and a quantity of demonstrations
show that the Elbe also endeavours to form at its smallest and greatest
depth the double width below its smallest and greatest curve.
2) Loi de la Mouille: a large curve forms also greater depths.
Mr. FARGUE declares that on the Garonne a great curve gives by a
a similar function a great depth. But still in very long curves or very
short ones there are exceptions. In order to try this rule for the Elbe
the great curves have been grouped with great depths in following the
order of their length in kilometres from 0 to 0.25, 0.25 to 0.50, 0.50
to 0.75 and so on.
The average was then taken for each group in order to see if really
there existed any relation in these averages. The following table was
formed to enable an easy examination.

TABLE nº. 2. Group of the great curves kilométriques k(max”) and greatest depths tſmaxa), in
mêtres showing the distance in kilom l, where the greatest depth is found.
I. ||. III. IV. W. , VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII.
k t l k t l k t l k, t l l; t l k; t l k t t k; t l k t l k t l k t l k t l
0,142,021,200,402,201,630,672,381,000,781,240,401,052,294,001,332,181,151,552,532,051,822,274,85 200 3,320,82| – | – || – |2,502,821,152,852,740,70
0.331,670.6%.504,570.8088.810&il,052,761.4:1,33275 4,801,552,981,371,822,811,502,222,771,70 2,502,712,252,852,764,90
0.254,461,770,582,360,650,852,672,151,103,024,101,332,531,481,522,521,051,822,392,122,002,551,20 2,502,801,652,853,192,05
0.252,131,900,502,040,750,752,741,50|1,052,151,00|1,432,501,281,522,500,951,802,551,432,002,622,25 2,502,881,902,853,201,05
0,451,961,150,682,120,950,832,102,554,052,680,751,432,811,501,662,632,401,822,270,952,222,741,40 2,502,364,002,853,021,50
0,331,771,050,501,750,650,751,860,801,002,330,651,332,140,751,662,540,951,832,522,202,002,560,75 - 2,503,302,05
0,402,900,700,662,161,200,882,151,901,052,501,801,332,551,051,662,894,601,832,790,802,002,252,35 2,502,502,15
0.351,821,650,662,554,300,752,311,751,112,522,50|1,422,342,401,662,582,601,832,381,502,002,521.20 2,503,401,45|
0.702,582.00 1,1519806:32.2012d 2002,222.35
0.662,76 000 1,002,314,051,252,521,55 2,222,770.80
0,671,980,85 - 1,002,203,251,442,131,45 2,002,954.20
0.672,640,70 1,182,452,301,332,201,80
1,052,451,251,442,554,80
1,142,141,051,332,641,35
1,002,131,301,442,670,60
1,002,182,151,333,040,80
1,002,400,401,423,280.85
2.38 – 1,372.53 – 1,609.6:
l *
Minº: 0.44202– 0.841,99– 0.62224 - |b,802.11|– 1,06 – 1822,50–206267–|– |—||— |2502,85– |2,852.98–
12
This document points out actually that with great curves the depth
increases also. But the relation is not so significative as in certain cases
differences exist. M. FARGUE found degressions also in his table for the
Garonne. For the normal reconciliation of this theme he expresses a
term of third degree. To determine a mathematical élocution as the
average pronounced comparison, for the Elbe, the straight line would seem
more correct than the conic section.
The incertitude is still greater if instead of taking the average, each
result in the table is chosen separately.
Mr FARGUE found a reason for these differences and founded there on
his third precept.
3. To the advantage of depth a curve must not be too long neither
too short.
In accordance with this precept he found that the average of 1330
metres is in proportion with the middle length chosen.
For the Elbe in the 103rd division the average is of 1404 metre; in
consequence the difference with the Garonne is not great.
But the influence of the distance l on the digression of the greatest
average depth has not been shown here. The length of the curve seems
to be equal for the small depth of the channel. There seem to be other
reasons: for instance the distance of the current from the dike or the
Crossing of the current with the one of the tide or the direction of the
river bed.
As for the Elbe the studies can be resumed as follows: that the
channel is so much more deep as the current is strong at curves.
If the third precept be based on the idea that for the formation of a
riverbed too long or too short curves must be avoided so that the neces-
sary depth remains unchanged it would be supposed that during the
enterprise to regulate a river all would be done to avoid unnecessary
depths and no efforts would be made to obtain necessary depth.
4. Loi de l'angle. The extreme angle of the final tangent of a curve,
divided by the length of the curve gives the average depth of
the curve formed by the river.
To use this precept for the Elbe it would be necessary to take by a
graded transporteur the diversion of the middle line, the extreme angle
of the final tangent and the measurement in circle calculated as radius I
This only value should then be divided by the width of the stream,
and add the result to the middle depth and the divided width.
In dividing this combination again in separate groups of 0 to 0.25,
0.25 to 0.50, 0.50 to 0.75 each group becomes an average value, which
resolves the existing relation. A graphical application of the essays and
average produces will be found here after to facilitate conclusions and
to enable an opinion to be formed.
13
TABLE no 3: Group of the average curves km and where the average
depths are found tin.

I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX.
km | tim km | tin km tim I km | tim km | tim km | tim km m km | tim I km | tim
0.2151,863),4001,6740,700 1,9180,7701,835||1,1481,746.1,3741,844
7
1,526.1,856|1,844|2,1062,069|2,424
00704,46%.4374,854,6361087,924.90%|A4618sh;3002011,5242.43:19332,216
0.2431,5450,500 1,9440,5401,9290,7601,869||1,4102,291|1,280|1,836||1,6792,84
0,1191,4230,4981,7790,587|19980,7504,377|1,0572,077|1,2891,928
0,067|1,704|0.3501,4540,6672,1870,8061,984|1,0151,676|13252,087
0.200 1sºlºs 1,8280,5614,9360,861||1,743|| cºs 4,939||12932,216
0.221 1,761|0,4671,7990,628 2.90% sº 1,905|1,1432,044|1,381|2,338
0.243 º 1,7040,5802,2540,7534,8441,1731,9801,4592,069
0.1081,6330,2801,8180,5734,9270,9472,000|14461,980
0.0861,6460,4301,9000,6564,9360,831||1899||1342,031
0.2311,7660,3291,6750,6341,8330,7642,0371,4642,025
0.2002,1320,400.2,0370,7254,621|0,7794,844|1,0261,888
0.1031,640 0.6774,845 0.88% 1,860|1,0802,020
0.6614,7280,9054,891|1,0581,989
0.5364,9100,8461,891|1,1241,948
0.667|19070,867|1,6831,1382,354
0,5694,8430,9541,912|1,0501,980
0,5504,9100.9892,109|i.2122,231
0,6602,2250,946|2,1231,6632,260
0.8444,755|1,1272,034
0,905|1,920.1,1872,223
0,8742,082
0,9562,059
0.9882,228
0,7502,267
lºnge 0.4631,00.h4917880,6181,0520,8371,025h,4152,020,3379041,5762,091,8872.1619,0602,42
14
This table shows that a similitude in the idea of the above precept
does really exist. But still great differences can be found in the averages
and especially in the simple produces. To use a mathematical expression
for these produces, a simple linear form would express the idea better
than the circular forms used for the Garonne. From these digressions
which are often considerable the following conclusion would be justified:
that high waters have more influence on great middle depths than on
an average depth. It is easily explained that on a spot where a small
depth exists the average middle depth is otherwise worked than in a
sharp bend where strong waters heave up sands. One cannot expect great
exactitude in these cases.
5. Loi de la Continuité. A profile of the valley of a river is only
regularly formed if curves change repeatedly.
Each sharp bend is followed by a sharp reduction of depth. It has
been shown by experiments made at Bordeaux in 1875 that the profile
of a river fixes itself definitely in a bed when the curves change con-
tinually. There is no perceptible relation between the primitive form and
the depth for a curved distance followed by straight line, as on account
of continual changes of bends the result is for a reduction of a bend,
a reduction also of the depth and an increase of a bend also an increase
of depth.
The size of bends having been taken from spot to spot, these facts
could not be verified on the Elbe and therefore the sudden changes
exist in the diagram. However variations in the depth can be seen when
the curves are abrupt.
For these reasons curves have been visited on the spot on a small
irregular distance from kilometres 157.34 to 161.00, that is a distance of
3.66 kilomètres. On the right hand concave shore buoys were placed on
the corrected line at equal distances; each buoy designed a measurement
of the corrected line to the line of the stream.
If the measured declination 3 is indicated by e, the distance of the
measured declinations 1 and 2 by a, the distance of 2 and 3 by b and
the radius of the shore by r, we have then the abscinded secant:
1) (a + b) • b = (2r + e). e
and the curve of the middle line of the river of 100 metres width
1000
The result of the combination of these two proportions
2000 e
3) k = b - (a + b) + 100e–e”
That curve is efficacious for a distance of 'ſ, (a + b) that is from the
middle from above to the middle distance from the shore.
The results of measurement and reckonings are as follows.
15
TABLE no 4. Average curves from km. 157,34 to km. 161,00.
No tº s º Kilo- f.º. Kilo- l k.l 2 kl
l lºsigllatill Uí Šliūſī, metres. | a b G k mêtres. £. 2 l
1 || Beſt mt private 4 157,840 210 87|- 1,18|–0.091 | is as,
2 ÉSiât? IlBāſ 4a 157,427 || 87| 93||— 5,28 ||—0,612 isiºn 90| – * 0.348
3 ZWBiſhäll, | Iº9 |*||9|- 998 || 9,101 | isºo ºl- ºff tools.
4 1) 19||131,620 100100+ 1.86 ||+0,188 ||..., |100+ º' logo
5 * 2 157,720 ||100 58|-|- 2,05 || + 0.458 lº 79| -- ºiloods
6 77 2a 137,778 || 58 60- 1.69 |–0486 ||..., | 89– *| diss
7 }) * | * * * * *|+º] tº ||+ ºf ojo,
* a 4" Tº ºp tº ') J T. - 7- -
8 7) * | *|| || || "º |iº || || Logo
9 1) * | *||9||+ 8.68|+0.8% lºss ||+ 4* lists
10 }} * lºsº ||37 |+ 384 |+2.311||..., |2|+18% ºn,
11 1) 6 || 158,075 || 58|| 51|-|- 3,40 |-|- 1,305 ission |*|† º 1500
12 7) * * |5||9||+ 3% - iº ||..., |4|+ º- ooss
13 }) ſºlº |30|5|- 5.93|-1.780 ||..., |2|- ºf –osis
14 }) 8 || 158,228 || 57 49|-|- 1,43 |-|- 0,566 issº 51 + 288 . 1st
15 | BºſſTº thB (Stät} | . p. sº } - 3
ROSEllſBllºſ, 1 | 158,276 |49|4|+ 304 |+* | 158996 |4|+* + 1,592
16 , , , 1a 158,315|40. 39|- 0.74 |−9.4% | 158,393 ||37- j + 0,659
17 | , 2 | 158,351 || 39, 91|+ 7:30 |+|1321||158996 | *|† : + 0,879
18 , , , || 3 || 158,441 || 91 91|+ +87 |+9579 || 158,486 || || F ..}+0.582
19| , , , || 4 || 158580 ||9|| 82|+ 419 |+º] 15:569 |*|+ ... i. 1159
20 | . , , || 5 || 158,608 || 82 80+ iº |+ tº issºs || Fºº isogo
21 , , |g| 158,678 |80 80+ iº |+* | 158716 || || || || 2:35
22 , , |1|138,753 |80 88 Fºº || *|| 1sº || || || 2:39,
23| , , || 3 |19888, & 80+*|+*|15ssºs || "...}}. Isºs
24 , , , || 9 || 158,905 || 80 80|+ 7:22|+ 1,201 || 155944 || Tºi º 1179
25 a 77 , 10 | 158,983 || 80 70+ 571 ||+ 1,155 | 159,015 || 7 || F ºil 1983
26 , , , 11 159,047 || 70 98+1999 ||+|14}}|15609 || Fººl 17so
27 , , , |12 || 159,134 || 93 80+ 1828 |+2,144|150.70 || || Fººligosi
28 , , , |18 || 159,205 |80|102|+|168||+|19||130959 |*|†º igºsa
29 , , , |14 159,298 ||102 67|+ 12.7 |+3.879 | 15332s || Fº + 2,171
30| , , 15 159,358 ||61||66|+ ºr |+}º | 1533ss || || ... + 1,682
31 , , , 16 || 159,418 ||66|88|+1999 ||+ 1.6%|159463 || *"... .oggs
32 , , , 17 | 159,505 || 88 86|- 380 - 945, 15951s sº- "...] loſis,
33 a 77 , 18 159,591 || 86 63|+ 0.62 ||+ 0.138||156625 | 73 + ...}~0.036
34 , , , 184|169,654 || 65||61||-- 1:18 -9801 || 1500s; º – ...}_0228
35 | , , , |19||159,715 ||61|85|- 9% ||=0,152 | 150 is ſº- '...}=0,119
36 , , , 194 159,800 || 85 78- 997 - 9,089|150 sº || || ...]+ iº
37. BBſrº tilt follſlåry | 1 | 159,872 78 47; + 9,25 || + 3,801 159,896 60 + 7 |+086,
38 at Djillºl, 1a 159,920 ||47. 58-389 |−}º | Isºs | * I. Loºss
39 || 0 m , 2 | 159,970 || 53 58|+ 10,69 |+ 4,047 47|-|- 190,21 |4-2800
159,992
16

N”. Désigllâtiſſil 0ſ Shūrºs, º a b G k * l k.l #
40 BBſ)rt, thB ſlillºry
ät Djillºl, 2a 160,024 || 58 59|+ 3.00 |-| 0,909 | 160.051 59|+ 53,63|| + 1,072
41 , , , || 3 | 160,078 || 59| 594 4,12|+ 1,246 |j 55+ 68.58|| +0sº
42 | n a | | 3a 160,133 || 59 59|+ 1,78 || - 0,525 | ico is, 53 + 27,82|| +ong,
43 || 0 m | | 4 || 160,185 || 59 50+ 2.48 ||+ 0.955 | ico on 50+ 47,75|| + ºr
44 | n n , 4a 160,232 || 50 66|+ 3,23 ||+0.882 | doºr 55|+ 48,51 | +oğı
45 | n a , 5 || 160,296 ||66||122|+ 5,60 |-|- 0,501 isogº 92 + 46,09|| +dºgs
46 | n a , 6 | 160,416 ||122 73|+ 2.12 ||+ 0,302 idoº #96 -- 28,99|| +dºw
47 | n n n | 7 º 73| 65||+ 1,04 || + 0,235 160,520 68 + 15,98|| +00s,
48 a n | 8 || 160.552 || 65||35–0.82 |-0000||130904 || 14- 3,70|| ". 0,139
49 | a 8, 189686 || 8 || 30- 1.47 |-9299||160676 | *- 18,04|| _ 0,294
50 | n , 9 || 160,715 || 80 53|— 1,97 || – 0,351 160,796 120 – *||—0,466
51 | n n ||9||130873 ||38||00– 448 -0.589 1600s, 185|- 76.8% |
52 | n n , 11 | 160,985 ||100|103||— 21,43 ||— 1,896
The graphical exposal of these mathematical experiments shows that
the shore in that part is quite irregular, as it has already been said,
chosen expressly for this study.
The irregularities are local when great curves follow one another in
direct and contrary way. Some are provoked by the irregular construc-
tion of the shores, embankments too high or too low, and others on
account of the repeated changes of the bends. In the mathematical
exposal the levelling deviation of the curve is shown and the union of
the two bends that follow. -
As it can be seen at first sight on the graphical reproduction a
symetry exists between the changes of curves and the depth of the
channel.
An increase of the curve shows an increase of the depth and a decrease
of the curve also a decrease in the depth. In consequence the precept
given above is confirmed here. Also the precept of displacement is
found here again with more regularity than in the preceding table.
The distance of displacement varies between + 150 and + 320 with an
average of 227 metres.
6. Loi de la pente du fond. The tangent of a curve kilometrique
determines for the fall of the bed.
With an increase of a curve, an increase of the depth is the result
and vice versa.
For the Elbe no other examples can be given as the other curves are
unknown.
17
Between the size of the tangent q and the fall p the following pro-
portions exist:

Curves kilometres. Depth of channel
Curves | Differen- || Length Tangent Depth Length | Differen- Fall of
e - e the bed.
Stati Kilome- ce of the Of Q E g of of C6. In -
ation. e 1000 0 Station. © p E
tres. curves. | distance. channel. distance. depth. 1000 d
k. (). l, e, t l, d €,
457,56 0 157,75 4.38
45803 || 245 | * 470 458 || 15895 240 500 || 072 1,44
158,45 0.55 4,60 420 3.81 458,65 1,57 400 0.53 4,33
458,78 2,40 4,85 330 5,64 458,95 2,60 300 1.03 || 3,43
1589s | 1.40 | 130 200 650 || 15930 22 350 || 039 || 1:41
15928 2.25 4,45 300 * |459.55 2.54 250 0.33 4.32
159.70 ||— 0.25 2,50 420 5.95 160,00 4,39 - 450 4,45 2,56
160,08 1,30 4,55 38() 4,08 460.30 2,49 30ſ) 0.80 2,67
460,50 () 1,30 420 999 || 460.65 4,74 350 0.48 4,37
In general there is an increase of p and q, with the exception of
N°. 4 which gives q = 6.50 and p = 1.11. For the others an increase
or decrease of the curves give increase or decrease of depth and fall.
The Supposition of a relation in that sense comes from that comparison
although the examples do not precise in what way that relation exists.
That similitude is a logical result of the above precept. - •,
This study confirms in general the appreciations of Mr. FARGUE. If
differences exist they can be imputed on the difficulty of making serious
observations on the Elbe.
Changes of the stream during low water.
Can it be proved that during low water in the Elbe there is increase
of depth by the clearing of the Sand? -
Some observations have been made during several months in 1889
with low water at eight different places and by means of 2 to 3 sounds
per week and with a graded level especially constructed for the cir-
cumstance. .
In the following results the sounds show on one side the greatest
height of the beds and on the other hand the average heights of the
whole distance H. N. .
JASMUND. 2
18
TABLE no. 6. Height of water during ebb.
a. km. 131.3 to. 131,75
Height Height in the
D A T E. at lowest channel above H.N.
level greatest. average.
16th July 1889 + 1,06 | + 85,46 + 85,20
18th , y) + 1,33 || -- 85,55 + 85,17
20th , }) + 1,42 | + 85,53 + 85,15
23d a }) + 1,13 + 85,60 + 85,08
25th , , + 1,08 + 85,60 + 85,00
30th a }} + 1,13 + 85,61 + 84,96
2d August 1889 + 1,55 | + 85,64 + 85,16
6th , 7) + 1,38 + 85,50 | + 85,16
9th , 77 + 1,06 | + 85,56 | + 84,99
13th , }} + 0,97 || + 85,57 | + 85,07
16th a 2) + 0.86 + 85,55 | + 85,06
21st , }) + 0,86 + 85,58 + 85,12
24th a }) + 0,86 + 85,58 + 84,97
27th , 7) wº + 0,78 + 85,59 || + 84,99
30th , 3) - - + 0.84 || -- 85,60 | + 85,03
2d September 1889 . + 0,89 —H 85.60 + 85,02
6th , 3) + 0.77 | + 85,60 | + 84.99
11th , 37 + 0,71 || -- 85,64 | + 85,05
13th a 3) + 0,71 | + 85,64 | + 85,04
17th , 2) + 0,71 || -- 85,55 + 84,96
20th , 3) + 0,74 + 85,56 | + 85,02
b. km. 155.5 to km. 156,0
Height Height in the
D A. T. E. at lowest channel above H. N.
level. greatest. average.
13th August 1889. + 0,52 + 79,12 | + 78,90
16th 77 77 + 0.48 + 79,20 | + 78,90
20th a 3) + 0,50 | + 79,05 | + 78,90
28th 3) 3) + 0,48 + 79,13 | + 78,93
27th 3) 5) + 0.40 + 79,09 | + 78,88
30th }} 2) - , + 0.38 + 79,02 | + 78,88
3d September 1889. + 0,46 + 79,10 | + 78,92
6th 2) }} + 0,38 + 79,27 | + 78,91
10th 25 3) + 0.32 + 79,10 | + 78,89
14th }} 3) + 0,34 + 79,07 | + 78,88
17th }) }) + 0.36 + 79,08 || -- 78,90
21th 3) }} + 0,38 + 79,06 || -- 78,89
24th 3) 3) + 0.44 + 79,19 || -- 78,91
28th 3) }} + 0.76 + 79,11 | + 78,93
19
c. km. 210,0 to km. 210,6
Height Height in the
D A T E. at lowest channel above H. N.
level. greatest. average.
27th August 1889. + 0,76 + 67,15 + 66,88
30th , }) º + 0,76 + 67,03 + 66,84
3d September 1889 . + 0,86 + 67,10 + 66,88
6th }} 7) + 0,75 + 66,99 + 66,87
9th 7) }) + 0,70 + 67,19 + 66,90
13th 3) 3) + 0,66 + 66,97 | 66,77
16th }) }} + 0,68 + 67,04 + 66,82
20th 3) 7) + 0,70 + 67,04 + 66,78
28th }) 7) + 0,77 + 66,86 + 66,70
27th }) }) + 1,00 + 67,09 | + 66,80
d. km. 283,01 to km. 283,25
Height Height in the
D A T E. at lowest channel above H. N.
level. greatest. average.
19th August 1889 . + 0,62 52,14 52,05
21th a }) + 0,58 52,11 52,04
23d a }} + 0,59 52,10 52,02
26th a }) + 0,55 52,03 52,02
28th a }) + 0.48 52,05 52,01
30th a 3) • * + 0.49 52,04 52,01
2d September 1889 . + 0,60 52,17 52,10
4th , }} + 0,55 52,17 52,10
6th , }} + 0,50 52,18 52,11
9th , 7) + 0,43 52,17 52,11
11th , }) | + 0.88 52,19 52,15
13th a }) + 0,38 52.25 52,16
16th , 7) + 0,38 52,24 52,14
18th , 1) + 0.38 52,25 52,13
20th 3) }} + 0,39 52,22 52,16
23d , }} + 0,43 52,22 52,15
25th a 3) + 0.48 52,23 52,14
27th }) 3) + 0,54 52,24 52,14
20
e. km. 302,0 to km. 302,3
Height Height at the
T) A. T E. at lowest channel above H. N.
level. greatest. average.
26th August 1889. + 0,66 + 48,83 smºmº
28th }} 3) - + 0,58 48,80 ---
30th }} 3) - - + 0,58 48,73 -º-º:
3d September 1889 . + 0,61 48,70 -
5th 35 }} —H 0,56 48,78 ---
7th 3) 9) + 0,56 48,81 ---
17th }} 7) + 0,46 48,69 ---
19th }} }) + 0.43 48,73 -
21st 9) 3) + 0,38 48,67 ---
24th 3) 3) + 0,57 48,66 smºs
26th }} 2) + 0,52 48,61 *m-.
28th }) }) + 0,62 48,64 —-
f km. 344,6 to km. 344,95.
Height Height in the
T) A. T. E. - at lowest channel above H. N.
level. greatest. average.
27th August 1889. + 0,66 40,07 39,55
29th , 7? + 0,62 40,02 || 39,57
31st , 75 gº tº + 0,62 40,07 39,60
3d September 1889. + 0,66 40,07 39,55
5th 3) 7) + 0.63 40,02 39,63
7th 3) 7) + 0,58 39,94 39,54
9th }) 7) + 0,55 40,12 || 39,64
12th 9) 3) + 0.47 40,08 39,47
14th }} 3) + 0,47 40,03 39,47
17th 75 3) + 0,45 40,01 39,48
19th • 3) + 0.44 39,95 || 39,43
21st 3) }} + 0,44 40,05 39,50
24th }} 7) + 0.47 40,04 39,50
26th 3) }} ~e + 0,50 40,06 39,49
28th 2) 27 tes + 0,60 40,01. 39,50
80th 3) n + 0,78 40,02 39,53
2d October 1889. + 1,10 40,04 39,54
4th }} }) + 1,60 40,02 39,54
21
g. km. 326,0 to km. 326,30.
Height in the
})
7)
Height -
D A. T. E. at lowest channel above H. N.
level. greatest. average.
22d July 1889 + 1,20 44,14 43,98
24th , , + 1,18 44,12 43,96
27th , , + 1,04 44,11 43,97
29th , }) + 1,00 44,07 43,90
31st a - + 1,04 44,05 43,89
2d August 1889. + 1,04 44,08 43,92
5th :, , + 1,20 44,04 43,90
7th , 3) + 1,18 43,99 43,86
9th a }) + 1,16 43,98 43,84
12th a }) + 1,00 44,01 43,84
14th a }} + 0,90 44,04 43,93
16th , , + 0,96 43,98 43,87
19th a }) + 0,96 44,00 43,86
21st . * 0,92 43,96 43,82
23d , , + 0.92 43,96 43,82
26th , * + 0,92 43,96 43,81
28th , }} + 0,82 43,96 43,81
30th , 7) - d. + 0.86 43,97 43,82
2d September 1889 + 0,90 43,94 43,81
4th }} }} + 0,88 43,92 48,76
6th }) }) + 0,86 43,90 48,77
9th 9) }) + 0,80 43,84 43,73
11th }) }) + 0,74 48,78 43,70
13th 3) }) + 0.70 || 48.84 43,73
16th 77 }) + 0,74 43,85 43,70
23d }} m + 0,76 48,87 48,72
25th 7) }) + 0,80 43,81 43,68
27th 7) }) + 0,80 43,81 43,68
30th }) }} + 0,96 43,90 43,67
2d October 1889. + 1,16 43,87 43,68
4th + 1,66 44.00 43,69
22
h. At Mödlicher Werder.
Height Height in the
D A T E. at lowest channel above H. N.
level. greatest. average.
26th August 1889. + 0,85 15,95 15,72
29th , 3) • * + 0,85 15,96 15,75
2d September 1889. + 0,75 15,91 15,66
5th }} 7) + 0,75 15,92 15,66
7th 77 }) + 0,75 15,92 15,67
9th y 3) + 0,74 15,91 15,67
12th }} 3) + 0,67 15,85 15,60
14th }) }) + 0.63 15,82 15,56
16th 2) 3) + 0,62 15,86 15,58
19th 3) }) + 0.61 15,87 15,58
21st 2) 7) + 0,63 15,88 15,61
Low waters deepen the bed very little, but still more on the lower
parts of the river on account of the clearing of the sands. The varia-
bleness of the middle point of the navigable channel is greater than in
its greater height. This has been shown by the sounds; the circumstances
that occasion the difference is that during low water the banks of the
bed are more perpendicular than during high waters. These banks con-
centrate the more when the fall is great the channel is more accentuated.
With high water the banks form themselves less straightly and the
channel is consequently less deep.
It may be that the depth of the channel is only apparent on account
of the moving sands covering the declivities. At the mouth of the Elbe
the constant movement of the sand banks can be easily seen. The forms
of the current and shores show positively that at different places the
Sand banks go from one side to the other. During high waters the bed
grows in height while with ebb tide the sand moves more slowly untill
the turn of tide. That is how the movements of sand banks can be
explained,
The dependence of the channel on the bed of the river shows itself
distinctly. Although the current be regulated the bed of the river can
be noticed amidst the sandbanks. The form is the same but the height
of the Sandbanks and the depth of the channel are sensibly reduced.
The resnlt gives occasion to compare on the distanee of the higher
Elbe which has been observed, the channel existing at present and the
one of the twentieth year of this century. Here also the depth is greate?’
through the regulation of the width and Sanding up of the channel. As
this regulation took place by an increase of the shores the influence of
the width on the lowest depth can be remarked.
23
It can be seen on the tables of synoptical curves and depth diagram
of the Elbe that from the point 250 kilometres where the width commen-
ces to measure from 130 to 150 metres a greater depth exists than in
the above part.
The numerous notes resulting from these studies as to the relation
between the primitive form and the actual bed of the river give no
exact measure and it is therefore necessary to continue the study more
closely.
P A R T II.
Study on the measurements of a straight line and an
arc forming together the primitive bed compared with a
system proposed by M. FARGUE. Influence of high a n d low
waters on the depth of the channel near a tangent point.
Maximum curves to be admitted for a channel composed
of different widths and strength of current. Practical rule
for the choice of a form for the be d of a river having a
stream with or With out tide.
Up to the present the study was limited to register certain facts and
observations but hereafter the other points of the program will have to
be discussed, the use of the knowledge to regulate the current. It passes
therefore from a fixed ground to a speculative direction, where possi-
bilities may have to be brought forward.
Mr FARGUE Says in his treatise, see Annales des Ponts et Chaussées
year 1868, page 53.
The bottom between the channel and riverbed must be even.
According to the 6th precept of part I the kilometrical curve must be
followed by a straight line which gives to the form ,spiral volute”.
The spiralvolute as form of a river.
As introduction to this theme Mr. FARGUE makes a supposition that
the bed of the river has a form in volute.
In the Annales des. Ponts et Chaussées of 1882 he exposes this pro-
posal declaring that the width of a river is not constant but is greater
in a curve especially at a sharp curve. He calls that form ,la trace
rationnelle.” .
These two conditions have no relation with one another, but come
from different points of view. As to the volutal form as form of a
riverbed the idea gives matter to reflection.
The supposition of a straight line inclined and the conclusion that the
kilometrical curve changes from to point would make the curve appear
24
in zigzag where the refraction point would be on one side at the top and
at the other end at the axe of the curved distance. -
At that point of refraction a certain discontinuation (loi de continuité)
which would not be conform to the 5th precept. The variability of the
curve would have precisely at the most important point of the river no
sudden change but would have a certain tendency to vary. Such changes
in direction seem not be in accordance with the 5th precept that expres-
ses constant changes, because in nature no direction changes suddenly.
Even if the force existed the form from an increase to a decrease would
not take place immediately, a certain length of time would be necessary
to change the direction. If this force is wanting, a change in the depth
is the result. The condition with which a continual change of a curve
could take place would have to be that the tangent of a kilometrical
curve, the top as well as the point of inflexion be horizontal. The
curve would have to show a flowing in form of a sinus curve with
minima and maxima values with vertical points. A continuation of a
cut line does not seem to accord with the developed precept. -
Another supposal against the form in spiral volute is brought by the
size of a curve maxima. It has already been said when the 3rd precept
was studied, that the regulating of a river would take place without
trouble and that no special measures would have to be taken to obtain
great depths. In one way the more the fall would be uneven, the more
facility would exist to form and keep great depths. Instead of an average
fall the bed would have to be formed in platform to obtain a strong
current. On the other hand the forming of great depths prejudices the
developement of width and a shortening of width occasions difficulties
for the tide, the navigation and the clearing of ice. Sharp bends are not
liked by navigators when the towing material has to be shortened.
When Mr FARGUE in his trace rationnelle accepts the enlargement of
the river in its bends, and that the width must be so much the larger
as the curve is sudden, that acceptation is contrary to natural propor-
tions. In reality the width is everywhere so much the smaller as the
curve is great. All means employed to obtain an enlargement of a curve
that is out of the reach of ebb and tide, are useless, many examples
could be given if the fact was not generally known. A width in curves
above the average has a prejudical effect in heaping sand on the banks
and during low water there is want of enrrent. The size of a maxima
curve that Mr FARGUE attains in choosing the spiral volute for the middle
line, is the double of an ordinary bend in the same proportions. Its
greatest depth would be greater and the width in reality smaller, which
developement cannot be considered in any way as an improvement.
Another point which seems to weigh against the spiral volute, is the
union of the prolongation of the passage of a curved distance into
another. The curve diminues progressively untill extinction.
25
On the other hand the circular form becomes greater by half till a
double length and then reduces again one half. The spiral volute loses
its influence by its progressive march especially for average curves,
because as it will be said hereafter there arrives a moment when the
action of a curve is lost. A small curve has the same action in its
influence as a straight line.
With strong or high waters that circumstance will not present itself
so much, but it is not during high waters that the profile of a river
changes, the changes of position and depth take place during low waters.
Therefore the aim of stability is not attained.
Studies provoke even more to the use of a decrease in width. A pro-
longation of distance and an increase of curves bring in greater dragging
and other expenses of construction.
Experimental Method.
The experiments made on small trenches in Bordeaux showed that the
spiral volute tries to follow the natural course of the river while for
curves and straight lines assembled no law of direction exists. But still
these essays have no weight. The imitation of natural passages on a
small scale encounters difficulties because the working of certain forces
do not keep the same peculiar quality in a reduced scale. For instance
quickened forces find an advantageous resistance with fine sand. If it be
found necessary to reduce the fall, it is also impossible to produce
firstly, the just proportion for the size of the gravel and secondly, to
produce a force running exactly.
The absence of different speeds for different depths of water can also
be added to what has been said. I have examined this question in my
treatise in 1893 sec , Zeitschrift für Bauwesen” on the ground of nume-
rous measurements taken in the Elbe and I showed the probability that
the speed of the water on the river bed is nearly nul and begins only
a few centimetres higher.
The speed acquired in different depths is proportioned to their distance
from the bottom, the scale of speed corresponds to the logarithmical
line. The progression of speed in beginning at the bottom to the surface
is quite different in deep or not deep water.
Very few cases exist where the speed remains the same in an extension
of vertical depth.
But still this is the condition for the apparition of whirls and swells
with vertical axe. I must give way to the conjecture that in the experi-
ment made the whirl with vertical axe will take place only along the
sides and not in the middle current as it does in reality.
The whirl is not a superfluous apparition, only in the above case, but
it is the just form of movement by which the curve influences the depth,
26
ºvo
Therefore it seems to me, that the model does not show the form of
currents of water as it should do.
The origin of great depths.
The manner and means by which the current works on the curve of
a river and on the depth of the channel is too important not to try to
explain it as much as possible. It is unquestionable that the fall in
curves is less than in a straight line. Also the continual change of direc-
tion weakens the force of the current. This taking away of moving forces
does it not indicate also a reduction of depth? And still in reality the
depth of a curve is so much greater as the curve is great.
In examining the current we learn that the most extraordinary depths
are in general where whirl and swells exist. The whirl is not a finishing
of the current, but simply a change in its direction and a diversion of
its force.
A whirl is a force where the current at the entrance and going out
meet together. No strength is lost or gained. It is developed by the force
of one impulsion alone. Each swell can become a whirl in advancing in
the direction of its axe. Then it takes away from the current more and
more strength which is lost against the resistances of its surroundings
and on its meeting the ground. This last is attained so much easier by
its vertical position. The whirl gains strength in itself because the stream
has a greater fall than in the current and consequently receives a greater
impulsion.
The whirling movement with perpendicular axe tries to develope
itself wherever it can.
A whirl or swell is formed by a certain force of water having the
same speed and horizontal direction. The movement of a whirl must
have forcibly its axe horizontally or perpendicular to the surface of the
water. To obtain a whirl with vertical axe, considered at a point of
view of an horizontal axe, the lines of same speed at the place of its
transversal formation must show a vertical direction. In a large and
even deep current it is impossible that a whirl can form itself, as here
the flow can only take place in a horizontal line with same speed and
the speed from the bottom to the surface becomes greater. The sounds
show that generally near the shores the greatest speed exists not at
the surface but under the water and often at a great depth. The same
speed is found here disposed at more than 90 degrees against the surface.
There must exist in the transversal profile a point where these lines
are turned to precisely 90 degrees in a vertical flow, at least in a certain
extension. In the same way that the ground works at the reduction of
the speed the nearer the stream is, the shores in their horizontal position
work yet more on the near currents than on those further off.
27
What takes place for the bottom takes place also on the shores of a
CUITVe.
If the size of the gravel and the uneven bed has an influence, the
different constructions advancing along the shores must also have their
influence.
These questions are very unclear and it would be well that the Engi-
neers examine these points and study the influence of the shores on the
speed of the current to have answers to these important demands. The
study of whirls is also bound to such inspections. That movement is not
an exception for curves but is a rule; it is more developed and strong
the sharper the curve is. The result is that the whirl is a means that
the current uses to gain a greater depth.
The size of curves.
If considered at the preceding point of view depths appear under a
different form. They do not make themselves but are the result of Sacri-
ficed forces of the current. These sacrifices are inopportune for the obtai-
ning of useless depths as long as these same forces can be used to
obtain useful depths. The measure of the smallest depth and not of the
greatest is peremptory for the economical use of the current. It would
be better if it were possible to obtain an equal depth for the whole
channel to enable the forces of the current to be used as far as possible.
The precept of the first part shows that it is nearly impossible to
obtain an equal depth for the whole stream. In curves the depth is
greater and these cannot be avoided. But from the moment that the
average depth is surpassed in curves, the over depth becomes useless.
This increase of depth does not only use for their maintenance of useful
forces of the current but is generally accompanied by reductions in the
width and differences in the fall to the detriment of the course of the
stream. The limits of a maximal curve have been fixed by precept 2 and
above claims. -
If a river be regulated in that order of ideas, once that the passage
would be formed and corrected, measures could be taken in the Sense
of the size of curves. Subsequently it would be shown that small curves
would suffice. In the first part entertaining on the studied distance of
the Elbe, there exists at the smallest curves a maximal depth that is
unnecessary in the best channel. If it were necessary to dig out the
channel the same thing would not have to be done for the curved parts,
each correction of a curve being followed by unknown circumstances.
Even the smallest curve would correct itself after such a work. The
small curves have the least favorable beds because the current has no
certain direction. During high waters the current passing through small
curves gains an uncertain gait. Small curves and advancements form
28
simply irregularities, the current passing along these passes in long and
deturned strokes.
Curves must therefore be neither too long and curved distances must
not be too short.
At a practical point there exist limits for curves. The consideration
that there is interest in having as small curves as possible would lead
to prefer straight lines. There can be nothing said against the principle
if the river has a continued flow of water; but for rivers with tides it
would be necessary not to occupy oneself with the average width but to
obtain average curves. In curves of a river without tides the profile of
the watercourse would not change much as the development of the
convex shores is free. The channel would keep on the concave shore if
the curve is not too short and no special surety would have to be taken
during low waters. In straight lines the river would follow the bed of the
current during low waters and leave its direction along the shores. The
formation of the depth would depend on the form of its shores and to
regulate for low waters would be found inefficace.
To avoid changes in the bed of the river and form one only current
for low waters it would be necessary to build shores for low waters.
Therefore it is necessary to regulate rivers with tides in straight lines
for low waters. The construction would have rather a character of .
transformation than the limiting of the size of its profile. There is no
necessity of transformation when in a current in straight line there
are no accumulations of sand. But still in reality certain cases exist
where exceptionnally such a construction of the profile for low waters
has also a character of limiting.
As it has already been said in the first part, the Elbe shows at diffe-
rent places, although it has been regulated, the same accumulations of
sand and the same direction of the river valley as existed before its
regulation. Subsequently the formation of the bed depends on the height
of water and surroundings in general. It is therefore necessary to exa-
mine these signs when regulating a river, but often no remedy can be
brought in as the works must follow the shores. -
In general the considerations of part I are not contrary to the regu-
lations of rivers in straight lines. Here is an example of what has taken
place in Switserland with straightened rivers: Mr VON SALIS, chief inspector
writes as follows:
Dass Schweizerische Wasserbauwesen, Bern 1883 page 62.
... As a striking example this is what has been experienced in that way
,(straight shores) among many other examples on the Plessur, near Thier.
,,On a distance in straight line of one kilometre the bed has been
..,dug out during a terrible catastrophe 120 years ago and although the
,banks have not been repaired as should be a strong current and
,,10 °ſe, fall, the banks have not been damaged. The explanation of this
29
,,can only be found in the well proportioned width and the current in
..straight line.”
In this case the shores for high water and those for low water are in
the same direction. Where this is not the case and for natural rivers
with irregular dikes, the construction of banks for low water are indis-
pensable. - -
Also in curves hardly marked the necessity would perhaps show itself
if the curve is small and the current has to be lead. The stream follows
so much the easier the irregular shores when the water mass is small
and not deep. A precise measure of curves can only be taken by a close
examination.
The kind of curves.
The precept in part I gives although in another point of view still a
decisive direction. The 6th precept (loi de la pente du fond) says that the
fall of the bed depends entirely on the change of the curve. An increase
of the curve indicates an increase of depth and vice versa; a smaller
curve shows a smaller depth. The non variability of the curve shows a
regular depth. In a circular curve the current should give a regular
depth to the channel. According to the experiments made in trenches at
Bordeaux the circular ways are very irregular but still they incline to
form great depths. The Elbe has different circular curves; for instance
the distance 56 on the diagram from kilometres 198.4 to 199.5, 1100
metres length there is no sign of any hollow formation, although the
radius has 500 metres only and the diversion 174 degrees. The bed is
nearly equal.
Even on irregular beds, the depths that are formed by a curve are
generally greater than those of the current. The curve must not be so
reduced that the current recedes and can no more be directed. In the
same way that the regular depths have been described as the most
useful, the circular curves define better the principle of regulation.
But nature does not show more circular curves than straight lines. The
natural bed of a river winds in different continual curves and with
different depths through the valley. It must be seen before the regulating
of a river if the cost is not too high. For that reason one must not make
circular curves. Also in large valleys one must abstain from uniting
curves of different sizes. -
The kilometrical curve must show a continued change and not a sharp
one in order that the tangent keeps its sole value.
The formation of beds.
A riverbed formed of curves and straight lines or curves in different
directions, would show at the uniting points sharp curves. The channel
30
would have constant changes in its depth. This would be the case when
the straight line between two circles is short. According to the above rule,
the large half curves and long curved distances should be used and the
length of the passage decreased. In such a decrement a preference would
be given to the distances made of curves and straight lines instead of
the spiral volute. By the synoptical diagram of curves and depths it is
not proved that from the passage of one curve into another there be a
reduction of depth in the curve that follows. On the contrary it seems
that the middle points between the long distances between small curves
are exposed in their depth ; for instance compare 215 kilometres and
223.35 or 187.35 and 180.4 kilometres or with 190.97 and following.
The banks cross the current in an inclined position and gather the
sand banks. The more the waters retreat the more the accumulation con-
tinues. These form during the low waters trenches that clear more rapidly
the water and the fall is slighter.
The passage becomes longer because the stream has not its primitive
form of the middle passage, it is pushed aside by he accumulations, which
is dangerous during low water because the current has a greater length.
Where the current carries sand it makes barriers that the river keeps at
different heights of water and the channel then winds very much. If it
is found necessary to give a fixed bed to the current this remark will
have to be taken in consideration and the channel for low waters must
be cleared as much as possible and made to wind ; otherwise the cause
that the river winds must be taken away in clearing the accumulations.
The regulation of a river must have in view to shut the above part of
the trench along the accumulation in order to leave to the current all
its force for the real passage.
Regulating the width as Mr. FARGUE proposes can only be approved
for these reasons. The current in a great depth works on itself and is
different to the one that loses its strength on the bottom. On the Garonne
the passages are reduced to about "j4 of the width of the stream and
therefore gain in depth. The result is also a reduction of the low waters
which was very usefull in the radius of the tide but higher up could not
be admitted. It would be impossible to retrench the Elbe in that way to
the height of the average waters. If the result were to keep great depth
for the passages, an increase of average waters and a reduction of low
waters would follow. The passages rule low waters and the width,
average waters.
The retrenchment should have in view a change for low waters but
should not surpass these. This retrenchment would be the means of
acquiring greater depth just as if there was question of regulating. The
fall in the passage would be less and increased in the curve above. The
increase of the fall in the curve above threatens an increase of the force
for the forming of whirls and an increase of the fall in the curve which
31
should be stopped if the low waters do not decrease too much. The
resistance that existed precedingly in the passage should be displaced to
the curve. This can take place in filling up the great depth. In filling
up the curve these will be less Sanding up of the depth and an increase
of width during low waters. As to the depth nothing will be changed as
long as the whirling movement can be kept back. It can be examined
also if it is not possible to contrary the movement of the whirl by a
declivity of the concave shore. This can be realised as in strengthening
the shores a same force of current can be given to the transversal profile.
To avoid great depths to be formed in curves seem to be closely
united with a bettering in the formation of the riverbed.
As to the forming of the riverbed it must be noted that it is only
after regulating that it is good to rule the average waters. But one must
also keep account of expenses and navigation; advanced constructions
might be a danger to navigation during low waters.
In certain cases different changes have to be made for the forming of
regular riverbeds and the fixing of a minimal depth. In general the
question cannot be exhausted.
P R O P O S A L S.
The following proposals are made on the basis of the preceding study.
I. It is necessary to continue the study of the relation between beds of river
and depths of channels. To this must be added the influence on depth of the
advanced constructions and regulating works. .
II. To keep the currents from winding it is necessary to build banks in a
straight line for low waters.
III. To stop the channel from becoming too deep half diameter curves
must be sufficiently large but not 80 large that the current loses its support
on the concave shore.
TV. Curves in form of an arc are useful to obtain equal depths. If in such
a bend different curves would become necessary on account of the place, the
continuation of one curve into the other must not be too sharp.
W. To improve useful depths retrenchment of the width for low waters can
be recommended and in the large curves a filling up of the too great depth.
Iniſh ir/illiºl Iriſis its Pillº, Dºriſtill filt Plätts.
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C O N T E N T S.
---
§ 1. Relation between curves and depths.
:
Law of digression.
Regulation of width.
Forms of river-beds in straight lines and arcs of a circle.
High and low water.
Maximum sinuosity.
.
Analysis of diagrams of the Seine.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.
P L A T E S.
*-s
Diagram of widths, curves and depths on the Garonne.
Diagram of widths and depths on the Seine.
Diagram of widths, curves and depths on the Seine.
Map of the Seine.
VIth International Inland Navigation Congress.
T H E H A G UE, 1894.
Relation between the form of river banks and the
nature of the channel.
BY
MENGIN–LECREULX,
Inspecteur Genéral à Paris.
AND
GUIARD,
Ingénieur en Chef des Ponts et Chaussées à Paris.
In these questions as in so many others the observation of facts is
alone of any real value. It is therefore facts that the Congress especially
demands.
We should have wished to furnish more, but the detailed study of a
river requires much work, time and expense.
We give under the form of diagrams a comparative study of the
widths, curves and depths for the maritime Garonne between Castets and
the Ile de Laland, a distance of 51 km., and for the maritime Seine be-
tween Rouen and the sea, a distance of 104 km.
M. Guiard, Ingénieur en Chef, our successor at Rouen and our colla-
borator in this work, was good enough to draw up the diagrams and, as
regards the Seine, elaborate an analysis and comprehensive discussion of
the results. They will be found in § 7.
We also received certain information with respect to the maritime
Loire, but the numerous wharves established on this river modify the
régime of the bottom too much for it to be possible to gather any useful
data from the study of the question.
With regard to the fresh-water portion of the Garonne two engineers
have been good enough to prepare treatises.
One of them, M. Eschbach, has devoted himself to the study of a dis-
4.
tance of 89 km., included between Agen and the boundary of the Depart-
ment of the Garonme. Except in two places where the bottom is rocky,
he has confirmed the relation between curves and depths and the law
of digression. He states however that he has noted a great number of
anomalies, which he has not pointed out in detail, but has confined
himself to discussing the causes which are according to him foreign to
the form of the mean bed. He proposes a system of low dikes.
M. MAILLET has been occupied with a section of 6 km., where be has
also confirmed the laws of relation and digression.
However important these two studies may be, it is desirable not to
discuss them before we are able more effectually to substantiate the con-
clusions drawn from them. We will therefore devote to a future congress
the examination of the points proposed.
The Congress has formulated a certain number of questions. We reply
to its wish by treating certain of them succinctly and, without comple-
tely debarring ourselves from expressing our personal opinion, we have
however endeavoured in general to avoid all purely theoretical discussion
that is not founded on the facts presented by us.
§ 1. RELATION BETWEEN WIDTH AND DEPTH.
It has long been known that concavities give rise to hollows which are
the more marked as the former are more characteristic. The exceptions
or anomalies which are sometimes reported and from which argument
has been drawn in disputes, are easily explained and do not in any way
interfere with the general rule.
M. FARGUE has pointed out this rule making it clear that the relation
was closer than originally supposed and that all the variations of the
curve along a concavity gave rise to corresponding variations in the depth.
This is clearly shown in the diagram of Plate I, which describes the
widths, curves and depths of the Garonne for a distance of 51 Km.
above Bordeaux between Castets and the Ile de Lalande.
This part which has been the object of the studies and labours of
M. FARGUE is affected by the tide which rises as far as Castets, but its
action is hardly felt over more than half of this distance.
This diagram shows that the curve in the bottom nearly everywhere
reproduces the curve in the banks with all its indentations. The few
anomalies that may be remarked are easily explained, either by varia-
tions in width, especially below Langoiran, or by irregularities in the
bed and local circumstances which the perusal of detailed plans alone
can elucidate.
This study has been made and demonstrated by M. FARGUE with the
fullest detail. We have no occasion to return to this point, but it has
appeared to us desirable in response to the question of the Congress, to
5
recapitulate the principal results under a form suitable for showing by
a simple examination and a single glance the law of relation that it is
required to establish.
With regard to the Seine, we refer to the detailed examination made
by M. GUIARD in § 7 and we confine ourselves here to a general view
of the subject.
Unlike the Garonne where, at least between Castets and Langoiran, the
succession in the variations in width is very regular, thus giving to the
form of the bed and to the curves all their influence, on the Seine the
incessant variations in width play an important part, a fact which is
well set forth in the special diagram, Plate II, where the widths and
depths are clearly indicated.
Moreover, resisting banks or banks not entirely unstable, rock, turf,
pebbles and clay, all of which modify the results, are frequently illustra-
ted at the bottom of the bed.
The influence of the curves is therefore more difficult to discern.
These curves are represented with the depths in Plate III on the same
Scale as for the Garonne, and the diagram of widths, sections and
discharges has been added.
We have said that the curve in the bottom generally depends on the curve
of the width. Still, by looking closely, numerous differences will be observable
and they can only be accounted for by the curves. By following the
diagram point by point and by taking advantage of a knowledge of the
bottom and resisting points there met with (see the discussion infra), it
will be seen that there are hardly any indentations of the curve of the
bottom, however capricious and unlooked for they may at first sight
appear, that cannot be explained by the effect of the curves and varia-
tions in width acting sometimes together, at other times inversely.
This is quite natural, but it may not be amiss to demonstrate it, to
show that the unstable bottom reflects all the circumstances of the bed,
variations in width and curves, even those that we might have been
tempted to consider insignificant. In fact to obtain the best possible result
nothing must be neglected.
With regard to variations in one and the same curve the diagram
gives little information, because unlike the Garonne where the curves,
whether natural or artificial, are increasing or decreasing, on the Seine
hardly any curves are met with that are not arcs of a circle, or
nearly so.
If the variations in depth follow those of the curve, the proposition is
not exact or at least is not always exact; that is to say that to a con-
stant curve (arc of a circle) a constant depth of the same length does not
correspond, but one or several maximum depths. The diagram of the
Seine seems to estatlish this point, but we will return to it in dealing
with beds formed of arcs of a circle.
6
If however after establishing a relation we seek to represent it in
figures and formulae, we encounter great difficulties. .
For the Garonne M. FARGUE has established a formula but he specifies
clearly that it only translates the local facts empirically and cannot be
applied in other circumstances.
The width, the depth and the speed interfere to a degree that may
be suspected but not established exactly. The details of the form, the
nature of the bottom and the abundance of matter brought down inter-
fere with these calculations; in fact in the present state of science there
is no general formula that can be established and the most one can do
is to search in every river or part of a river for an empirical relation.
Having said so much we will regard a few facts which may be consi-
dered as of information.
In the portion of the Garonne that has been studied the width varies
from 150 to 200 m., the average speed when the water is at a normal
height is about 0.80 m., the depth of water below low-water mark in the
straight parts is between 1 and 1.5 m. For the hollows this depth varies
from 2 to 11 m.; the latter figure corresponds to a curve 1 km. long
with an altitude of 240 m., that is to say with a radius of about 400 m.
or twice the width. A curve of the same length with an altitude of 100 m.,
corresponding to a radius of 1000 m. (five or six times the width), gives
depths varying from 3.50 to 5 m. according to the width and the form
of the bed.
On the Seine at Tancarville, the width is about 500 m., the speed,
very variable according to high and low water and the time of high
and low water, in springtides during the flood reaches a maximum of
3 m. and an average of 1.60 m. for three hours during the ebb, and a
maximum of 2 m. and an average of 1.20 m. for seven hours.
The depth in the neighbouring shallows is 5.50 m. below the mean
level. The concave curve is an are of a circle having an altitude of 40 m.
and a radius of 2500 m., or five times the width; its full extent is
4 km.; it causes a furrow the maximum depth of which is 13 m. ; the
average depth is hardly more than 8.50 m.
At Villequier, the radius of a curve of 1500 m, (also five times the
width) causes a deepening of about 3 m., but at this point the water
carried out by the tide, during spring tides, is already reduced by half.
§ 2. LAW OF DIGRESSION.
The law of digression which corresponds to a general law of nature is
not disputed. It only remains to determine the effect of the digression.
In the part of the Garonne that he has studied, M. FARGUE has shown,
and it can be proved by the diagram, that the amount of the digression
varies in general from 11/2 to 2 times the width and he thinks that the
latter ratio may be admitted. -
7
The same ratio, viz. twice the width was found from the experiments
made in 1875 at Bordeaux on an artificial river 1.5 m. wide for the
study of the rational forms of river-beds. This study has given very
interesting and convincing results which M. FARGUE has also elsewhere
given some account of (Paris Congress 1892; Annales des Ponts et Chaus-
sées, March 1894). -
On the Seine, as may be scen in § 7, the digressions vary from 400 to
1200 m., the width varying from 200 to 500 m. The average ratio there-
fore is still 2 to 1, but as a matter of fact this ratio on the Seine is far
from being constant. It probably varies with the speed of the current
and certainly with the circumstances of the form of the bed. A form of
bed with a sharp bend might be conceived where the digression would
be insignificant. Beds of rational form by the good management of con-
cavities and the judicious determination of their development seems to
us to have for result the prolongation down stream of the action of the
concavities. -
However that may be, a knowledge of the law of digression is useful
for the determination of the dimensions of curves and the respective
position of tangents on either bank; from this point of view and under
the usual conditions of speed, the ratio of 2 to 1 between the digression
and the width appears at present to be admitted.
§ 3. INFLUENCE OF THE DISCHARGE AND OF THE WIDTH UPON
THE DEPTH IN REGULAR GURWES.
This question is very simple or very complex according as one would
understand it.
Every reduction of width with an equal or regular discharge, every
increase in discharge with an equal width, increases the influence of
the curves.
But all engineers know that this mode of action has limits which it
is most important not to go beyond.
This however is independent of the question of the form of beds and
we cannot here go into it.
The question of greatest importance is the regulation of the width
which the doctrine of sinuous rational forms of beds in no way pretends
to reduce. This doctrine only attempts to furnish for regular widths and
discharges a deeper and more stable channel, or what cames to the same
thing, secure the necessary results of navigation with greater average
widths and more moderate speed. The latter is often a most important
factor, especially in tidal rivers.
On the Seine, commencing at Caudebec, a system of increasing the
width down stream has been adopted which has proved too feeble in conse-
Quence of the strength of the tide. The inclines and the speed have
8
increased, the bed has dug itself out, but not sufficiently, and the Speed
has remained excessive. The result has been grave inconveniences which
have to be contended with to-day.
In spite of this general excess of speed and insufficient width, it is
proved, and the subjoined diagram shows it, that at certain points, as
for instance at St. Léonard, a local increase in width causes a shoal,
although upon this same shoal the speed remains great and the bottom
is unstable. -
This very important fact shows that as regards the nature of the
bottom it is not only the absolute speed and width that must
be considered, but their continuity. If the bed is straight the continuity
will be absolute, if it is sinuous there will still be continuity, but of
another nature, the width being for excellent reasons, often enlarged
upon, necessarily greater at the apex of curves than in the places where
the direction changes, but varying from one to the other in imperceptible
degrees in such a manner that curves, widths and depths form similar
diagrams.
At St. Léonard the increase in width contrary to the general principle
is at the point where the direction changes; this will be changed and
the width of the stream will be increased parallel with the apices of the
curves of Tancarville and Aizier. -
§ 4 INFLUENCE OF A BED FORMED BY STRAIGHT LINES AND ARCS OF
A CIRCLE COMPARED WITH THE INFLUENCE OF A BED CON-
STRUCTED ACC0RDING TO THE SYSTEM OF M. FARGUE.
The rules pointed out by M. FARGUE are legion. A great number of
them, and these not the least important, are compatible with a bed com-
posed of straight lines and the arcs of a circle, as for instance the deter-
mination of the development of the curves, determination of the angle
of the tangents or successive straight lines, distribution of differences in
width, position of points of tangence. If these conditions are fulfilled, the
difference will then only bear upon the principle of the continuity of
CUITVeS.
The rupture of continuity at the point of tangence will give place
to a corresponding discontinuity of more or less disportance in the relief
of the thalweg, according as the ratio between the curve and the speed
shall be greater. The bend at Tancarville is an example — it is pro-
duced in this case above the curve — and has given considerable trouble
as may be seen from the diagram, a trouble which is caused moreover
by the irregularities of width, resulting from the irregular crumbling
away of the convex bank which is not diked and is exposed to swift
flowing water.
What occurs between the points of tangence along the arcs of the
circle? Studies made on the Garonne (Annales des Ponts et Chaussées,
9
1868), the experiments made in 1875 at Bordeaux mentioned above, the
examination of what has occurred at the bend of Tancarville on the
Seine, seem to establish the fact that along a circular curve we find not
a constant depth corresponding to the constant curve, but as we have
said above one and sometimes several maximum depths and variable
positions according to the variations of speed. The result of this is that
if they are frequent they cause incessant alteration in the bottom and
the dislodging of matter to the detriment of the channel generally.
This is a most important question which might with advantage be
elucidated more by a more numerous collection of facts.
It is at present in our opinion certain that arcs of a circle give less
satisfactory results, especially if the speed is great and variable, cir-
cumstances met with particularly in maritime rivers when the tide
is strong.
In a river of this nature if abandoning the rectilinear form of bed
we introduce curves, the continuity of these curves becomes extremely
important.
It is our opinion however that, especially in a quiet and regular river
with a bed in the form of arcs of a circle already in existence and well
arranged in all other respects, we shall be able to come to a proper
result; but we think that for a new bed, it is always necessary to have
recourse to graduated curves.
§ 5. INFLUENCE OF HIGH AND LOW WATERS ON THE DEPTH OF
THE CHANNEL IN BENDS.
High waters increase the depth, the speed and the discharge of Solid
matter.
In the first two instances the deep places should become deeper; but
in certain badly combined forms of beds it may happen that the result
becomes hidden by the amount of solid matter brought down.
A very important consideration is connected with this point. The form
of the line traced by the most effective part of the current, which deter-
mines the thalweg, depends on the form of the banks, but also on the
conditions of heigh of water and the speed with which this line neces-
sarily changes. In the form of beds recommended it is proposed by the
continuity of curves and their suitable development to reduce to a mini-
mum the variation of the line in question. This is connected with what
we have already said above with reference to circular arcs. It is a point
to be studied.
We may mention however that the increase in width at the apex
of the curve combined with an accentuation suitable to concave and
convex curves has, among other ends in view, the effect of creating spaces
where the action is less strong. These are sufficiently important and defi-
10
nitely formed for the matter brought down by the floods and stranded
when the water is low to be able here to deposit itself and finally con-
tinue down stream from one concavity to another without stopping in
the channel.
This theory has been developed by M. FARGUE and is of great service
in making comparisons between straight and curved beds. -
We mention it without pressing the question, not being able to furnish
any precise facts. It would be interesting and useful to verify this theory,
which might perhaps be done by taking soundings at suitable seasons
very close together, or even by cubic measurement ahead of the con-
vexities. Unfortunately these are minute and tedious operations which
one has not often the leisure to undertake.
§ 6. MAXIMUM OF SINU0SITY.
The Garonne and the Seine are very tortuous.
The diagram shows that in the best portions of the maritime Garonne
above Bordeaux very accentuated curves are found, which describe angles
of as much as 120° with the radius of the curves, the ratio between
which and the width is reduced to 2 at the apex and 4 for the mean
curve. The width is about 200 m.; the mean annual discharge per metre
in width per second is 3 or 4 cub.m.
On the Seine above Caudebec, under similar conditions of width and
discharge, curves of the same nature are found, which, not counting the
irregularities of width and bed, do not appear to offer any serious
inconveniences and would give good results if they were well managed.
Below Caudebec the speed increases rapidly and the situation changes.
At Tancarville, for a width of 500 m. with sudden discharges which,
varying incessantly in the most spread out parts of the river, are 6 or 8
; cub.m. per metre in width per second at mid-tide and in spring tides
and reach a maximum of 10 cub.m. during the ebb-tide and 18 cub.m.
during the flood, an arc of a circle of about 90° with a radius of 2500 m.,
or five times the width, occasions considerable trouble and thus consti-
tutes an excessive sinuosity.
These facts are not sufficiently numerous to enable us to form any
fixed or general conclusions.
We shall only observe that the case of Tancarville is absolutely excep-
tional and abnormal; it is caused by bad management of widths. In
general the conditions usually met with are more like those of the Garonne.
By adopting 80° or 100° as the angle of sinuosity good practical con-
ditions will be obtained.
The facts relating to Tancarville also show that in a tidal river opera-
tions must be regulated by spring tides and not by meap or average tides.
This raises the general question of the effect of sinuosities in tidal
11
rivers. Many engineers declare that there is good reason for suppressing
them, because they interfere with the rising tide and the hydraulic force
of the stream.
With regard to the filling up of the bed there is no doubt; still we
must also consider the good régime of the channel of navigation and the
action of the ebb-tide. If it is admitted, as we think it should be, that
in these latter circumstances straight forms of beds, or those that are too
little or too irregularly sinuous, present inconveniences, we shall find we
have two contrary principles to reconcile. This may be done by soften-
ing down the sinuosities and regulating them as well as possible by
means of graduated curves and a suitable regulation of the width by
means of which, as the example of the Garonne proves, we may con-
siderably reduce, even during the flood, the loss of power and guard
against the filling up of the channel. At Tancarville, although the exag-
geration of the curve is certainly an obstacle, the insufficient width is
nevertheless the principal factor.
This therefore remains an open question; but however we may wish
to do away with the sinuosities, it is not always easily done, and if they
are preserved they still require the best possible management.
From this point of view at least the study of rational sinuosities is
important and essential for tidal rivers as for others.
One of the questions set forth by the Congress has reference to the
practical rules to be adopted in choosing the form of bed and constitu-
tuing the summer bed in both tidal and non-tidal rivers; the magnitude
of it is so great that it would be imprudent for us to touch upon it.
§ 7. ANALYSIS OF THE DIAGRAMS OF THE MARITIME SEINE.
We have taken as a level of comparison the average level of the ebb-
tide, or the level obtained by dividing the total duration of the ebb by
the area of a curve of which the abscissa represents the time and the
Ordinate the corresponding height of water, i.e. if T = duration of ebbing
tide, h = the height at each moment, and H = the height of water
corresponding to the average height of the ebbing-tide :
H - ſ” hat
--- T
We have brought down to this level all the diagrams connected with
the present study.
Plate III gives drawings of
1. Sections;
2. Widths;
3. Discharges;
4. Concave curves;
12
(these latter being connected in the same drawings as they are on one
bank or the other).
5. Same depths reduced to the level of the marine charts;
6. Maximum depth of water with regard to the level of the ebbing-tide.
We shall point out directly that the soil in many parts of the Seine
being incapable of being washed away, there are ledges which form
dams, for which all theories founded upon the mobility of the bed cease
to be applicable.
Besides these ledges the Seine throughout its length presents great
varieties of width, a fact which forms a complication with regard to the
laws observed on a part of the Garonne where the width is sensibly
constant. It was therefore very interesting to nullify the influence due to
the variations of curvature and that due to the variations in width.
It is in this sense that we have prepared the present study.
We should also remark that the importance of the volume of water
being equal to 79/100 of the volume of water discharged and on the other
hand the duration of the flood being equal to */, of the ebb, it follows
that the bed of the Seine may be considered as giving passage at each
tide, at least in the lower portion, to two strong currents of equal force
running in opposite directions.
Under these conditions the effect of the curves being given, the law of
digression should be felt in both directions to a greater or less degree,
according to the points considered and also according to the degree of
inconvenience caused by the curves during the ebb or flow of the tide.
We will step by step follow the Seine from Tancarville as far as
Rouen; we will not deal with the lower portion of the river, for the
variations in the channels of the estuary have an influence foreign to
the study with which we are at present occupied.
We give in Plate II a special diagram in which we have only indi-
cated the depths at the average level of the ebb-tide and the width.
This comparison brings out in a most striking manner the relation
between the widths and depths observed.
It seems that in the main the two diagrams are in every respect
parallel.
We will keep back this important point and pass on to Plate III.
The influence of the variations in width between kilometres 331 and
334 is corrected on the drawing of the depths by the influence of the
curve, which greatly accentuates the first indentation 1000 m. below the
apex of the curve and which on the contrary skirts the shoal correspon-
ding to the width 1000 m above this apex.
At the same time the influence of the change in direction at kilometre
332.5 is sensibly felt, there being a digression of at least 500 m. down
Stream. -
The action up stream is not felt in consequence of the existence of
13
sunken banks to which are due the deepening of kilometres 332 and 333;
there is here a local action which need not enter into our study.
The influence of the creek of St. Léonard at kilometre 330 and the
consequent shrinking of the bed is very striking.
It is the same with the increase in width towards kilometre 327.
The effect of the curve of Vieux Port is shown by a digression of
about 500 m. an up stream and 700 m. down stream.
With regard to the deepening of kilometres 323 and 324, it is due to
the presence of the bank of Les Hagues which forms a regular bar,
against which the flood tide exhausts itself in undermining it.
The effect of the next curve occasions digressions of 600 m. up stream
and 900 m. down stream.
The curve between kilometres 315 and 316 has but slight effect down
stream, but is very appreciable up stream, causing a digression of 250
metres; this would go to establish a principle that a short and abrupt
curve exercises a more marked action on the flood than the ebb.
The three indentations in the width at Villequier appear in the depths,
attenuated and modified as regards their position by kilometre 313 to
314. It seems that the digressions due to the curve are 400 m. down
stream and 800 m. up stream.
The effect of the curve of kilometre 311 is felt 700 m. up stream; the
effect down stream manifests itself by causing the incline of the thalweg
to be steeper than it would have been if the variation in the width
alone had been taken into account.
The influence of the change in direction between kilometres 310 and
311 causes a mound up stream which the width no longer justifies and
a digression of 400 m.
In the same way between kilometres 309 and 308, the combined effect
of the curve and the variations in width is very sensible and corres-
ponds to a digression of 400 m. up stream and 600 m. down stream.
We will not stop at the holes in kilometres 304 and 305 m., 300 m.
corresponding to sunken dams. The effect of the curve of kilometre 305
and 306 is felt down stream by a digression of about 800 m.
Further on we find the influence of the widening at Le Malacquis
very clearly corrected 500 or 600 m. down stream by the curve of
kilometre 302.
The great depth of bottom between kilometres 300 and 301 depends
upon a submarine bank; it is independent of the curve between the
two kilometres; the effect of the latter is felt with a digression of 700 m.
down stream.
The curves between kilometres 300 and 295 combined with the
variations in width give almost exactly the same depths and shallows
as result from M. FARGUE's theory with a digression of 700 m. down
Stream. - -
14
The great stretch of deep water met with at kilometre 296 depends on
the existence of a submarine cape; it has nothing to do with the curve
or the width at low-tide level.
The influence of the hole of Les Hagues coinciding with a straight
line determines a shallow, after which the thalweg again obeys the law
of variations in width with the corrections due to curves.
The minimum depth at kilometre 291 corresponds to a minimum
curve at a spot where the width is also minimum and with a digression
down stream of about 500 m.
In the same way the effect of the curves of kilometres 285 and 283 is
very plainly felt 400 m. down stream by a mound, due to the excess
of width. (See Plate II.) *
Between kilometres 283 and 274 the same effect is produced with
digressions of 300 or 400 m. down stream.
We meet with the same results at the bank of Bardouville, although
much enfeebled by the slight mobility of the bottom and altered by the
dredging that has latterly been effected. -
Starting from kilometre 265 we meet with a great depth at Caumont
due at once to the shrinking and to a considerable bend with digressions
which appear to be 800 m. up stream and 400 m. down stream,
We next have depths corresponding almost exactly with the variations
in width.
The influence of the curve is also very clearly shown between kilo-
metres 258 and 254. But in this region as far as Rouen the presence of
numerous islands through which channels have been dug no longer
permits us to draw any conclusions. -
The above analysis shows that the variations of depth on the Seine
clearly depend on the variations in width combined with curves.
Wherever there are only variations in width, the various depths of the
channel appear to follow them without any appreciable digression.
Wherever the variations in width are relatively continuous, the depth
follows the influence of the curve and the form of the bed.
It would even seem that in ground only slightly susceptible to the
action of the current the above effects continue to occur, although their
absolute intensity is reduced.
Wherever we have together an increase in width and a reduction in
the curves we are certain to have shallows.
Although it is a very delicate matter to fix the digressions, as we
have done above, and may in certain cases give rise to dispute, it is
remarkable that the digressions up stream are met with between Tamcar-
ville and Le Trait, where they disappear. -
It is precisely at Le Trait that the bore ceases to be felt.
The most marked digressions up stream are at Tancarville, near
Villequier, that is to say in those places where the width is least.
15
We meet also with another exceptional digression up stream; it cor-
responds to the abnormal shrinking at Caumont.
If we compare these results with the indications drawn from the
curves and discharges, we see that the volume introduced by the flood-
tide diminishes very rapidly between Tancarville and Le Trait. From
there as far as Caumont it remains almost constant, diminishing once
more very rapidly up to Rouen. -
All contractions and sinuosities interfere with the introduction of the
tide and, according to their dimensions, more or less affect the hydraulic
power of the river.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.
A. The relation between curves and the variations in depth is demonstrated
by the Garonne and maritime Seine. On the Garonne where the variations in
width are relatively very regular and the curves gradual, the variations in
depth are identical with the curves. On the Seine where the variations on the
contrary are very irregular, the two actions combine and, by comparing the
diagrams, the influence of these two causes respectively may be observed point
by point. -
B. The action of the curves increases with the width, the depth and the
Speed, that is to Say the discharge, and also depends upon their circumstances
— the nature of the bed, the nature of the bottom etc. — all of them in
proportions which cannot be formulated in a general manner.
It is natural to express the influence which is probably proportional to the
width by calculating the curves by the ratio between the radius of the curve
and this width. On the Garonne, with an average discharge per metre in
width per second of 3 or 4 m., the ratio between the radius of the curve and
the width may, without inconvenience to the channel, or apparently with advan-
tage, be 4 for the mean curve and 2 for the apex. The Seine above Caudebec
presents similar conditions. -
Below Caudebec, at Tancarville, the ratio of 5 for a curve (the are of a
circle) is manifestly eaccessive and provokes serious troubles for the average
discharges per metre in width, since these latter are nearly double, and in
spring tides three or even four times, the flood by reason of the height of the
tides and the insufficient width.
C. The law of digression, which on tidal rivers acts in both directions, is
general. The digression, which varies according to the conditions of the form
of the bed and the discharge in proportions not yet determined, is especially
caused by the width.
ſ
!
;
16
For practical purposes in the management of the forms of beds the ratio
of 2 between the digression and the width may be adopted.
D. The regulation of the width is above all the most important considera-
tion, not even the doctrine of the rational sinuous forms of beds has been
able to lessen its influence. The latter only attempts to obtain better results
where the variations are regular and presumed to be suitable.
The comparative merits of straight and sinuous forms of beds constitutes a
question which still remains open; but in every case, as these sinuosities are
nost often inevitable, it is still necessary to study how they should be man-
aged in order that they may be as useful, or as little hurtful, as possible,
which practically comes to the same thing.
E. The same observation applies to sinuosities in tidal rivers.
They always to a greater or less degree according to their importance
admit of a loss of effective force, which interferes with the introduction of the
flood and the hydraulic power of the river.
Besides M. FARGUE many engineers advise the suppression of them. This
controvertible and delicate question remains open, but still generally speaking
it will be necessary if not to introduce sinuosities at any rate to reduce them.
It is therefore necessary on tidal rivers as on others still further to study their
management.
F. The forms of beds formed of straight lines connected by arcs of a
circle, if they are well managed as regards their curves, their development,
the position of the points of tangence, successive variations in width, may give
Satisfactory results; but the substitution of arcs of a circle for graduated
curves, which only corresponds to a simplification without practical interest,
can nevertheless only present inconveniences. To appreciate this it might be
w8eful to take observations respecting the nature of the depth along the arcs,
especially with regard to the variations in discharge.
G. All variations in discharge, high and low waters in ordinary rivers,
Spring and meap tides in tidal rivers, complicate the management which is
the more easy according as it is most regular. The forms of beds recom-
mended by M. FARGUE are culculated to reduce to a minimum the variations
in the line where the action of the current is strongest, which determines the
thalweg, and to create in the convexities a system of alternate curves, where
"matter is deposited after successive floods and droughts. These points present
a capital importance, but require verification and doubtless may still be the
Subject of much dispute.
H. The use of synoptic diagrams, which are intended to make clear all the
elements which characterise a river and have a mutual influence, is effective
and even essential not only for the advancement of science, but also for carrying
out improvements independently of any theory and for controlling results.
Translated by FRANCIs A. OLIVER,
Ilºrilliſ] lºš Plăllſ HS.
**-*-*.*.*-e
PLANCHE I.
Diagramme des largeurs.
Diagramme des courbures concaves
des rives.
On a porté en ordonées au-dessous
de l'axe des abscisses, les valeurs
de . . . . .
Diagramme des profondeurs d'eau
maxima au-dessous des Zéros des
échelles.
Passes et lieux dits:
PLANCHE II.
Diagramme des largeurs au niveau
moyen de jusant.
Axe de la rivière développée.
Lieu géométrique des profondeurs
d'eau maxima au-dessous du
niveau moyen de jusant.
Digue basse. -
Rescindement projeté de la con-
vexité.
Digue détruite.
Trou.
Sable fin, fond mobile.
Sable vaseux.
Fonds mon mobile, quelques roches.
Sable vaseux mélangé de quelques
galets, assez mobile.
Gravier et galets, quelques roches.
Cailloux, gravier et sable.
Vase et argile très dure.
Cailloux et vase très dure.
Tourbe.
MENGIN T.I.CIREULX & G UIAIRD.
IIST|Tiſſºlſ|| ||||||}|.
BLATT I.
Breitendiagramme.
Diagramm der Krümmungen der
concaven Ufer.
Man hat die Werthe von
in Ordinaten unter der Abscissen-
achse eingetragen.
Diagramm der Maximalwassertiefen
unter den Nullpunkten der Pegel.
a Pâsse” und Stellen, genannt:
BLATT II.
Breitendiagramm bei
Ebbe-Wasserstande.
Achse des entwickelten Flusses.
Ort der
wassertiefen unter dem mittleren
Ebbe-Wasserspiegel.
Niedriger Deich.
mittlerem
Geometrischer Maximal-
Geplante Abänderung der convexen
Form.
Zerstörter Damm.
Loch.
Feiner Sand, beweglicher Boden.
Schlammiger Sand.
Nicht beweglicher Boden, einige
Felsköpfe.
Ziemlich beweglicher schlammiger
Sandboden, mit etwas Flusskiesel
vermischt.
Grand und Flusskiesel, einige Fels-
köpfe.
Kieselsteine, Grand und Sand.
Schlamm und sehr harter Thon.
Kieselsteine und sehrzäher Schlamm.
Torf.
DHRCrilliſ] [f th: Phlº.
T- ~ *-*-*.
PLATE I.
Diagram of widths.
Diagram of concave curves of the
banks. w
The values have been re-
presented by ordinates below the
axis of the abscissae.
Diagram showing maximum depths
of water below the zero marks
of the scales.
Passages and places called:
PLATE II.
Diagram of width at the mean
level of the ebb.
Tracing of the course of the river.
Locus of maximum depths at the
mean level of the ebb.
Low dike.
Projected modification of the con-
vexity.
Ruined dike.
Hole. -
Fine sand, unstable bottom.
Slimy sand.
Constant bottom, a few rocks.
Slimy sand mixed with pebbles,
rather unstable.
Gravel and pebbles, some rocks.
Stones, gravel and sand.
Slime and very hard clay.
Stones and tenacious mud.
Turf.
2
Sable vaseux mélangé de Coquil-
lages minuscules.
Argile compacte et argile sableuse.
Argile, sable et marne.
Sable et gravier.
PLANCHE III.
Diagramme des largeurs de la
rivière au niveau moyen de
jusant.
Diagramme des sections au niveau
moyen de jusant.
Diagramme des courbures concaves
des rives des fleuves.
On a porté en ordonnée la valeur
de . . . .
Sur ce diagramme est indiqué la
valeur de la courbure kilo-
métrigue.
Diagramme des profondeurs d'eau
maxima au dessous du niveau
moyen de jusant.
Diagramme des débits totaux de
jusant.
Diagramme des cubes introduits en
amont des diverses stations de
la Seine.
Rive droite.
n gauche.
Le
la rivière est représenté à l'échelle
de . . . .
Zéros des diagrammes des largeurs,
sections,
deurs.
développement de l'axe de
courbures et profon-
Zéro des diagrammes des débits.
Le niveau moyen de jusant au-
dessus du Zéro des cartes marines
au Hávre est . . . .
(Pour les autres inscriptions, voir
les traductions Pl. II.)
Inscriptions souvent répétées,
Digue.
Echelle.
Légende.
Pont.
Schlammiger Sand mit ganz kleinen
Muscheln vermischt.
Massiger Thon und mit Sand ver-
mengter Thon.
Thon, Sand und Mergel.
Sand und Grand.
BLATT III.
Breitendiagramm des Flusses bei
mittlerem Ebbe-Wasserstande.
Querschnittsdiagramm bei mittlerem
Ebbe-Wasserstande.
Diagramm der concaven Krüm-
mungen der Stromufer.
Man hat den Werth von
als Ordinate eingetragen.
Auf diesem Diagramme ist der
Werth der kilometrischen Krüm-
mung angegeben.
Diagramm der Maximal-Wassertie-
fen unter mittlerem Ebbe-Was-
serspiegel.
Diagramm der Gesammt-Wasser-
abfuhr bei Ebbe.
Diagramm der oberhalb der ver-
schiedenen Seinestationen einge-
führten Wasserinhalte.
Rechtes Ufer.
Linkes 7)
Die Entwicklung der Stromachse
ist im Maasstabe von . . . . wie-
dergegeben.
Nullpunkte der Quer-
schnitts, Krümmungs- und Tie-
Breiten-,
fen-Diagramme.
Nullpunkte der Wasserabfuhr-Dia-
gramme.
Der
iiber Null auf den Marinekarten
in Havre liegt . . . .
(Die anderen Ausdrücke, siehe
Uebersetzungen zu Blatt II.)
Häufig Vorkommende Inschriften.
Deich, Damm.
Maasstab.
Zeichemerklärung.
Brücke.
mittlere
Ebbe-Wasserspiegel
Slimy sand mixed with minute
shells.
Hard clay and Sandy clay.
Clay, sand and marl.
Sand and gravel.
PLATE III.
Diagram showing width of river
at the mean level of the ebb.
Diagram of sections at the mean
level of the ebb.
Diagram of the concave curves
of river-banks.
The value . . . . has been repre-
sented by the ordinate.
On this diagram is indicated the
value of the curve a kilometre
in length.
Diagram showing the maximum
depths below the mean level of
the ebb.
Diagram showing the total dischar-
ges at low water.
Diagram showing amount of water
received above certain places on
the Seine. -
Right bank.
Left 7) .
The diagram showing the form of
the river-bed is represented on a
scale . . . .
Zero lines of the diagrams showing
the widths, sections, curves and
depths.
Zero lines of the diagrams show-
ing the discharges.
The mean level of the ebb above
the zero mark of the naval charts
at Havre is . . . .
(For other references see the trans-
lations under plate Il.)
Words frequently repeated.
Dike.
Scale.
References.
Bridge.
Planche No. L.
- . - - . T -
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A. Diagramme des largeurs au niveau moyen du jusant (Echelle de M. 0.01 pour 100 metres.)
B Are de la rivière developpe (Echelle de M. 0.01 par kilometre) -
• . C. Lieu géométrique des profondeurs d'eau maacima au dessous du niveau moyen du jusant (Echelle de M. 0.005 par metre.)
Photolithogr, procédé Mr. E. J. Asser. - - - . . . - - - -
DIAGRAMME DES LARGEURS ET PROFONDEURS SUR LA SEINE.
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STEENDR UKKERIJ vſh. AMAND, Amst.
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gºr EEA ºf U KKE? IJ v/h. A MANP), 47.8 t.
















































































































VIth International Inland Navigation Congress.
T H E H A G U E, 1894.
Relation between the form of river-banks and the
depth of the channel or thalweg.
BY
R. J. CASTENDIJK,
Ingénieur de 1re classe du Waterstaat à Nimègue.
For the investigation of the relation forming the subject of this
question a longitudinal sketch of the Wahal has been drawn up and
will be found subjoined to the present treatise.
For the necessary data concerning the capacity, levels etc. of this
river, as well as its normalisation, I refer to the information given on this
subject in the memorandum composed by M. VAN DER SLEYDEN in con-
sort with myself upon the seventh question. -
With regard to the works executed since 1888, the following remarks
may be made. - -
The interests of navigation required a greater continuous depth of
channel than that afforded by the works in existence beſore that year.
It resulted from a calculation that, by a contraction of the bed of the
river which in summer is 360 m. wide in the straight parts of its course
and 310 m. in the curves, an average depth of 3 m. might be met with,
taking as a standard a level of about 1.25 m. below the mean low-
water mark during the years 1871–80; at this low level it is cal-
culated that the discharge will be 870 cub. m. per second. In the straight
parts of the course a depth of channel about equal to the average depth
might be counted on. Provisionally however we might be satisfied with
a depth of 2.70 m.
In the project for the improvement of the Wahal the normal width
was as far as possible maintained at the apex of the curves.
The methodical widening and contracting of the normal bed and a
regular transition of the straight portions to maximum curves in the
2
sinuosities were obtained by joining the straight banks to increasing and
decreasing curves.
For this purpose lemniscates, recommended by M. FARGUE, were
employed, the general equation in polar coordinates being:
-1 ——
ºr = A pºsin(n-1) (3)
where n and A are constants which may be chosen in such a manner
as to obtain the most favourable line in any given case.
The lines chosen should depart as little as possible from the situation
existing in 1889 and should not cause the destruction of existing works.
In drawing up the project it was supposed that arcs of a circle of a
radius of 3000 m. might without difficulty be allowed. Also for the
almost straight portion of the river from Nimègue to Tiel (Kilometres
26–56) such arcs were almost exclusively used.
The lemniscates which we have just referred to were applied to arcs of
less radius.
(See the article on this subject by M. DOYER in the ,Tijdschrift van
het Koninkl. Instituut van Ingenieurs”, 1891–1892, pp. 1–13).
On the lower part of the river, where the ebb and flow of the tide is
felt, commencing below Hurwenen near kilometre 70, the normal width
down stream increases regularly in the straight portions from 310 to
400 m. and in the curves to 426 m.
The contraction of the bed in time of drought was effected by groins
which slant into the river at an incline of 4 in 1.
Where the existing works were not situated too far from one another
they were lengthened to meet the new normal lines at right angles.
Where the intermediate distances were too great new works were built
between those already existing.
Outside the fascines dredging had been carried on On a large Scale to
deepen the shallow places where it was desired to direct the channel.
The object of this dredging was:
19. To hasten the formation of a continuous channel.
29. To prevent objectionable movement of sand in places below which
works were in the course of construction ;
39. To widen the transverse section where it was inclined to contract
owing to the groins;
49. To remove the influx of sand from the German Rhine.
The project which was formed in 1889 on this basis, the cost of which
was estimated at fl. 2500000 to be distributed over four years, included
the prolongation of 267 existing groins, with a total length 94.25 m.,
the construction of 49 new groins, of a total length of 3479 m. and the
3
removal by means of dredges of 3458000 cub.m. of sand from the bed
of the river.
The necessary funds were voted by the law of October 28th 1889.
The work was carried out in the years 1889, 1890, 1891 and 1892.
The cost amounted to more than the fl. 2500000 at which it was
estimated.
The works constructed were:
95 new groins, in length . s º * © e 6385 m.
2 dikes along the banks . * e g * & 676 m
lengthening of 305 groins of a total length of . 10139 m
TOtal * º . 17200 m.
Total of matter dredged . g e # º 6849000 cub.m.
This work has in general realised the expectations formed of it,
especially as regards the requisite depth, 2.70 m., which has been obtained
almost throughout.
In the lower part of the river, near Loewestein, where this depth was
not quite reached in 1893, we can hardly expect a constant condition of
the bed as long as the waters of the Meuse have access to it. This
access will be cut off when the mouth of the latter river is changed. The
subjoined chart represents the condition of the part of the river near
Heerewaarden in 1894 after the completion of the works mentioned
above and of the same part in 1861 when no normalisation had as yet
been effected.
On both of them have been drawn lines showing a depth of 3 m.
below low-water mark, which is 3 m. above N. A. P. (1) at St. Andries,
equal to 1.40 m. below the mean low-water mark of 1871—80 (4.40 m.
above N. A. P. at this point). g
The subjoined longitudinal section represents the condition on the
upper Rhine and upper Wahal at the commencement of 1894.
Besides the average depth of the normal bed in each transverse
section, it indicates both the greatest and least depth of the channel, cal-
culated over a width of 150 m. for the upper Rhine (kilometres 0–10)
and of 100 m. for the Wahal.
Above the longitudinal Section properly so called the width of the
river has been represented, measurements having been taken between the
heads of the groins where the normalisation works exist and at the
height of mean low-water where there are none.
Below the longitudinal section is found the curve formed by the nor-
mal banks. As the plane surface of the sketch is the vertical projection
of a cylinder, the position of the bed being normal and indicating the
direction, and everything is projected upon it, the curves have under-
(4) New Standard of Amsterdam.
4
gone some modification in their form. However this presents no incon-
venience as far as the general idea is concerned.
Although on the upper Rhine and upper Wahal the greatest depth is
generally found in the parts presenting the strongest curves and the
places of least depth near the changes in direction and in the straight
parts, it has been found impossible to discover the relation between the
extent of the bend and the depth, or between the distances between the
points of greatest and least depth and the corresponding points where
the curve is greatest or least. -
In general however the bottom of the river, being composed of sand
mixed with gravel, is so inconstant at this point that the above result
is not astonishing. -
An examination undertaken expressly for the purpose and based upon
the results obtained by transverse soundings during the last six years
has shown that the Wahal may be divided into two distinct parts:
1. The part commencing at the point of separation near kilometre 10
and extending as far as kilometre 44, where the movement of the regions
of deep and shallow water undergoes but little modification and the
condition of the bed of the river may be considered constant;
2. The part between kilometre 44 and the confluence with the Meuse
(kilometre 94), in which a general movement in the bed of the river is
observed in a down stream direction, both in deep and shallow places.
It is to be observed that this movement takes place at a rate which
varies in different places between 250 and 500 m. annually, and it is
independent of the form of the geometrical projection, that is to say the
straight or curved course, where it is observed both in the convex and
concave banks.
How far the works completed only last year, referred to above,
influence this movement cannot yet be determined.
Translated by FRANCIS A. OLIVER,
Sixth International Inland Navigation Congress
T H E H A G UE 1894.
G. E.L.D ERS O. H. E. Y S S E L
BY
H. D O Y E R,
Engineer (3rd class) for Waterways, Zutphen.
On the programme of work proposed for the VI* International Inland
Navigation Congress the sixth question refers to the correlation between
curve and depth of water in river channels.
The Geldersche Yssel with its extremely winding course seemed to me
very appropriate for the purpose of illustration and proof.
I had not time to study its whole length, and therefore chose six
sections of it, each from 6 to 9 miles long.
Three of these sections contain sharp curves, viz.: The curve near Steeg
village, Kilometre XI–XX;
The curve above Zutphen, Kilometre XXXIX—XLVII;
The curve near Veessen, Kilometre LXXX—LXXXVII.
In the other three sections, viz:
From Dieren to Brummen, Kilometre XXXII—XXXIX ;
The curve above Deventer, Kilometre LIX—LXV ; and
That near Deventer LXIV—LXXI,
the course of the river is less winding.
For several years past no regulating work of any importance has been
carried out in these sections.
It may therefore be supposed that there is a stable bottom, as far as
that is possible with a bed consisting of gravel, and a very irregular
winter stream.
The article by Mr. FARGUE on the correlation between the line of bed
2
and depth of water in rivers having shifting bottoms has guided me in
my study. The article referred to was published in the ,Annales des
ponts et chaussées, 4th serie 1868”.
The graphical plans here annexed are generally composed in the same
way as those of the article mentioned. -
They show the width of the river during average height of flow, the
minimum depth in a navigahle channel not less than 15 metres wide and
the curve of the course of the river.
I have also shown the normal width, fixed by decree May 23rd 1867.
The width is measured at the Kilometre, and at every 100 metre be-
tWeen.
On a chart on sufficiently large a scale (º) the course of the normal
bed has been traced by drawing a line trough the points equally distant
from the two banks. This line has been plotted ont into curved and
straight lengths; the curves have been determined by a pair of Com-
passes.
The depth of channel is drawn from the soundings of 1893.
The Kilometre limits, and the gauge-marks are indicated.
I have also given four water readings and shown the difference of level.
These four readings are:
The very high rise of January 1883.
The mean from 1871 to 1880.
The low water of January 1858.
The height when reading 1.50 metres at the Cologne gauge.
It is hoped to attrain in the channel 6 feet of water or a depth of about
1.70 m. at this last reading termed normal low water.
The wished-for depth is therefore that shown by the line traced 1.70
m. under the normal low water line.
I add that the volume of water discharged near Westervoort (Kilometre
limit 0) by the Geldersche Yssel may be estimated.
At highest flood exceeding 4 metres above mean level, at & º º e 160 cub. Fr.
With normal waters, at e g w & e & e $ & tº & * 217 r *
At norumai low water, at . * •' º e tº te * & & * & 80 m ºn
The lines in the graphical plans require no explanation.
In general the top curve indicates deep water whilst a straight stretch,
and a change of direction indicate shallow water.
Necessarily also the width of the river influences the depth.
To decide wether that depth increases with the curvature I adopted
the following plan. *
The deep places and the shallows in obvious connection with the
curve of the river are indicated on the plan by a number.
3
The point where the curve presents the feature to which the deep or the
shallow water must be attributed is marked with the same number as the
corresponding deep or shallow water.
For each so-numbered spot where the water is deep or shallow the
following table gives :
a. The point of the curve to which the deep or shallow water must
be attributed; the curve referred to being shown by the Kilometre limit
given.
b. The position of the deep or shallow water.
Distance between a and b.
The radius of curve at a.
i
Width at b.
Normal width at b.
The width in hundredths of the normal width.
Depth at b, from the Soundings of August 1893, reduced to mean
water-level.

5 à |* ‘s g cº, + ‘s º
8 F. -: --> * s KD º go -- 36
a 3.5 , ; , , ; ; , || 5 | | # | # 2 | # | #
# |######|###| || 3 | # | Pº 3 | *š # • , , ,-, 4.
= |* H = E ## g = 3 2.É == Tiš | H = e Observations.
: 3.3% 3 Tºd # = .# = º ää a F É.
# = |& # | 3 | # | 3 || E3 #
& 3 ||3: C Cº. 5:
Bend near Steeg village.
1 11.5 | 11.66 || 460 | 325 80 | 103.5 77 || 4.15
2 11.7 | 11.71 10 CO 80 || 103.5 77 || 3.45 | Slight curve.
3 11.75 11.89 || 140 || 500 92 || 103.6 | 89 || 4.65
4. 11.8 12.26 || 460 CO 97 103.7 94 2.95
5 12.34 || 12.68 || 340 || || 85 85 | 103.8 82 6.35
6 12.72 12.97 || 250 CO 95 || 103.9 || 91 || 3.25
7 12.93 || 13.14 210 || 250 | 100 | 104. 96 || 5.55
8 13.02 || 13.28 260 CO 89 || 104.1 | 86 || 3.55
9 13.34 13.48 || 140 275 96 || 104.2 92 || 5.95
10 | 13.5 | 13.84 || 340 Cº) 120 | 104.2 | 115 2.75
11 || 13.88 || 14.06 | 180 135 118 104.2 | 113 || 6.25
12 || 14.9 15.26 360 CO 94 | 104.6 90 2.80
13 15.65 15.86 210 || 300 94 | 104.8 90 6.25
14 | 16.1 | 16.5 400 CO 122 || 105 116 2.80
15 | 16.45 | 16.7 250 1000 || 106 || 105.1 | 101 || 3.80
16 16.55 | 16.86 310 CO 108 || 105.2 | 1()3 || 2.80
17 | 18.08 || 18.28 200 || 425 98 || 105.6 | 93 6.80
18 18.4 | 18.42 20 Cº) 109 || 105.6 | 103 || 2.95
19 | 18.57 | 18.67 || 100 750 | 100 | 105.7 95 || 4.80
20 | 18.69 | 18.9 210 CO 100 105.8. 95 || 3.25
21 | 18.9 | 19.18 280 || 500 | 126 105.8 || 119 || 4,50
DOYER.
1%

3 : * S+-
# 3-5 g : a g|###| 5 4 || 3 | # 4 || 3: #
# 555 º #5 g ## is á = == sº = Observations.
ă ăsă ă =3|###| 4= | f | ##| ## i.
rº § C C) Cº. Z! ==
Section from Dieren to Brummen.
22 || 32.8 || 33.02 220 co 107 || 110 97 2.80
23 || 33.64 || 33.8 160 co 97 110.2 88 3.10
24 || 33.92 || 34.1 j 80 | 1250 113 || 110.3 || 102 3.85
25 | 34.1 34.52 || 420 co 100 | 110.4 91 2.75
26 34.66 34.78 || 120 500 107 || 110.5 97 4.90
27 | 34.73 || 35.08 || 350 CO 104 || 110.6 94. 3.00
28 35.1 || 35.24 240 210 93 || 110.7 84. 5.05
29 35.35 | 35.58 230 co 97 110.8 88 3.25
30 || 35.79 || 35.87 80 325 93 || 110.8 84 5.45
31 || 35.9 || 36.18 280 co 85 110.9 77 3.85
32 36.24 || 36.26 20 450 88 || 111 79 5.25
33 36.4 36.6 200 cc 97 111.1 | . 87 3.45
34 || 36.68 || 36.72 40 600 106 111.1 95 4.40
35 | 36.85 | 37.17 | 320 cº) 105 | 1.11.2 94. 2.90 | Slight curve.
36 37.1 || 37.42 320 475 113 || 111.3 102 4.45
37 || 37.25 || 37.6 350 CO 110 | 111.4 99 3.35
38 37.7 || 37.8 100 475 J09 || 111.5 98 4.50
39 38 38.2 200 Cºd 125 | 111.5 112 2.95
40 || 38.25 | 38.33 80 750 115 111.6 | 103 3.80
41 || 38.4 38.53 || 130 Cº. 110 || 111.7 98 2.90
42 38.58 || 38.68 100 1750 409 || 111.7 98 3.75
Curve above Zutphen.
43 39.75 || 39.76 10 300 92 112 82 5.70
44 || 39.9 | 40.02 | 120 CK-> 87 | 112.1 78 3.50
45 | 40.72 | 40.9 180 500 115 112.3 102 3.80
46 40.85 || 41.05 || 200 Cº. 126 112.3 112 3.10
47 41,09 || 41.28 190 375 112 || 112.4 || 100 5.70
48 || 41.5 || 41.73 || 230 CO 73 || 112.6 65 3.65
49 || 41.82 41.87 50 250 99 || 112.7 88 6.90
50 || 42.2 || 42.4 200 ÇKs) 125 | 112.7 || 111 3.10
51 || 42.35 42.5 150 750 115 112.8 102 3.80
52 42.5 42.68 180 ÇKº) 112 112.9 99 2.75 | Slight curve.
53 || 42.82 42.95 || 130 400 90 113 80 5.50
54 || 42.93 || 43.23 300 CO 98 || 113 82 3.30
55 43.38 || 43.63 || 250 750 106 || 113.1 94. 4.30
56 || 43.55 43.9 350 Cºxº 85 113.2 75 3.15
57 44.65 || 44.8 150 500 100 | 113.5 88 4.45
58 || 45.1 || 45.2 100 CO 113 | 113.6 99 2.85
59 || 46.1 46.4 300 375 101 || 114 89 5.50

S+-
Hă ă = | f | e = | is a
§ ######### 5 * +. § 2 *:::: #
.# 3.5 52 # 5 |###| || 3 | # = 3 || Sir | # also on. . . c. f.;
5 ... à 5 E #: g = 3 ... 3 + Tº º .5 as = Observations.
ź isºlºigº gº # ##| || 5 | #
# = 4" | 3 | = |* | * * *
Section above Deventer.
6() 59.12 59.33 210 375 102 || 118 86 6.50
61 59.3 59.52 220 Cºxº 98 || 118.1 83 3.45 | Slight curve.
62 || 59.5 59.8 300 475 95 || 118.2 80 6.45
63 59.7 59.98 || 280 Cºxº) 104 || 118.2 88 3.40
64 59.82 | 60.1 280 | 2000 114 | 118.2 96 4.05
65 | 60 60.2 200 Co 120 | 118.2 102 3.25
66 || 60.1 || 60.38 280 250 95 || 118.8 8() 7.30
67 60.4 || 60.7 300 Cº) 110 || 118.3 93 3,50 | Point of surflexion.
68 || 60.55 | 60.75 200 | 1000 110 | 118.4 93 3.95
69 |60.7 | 60.98 || 280 | < | 113 | 118.4 95 || 3.20
70 || 61.15 61.33 180 750 85 118.5 72 5,40
71 61.4 61.62 220 cº) 99 || 118.6 83 3.35
72 61.7 61.95 || 250 | 2000 100 || 118.7 84. 4.40
73 || 61.9 62.15 250 co 89 118.8 75 3.40 | Slight curve.
74 62.08 || 62.36 280 500 83 118.9 70 5.85
75 62.24 62.63 || 390 Cºd 78 || 119 66 3.75
76 62.6 62.75 150 500 93 || 119 78 5.30
77 62.8 62.98 || 180 co 110 | 119.1 92 3.60
78 || 63.03 || 63.18 150 750 105 || 119.1 88 5,35
79 || 63.2 | 63.5 300 CO 108 || 119.2 91 3.30
80 63.36 63.68 || 320 1000 120 | 119.3 | 101 3.60
81 | 63.45 63.78 || 330 Cºxº) 127 119.4 || 106 3.10
Section near Deventer.
82 | 64.4 64.72 || 320 Cºxº 113 || 119.6 94. 2.90
83 || 65.2 65.15 –– 50 | 400 113 || 119.7 94 5.50
84 65.6 | 66.13 530 co 130 | 120 108 || 3.00
85 | 66.17 | 66.44 270 250 120 | 120.4 100 | 6.70
86 | 66.24 | 66.75 || 510 CO 123 | 120.6 || 102 || 3.1()
87 | 66.7 | 66.9 200 | 400 120 | 120.8 99 3.90
88 | 66.8 || 67.02 220 CO 115 120.9 95 3.55
89 | 68.75 | 68.94 | 190 425 97 | 122.6 79 7.45
90 | 68.9 69.2 300 co 121 | 122.8 99 3.40
91 || 69.67 || 69.82 | 150 500 110 | 123.2 89 5.20
92 | 69.8 70.15 350 CO 116 123.5 94. 3.25
93 || 70.4 70.6 200 750 113 | 123.9 91 4.95
Bend near Weessen.
94 | 80.95 81.15 200 250 120 | 1.33 90 5.20
95 81.05 || 81.4 350 Cºxº 122 133.2 92 3.80
96 || 81.9 82.27 | 370 CO 118 133.9 88 3.15

5 # |É ‘s º ad + #A ad
.# = H tº re; g §: --> 80-B £
§ 3; sº a slåg is ; ; ; ; #
f # = sº §3 |. ## * : = º aſ = Observations.
# = sālā ālāgā| ##| | f | ##| | | | #.
# = }* | 3 | # | 3 | # 3 || 3
& 3 |f| ſº * | =
97 || 83 83.25 250 CC 124 || 134.8 92 || 3.00
98 || 83.17 | 83.36 190 2000 | 115 134.9 || 85 4.50
99 || 83.24. 83.66. 420 CO 130 || 135.1 96 2.95
100 | 83.5 83.75 250 | 2000 | 130 | 135.2 96 || 4.00
101 | 83.6 | 84.23 630 Cºxº) 125 135.6 92 2.85
102 | 84.2 | 84.28 80 |5000 | 125 | 135.6 92 || 3.45
103 | 84.3 | 84.55 250 ce 125 135.9 || 92 || 2.85
104 || 85 85.1 100 2000 || 134 136.4 98 || 3.40
105 || 85.15 85.5 350 CO 140 || 136.7 | 102 || 2.70
106 || 86.28 86.53 250 500 107 || 137.6 78 5.70
107 || 86.4 86.85 || 450 CO 145 || 137.9 || 105 || 2.80
As the places where the water is
From the above tables is deduced the following table in which the
depths are arranged in order of length of radius of curve and of the
deep are met with at some distance
below the top of the curves, so likewise the shallows are found some way
down the straight parts or below the changing of direction (loi de l'écart).
The average of this distance is 233 metres.
mean normal width of the main channel.

§3 º', º
Depth Jº a cl i UL s of c LL r" V e
of main channel Aº’
afº) ho Cº) Cº) hº) Cº. Qº) ho Cº) hº)
ºr) CO wº- lº) Ns cº) CN: Nes Cº) CN
in 1/100ths of wº- tº-p CN CN: CN or) co CY) <!- <!-
Normal Width. IDeRoth in ºnletres Boelcºv
65 - I ºmºmº- I - I -sºm ºmº I ºm-ºn i == i <-- I - º'-->
66 *- - - - - --- -- -s -*.
67 - - - - - - -- - - -
68 - -- *- - - e- --- - *-*. -
69 sº- - - - --- *-* --sº- - -* *.
70 - º- - - - *- - - -
71 - *- - -- - - - - - -
72 - - - - g- --- *-s-s - -
73 tºmº || - || s= | *T* | *-* | *- || *-s H = | * | *
74 - - - *- - - - - - -s
75 *--- - - *- --- --- - -* -* -
76 - - - - *-*. --- -- - - -
77 - - - - - — 4.15 — - -
78 - tº- n- - --- ºr-mº º-s, -sº - -
79 — | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 7.45
80 *- - — 7.30 — -* - — 5.50 | —
81 - - - - --- *- -- - -
82 — 6.35 | – *º- — | 5.70 || – -* - -*
83 - 4- *- * - - - -
84. —- — 5.05 | – | – | – || 5.45 | – | – || –
85 •- || - || *-* | * | *-* || -- •-s | *= | *
86 - - - — | – | 6.50 | – || –
87 - *- *- - - - - - --
88 — | – | – | 6.90 | – | – | – | – | – || –
89 - I - I - I - — | – | – || 5.50 | – | —-
90 - -- — 5.20 | — 6.25 | — -w - ---
91 *- - *- tº-a- - - - - -º-
92 - - - - 5.95 || – - -º-º: - -
93 - - sº ºw- - - - --> - -sº
94. - *- *- tº- - * * * — 5.50 | 6.80
95 - -- - *- - - - tº-mºm- -- -->
96 - *- — 5.55 — * -º-º: --- - •e-d
97 - *- - - - *- - -4 *-*. -**
98 - 1 = - 1 - I sº- l - I - I - F - I - E *
99 - - *- --- - sº- - — 3.90 || –
100 *- - — 6.70 | — - — | 5.70 || – *-sº
101 *- - - - -- - - * -- —º-
102 - - - - - *-4 - -sº - -
103 - - - - - ** +-s- - - -*.
104 - H - I • * 1 º' - - I sm- I -ms "
105 - - - *- - º- * -º-e —:
106 - - *- - tº- *-*. *-* •-º- -- tº-
107 - - - - - ss=s*- -- -* - -
108 - I - I s- || -- I - H === 1 - || *-* | *-* | *
109 - •- - - *-sº- - - --- - -*.
110 -- -- tº- *. -- * wº- * - -**
111 - - - - - - - - º-ſ, -
112 - - - - - - - -** -
113 6.25 || – *- - - - - *- * -
114 - a- a- - - - - *-*. -* -
115 - - - *- - - -: - -* -
116 - - - - *-w wº- - rºw. - -ºs-
117 - - - - - *-*. -- --- -* -*.
118 - - - - *- - -*. -*. -- -sº
119 - *- - sº- - - - -- * —
120 - - - *- *- - * am -*. -*

i In Inn et I” es-
#
§
É
#
§
#
§
É
#
#
CIC"Irºn all V&V ater” iſ nevel-
–
5.25
–
–
s
5.40
*-
=
5.
3
5
-
=
-
3.40, 3.15
885, 345
3.50
3.30
3.45
3.55
3.45
3.40 to 3.10
s
:
º
§
º
º
3.55 to 3.20
2.95
3.96
3.40, 2.75
j ()
It is evident that, the depth depending exclusively on the curve and
the width, the figures in the foregoing table will decrease from top
downwards and from right to left.
Such is generally the case. -
Hence it may bo taken that the depth increases as the curves become
sharper and the width smaller.
The deviations from this rule are however of such a character that it
would not be prudent to draw from the figures above given a mathe-
matical formula for the relation between depth, width and curve.
Remembering that the proposed depth is 3 metres below the normal
mean level, it may be deduced from the figures in the table above that,
the fixed normal width is too great in the straight stretches and in those
places where the curve is insignificant or null.
When the width of these sections is 90 9/o or less of the fixed normal
width, the required depth is found in the channel.
For this reason is it that in the straight stretches and near the points
of change of direction of the course of the Geldersche Yssel, the width
of the bed will be reduced to 90 °ſo of the normal width.
VI* International Inland Navigation Congress
T H E H A GH U E. 1894.
THE PANNERDEN CANM, IOWER RHINE AND IRIX
BY
J. G. ERMERINS,
Engineer (2nd cl.) of Waterstaat, Utrecht.
The navigable waterway formed by the Pannerden canal, the Lower
Rhine and the river Leck is an arm of the Upper Rhine, springing from
it at Pannerden and joining the New Meuse near Krimpen. Opposite
Huissen this arm bifurcates and of the two streams one bears the name
of the Lower Rhine whilst the other is termed the Yssel.
The following table shows the principal water levels:

e © © º:
º e ..— Q2 80 -$4 Q)
Q) a ‘Fºrd F- :Fº P- F.
# | 5 || 3 || 5 # | 3 | # O #.
g: ç Ql) £5 - s Q) g: S.
:- -: *H* E Q) Q) C P-4
5 || 3 | dº | P: F | = | }. 3 3
P- P O P- *
Distance from the Frontier in
km. . . . . . . 12865 25905 49960 | 69605 || 81495 || 92225 | 113610 130640
Reading of normal Low-water
(N. L. W.) on the Cologne
base of 1.50 m. . . . . . 8.92 || 7.68 5.29 || 3.38 2.22 | 1.41 0.20 — 0.45
Low-water Level of 1874. . . 8.18 7.02 4.7 | | 2.76 | 1.62 0.76 — 0.21 — 1.00
Mean Level (May 1st to Oct.r
31st 1871–1880) . . . . . 10.14 || 8.80 6.29 || 4.47 3.23 2.34 (H. W. 1.24|[H. W. 0.73
L. W. 0.70 | W. — 0.40
High-water Level of 1883 . . . 14.64 13.06 | 10.65 8.31 7.19 6.30 4.45 2.18
2
The volume of water discharged per second may be estimated as fol-
lows, in cubic metres:

PANNERpºN- | LOWER RHINE
L NEAR
CANAL. ARNHEIM.
At 1 metre below mean water level . . . . . 330 200
At mean water level . . . . . . . . . . . 620 4 10
39 1 metre above mean water level 950 660
y) 2 3) 3) 3) 3) 5? 1 340 9 50
39 3 3) 3) 27 3) 3) 1 7 90 1 300
The volume of water discharged at the ,,Oude Rijnmond” was
479 cub. m. with a fall of 1.32 m.
According to the agreement of May 23nd 1867, the width at the Sum-
mer normal level is fixed at :
From Pannerden to the month of the Yssel tº © g & * 170 m.
Thence to Wijk bij Duurstede e º * g & * s * 150 m
Widening out to the South Holland frontier to e º - g 170 m
Thence again to Vreeswijk & 9 4. te º g g tº e 170 m
ºn
Thence again widening out to Krimpen e & & * * tº 200
- (Later fixed at 225 m.)
The winter width is fixed at 450 m., increasing between Pannerden and
Vreeswijk to 500 m., and 500 m. between Vreeswijk and Krimpen; at the
level of 2 metres above the normal and 1.50 m. above high water
level.
The work undertaken for the purpose of giving to the summer bed
the above named necessary width is not yet quite completed.
To Secure the desired depth of 2 metres at normal low water in a
channel of sufficient width for navigation, it has been found that the
width must be reduced in the straight or nearly straight stretches.
From Pannerden to the mouth of the Yssel the depth is almost suffi-
cient. From there to Eck and Wiel the normal width will be made
130 m., and forward to Vreeswijk be gradually increased to 163 m. The
narrowing down will be carried out only in the straight or nearly
straight lengths of river, where in late years there has been an insuffi-
cient depth of water ; and also in a few curves of considerable length
where the depth has been found deficient, as in the long straight
stretches.
This last named abnormal circumstance has probably been brought
about or contributed to by some local peculiarity, such as height of bank,
proximity of dike, nature of soil, general ground slope etc., all of which
so greatly affect the form of the river channel that special and unusual
3
means must often be adopted to secure the necessary depth at the
least cost.
In the tidal stretch of river between Vreeswijk and Krimpen a depth
of 2.50 m. at normal low water is required. Though the full depth is
not yet secured it is already much better than above Vreeswijk.
In the accompanying table the depths, widths and bends are shown,
from the mouth of the Yssel to the 28 km. limit. The red line shows
the width after the regulating work now in progress has been completed.
When finished the smallest radius will be 230 metres.
The greatest depths are generally found at, or immediately below, the
sharp bends.
On the whole, however, there is so little uniformity that hitherto it has
been impossible to fix any very definite proportion between the curva-
ture and depth of water. This must be left over until the work now
being done is terminated, when there will probably be much greater regu-
larity of channel.
VIth International Inland Navigation Congress.
T H E H A G U E, 1894.
Remarks upon the depth of the Upper Meuse
BIETWEEN
M O O K. A N D H E DEL.
BY
R. TUTEIN NOLTHENIUS,
Waterstaat-Engineer at Bois-le-Duc.
| N T R 0 D U C T | 0 N.
The administration of the fifth division of rivers comprises a section of
the Upper Meuse about 100 km. in length. This section extends from
Mook to Woudrichem where the Meuse joins the Waal. -
As the influence of the tide is felt at Hedel (24 km. above the mouth),
it seemed preferable to limit this study to the Section between Mook and
Bedel, a distance of 72800 m.
In this part of its course the river receives no tributary so that the
discharge is everywhere the same, except at the time of the highest
floods when two natural watercourses (Beers and Heerewaarden) come
into operation. But these cases are sufficiently rare and their influence
may be regarded as secondary.
The discharge corresponding to the average water-level of the summer
season (May to October) during the ten years 1881–90 is 180 cub. m.
per second. The discharge corresponding to the probable water line (that
is the line that is passed as often as not reached) is 235 gub. m. per
second. This line is generally half a metre above the summer level already
mentioned. -
The natural banks of the summer bed are rather steep and the river
only begins to overflow when the water line reaches an average level of
3 m. above the summer level.
2
The discharge is then 765 cub.m. per second. The water-line often
remains for several weeks (sometimes, but rarely, six weeks running)
above this comparative level. Even a level half a metre above this is
Sometimes exceeded during a whole month (this level corresponds to a
discharge of 965 cub.m. per second).
But higher floods are rare and quickly subside and it is only quite
exceptional that the level rises half a metre higher and the discharge
amounts to 1500 cub.m. per second.
The incline per kilometre at the level of the average summer waters is
very inconsiderable. The average is 0.0618 m. and varies from 0.047 m.
to 0.0753 m.
This incline increases very slightly with an increase in the discharge.
During the highest floods the average incline per kilometre amounts to
0.08 m. .
The consequence is that the average velocity is not considerable. The
velocity corresponding to the mean Summer discharge (185 cub. m.)
hardly amounts to 0.50 m. per second ; it gradually increases to 1 m. per
second until the summer bed is filled without increasing to any con-
siderable extent in time of floods. -
The cross sections of the summer bed between Mook and Hedel
were taken last year at distances of 100 m. apart. Soundings were take
every 5 m.
With the help of these data it was possible to obtain the longitudinal
section. A copy of this drawing (in three sheets) is placed at the disposal
of the Congress. -
On this longitudinal section is traced a horizontal line representing
the average water-level of the summer season during the ten years
1881–90. The comparative average depth of the section is carried below
this line as well as the minimum depth of the channel of navigation and
the maximum depth of the Section.
The width of the summer bed is carried above this horizontal line. At
the foot of the drawing are straight lines on either side of a horizontal
axis at distances equal to + of the summer bed. The artificial.
banks are indicated by cross-hatching along these lines.
§ 1. WIDTH OF THE SUMMER BED.
In places where the dwellers on the river banks protect their lands
from the effects of the current by means of groins of considerable length
(generally perpendicular to the banks), the heads of the groins deter-
mine the width. It is equally the case where the State builds the groins
to confine the summer bed.
3
These artificial banks extend over 40 km., or more than half the
distance between Mook and Hedel. (The sections where only one of the
banks is artificial are included in this total length.)
Everywhere else the width of the summer bed is measured between the
natural banks. These banks are formed of clay soil and have a steep
incline at 2.50 m. to 3.50 m. above the mean summer water-mark.
The width taken in this way varies from one section to another
within very narrow limits. When all the parts in which the width only
varies between 120 and 140 m. are added together it is found that they
form more than half (5/6) of the total length; the parts in which the width
varies between 120 and 100 m. form together "le of the total length and
the same is the case where the width varies between 140 and 160 m.
It follows that the average width is practically 130 m.
§ 2. CHANNEL OF NAVIGATION.
It results from the requirements of navigation that the navigable
channel must have an almost uniform width of 40 m. As the minimum
depth of the channel determines its use it is necessary to consider this
minimum as the depth proper of the channel.
The channel is marked in such a manner that it can be used for
navigation; the result is that in certain places (that is to say in the
shallows) the depth of the channel is less than the mean depth of th
summer bed; naturally this difference is not considerable. -
$ 3. CURVES.
The curvature in the summer bed is very variable; moreover the
curve is often sharper at the apex.
The total number of curves is 45, curves with a radius of 3000 m. or
more being regarded as straight lines. The total length of the curves
forms ºſs of the distance.
By taking as a unite of comparison the mean width of the Summer bed
(b = 130 metres), it appears that a third of the curves have at their apex
a radius less than 5 b, a third have at their apex a radius of 5 b to 10 b.
while the radius of the remaining third is from to 10b to 20 b in length.
When the curves are classified according to their length it is found
that more than one third (19) of the total number have a length less
than 5 b, that almost a third have a length of 5 b to 10 b, while the
length of the remaining third is from 10 b to 20 b.
(It is to be remarked that the two series have no connection).
§ 4. STRAIGHT PORTIONS.
Two thirds of the curves are separated by straight portions more or less
long. Eleven curves (about 1/4 of the total number) change their direc-
4.
tion without this change being preceded by an intermediate rectilinear
Section, while in 4 cases the curves are only separated by less pronounced
curves without a change in direction.
In almost all (9/g) the straight portions the length of the straight
line is less than 5 b.
§ 5. RELATION BETWEEN THE WIDTH AND THE MEAN DEPTH
OF THE TRANSWERSE SECTION.
It is important to examine first the relation existing between the width,
the mean depth and the curve.
In order to determine this relation all the transverse Sections are ar-
ranged in five categories.
1st Category. — Straight lines and curves with a radius of more than 2000 m.
2nd sº Curves of a radius of 2000 m. to 1500 m.
3rd * ºr, ** * n 1500 m * 1000 m
4th º yº n rº n 1000 n n 700 m
5th * * * n * less than 700 m
By tracing the width on one of the two axes of a system of coordi-
nates and on the other the average depth of each cross Section of the
summer bed, a diagram may be traced for each category representing
the relation between these two values. -
The diagrams are almost rectilinear, they are evidently parallel and very
close together (1).
From this the following rule may be deduced :
RULE I. The average depth of the summer bed depends almost entirely
upon the width ; the influence of the radius of the curve may be
neglected.
By taking an average from three diagrams it is found that
a mean depth of 3.40 m. corresponds to a width of 100 m.
n * m 2.89 m n * n n 120 m
* * n 2.43 m * * r n 140 m
sº * n 2.05 m * *) n n 160 m
* r; m 1.70 m º * º n 180 m
(1) In order to allow of personal investigation, the following coordinates have been
obtained from these drawings:

ORDINATES.
ABSCISSAE. - -
1st Category. 2nd Category. 3rd Category. 4th Category. 5th Category.
Width of 100 m. 2.97 m. 3.08 m. 3.21 m. - -
sº * 120 - 2.66 m 2.70 m 2.81 m 3.08 m 3.22 m.
wa a 140 m 2.35 - 2.32 m 2.41 m 2.52 m 2.56 m
$3. r 160 m 2.04 m 1.94 n 2.01 m 2.11 ºn 2.14 r.
* 180 r 1.73 r 1.56 - 1.61 - 1.76 -
5
By multiplying the width b by the corresponding mean depth h it is
found that when
b = 100 m. 1 = b X h = 346 sq. m.
120 m 34.7 m
140 m 340 m
160 m 328 m
180 m 308 m
A width of 160 m. or more being exceptional it follows that the follow-
ing rule may be practically admitted: º
RULE II. The product of the width and mean depth of the minor bed
is constant.
This product I is equal to 340 sq. m.
§ 6. RELATION BETWEEN THE RADIUS OF THE CURVE AND THE
DEPTH OF THE CHANNEL OF NAVIGATION.
According to Rule I the mean depth of the summer bed depending only on
the width, it seems reasonable to eliminate this element as far as possible
in seeking to determine the relation between the radius of the curve and
the depth of the channel of navigation by examining, instead of the absolute
depth, the difference between the depth of the channel h, and the mean
depth of the summer bed h. -
For this purpose 4 categories have been established. In the first are
classed all transverse sections the width of which varies between 100 m.
and 120 m., the second contains the sections whose width varies between
120 and 130 m., the third those whose width varies between 130 and
140 m., while in the last are classed all transverse sections whose width
varies between 140 and 160 m.
By placing ! upon one of the two axes of a system of coordinates
and on the other the difference between the two depths (h, –h), a line
may be traced in each category representing the ratio between these two
values. -
These diagrams have a very slight curvature, they are evidently parallel
and very near together (1).
(1) In order to allow of personal investigation the following coordinates have been taken
from these drawings:

ABSCISSAE.
ORDINATES.
hºn—h hºm—h hºn—h hw-h.
–– == 100 to 120 M. b = 120 to 130 M. b = 130 to 140 M. b = 140 to 160 M.
* = ?? M. 0.00 MI. 0.08 M. 0.045 M. 0.09 M.
2000 m 0.16 m 0.26 m 0.34 n 0.30 m
1000 m 0.32 m 0.44 m 0.55 m 0.47 m
500 r 0.65 m . - --- º-s,
6
From this the following rule may be drawn:
RULE III. The difference between the depth of the channel and the
mean depth of the Summer bed depends almost entirely upon the rad-
ius of the curve; the influence of the width of the summer bed
may be neglected.
This rule enables us to strike an average of the 4 catogories; it is then
found that the amount of the difference (h), —h) is:
in the rectilinear portions. s e & g e e º 0.054 m.
n Curves with a radius of 2000 m. . e gº & * 0.265 m
* 1000 m e & ſº & g 0.445 m
500 m e e † tº e 0.700 r
This relation is represented sufficiently exacty by the following formula
in which the values are expressed in metres.
Law of difference.
200N 2 *
h, – h = 0.06 ** (*) . . . . . 1).
r
§ 7. APPLICATION OF PRECEDING RULES.
By multiplying both sides of equation (1) by b and applying Rule I,
according to which h b is constant and therefore equal to H B (H =
mean depth of summer bed and B = width in the definitely normalised
rectilinear portions), it is found that:
b = FI B
* 2
h, – 0.06 – tº 4 (**) .
7° 4°
But the width of the river in the curves should be such that h, be-
comes equal to H., (H, representing the depth of the channel in the
normalised rectilinear portions); therefore:
BI B
b =
H.—006–º 4. (**)
4° ºr
By making r in (1) equal to infinity we have
H, - H = 0.06.
2)
© H B * *
therefore: b = 400 Z 200 N 2 . "
H — Tºr T + (**) •
In the section of the Meuse which forms the subject of this study it
seems reasonable to make H = 3 m.
7
The width in the curves should therefore be the following:
'r = 4000 m. b = 1.034 13
2000 m 1,068 IB
1000 m - 1.137 B
500 m 1.271 B
This relation is shown sufficiently exactly by the following formula:
b = B (1 + 1; 3)
It was found above (§ 5) that I = 340 m., from which it follows
that the normal width B in the rectilinear portions of the summer bed
should be equal to
340 340
Therefore in curves with a radius equal to five times the normal width
(5 B) the width must be increased by about one quarter (5/4 B).
In the present state of the summer bed the radius of curves is often
less than 5 B (see § 3), but it is better not to admit curves of a smaller
radius.
§ 8. LAW OF DIGRESSION.
The distance from the apex of the curve to the point of maximum
depth in the corresponding hollow (i. e. where he has a maximum
value) is for the part of the Meuse which forms the subject of this study
independent of the radius of the curve at the apex. This is contrary to
the observations of M. FARGUE on the Garonne. It depends only on the
width of the river where the radius is least and is equal to double this
width (1). It is perhaps unnecessary to mention that the sections upon which
this study is based were only taken at distances of a hundred metres.)
(1) The following table shows the average values of the ratio (#) between the width
b at the apex of the curve and the distance l from the apex to the maximum depth of
the corresponding hollow :

3000 2750 | 2000 | 1600 || 1400 | 1250 | 1000 900 750 || 700 625 || 575 5:
* †
(in metres)
2.2 1.6 | 1.5 2.00 |3.3 |3.1 1.7 1.5 2.8 || 2.6
0.85 0.7
–
By placing in a system of coordinates the value of ; on one axis and the value Of
# on the other a broken line is obtained for which may be substituted a straight line
parallel to the axis of : at a distance 2 b.
8
The distance from the point where the direction changes to the corres-
ponding shallow (i. e. the point where he has a minimum value) is
subject to the same law. Only this distance is generally smaller and
is equal to 1.8 times the width at the point where the direction
changes (1).
A deeper study for which unfortunately the necessary time is wanting
would probably reveal many other facts.

(1) The following table shows the average values of the ratio ( i ) between the
width of the summer bed at the change in direction and the distance l from this point to
the minimum depth of the corresponding shallow. The radius indicated in this table is
that of the curve immediately below the change in direction.
*
7° IT_
in metres 6500
2750 2000 || 1750 | 1600 || 1400 | 1100 1000 || 750 700 || 550 wº * 275
# – 0.75 | 2.4 1.3 2.9 || 2.05 1.3 | 1.85 | 1.95 |3.35 | 0.8 |1.00 1.75 || 2.2 | 1.4 | 1.4
By placing in a system of coordinates the value of * on one axis and the
value of ; upon the other an irregular line is obtained for which may be substituted a
straight line parallel to the axis of * at a distance of 4.8 b.
Translated by Francis A. Oliver.
VI* International Inland Navigation Congress.
T H E H A G U E 1894.
Relations between the configuration of rivers
and the depths of their channels,
BY
C. B. SC HU U R MAN,
AND
H. L. VAN HOOFF,
Engineers of the Waterstaat.
I. I N T R 0 D U C T | 0 N.
In reply to the sixth question we will examine in the following lines
if the observations gathered in the last years concerning tidal rivers, such
as the Upper Merwede, the Lower Merwede, the New Merwede, the Old
Maas and the Dordrechtsche Kil can serve as a basis for the deduction
of the relations existing between the configuration of rivers and the depths
of their channels. -
The four attached plates, I to IV, contain diagrams referring to the
above-named rivers. - -
Plate Ishows the Lower Merwede, the Old Maas and the Dordrechtsche
Kil and the following factors of importance of these navigable rivers:
19. The line of the curves.
29. The width of the summer bed.
39. The position of the channel in the summer bed. ©
49. The greatest depth of the channel.
59. The transverse section at half tide. §
69. The usual high water and the usual low water level.
With regard to the line of curve it should be observed that in order
to correctly judge it, it must be considered in relation to the width of
the river. *
b . º
In the diagram the curves are indicated by the values I, in which b
2
is the width of the summer bed and R the radius of the curve of the
axis of the river.
In composing the diagrams of the Upper Merwede and of the New
Merwede a difficulty has been met with in the fact that the bottoms of
those rivers have no stability. *
While the factors mentioned above under 19, 20 and 60 are constant,
the depths, the sections of water and the position of the channel in the
summer bed vary periodically.
In the Lower Merwede it is only the depths and the sections of water
which vary, the channel keeping a fixed place in the bed.
The service of the Waterstaat has made soundings annually during the
last 15 tot 18 years; the charts of these soundings show clearly the chan-
ges, which have taken place in the bottom.
The changes are, as we have said above, periodical, and the laws, which
they follow are represented in the diagrams of the Plates II and III,
which have been collected at intervals of two years on the Upper Mer-
wede and the New Merwede.
The Old Maas and the Dordrechtsche Kil are of regular depths, as the
current carries away at every point as much Solid matter as it brings.
II. BRIEF OBSERVATIONS ON THE ABOVE-NAMED RIVERS.
The following remarks may form in Some sense a supplement to the
general report of the programme.
a. The Upper Merwede.
(See Plates II, III and IV).
Before the most recent improvements, which were executed to ensure
a sufficient depth of water for navigation and a continuous channel for the
discharge of ice, also, in view of the suppression of the Upper Maas, the
condition of the Upper Merwede was: length 9 Km., width 600 m.
This width is limited by longitudinal dikes.
The curves and the width do not correspond to the system of the
river.
.The windings of the summer bed follow lines which do not in any way
correspond with the curves of the river and form divided streams along
the entire course.
While the sections of the water-level are about equal the depth varies
very much.
Along both banks there are deep hollows at distances of 2500 to
3000 m. from each other (See Pl. III), of a depth of 8 to 14 and even
18 metres, while the depth between these channels is only 2 tot 3 metres.
They run in zig-zag lines.
3
In the middle of the stream are shallows, rising from 0 tot 1 m.
above A. P., (datum line of Amsterdam).
The stream flows as follows:
At the end of each hollow the current is divided; a part follows the
bank, while another part crosses the stream between two shallows to the
opposite bank where it joins the water flowing from a higher channel.
Thus, the lower end of each hollow is the commencing point of a
division of the water and each upper end the point of union of two
Streams. -
This explains the stability of the pools, for if the stream was single
and regular they would soon be filled up.
In fact, the water flowing along the bank forms with the stream across
the bed another current, which is directed against the bank.
There exist, thus, here the same conditions, which cause and maintain
deep channels along concave banks.
A little distance lower down another division is produced because in
deep channels the water has less fall than in shallow channels.
Let us suppose a regular ſlowing surface, which gonerally, corresponds
with the water-level, and we shall find that, as the relative flow is not
equally strong at every point, certain parts of the water-level will be
higher and others lower than the supposed surface. We will indicate the
higher parts by U and the lower with O. It is clear that at the upper
end of a hollow there will always be found a point O and at the lower
end a point U.
:--~"Tº Tri-º-º-º-----,
- & f { * * * * * * * = .
Ž% ########Z77 === *
% %: “ºftº/Z2
%* w ‘. . sº%—--
_^ S.
...~ 2’
* > / . -> º
/ 2. _.--~T. _-- ~ * * Č. ------> º
* ~ * _ - - " " -. --- %ZŽ &
/ / .* e ---T * * * -- * * * Ž% %2% Azzº
* % --. éº, : g * * --~...~
ºft”T_2~ E:---. T. T" " " --- —--— . .
- ~7% --> -º-º-------. —.
ºz *-ºsmºs
e
If there were no cross streams, the flow of water of every channel
along the bank would remain constant.
The different depths cause corresponding variations in the flow and a
section is formed, in which the inequality in the height of the water on
the two banks must become the cause of a flow of water from one bank
to the other. Near such a section we find again two points U and 0.
The cross currents tend to diminish the irregularity of the flow along
each bank and it may be supposed, that with a certain form of bottom,




























4
a certain corresponding flow and incline of water might be obtained.
Meanwhile, the whole configuration of the bottom with channels and
shallows moves regularly down stream.
At every point U, where the stream encounters an elevation of the
bottom, there is scouring, and Sand is carried away by the flow and depo-
sited in the region of the point O.
It is evident, that the configuration of the bottom being the result of
a certain equality of power keeps the same during its removal down-
stream. -
Plate III, the graphic represention of depths on Plate II and of the
channels on Plate TV show the regularity with which the movement
of the bottom is followed.
The rate of the displacement is about 300 metres per year; and after
a lapse of 9 to 10 years each channel occupies the place of the prece-
ding one. - -
It is remarkable, that at places where there is a cross stream and a
least depth of water the section of the profile is the greatest.
The annual volume of solid matter carried away yearly by the bottom
movement may be easily calculated.
The north channel between the kilometerstones 97
and 99 has an average volume of. • • sº © º 865 000 cub. m.
The South channel between the kilometerstones 95 and
97 has an average volume of . e tº *
The volume of the two shallows nearest to above
channel is respectively . g g t e . 430 000
- and 495 O00
760 000 m ºn
together 925 000 -
Total 250000 cub m.
All channels and shallows are after a lapse of 9 years again in their
previous conditions. Thus, the stream carries away in 9 years 2550 000
cub. metres or about 270000 cub. metres per year.
By means of much dredging in the last 5 years the channel along the
northern bank has been maintained over all its length at a width of 250
to 300 metres. -
In the course of this work about 2750 000 cub. metres have been dredged out.
By making the width of the river 450 m. in its upper part and 500
meters in its lower part, it is hoped that this favourable condition will
be maintained in the future. -
The last diagram on Pl. II shows the condition of the river in 1894,
after the part above kilometerstone 99 had been reduced in the previous
year to this width.
b. The Lower Merwede.
(See Pl. I).
Length 15 Km.
Width 200 m.
The channel has a fixed position in the bed,
The depths show variations. -
The depths and the area of cross sections given on Plate I are the
averages of the years 1886 to 1893.
As on the Upper Merwede the maxima and the minima of depth
move towards the lower part of the stream. A continuation of the hollows
of the Upper Merwede is observable; and the distances between the
maxima and the minima are regular and constant during the dis-
placement. - - .
These distances are about 1800 m., and the displacements are such
that after a lapse of 6 years the same depths are again found in the
same sections. The displacement is thus º = 300 m. per year.
The condition of the stream is favourable and the depth is maintained
by the action of the current itself.
Since 1885 no dredging of importance has been effected on the Lower
Merwede.
The volume of the bed below A. P. was.
in
1885 . . . * * . . . 15 000 000 cub. Imetres.
1886 * & $ g - & º 15 000 000
1887 . . . . . . . 14 600000
1888 . . . . . . . 15400 000
1889 tº g e • * * g e 16 000 000
1890 . . . . . . . . 15 500 000 -
1891 . . . . . . . 14 600 000
1892 . . . . . . . 15 200 000 ºn *
1893 . . . . . . . 15 200 000
The Sand from upstream is regularly carried away.
The upper mouth is periodically shallow, and always when there is a
deep channel on the right bank of the lower course of the Upper
Merwede. -
The sand which is carried away by the displacement of these channels
(see Upper Merwede) settles in the upper mouth of the Lower Merwede.
This was first remarked in 1883–84 and is at the present time
1893–94 still observable, This corresponds with the phases of bottom
displacement in the Upper Merwede.
c. The New Merwede.
(See Pl. II).
Length 20 Km.
Width 450 to 700 m.
The variations in the part of the river above kilometerstone 113 are
a continuation of those observed on the Upper Merwede,
The channel has no fixed position in the bed. The cross streams are
regularly displaced at the rate of 500 m. per year. After a lapse of 10 to
12 years the river is found again in the same condition,
6
Below the kilometerstone 113 the channel is very constant both as
regards depth and its position in the bed.
About 17 000000 cubm. have been dredged for the improvement of
the river.
d. The Old Maas.
(See Pl. I.)
Length 29 Km.
Width 135 to 500 m.
The river has several curves which are connected well with one
another, and show clearly the correspondence between the maximum and
the minimum curves and depth.
e. Dordrechtsche Kil.
(See Pl. I.)
Length 9 Km.
Width 150 to 250 m.
In the interest of the maritime navigation a continuous channel of 6 m.
under low-water has been dredged as far as Dordrecht. The river is very
constant and tends to deepen, notwithstanding that the proportion of the
depth to the width is here much greater than on the other rivers under
our notice.
The proportions between the depth and the width of the following
rivers are:
Upper Merwede . & s * * tº 0.6 to 0.7 p(St.
Lower º º e º g * g 2.25 to 3.50 r
Old Maas . g * g g g & is 1.33 to 1.75 ºn
New Merwede-Upper part. . e g tº 0.5 to 0.7 m
* º -LOwer ºn g e g & 0.85 º
º
DOrdrechtsche Kil . g & e g g 4.25
The great depth must be ascribed to the strong ebb, which is caused
by high water being maintained for some time at the northern mouth of
the Kil by the flood current of the Old Maas, while at the same time
it is ebb tide at the southern mouth. This increases and maintains the
flow of the water.
III. CONCLUSIONS.
a. For rivers with a constant bottom.
The rivers we are considering belong to those, which form the delta
of the Waal and the Maas. With regard to width, flow and tides they are so
different, that they scarcely form a suitable basis for an examination and
comparison of the above-mentioned factors.
There are too few curves in accordance with the system of the stream
7
to allow of a graphic represention of the proportions to be made, as was
done by Mr. FARGUE on the Garonne.
The diagrams, however, lead to Some conclusions.
19. In general, the rules laid down by Mr. FARGUE are confirmed.
The exceptions are mostly due to the want of agreement of the
curves and widths with the system of the river, or to a succession of
unfavourable curves. -
The curves, which do not correspond with the system are graphically
represented by the want of accordance of the lines 1 and 3 (See Pl. I).
Examples.
All the cross streams in the Upper Merwede in the years 1882,
1884, and 1886 (See Pl. II).
Lower Merwede near the kilometerstones 111 and 116.
Dordrechtsche Kil near the kilometerstone 124.
29. There is a divergence between the points of inflexion of the axis of
the river, and those of the channel; the latter coincide, however, with those
of the minima of depth. -
This leads us to the following considerations:
At the point where the channel crosses the stream, the section has the
form of a quadrangle or of a trapeze, while where the channel runs
along one of the banks the section is triangular.
It will be seen from the diagrams that the areas of sections vary very
little, even when the depths are very unequal.
It is evident that when the areas are nearly equal, the triangular
sections show a greater depth than the quadrangular. -
Thus, the maxima and the minima of depth are due to the form of
the section; this form depends on the position occupied by the current,
while the latter is influenced by the horizontal configuration of the
summerbed.
3%. Observations on these rivers do not show that certain winding
curves are necessary to the conservation of a regular depth.
Examples. .
The Lower Merwede between the kilometrestones 105 and 109 (so
far as can be seen the width of the river does not increase
downstream), and the Dordrechtsche kil between the kilometre-
stones 121 and 123. These parts run in nearly straight lines and
their depth is not inferior to other parts of these rivers.
This, however, does not prove that a certain winding does not offer
Some advantage.
Suitable curves afford the advantage that:
19. at equal depths the width in the curves may be larger,
29, the channel occupies a fixed position in the bed.
As regards the first case it is advisable when regulating a river to
keep the width as great as possible
8
a) with regard to the discharge of water in times of flood, as the
wider a river the greater its increase in area of section with equal
rise of the water.
b) with regard to the expense of improvement when, as is usually
the case, this consists of a narrowing of the river.
When a curved line of bank is decided upon, the width at the points
of inflexion determines the depth in the cross streams.
The determination of this width by calculation should not be impos-
sible, but the calculation should be based on the rate, at which the river
is scoured out at the bottom.
This rate depends in a great measure on the nature of the solid matter,
which forms the bottom, and is so uncertain, that it would as a rule
be better to select parts of the river, where the depth is maintained by
action of the current, and to determine, therefrom, which sections are
most suitable for the system of the river.
Whithin certain limits, a greater width may then be allowed in the
CUITVeS.
The measure of this increase must in any case bear relation to the
curve, but to ascertain the proportion between these factors will only be
possible when more data on the subject are at our disposal than we
have at present. -
49. The line followed by the channel in the bed of the rivers shows
that the channel has a tendency to wind. -
The windings are sometimes remarkably regular, and appear to be
subject to a certain law. -
The Upper Merwede, where the width was generally too great, was
in this respect characteristic. t
In curved rivercourses the tendency to the formation of regular
winding lines can have a greater influence on the position of the channel,
than has the curve of the bed of the river.
Examples.
Lower Merwede between the kilometrestones 109–118;
Dordrechtsche Kil between the kilometrestones 121–129;
Old Maas between the kilometrestones 121–126 and the Upper
and the New Merwede above kilometrestone 113.
This proves that it is desirable that: - -
19. the curves should be in agreement with the system of the .
river, and - - - -
29. the curves should be connected in winding lines. -
Sharp curves should always be avoided. They may cause the stream
to cross over to the convex bank, from which it returns, by which we
have two cross streams instead of one. - - . . . . .
Example. § .
New Merwede between the kilometrestones 111 and 112.
9
It is, especially on tidal rivers with a strong flow, that sharp curves
can have a very unfavourable influence, as generally the flood tide
does not follow the same channel as the ebb tide.
We then have two channels separated by a slanting shallow on the
bed of the river. -
b. Rivers with periodically changing bottom.
The great regularity in the changes of bottom, which, according to
the diagrams take place, allows us to foresee the variations, which may
be expected in the future.
The quantity of solid matter carried by the current is so considerable,
that it is of the greatest importance that it be taken into account in the
execution of improvements.
So, for instance, the volume of all the channels and shallows regularly
carried downstream in the Upper Merwede amounts to 8500 000 cub.m.
(See Pl. III). --
After a lapse of 4"|2 to 5 years the channels are found to be in the
place where formerly the shallows were and the shallows have taken the
former places of the channels. The total bed of the river has then been
displaced about 2500 m.
The stream, therefore, removes to this distance in 41/2 to 5 years
8500 000 cub.m., that is about 1800 000 cub.m. per year.
When a plan of regulation is projected, an examination should be
made, as to what alterations of the bed would be most likely to favour
the object of the works, and as to those which have a reverse tendency.
The execution of the works should then be arranged in such way, as
to favour the first and avoid the latter.
For example, if the projected improvement comprises the alteration of
the width by means of dikes, to be constructed in the course of years,
the executing of the work should be commenced at parts, where the
depths are from a technical and financial point of view most suitable
and where the bed has a tendency to deepen. *
This manner of working offers a double advantage:
19. the execution of the work is effected in the most economical
way ; and - -
29, the sand displaced by the deepening of these parts is prevented
from being deposited in the bed.
And, then, the remaining channels, having no longer any regular
current have a strong tendency to being filled by the sand, which is still
coming down from the already confined upper part of the river ; Con-
Sequently the mass to be removed by dredging wil become less.
(Translated by G. I. Rowland).
SCHUURMAN. — WAN Hooff. 4%
VI* International Inland Navigation Congress.
T H E H A G U E, 1894.
Relation between Curves in Rivers and the Depth of
Water in their Channel.
| \W ||\ \| WMTWA) ||||||||||||||||||| \|
BY
D. J. S.T.E IJN P A R v £,
Engineer of the Waterstaat, Rotterdam.
For the consideration of the question here proposed, and to examine
whether the rivers of the 6th district supply any data for its solution,
we have graphically described in the four accompanying plates:
the New Meuse above Rotterdam, the Scheur and the Hook of Holland
Cutting.
The curve of the main stream at low tide, the average of the greatest
and the least depth of water in the navigable channel, which is taken as
having a regular width of 100 m., and the average high and low tide
readings are here given.
Below Schiedam the river may be considered as regulated throughout
its whole length. From Schiedam, where the width is 400 m., the main
bed of the river becomes 450 m. below Vlaardingen, 550 m. below
Maassluis, 650 m. in the Hook of Holland Cutting, and 700 m. at
the end of the jetties running into the sea.
Except opposite Maassluis, where at a sharp bend it was necessary to
use about eight groins, the regulation of the channel was effected by
means of leading dams.
Below Rotterdam there must be a depth of water sufficient for
Atlantic liners, hence the request for a minimum depth of 6.50 m. at
low water, and a minimum of 100 metres in width. By correcting
and regulating the bank and by dredging the main channel these mea-
2
surements have already been secured in the whole length of river below
Rotterdam.
Above Rotterdam the required depth is less. Here 5 metres above low
water suffice. The work of correcting the banks and dredging the chan-
nel is not yet commenced, so that both in depth as well as in breadth
it is very in irregular.
With regard to the general character of the river, throughout its length
it is a tidal river.
There is a mean difference of 1.70 m. between high and low water at
the mouth, and of 1.25 m. above Krimpen on the Leck.
The volume of water discharged by the river, which receives about *lo
of the total quantity brought into the country by the Rhine, is about
400 cubic metres per second during mean summer flow.
The regulated stream is composed of arcs of a circle and of straight
stretches. For the part of the river not yet regulated the centre of the
main channel has been taken, and is treated as composed of arcs of a
circle and of straight stretches.
Between km. CXXXIII and CXXXVIII the points of greatest depth
are from 300 to 500 metres below the corresponding greatest curve. These
latter are at 400 metres below km. CXXXIII, at 600 metres below km.
CXXXIV, and at 150 metres below km. CXXXVI, whilst the corres-
ponding greatest hollows are at 700 metres below km. CXXXIII, at
km., CXXXV and at 500 m. below km. CXXXVII.
The distances between the two maximum depths have been found to
be about the same in the stretch of river from Rotterdam to Schiedam,
as well in the length above km. CXLV as for those below km.
CXLVIII.
In the very curved portion of river which sweeps round in front of
Rotterdam no direct connection has been found between the maximum
bend and depth. It has nevertheless been noticed that in this curved
portion of the stream the depth is very considerable.
Between Schiedam and Vlaardingen no correlation between bend
and depth is found. Below km. CLI the channel approaches the concave
bank, and near km. XLII, where the channel strikes across from the
left to the right bank, the depth is very considerable.
Below Vlaardingen the river is of normal character; the channel is
where one would expect it to be from the nature of the banks. The
waterway has in fact been made regular and uniform from Vlaardingen
to the sea, and the face of the banks protected with stone. This part of the
river is narrowest between km. CLIX and CLXI, and between km.
CLXVI and CLXX, stretches which are straight for some considerable
distance: viz. for 1400 metres between km. CLVIII and CLX; for 1500
metres between km. CLXIV and CLXVI; also for 2000 metres between
km. CLXVIII and CLXX. -
3
The sharpest curves are below Maassluis between km. CLXI and
CLXIII, and are separated by a short stretch where the change in
direction takes place. At this point the channel passes abruptly from
the left to the right bank, and the resulting shallow is found about 100
metres below the turn in direction. -
The greatest depth occurs about 300 metres above km. CLXIII
whilst the concave curve of the right bank followed by the channel
extends to 500 metres above this kilometre. Consequently the maximum
depth of this part of the channel must be sought at 200 metres below the
change to the left bank. -
Perhaps the deepest part of the channel, which extends for about 100
metres below km. CLXIV, may correspond to the maximum curve
below the change, although the sharp curve of the right bank changes
600 or 700 metres above km. CLXIV into a much gentler one.
Under the influence of this gentle curve and the straight bit of
channel, the depth diminishes gradually and reaches its minimum
between km. CLXIX and km. CLXX. From there it again increases
slowly and at km. CLXXII attains its greatest depth. Below the kilo-
metre named, the depth is fairly constant, and the concave right bank
has a gradual and regular curve to the sea.
The above considerations may be summarised thus:
1. Although it cannot be doubted that in certain parts of the New Meuse
there does eaſist a correlation between the curve of the river bed and the depth
of the channel both above and below Rotterdam, there are also parts where
this correlation does not show itself.
2. In certain parts of the river the distances between the maximum curve
and the corresponding maximum depth of channel are fairly uniform.
3. In the regulated portion of the river below Vlaardingen the longest
curves correspond to places of minimum depth. -
4. The facts which prove that there does exist a correlation between the form
of a river and the depth of the channel are on the whole neither sufficiently
Striking nor sufficiently uniform to allow of fived rules or laws being deduced
from them.
Rotterdam, April 1894.
IISTriſtill ſlº Pālīš.
• * ~ * ~ *_-_
IIST|Tiſſºl || |||||||}|.
Boven-Rijn,
Rivière du Waal.
Crue maxima.
Cote des plus basses eaux.
Echelle des largeurs.
Largeur du lit moyen.
Pente kilométrique.
Cote des eaux moyennes.
Cote normale des eaux-basses.
Profondeur du chenal
Profondeur moyenne.
Profondeur maxima.
Ligne du Zéro.
Numéros des bornes kilométriques.
Confluent du Maas.
Courbures des rives normales du lit.
La largeur du lit moyen est mésu-
rée entre les rives à la cote des
eaux moyennes. La oil des tra-
vaux d'art ont régularisé la
du lit,
n’est comptée que de la tête de
largeur cette largeur
de l’épi.
Le chenal est censé d’avoir une
largeur constanto de 150 mêtres
pour le Boven-Rijn et de 100
mêtres pour le Waal. La pro-
fondeur portée comme a profon-
deur du chenal” est la profondeur
minima de Cette largeur, la pro-
fondeur portée comme , profon-
deur maxima” est la profondeur
maxima du chenal.
CASTENDI,IR.
*** *...***-**** *****k,
Ober-Rhein.
Die Waal.
Maximalhochwasser.
Niedrigste Wasserstände.
Maasstab der Breiten.
Breite des Mittel wasserbettes.
Kilometrisches Gefälle.
Mittel wasserstand.
Normaler Niedrigwasserstand.
Tiefe der Fahrrinne.
Mittlere Tiefe.
Maximaltiefe.
Nulllinie.
Kilometerzahl.
Einfluss der Maas.
Krümmungen der regulirten Ufer.
Die Breite des Mittel wasserbettes
ist zwischen den Ufern bei mitt-
lerem Wasserstande gemessen.
Wo Kunstbauten die Strombreite
regulirt haben, ist die Breite
zwischen den Buhnenköpfen ge-
II] (PSS(2T1.
Die Breite der Fahrrinne ist für
den Oher-Rhein auf eine bestān-
dige Breite won 150 m. und für
die Waal auf eine solche von
100 m. Veranschlagt.
Die als Fahrwassertiefe” (, Pro-
fondeur du chemal”) eingetragene
Tiefe ist die Minimaltiefe in
dieser Breite; die als Maximal-
tiefe eingetragene Tiefe ist die
Maximaltiefe in der Fahrrinne.
DHTilliſ] [f Plätts,
Upper Rine.
River Waal.
Maximum high water.
Comparative level of low water.
Scale of variations in width.
Width of mean bed.
Incline per kilometre.
Comparative mean water-level.
Comparative normal level of low
Water.
Depth of the channel.
Average depth.
Maximum depth.
Zero line.
Number of kilometres. (Cf. , mile-
stones”).
Confluence of the Meuse.
Curves in the bed of normal rivers.
The width of the mean bed is
measured between the banks at
the comparative mean water-
level.
Where constructive works have
regulated the with of the bed
this width is counted from the
heads of the groins.
The channel is supposed to have
a constant width of 150 m. on
the Upper Rhine and 100 m.
on the Waal. The depth styled
a maximum depth” is the maxi-
mum depth of the channel.
2
Lä oil des profondeurs plus con-
sidérables se trouvent en dehors
du
profondeurs
chenal de navigation, ces
sont indiquées par
des lignes brisées.
Quand la rive droite est concave,
1 Af
la courbure -- est portée au-
7°
dessus de
quand la rive gauche est con-
cave, cette courbure est portée
au-dessous de la ligne.
la ligne du Zéro;
Les hachures indiquent sur quelle
étendue les bords du lit moyen
sont régularisés par des travaux
d'art (épis). Travaux de défense
de la tº dº AN rive
gauche ||||||||.
Le Waai près de St.-Andries.
Déversoir.
Fort.
Ancien Fort.
Fours à briques.
Profondeur de plus de 30 déci-
mêtres à la cote indiquée ci-
Contre.
Banc de Sable.
Les nombres indiquent la profon-
deur du chenal en décimètres à
la cote de
Nouvelle digue.
Ecluse.
Direction désirée du chenal.
Da, wo sich bedeutendere Tiefen
ausserhalb der Fahrrinne wor-
finden, hat man dieselben in ge-
brochenen Linien dargestellt.
Wo das rechte Ufer concav ist,
& e & 1
hat man die Krümmung ---
7"
oberhalb der Nulllinie einge-
schrieben; wo das linke Ufer
concav ist, ist die Krümmung
unterhalb der Nulllinie einge-
tragen.
Die Schraffirungen zeigen an, auf
welche Ausdehnung das Mittel-
wasserbett durch Kunstwerke
(Buhnen) regulirt ist. Siche-
rungsbauten am rechten Ufer
\\\\\ am linken Ufer
//|.
Die Waal bei St. Andries.
Wehr.
Feste.
Ehemalige Feste.
Ziegelöfen.
Tiefe von mehr als 30 Decimeter
nach nebenstehendem Wasser-
stande.
Sandbank.
Die Zahlen zeigen die Tiefe der
Fahrrinne in Decimetern nach
dem Wasserstande won . . . . an.
Neuer Damm.
Schleuse.
Gewünschte Richtung der Fahr-
rinne.
When places of more considerable
depth
channel of navigation, they are
indicated by broken lines.
are found out-side the
When the right bank is concave
the curve }. is carried above the
zero line: when the left bank is
concave this curve is carried
below the line.
The cross-hatching indicates over
What extent the limits of the mean
bed are regulated by construc-
tive works (groins). Works for
the protection of the right
bank \\\\ the left bank
|.
The Waal near St. Andries.
Waste-Weir.
Fort.
• Old Fort.
Brick-works.
Depth of more than 30 decimetres
at the comparative level indi-
cated on the opposite page.
Sandbank.
The figures indicate the depth of
the channel in decimetres at the
comparative level of . . . . .
New dam.
Sluice.
Requisite direction of the channel.
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IIST|| || PláIſl}}.
*-*-*~~~~~
D$Grilliſ] [f th; Pālī.S.
Numéro des bornes kilométriques.
Echelle des courbures.
27 » largeurs.
}) profondeurs.
Pente kilométrique.
Cote des eaux moyennes.
Courbure de l’axe.
Plan de flottaison normal a la cote
de 1.50 m, a l'échelle de Cologne.
1.70 m. au-
dessous du plan de flottaison
normal.
Proſondeur woulue,
Légende.
La largeur du lit mineur est me-
surée entre les berges à la cote
des eaux moyennes.
Là oil des travaux d'art ont régu-
larisé la largeur du lit mineur,
cette largeur n'est comptée que
de la tête des épis.
La profondeur du chenal est la
profondeur minimum dans un
Chenal, large au moins de 15 m.,
d'après les sondages d'août 1893.
Quand la rive droite est concave,
la courbure (1'inverse du rayon
de courbure) de l’axe de la
rivière est portée au-dessus de
la ligne de Zéro.
Quand la rive gauche est concave,
la courbure est portée au-des-
sous de la ligne de Zéro.
DOYER.
*~~~~~~~~
Number of kilometres (Cf. Mile-
stones”).
Scale of curves.
n n widths.
» , depths.
Incline per kilometre.
Average height of water.
Bend of the course.
Projection of normal waterline,
1.50 m. after the scale of Cologne.
Requisite depth, 1.70 below the
normal water-line.
References.
The width of the summer bed is
mesmired between the sloping
banks at the height of the aver-
age water level.
Where constructive works have
regulated the width of the sum-
mer bed this width is only taken
from the heads of the groins.
The depth of the channel is the
minimum depth in a channel,
at least 15 m. wide, according
to the soundings of August, 1893.
When the right bank is concave,
the curve (the inverse of the ra-
dius of the curve) of the river
is carried above the zero line.
When the left bank is concave, the
curve is carried below the zero
line.
|liſt}||BT/Billſ],
*~~" ºr *->~~.
Kilometersteine.
Maasstab der Krümmungen.
}} * Breiten.
7) , Tiefen.
Gefälle f. d. Kilometer.
Mittlerer Wasserstand.
Krümmung der Flussachse.
Gemittelter niedrigster Wasser-
Stand bei 1.50 m. am Kölner
Pegel. -
Gewünschte Fahrwassertiefe, 1.70
m. bein gemittelten niedrigsten
Wasserstande.
Eriäuterung.
Die Flussbreite ist gemessen zwi-
Schen den Ufern beinn mittleren
Wasserstande.
Wo die Flussbreite durch Buhnen
und dergleichen eingeschränkt
ist, ist sie von den Köpfen der
Einbauten ab gerechnet.
Die Fahrwassertiefe ist die kleinste
im August 1893 vorgefundene
Tiefe einer Fahrrinne von wenig-
Stens 15 m. Breite.
Die Krümmung (das Umgekehrte
des Krümmungshalbmessers) der
Flussachse ist, falls das rechte
Ufer hohl ist, als positiver, falls
das linke Ufer hohl ist, als
negativer Werth eingetragen.
2
Inscriptions Souvent répétées.
En amont.
En aval.
Crue.
Pente.
Etiage.
Cote des eaux.
Contours.
Près du village . . . .
Words frequently repeated.
Up stream.
Down stream.
Flood.
Incline.
Low water.
Comparative height of water.
Outline.
Near the village . . . .
Oft wiederholte Inschriften.
Stromaufwarts.
Stromabwärts.
Hochwasser.
Gefälle.
Niedrigwasser.
Wasserstand.
Krümmungen.
Bei dem Dorfe .
Azzozzł.
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Ilºrintil it; Plălţil}}
* * *-*-*~~
Rhin Inférieur.
Numéro des bornes.
Cote des eaux moyennes.
Courbure de l'axe du lit mineur.
La largeur du lit mineur est
mesurée entre les berges à la
cote moyenne des eaux. Lä oil
des travaux d'art ont régularisé
la largeur du lit mineur, cette
largeur n'est comptée que de la
tête de l’épi.
Le chenal est censé d’avoir une
largeur constante de 50 m., la
profondeur portée comme spro-
fondeur du chenal” est la pro-
fondeur minima de cette largeur;
la , profondeur maxima” est la
profondeur maxima du Chenal.
Là oil des profondeurs plus con-
siderables se trouvent en dehors
du chenal de navigation, ces
profondeurs sont indiquées par
des lignes brisées — — — — —
Quand la rive droite est concave
1
la Courbure (+) est portée
au-dessus de la ligne de Zéro;
quand la rive gauche est con-
cave, cette courbure est portée
au-dessous de la ligne.
Laligne rouge — — — — — indique
la largeur après l'achèvement
ERMER INS.
DESETilliſ] [f ill Plátēs,
*
~~~~~~
Lower Rhine.
Number of kilometres (Cf. , Mile-
stones”).
Average comparative
the water.
Curve in the summer bed,
height of
The width of the summer bed is
measured between the sloping
banks at the average compara-
tive height of the water. Where
constructive works have regu-
lated the summer bed, this width
is only counted from the heads
of the groins.
The channel is considered to have
a constant width of 50 m.; the
depth styled the ,depth of the
channel” is the minimum depth
at this width; the
depth” is the maximum depth
» maximum
Of the Channel.
Where regions of greater depth
are met with outside the channel
of navigation, they are indicated
by dotted lines — — — — —
When the right bank is concave
1 e -
the curve (+ is carried above
7°
the zero line; when the left bank
is concave, this curve is carried
below the line.
The red line indicates
the width after the completion
Ilúriſtºl || ||[H]
~~~~~~
Nieder–Rhein.
Kilometer.
Mittel wasser.
Krümmung des Flussbettes (genau:
FCrümmung der Achse des Som-
merbettes).
Die Breite des Flussbettes wird
gemessen zwischen den Ufern auf
der Höhe des Mittel wassers.
Wo die Breite mit Buhnen regu-
lirt ist, wird dieselbe gemessen
Zwischen den Linien, welche die
Köpfe der Buhnen verbinden.
Die Breite der Fahrrinne ist Zu
,Tiefe der
Fahrrinne” bezeichnet die Mini-
maltiefe in dieser Breite. Maxi-
maltiefe” ist die grösste Tiefe
in dieser Breite.
50 m. angenommen.
Wo sich grössere Tiefen ausserhalb
der Fahrrinne befinden, sind diese
mitgebrochenen Linien — — — —
bezeichnet.
Bei konkaven rechten Ufern wird
die Krümmung ( +) oberhalb
*
der Nullinie ausgesetzt, bei
konkaven linken Ufern unterhalb
der Nullinie.
Die Linierothe –— — — — bezeich-
net die Breite nach Beendigung
2
des travaux de régulation en
exécution.
Les hachures indiquent sur quelles
étendues les bords du lit mineur
seront régularisés après l'exe-
cution de ces travaux d'art.
Travaux de défense de la rive
droite \\\\, rive gauche
*-*----------------
//|.
Inscriptions souvent répétées.
Echelle.
Crue.
Pente.
Cote des eaux.
En amont.
IEn aval.
Rive.
of the regulating works at present
in course of construction.
The cross-hatching indicates over
what extent the limits of the
summer bed will be regulated
after the completion of these
constructive works. Works for
the protection of the right bank
Nººnk/.
Words frequently repeated.
Scale.
Flood.
Incline.
Comparative height of water.
Up stream.
Down stream.
Bank.
der angefangemen Regulirungs-
bauten.
Die Schraffirungen weisen an, wo
das Flusbett durch Kunstwerke
regulirt ist.
Kunstwerke am rechten Ufer
\ .
Kunstwerke am linken Ufer
|.
Wiederholt workommende
Ausolrücke.
Maasstab.
Hochwasser.
Gefälle.
Wasserstand.
Stromauf.
Stromab.
|Ufer.
Mamero28 des éories 27 - 26 23 22 21
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a year,
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IISTrilliſ]|| || Plăllſ HS.
PLAN CHE I.
Beneden-Merwede.
Courbe des courbures.
Largeurs du lit mineur.
Position du chenal dans le lit
mineur.
Profondeurs maxima du chenal
Continu.
Aires des sections transversales
au-dessous mi-marée.
Hautes et basses-mers ordinaires
Longueur.
Pour la Beneden-Merwede, on a
pris les profondeurs et les aires
des sections moyens pendant les
années 1886–1893.
PLANCHE II.
Nieuwe Merwede.
|Boven }}
Profondeurs minima sur les hauts-
fonds.
Plan de comparaison du zéro
d’Amsterdam.
Partie du chenal située le long de
la rive gauche.
Rive droite.
(Pour les autres expressions, voir
les traductions Planche I”.)
|||ſiſ|| || |||||}|.
PLANCHE III.
Cartes des profondeurs de la Boven
Merwede montrant des varia-
tions du fond.
Hauts fonds s'élevant
de AP.
Lignes des profondeurs de 2 m.
au-dessous de AP.
Chenals de plus de 4 m. de pro-
fondeur au-dessous de AP.
au-dessus
SCHUUIRMAN & VAN HOOFF.
BLATT I.
Unter-Merwede.
Krümmungslinien.
Breite des Sommerbettes.
Lage der Fahrrinne im Sommer-
bette.
Maximaltiefen der fortlaufenden
Fahrrinne.
Flächeninhalt der Querschnitte
unter halber Fluthhöhe.
Gewóhnlicher Stand von Ebbe und
Fluth,
Länge.
Für die Unter-Merwede hat man
die mittleren Tiefen und
Querschnittsinhalte der Jahre
1886–1893 angenommen.
BLATT II.
Neue Merwede.
Ober })
Mindesttiefen an den flachen
Stellen.
Vergleich mit 0 am Amsterdamer
Pegel.
Långs dem linken Ufer gelegener
Theil der Fahrrinne.
Rechtes Ufer.
(Die übrigen Ausdrücke
Uebersetzung zu Blatt I.)
BLATT III.
Tiefendarstellungen der Ober-Mer-
wede, Welche Bodenverånderun-
siehe
gen Zeigen.
Untiefen, welche sich iber A.P.
(Amsterdamer Pegel) erheben.
Tiefen won 2 m. unter A.P.
Furchen won mehr als 4 m. Tiefe
unter A.P.
DHRErilliſ] [f th; Pālī,
PLATE I.
Lower Merwede.
Curve.
Width of the summer bed.
Position of the channel in the
Summer bed.
Maximum depth of the continuous
channel.
Area of transverse sections below
half-tide.
Ordinary high and low water.
Length.
The depths and average areas of
sections on the Lower Merwede
have been taken during the
years 1886–1893.
PLATE II.
New Merwede.
Upper n
Minimum depths on the shoals.
Comparative projection after the
standard of Amsterdam.
Part of the channel situated along
the left bank.
Right bank.
(For other expressions see trans-
lations under Plate I.)
PLATE III.
Chart of depths of the Upper
Merwede showing variations in
the bottom.
Shoals rising above . AP.
standard of Amsterdam.)
Depth of 2 m. above AP.
(The
Channels more than 4 m. deep
below A.P.
2
PLANCHE IV.
Diagrammes montrant les volumes
et les déplacements des chenals
et des hauts-fonds de la Bowen
Merwede.
Les chenals Sont pris au-dessous
d’un plan s'abaissant de 2 m.
— AP. a la bouche d’amont à
3 m. — AP. a la bouche d’aval;
les hauts-fonds au-dessus du
même plan.
La Surface de la courbe des aires
des sections représent le vo-
lume du chenal ou du haut-
fond.
Le nombre inscrit donne le volume
en 1000iers de mêtres-cubes.
(Pour les autres expressions, voir
les traductions a Planche I”.)
PLATE IV.
Diagrams showing the volumes
and the movement of channels
and shoals of the Upper Merwede.
The channels are taken below a
height of from 2 m. below AP.
at the upper mouth to 3 m.
below A.P. at the lower mouth ;
the shoals above the same level.
The surface of the curve of the
areas of the sections represent
the volume of the channel
or of the shoal.
The number inscribed gives the
volume in thousands of cubic
metres.
(For other expressions see trans-
BLATT IV.
Diagramme zur Darstellung der
Volumen und der Werschiebun-
gen der Rinnen und Untiefen.
Die Rinnen sind unter einem
Wasserstande liegend berechnet,
der won 2 — AP. an der oberen
Mündung auf 3 m. — AP. an
der unteren Mündung fāllt; die
|Untiefen oberhalb dieses Was-
serstandes liegend.
Die Oberfläche der Querschnitts-
inhalte stellt das Volumen der
Rinne oder der Untiefe dar.
Die eingeschriebenen Ziffern be-
ziehen sich auf das Volumen in
tausendstel Kubikmetern.
(Die übrigen Ausdrücke
Uebersetzung zu Blatt I.)
siehe
lations under Plate I.)
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Inscriptions des Planthes,
**-*~~~
Nouvelle Meuse et Voie d'eau de
Rotterdam a la mer.
FEUILLE I.
Numéros des bornes kilométriques.
Echelle.
Marée maxima.
Echelle des largeurs.
Aval.
Amont.
Cote des marées hautes moyennes.
Cote des marées basses moyennes.
Largeur du lit. - -
Profondeur moyenne.
Profondeur du chenal.
Profondeur maxima.
Courbure de l'axe du lit.
Rive droite.
Rive gauche.
Ligne du Zéro.
La largeur du lit est mesurée entre
les berges à la hanteur des
marées basses moyennes. Là oil
des travaux d'art ont régularisé
la largeur du lit, cette largeur
n’est comptée que de la tête des
épis.
Le chenal est censé d'avoir
largeur constante de 100 metres
La profondeur portée comme
a profondeur du chenal” est la
ll Ilé
Inschriften der Teichnungen,
Neue Maas und WasserWeg V0m
Rotterdam zum Meere.
BLATT I.
Kilometerzahl.
Maasstab.
Höchster Stand der Fluth.
Maasstab der Breiten.
Stromab.
Stromauf.
Mittlerer hoher Fluthstand.
Mittlerer niedriger Fluthstand.
- Breite - des Strombettes.
Mittlere Tiefe.
Tiefe der Fahrrinne,
Maximaltiefen.
Krümmung der Achse des Strom-
bettes.
Rechtes Ufer.
Linkes Ufer.
Nullinie.
Die Breite des Strombettes
zwischen den Uſern in der Höhe
ist
profondeur minima de cette
largeur, la profondeur portée
comme aprofondeur maxima” est
la profondeur maxima du chenal.
STEYN PARVſ.
des mittleren niedrigen Fluth-
standes gemessen. Da, wo dass
Bett durch Kunstbauten regulirt
ist, hat man die Breite zwischen
den Buhnenköpfen gemessen.
Man hat für die Fahrrinne eine
beständige Breite won 100 m.
angenommen. Die als Fahrrin-
mentiefe (, profondeur du chenal”)
eingetragene Tiefe ist die klein-
ste in dieser Breite worhandene ;
die als Maximaltiefe (, profon-
deur maxima”) eingetragene
Tiefe ist die Maximaltiefe der
Fahrrinne.
Description of the Plates,
~~~~~~
New Meuse and Water-way from
Rotterdam to the Sea.
PLATE I.
Number of kilometres (Cf. "Mile-
stones”).
Scale.
High water mark.
Scale of width.
Down stream.
Up stream.
Comparitive height of average high
Water.
Comparative height of average low
- - water. --
Width of the bed.
Average depth.
Depth of the channel.
Maximum depth.
Curve of the bed.
Right bank.
Left
Zero line.
The width of the bed is measured
between the sloping banks at the
height
Where constructive works have
regulated the width of the bed,
this width is only counted from
the head of the groins.
The channel is considered to have
a constant width of 100 m.
The depth styled the depth of
the channel” is the minimum
depth at this width; the depth
styled a maximum depth” is the
maximum depth of the channel.
of average low water.
2
Là oil des profondeurs plus con-
siderables se trouvent en dehors
du chenal de navigation, ces
profondeurs sont indiquées par
des lignes brisées — — — — —
Quand la rive droite est concave,
- 1 p
la courbure (+) est portée au-
dessus de la ligne du zéro;
quand la rive gauche est con-
cave, cette courbure est portée
au-dessous de la ligne.
Les hachures indiquent sur quelle
étendue les bords du lit sont
régularisés par des travaux d'art
(épis). Travaux de défense de
la rive droite \\ , rive
*-m-m-m-m-m-
gauche |, défense plus
ou moins partielle \\\\\\\\\ 2
///||.
FEUILLE II, III, IV.
(Voir les traductions sous
, Feuille I”).
Wo sich ausserhalb der Fahrrinne
beträchtlichere Tiefen worfinden,
hat man dieselben durch punk-
tirte Linien — — — — — ange-
geben.
Wenn das rechte Ufer concav ist,
hat man die Krümmung (+)
iiber der Nullinie eingetragen;
wenn das linke Ufer concav ist,
hat man die Eintragung unter
jener Linie Vorgenommen.
Die Schraffirungen zeigen an, in
welcher Ausdehnung die Ufer
durch Kunstbauten (Buhnen) re-
gulirt sind. Kunstbauten am
rechten Ufer \\ , a.m.
º-º-º-º-º-º-º-º-me
linken Ufer // . mehr
Oder Weniger theilweise Siche-
rungen \\\\\\\\\, W.
BLATT II, III, IV.
(Siehe Uebersetzung zu Blatt I).
Where regions of greater depth
are met with outside the chan-
nel of navigation, they are indica-
ted by dotted lines — — — — —
Where the right bank is concave
1 \ . e
the curve (+) is carried above
the Zero line ; when the left
bank is concave this curve is
carried below the line.
The cross-hatching indicates over
What extent the limits of the bed
are regulated by the constructive
works (groins). Works for the
protection of the right bank
\\ , the left bank
--------
*-------,
| / , more or less par-
tial protection \\\\\\\ .
///ſ).
PLATES II, III, IV.
(See translations under Plate I.).
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La largeur du lit est mesurée entre
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Ž
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Là oil des profondeurs plus considé-
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2:
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rables se trouvent en dehors du cherial
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quées par des lignes briséés - - - - - - -
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VI* International Inland Navigation Congress,
THE HAGUE, 1894.
|| |||}|\|\ |\|| || ||\|||||||||\ || || ||
BY
L. L.E.L.I.A.V S KI,
Engineer.
Nothwithstanding the great works of several mathematians, hydrodynamics
have not yet given a single exact formula absolutely adoptable to practical
combinations. This arises, in our opinion from the fact that the subject of the
displacement of fluids in the midst of resistances has not been sufficiently
examined in an experimentāl way; and that in the principles of mathematical
deductions there are admissions incompatible with reality. Observations show
that there is no one point in a fluvial current where the threads of water
have a direction completely parallel, but, as the laws on which the direction
of the water-threads depend are unknown and their deviation from a parallel
line appears to be accidental, it has been generally admitted for the deduction
of hydrodynamic formulae that all water-threads run in parallel directions to
one another. - -
NAVIER, following the hypothesis of NEWTON that interior hydraulic frictions
are the lineal $unctions of relative speeds introduced into the equation of the
movement of fluids a coefficient of interior friction resulting from the nature
of the fluid and of its temperature. BUSSINESK after a few unimportant changes
applied these formulae to the straight movement of parallel threads and has :
drawn conclusions which agree nearly with the results of real and exact
experiments; but, the agreement is limited to capillary tubes, in which it
must be supposed that the threads run in an almost parallel line to the
guiding walls. For tubes of final transverse sections, and especially for canals
and rivers NAVIER's formulae gives a considerably greater speed than has
been in reality observed. This phenomenon is attributed to the deviation of
the threads from their straight and mutually parallel direction, consequent on
accidental irregularities, such as inequalities in the walls, modification of
2
pressure on the free surface etc. The new resistance resulting here from, which
seems to be the result of accidental causes cannot be defined theoretically
with desirable exactitude and it diminishes with the reduction of the dimen-
sions of the transverse section of the bed. Nothing, however, proves that this
vague resistance really arises from accidental causes, for it always exists, even
when the walls are quite even and the current quite uniform. It should be
observed that all physical phenomena, so long as their reciprocal relations
have not been studied and determined, that is to say, so long as the laws
which regulate them have not been discovered have always appear to be
arbitrary. For this reason, the hydrodynamic problem in its present state must
comprise observations of the deviations of water-threads from the parallel of
the walls of the tubes on the bottom and the banks of the fluvil bed, with
the view of discovering the laws which govern these deviations.
Based on the admission that the movement of the water takes place
according to straight and parallel threads, there have been deduced from the
formula of NAVIER other formulae on the established and uniform movement
of the water of rivers. Modified and simplified by several specialists, these
formulae give for the average speed of the current certain algebraical terms in
which enter several fixed coefficients dependent on the resistance of the
current. Such are the formulae of PRONY, DUPUIS, GIRARD, HAGEN, WEISS-
BACH, EILLETT, CHEZY, DARCY, SAINT-VENAN, HYMPHREISS and ABBOT,
GAULKLER etc. The inexactitude of formulae arising from irregular admissions
in their foundation is rectified in their practical application by the value of
the coefficients, which, therefore, must be determined with the greatest care.
The inexactitude of the formulae is manifested by the difference in the coeffi-
cients in conditions, which, if not identical, are very similar. Thus, for
example, the coefficient C for the formula of CHESY
V = C 1/ R.I.
has been defined by several investigators, and by each one differently, and
the diversity of this coefficient is above all strongly manifested in the calcul-
ation of the dimension of the bed. Consequently GANGUILE and KUTTER
considering this coefficient as a variable quantity, which is modified according
to changes in the elements of the current which enter into the formula of
CHEzy have given for the coefficient C a term in which, besides the elements.
designated enters still a new coefficient expressing the result of the calculation
of the degree of inequality of the bed. This coefficient must be obtained by
means of repeated measurements of the speed of the current and of the slopes
at different places. Such modification of the formula, although not adding to
its exactitude allows of its more approximate adoptation, to practical objects,
and it is for this reason that it is considered to be as the present day the
best mode for the solution of questions regarding works for the regulation of
rivers. -
HELMHOLTZ working at the investigation of the science of the movements
3
of fluide, that is of the supposed movement independent of the force of
gravity, of friction and other resistances, and considering the possible modific-
ation of the elements of fluid to be infinitely small has found that these
modifications may result from a change of form in the elements, equally as
from their relative rotation.
HELMHOLTZ has further stated the following conclusions:
The commonest and infinitely small motion of fluid particles consists in a
continually advancing movement, rotation and extension.
The properties of the movement are as follows:
19. A fluid particle that does not always rotate never rotates.
20. If a line be drawn through a fluid particle every where parallel to its
axis of rotation, this line remains always and in all places parallel to the axis
of rotation. Every such line continually consists of the same particles. These
lines are the lines of motion. The lines which pass through a surface element
form a thread of motion.
39. The product of the speed of motion and the section of a thread of
motion is constant.
49. Threads of motion can only return into themselves or end on the
surface.
Since HELMHOLTz, other mathematicians have studied these threads of
motion, but no clear explanation of the motion of the water has yet been
arrived at. The hypothesis of HELMHOLTZ has many partisans, but it is only
the possibility of moving lines and threads in moving fluids which can be
admitted, their real presence in flowing water is, however, not proved. The
rotation of the unfinitely small elements of fluid cannot be observed, and
observations by means of floats, of which we will speak later on do not
manifest any rapid rotary motion. The rotation of the floats is very slow and
is caused by the inequality of speed in the threads of water working on each
side of the float. It is to be remarked that the line followed by a floating
body never crosses itself, that is, it never takes the form of a knot, so that
completely closed circular movements can only occur in places where the
surface of the water is not under the influence of the current, as, for example
in small bays, behind bridge piles or in what are called dead corners at
junctions with confluent rivers etc. The rotary motion of the water in the
vortex is not analogous to the supposed movement of the fluid in the lines
and threads of HELMHOLTZ, for in the first case the axis of rotation is found
outside the moving body (axis of cylinder) and in the second it coincides
with the tangent of the line of direction, which, thus represents a curve enve-
loping the axes of rotation. The movement of the veins should rather be
called spiral, for this last definition would admit of resemblance to the move-
ment of aerial vortices, which in the same way as water-whirls move round a
vertical axis. .
BUSSINCSK recognising the existance of a rotary motion of the molecules in
a current of water, considered their speed to be subjected to great irregularities;
4
for facility of calculation he introduces a new admission of the existence of
average local speeds, nearly constant at all points of the mass of water,
allowing at the same time that the water threads are almost parallel to each
other. Like NAYIER, he introduces into the formula a coefficient of friction,
which is not constant for the total mass of moving water, but changes with
the alterations of the coordinates and is besides dependent on the size of the
radius under water, of the form of the section, of the velocity of the current
and of the value of the coefficient of interior friction. Thus BUSSINESK con-
siders the actual movement to be unequal and gradually changing. Abl his
admissions with regard to average velocities and, especiallly, as regards paral-
lelism of threads are not in accordance with reality, and those referring to
the variable value of the coefficient of friction are conjectural and arbitrary,
we find that notwithstanding the importance of his works, which throw light
on several phenomena concerning the longitudinal section of rivers, many
things still remains unexplained and we have no exact formulae of the move-
ment of water adopted to a practical and precise application in the same way
as the formulae existing for the movement of solid bodies.
For researches concerning the displacement of fluvial alluvion it would be
very useful to have exact mathematical terms for the pression of a moving
liquid body on solid bodies; but unfortunately the empirical formulae in use
are not only inexact, but their correctness even is very doubtful.
According to the general opinion of those who have studied the subject
the question of the mutual pression of liquid and solid moving bodies is the
part of hydrodynamics, whlch has received the least attention.
The cause of this is principally the admission of the parallelism of threads.
The influence of this on the inexactitude of deductions is very strong, for not
only is there no parallelism in threads of moving in quietly flowing currents,
bnt shocks against Solid bodies produce new movements of confusion, accom-
panied by the formation of currents in all possible directions and which have
not been explored.
Absolutely exact as are the formulae relative to the movement of solid
bodies, little certain is up to the present known of the correctness of formulae
relative to the shock of liquid bodies. Let us examine, for instance, the most
brief deduction of the most exact formula, representing the shock of a single
thread of water against a smooth surface which is perpendicular to it. Desig-
nating the acceleration of the moving point by p, the time by t, the space
by s, the speed acquired during the time f by 7, the mass of the body by m,
the density /\, the volume Q, the power of the shock P, the gravity of the
weight of the body by G, the acceleration of the gravity by g and considering
that P = m - ?), and G = m . g., we shall have successively:
w = ? - ?,
therefore : # =
Z) 2)2
S = — Z = —
= x t = ,
72
further p . s = −
2 3
7)2
p : m S = ??? • —
2
2
Z)
A : s = m . —
- 2
the second part of the equation we name conditionally active power which is equal to
the force required to communicate to the mass m the speed v. If f = 1, we obtain
7,
J -
2 3 ~~ ſ -
therefore P = n w = ** – A o tº º (1)
• ? § &
In adapting these absolutely exact dynamic formulae to the power of the
shock of a single thread of water, it must be calculated that the volume Q
equals the efflux of which is expressed, as is known by the area of the trans-
verse section of the thread of water multiplied by the average speed of water.
That is to say 7" X v; we obtain :
A = 2 /\ 7"
792
— = 2 /\ 7" /, (2)
2.9. -
in which h is the height of a colomn of water corresponding to the speed w.
A similar application of the formula (1), which has reference to the shock of
a solid body to a liquid mass is irregular, because the efflux of water can be
equal to the average speed, multiplied by the area of the transverse section
of the thread of water, only in cases where the threads are in the same line
as the smooth surface; this is however not possible, as the water threads are
not parallel to each other. However, experiments which have been made for
the verification of the above named formula by M. BIDON have given results
which approximate confirm its exactitude. This is to be attributed to the cir-
cumstance that the quantity of water directed in the tube can be immediately
measured, instead of being calculated by the multiplication of the area of the
active section by the speed of the water. (Plate I design I). Nevertheless, the
quantity of the pression on the surface depends much on the dimensions of
tha surface and above all on its distance from the orifice of escape of the
water from the tube, so that BIDOU when he placed the surface near the orifice
of the tube obtained the result P = 1,5 A 7" h, and according to
DUBOIs and LANGSDORFF P = only /\ . T : /.
The force of the shock, in reality, is generally less than is calculatcd from
the formula and this results from the fact that by the shock of the liquid mass
a considerable part of the energy belonging to it is lost by the shock of the
separate threads against one another. With the shock of a liquid mass against
a solid the latter only receives directly the pression of the particles of liquid,
infinitely thin, which come in immediate contact with it, while the entire
6
mass of the liquid particles transmits a shock from one to the other of the
particles, in consequence of which the direction of their movement deviates
strongly from the direct line of the solid surface and there can be no question
of the parallelism of the threads. The greater the speed of the water, that is
to say the greater its pression in the tube, the more must be, with exact
experiments, the nearness of the coefficient in formula (2) to the given figure 2.
In the experiments of BIDON the speeds were very considérable, not less
than 8 metres per second; with small speeds it must be supposed that the
coefficient of the formula (2) may be considerably less than the unit, even as
much as less than the half of the result of the calculation. So that the for-
mula of the shock of a single thread of water, looked upon as the most exact
of formulae concerning the shocks of liquid bodies really does not possess
the desired exactitude; and the incompatability of the results of experiments
with these calculations proves the inexactitude of the admissions made in the
transformation of the formula (1). Also, it should be observed, that the pres-
sion on the surface at the time of the commencement of the efflux of the
thread is more considerable than it is during the course of its flow. However
for a mathematical expression of the shock of an unlimited mass of water
we have no other means to apply than the formula (2) which is composed
for the shock of a single tread of water. Therefore for this part Öf hydrau-
lics we use the following phrase : Zł is very probable that we may admit that
the laws governing, the shock of an unlimited mass of water are the same
as those relating to that of a single thread Öf water. According to this sup-
pósition or admission the pression of a shock of water on a solid body on
the side Öf its affluent equals
A . A - 7"--
in which K1 is the numerical coefficient defined by experiments and depen-
dant only on the form of the body. Besides should be taken into conside-
ration the relaxed pression or the want of pression (according to DUBOIs,
non-pression). This can be expressed in the same way as the pression Ön the
side of the affluent by the formula
A 2 . /\ . Z' wº
2 g
The hydrostatic pression being equal on each side of the body in opposite
directions may be left out of account. -
Therefore, the result of the pression of moving water on a solid body may
be expressed as follows:
72 22 Z/2
K. : A 7" ºr – K . A : 7 : H K . A Z = (3)
$ 2 3 2 g
All the coefficients K, , K, and K are to be defined by means of experi-
ments and will be certainly very different under various conditions and to
*
l
different observers. If for a single straight thread of water we may admit :
with a certain degree of approximation, the efflux of water to be equal to
the product of the area of Section and the speed, such supposition can not
be admitted for the movement of an unlimited mass of water, for it is im-
possible to suppose that the entire quantity produces a shock against a solid
body thröugh one cylinder which is separated from it and which has for
basis the transverse section of the body attacked. Even with parallelism of
threads the beds of moving water surrounding the cylinder participate in the
shock in consequence of their connection and in consequence of the adhesion
of the water to the eliminated cylinder. But as the threads of water have
convergent and divergent directions, and as it is not possible to separate from
the mass of water, the threads working at every moment on a solid body,
the formule (3) may give results which may diverge as much from the real
quantities as the volume of the cylinder may differ from the volumes of one
or several truncated cones. The convergence of the threads of water does not
conduce to condensation of the water, nor to the accleration of the speed of
the current, which, on the contrary is lessened by the shock of the threads
one against the other, and only causes an increase of pression on the Solid
|
bodies encountered on the way of the moving water. As proved by repeated
observations the threads of water form curved lines which are still more
curved when they turn around a solid body. When we say that a thread of
water shocks against a solid body we do not mean that all the mass of the
thread of water enters into contact with a solid body, but that on it is direc-
ted the action of the thread of water which is transmitted by the intermediary i
beds of water. An indefinite quantity of threads may work upon a body from |
different sides at any moment; they meet in their movement some resistance l
from the solid body; this resistance being communicated to them by these
intermediate beds of water, they deviate from their direction and prolong this
movement around the solid body with decreasing speed. .
As the laws which govern the direction of particles of water are unknown
to us, we cannot follow the threads which in the mass of water, press on the
solid body in the bed of the river. But in order to throw some light on pos-
sibile cases of transmission of pression, let us suppose that their laws are
known and we will represent them by lines as shown on Plate I fig. 2. Then,
suppose a solid body of small dimensions, for example a stone in the bed of .
the river submitted to the hydraulic or, to the active pression of the body of
water moving towards it. In order to determine the strength of this pression,
we must seek out in the lines the points in which at a given moment are
found the moving particles of water; and in these points draw tangents to
\
\
In the first case the body will be submitted to the hydraulic pression of the
the lines, which tangents show the direction of the pressure at the given \
moment. Looking at aſ these tangents, which cut the solid body we see a |
mass of straight lines convergent or divergent, which form one or several i
truncated cones, lying with their upper or lower end against the solid body.
t
8
|ſ
convergent threads and of the greatest number of the particles of water, in
the second to the pression of the divergent threads and of the smallest number
of particles of water. Supposing these particles of water to be mutually equal
in their mass, which we take as unit, if we define the average speed by v
and the number of particles by m, we find for the active power or the mecha-
nical work the mathematical term
72
---,
and for the force of the shock (P)
A = m zy,
in which the quantity m z represents what is called the quantity of movement.
It is evident from what we have just said, that the figure ºn, or the moving
mass of water on a solid body is a variable quantity and must not be elimi-
nated from the formula by substituting for it the preduct of the density of
the water with a determined volume. It is, also, evident that with the same
speed at the bottom, but with alteration of the mass of water producing the
pression. the alluvions may be submitted to a hydraulic pression different to
the flowing water according to the disposition of the threads.
Observations on water-threads show that in deep waters, ordinarily disposed
in the concave parts of the bed, all the water-threads move the floats towards
the concave banks, from which it is evident that the hydraulic pression moving
the floats is always directed towards these concave banks, while the particles
of water follow lines which never have a point of intersection with the bank.
So that the conception of the convergence and divergeuce of the threads of
water and of hydraulic pressions must not be identified with the idea of the
compression of the molecules of water, by the reunion of the threads of
Water.
Directing themselves by curved lines and moving between themselves the
threads produce impulsions in two directions; firstly the tangent lines, which
we have examined above and, secondly, in the normal lines, so that impulsions
in the directions of the latter may induce rotary movements of molecules of
water contributing to the accumulation of alluvion. By the transformation of
º 2 - -> e & *
the active force (...) in two directions its quantity must gradually be con-
2
sumed and proportionately more as the angle of the convergence of the water-
threads is larger. The reduction of the active force of each separate molecule
of water in the mass admitted as unit must be expressed by the reduction of
the speed of the current on all the bed.
In fact, as the curves of the bed are stronger the more remarkable is the
depth produced by a great pression of water on the bottom, caused by the
convergence of the water-threads towards the concave banks. The importance
of the increase of the mass of the converging water-threads is seen iu the
9
following of the fluvial bottom along the concave banks, which occurs with
the slackening of the current and causes the formation of a dead-water in the
longitudinal section of the river.
The cause of the reduction of speed and the increase of dead-water, is, as
has just been said, the consumption of a considerable part of the quantity of
active power for the shocks of the threads one against the other in the normal
directions of the molecules of water. On the contrary, in the deep parts where
the water-threads have divergent directions, opposite phenomena are manifested
and the displacement of alluvion in spite of the enormous speed of the current
is effected slowly. If we were to imagine in the direction of the tangents,
molecules of water as, for instance, thin threads of water moving against a
solid body, all the quantity of the mechanical force would at a given moment
be employed in the shock, of which the volume would perhaps be sufficient
not only to move the solid body forward, but even to crush it; and the mole-
cules or the mass of moving water towards upstream would be unlimited.
But in reality the shock of the moving water is transmitted in a different
way.
1° Each molecule approaching the solid body parts with, in the shock, only ſ
a part of its active power and diverging sideways keeps by far the greatest'
part of this power for its further flow.
2° Repeated observations have shown that the resistance of the solid body
to the free movement of the water flowing towards it does not extend to all
the mass of water flowing upstream, but that the deviations of the molecules
commences at a certain distance from it, so that neither theoretical calculations,
nor actual observations enable us to determine this distance.
It is probable that it depends on the velocity of the current, on the pro-
portion of the area of the greatest transverse section of the solid body to the
area of the transverse section of the bed, on the shape of the body and on
the disposition of the water-threads.
Examination of the pression exerted by flowing water on a solid immovable
body immerged in it has shown that there being no data by which the mass
of water transmitting the shock to the solid body and submitting to deviation
from the resistance offered to its free movement by the body could be deter-
e c z)2
mined, it has not yet been found possible to give to the expressions m 2
and w v, a propre form for practical calculation. These formulae, however, are
correct in their simple, form and very suitable for general decisions, relative
to transport of alluvion by flowing water. As we have already said, the part
of the flowing water working on a solid body, does not expend in the shock
* wº • . e £92
all the quantity of its active power, as for its complete use m — would be
- . 2
equal to O, and this is only possible if w = O, that is to say when the mass
of water is completely at rest. In reality it continues to flow with a some-
1()
& * z), 2
what relaxed speed wi preserving a working power of ſm so that the
2
quantity of power expended in the shock is
2 2
Z) Z)
1
//l — — ??? —t v? – ?), 2 ) . . .
2 ( 1. (4)
and the power of the shock = m (v — vi).
The greater the power used the stronger is the shock and thus greater the
possibility of removing the solid body from its place.
As the practical problem of the improvement of rivers consists above all in
the deepening of the bed we must next examine by what means an increase
in the value of the terms
* (*-**) and m (v — vi) may be obtained.
Examining these terms we see that the work of deepening and the force
of the shock increase in proportion to the inerease m of the mass of molecules
of water directing their pression on the projections in the bed, in proportion
to the increase v of the speed of the flow of these molecules and in propor-
tion to the decrease z'ſ of the speed of these same molecules when they are
sent back by the resistance of the projections in the bed.
For the increase m it is necessary to direct to the suitable depth the largest
possible quantity of water-threads so as to concentrate their shock at this place.
In practice this is obtained by shutting of the lateral arms, as well as the
crossing threads which break themselves on the bottom, by means of regula-
tion works which form a guide for the direction of the lines of water.
The value z is the average speed, not of all the transverse section, but only
of that part of it, with which the hydraulic pression of the water extends to
the river bed. If the quantity v increases and decreases with the average speed
of all the section, it must be admitted that the decrease of the section must
serve to augment the quantity 7, and consequently to augment the deepening
power in the bed. With this object the narrowing of the bed is effected by
works of regulation, it must however be remarked that the reduction of the
width of the bed does not always give the desired reduction to the area of
the section, for the latter is often found in a manner non-normal to its projected
line but follows its curves in lines which are oblique, so that the water-threads
take also a direction not only non-parallel to the projected banks, but some-
times are nearly straight; so that the width of the transverse section passing
by the ridges of Sandbanks may in these cases appear comparatively narrower
than its primitive widths. Consequently projects of the configuration of a river
compiled according to ordinary systems and the works of regulation executing
according to these projects do not afford the desired depth of bed. For this
reason it is necessary to take measures for the desired disposition of the water-
threads and with this object to form regulation works to direct the water-
threads so that they give the desired configuration, Besides, as is known, the
11
narrowing of the section has still the defect of causing with the deepening
of the bed, the lowering of the level of the water and the displacement of
considerable inclines of water towards neighbouring parts of the river, thus
again causing new hindrances to navigation. It is true, that this could be
remedied by submerged banks, which maintain the strong slopes in the regu-
lated sections; such constructions are, however, very dear and they may become
temporary hindrances to navigation if the amount of water diminishes or the
draught of the vessels increases.
The quantity v. that is the average speed of the molecules of water which
diverge in their movement under the influence of the resistance of the projec-
tions in the bed, against which they rush, enter in the mathematical expres-
sion for the power expended for the deepening of the bed with a negative
sign and for this reason in increasing the depth attention should be paid to
all possible reduction of the quantity wi.
To examine this question let us suppose that a single thread of water is
directed in a tube against a solid body firmly fixed at its end. If the solid
body is not displaced by the force of the shock of the thread, the water in
the tube will be brought to a stillstand, v, becomes = o, and the entire
g & 72 . ſº &
quantity of the mechanical power m T2 will be expended in the shock of which
the force will be equal to m z. If the water-thread is not confined in a tube
but flows freely, the water surrounding easily the sides and the upper part
of the solid body, will keep after the shock a considerable part of its speed
and the shock be incomparably weaker.
When the water-thread working on the solid body is surrounded by other
threads nearly parallel among themselves or even divergent its action on the
solid body will be greater than that of an isolated thread, for its flow around
the solid body will be somewhat hindered by the resistance of the neigh-
bouring threads. If the direction of the neighbouring threads, even when they
do not direct their shock against a solid body, becomes convergent, it will
be still more difficult for the attacking wafer-fhread to turn at the side of
the body and it will then flow over it. This way will be difficult when there
are other water-lines in a position above the attacking line, for the latter
will have to lift them up. In the same degree as the difficulties in encircling
the solid body increase the speed of the water-thread w diminishes and the
shock increases. The more water-lines there are above the solid body, or
with other words the greater the depth of water, the more difficult it becomes
for the attacking line to lift up this mass of water, until at last, at a certain
depth it is no longer capable of this action, in which case v, reaches its
mininum and the force of the shock its maximum.
It should be remarked that v, in the river bed never equals o, for the
attacking water-thread may flow around the body increasing the speed of the
current of the neighbouring threads without lifting them up to any extent.
It is evident from what has been said above that the increase of depth and
12
the convergence of water-threads contribute to the increase of the action of
the water in the river bed, but it must not be concluded that an artificially
created channel in the river bed could be preserved and increased by the
action of the current; as for this to be effected would be required, not only
the depth of water but, also, the disposition of the convergent threads of
water directed on the projections in the bed. And without this last condition
there would be Scarcely any current in the channel, which would be obstructed
by particles of Solid matter moving above and plunging into it on account
of their weight.
The considerable influence of the depth on the formation of the river bed
is confirmed by observations on cuttings. When a cutting is formed at a
Small depth, for instance, o.4 to o.6 meters below the level of the water, the
deepening of the bottom takes place very slowly and this in spite of the
enormous incline existing at times of low-water and in spite of the consi-
derable speed of the current; but at high water when the fall is less the
operation of deepening becomes so strong that, as I have repeatedly had
occassion to observe on the Dnieper and on the Pripet, the section of the
cutting becomes in a very short time sufficiently large for navigation.
These results will show that the deepening power increases, not with the
Speed of the current, but in accordance with the augmentation of the mass of
water working on the deepening, and especially at an increased depth, the
water by its gravity does not allow its lower beds to pass over the inequa-
lities in the bottom, but carries them away in descending the stream.
Generally, the more that the circuit of water around a solid body is
hindered, 7', is less and the force of the shock and the power expended by
the water for the shock is greater. We know, for example, that small streams
flowing in narrow beds with banks but little excavated often carry away
enormous stones. In the same way rainwater in the gutters of the streets
carries with it bricks and stones with a speed not much less than that of a
river current; but in wide river beds even small grains of sand remain. The
difference of the quantity of the power expended in the displacement of the
solid bodies in these two cases, does not depend so much on the speeds of
the current 2), as on the quantity of the lost speed a — ºh, that is to say of
the quantity v1, and the latter again depends upon the great difference in the
proportions of the transverse sections of the objects carried to the sections of
the beds, or to the quantity of the narrowing of the section of the cult ent by
the transverse section of the body moved. If the bed be large and the size
of the solid body small, then z, differs very littie from z and the quantity
7// *
2
is nearly – O. If the current be narrow and the transverse section of the
object which obstructs the free movement of the water, larger, a considerable
delay in the movement will be caused, that is, vi may become much less
than 7, and a part of the mechanical power of the water which is expended
on the shock may attain a quantity sufficient to displace even heavy obstacles.
With regard to a closer examination of means for the diminution of the
quantity z' let us suppose a flowing water in a gutter barred at its end by a
solid screen. After the shock of the water against the screen,” will be = O and the
shock complete, that all the active power of the water will be expended. If,
however, at the side of the screen a lateral piece of the gutter be removed the
power of the shock against the screen will not be complete and will be in
proportion as much less as the lateral opening is large. See plate I fig. 3.
If the screen be removed the water flowing direct exercises the least pos-
sible hydraulic pression on the walls of the tube. Exactly similar observations
have been made in fluvial beds. Lines of water flowing against he concave
bank and the part of the fluvial bed, which is contiguous to it being turned
back lose a great part of the speed employed for the shock, and for the
deepening of the bed at the side of the banks. On the contrary, in a straight
bed the loss of speed in the stream is comparatively insignificant; v1 is almost
= ~, and the power of excavation consequently very small.
sº ſº /72 tº e
Therefore to obtain the quantity of the -- (v*— viº) by the diminution vi
the straight parts of the projected configuration must be avoided and the
windings of the curves enlarged as much as possible, that is their radius
diminished. However this last measure has up to the present time not been
practically applied, for the object of the regulation of rivers does not consist
in the general deepening of the bed but, only the excavation of the bottom
at places where the depth of water is insufficient, which places are generally
found not in the concave elbows but at the points of inflexion of the bed. In
any case the application of such a measure should be restricted within certain
limits, depending; 1) on the disadvantage of sharp curves for navigation
especially for steam tug navigation; 2) the underwashing of the banks; 3) the
washing away of the submerged banks by the water at high tides which seek
to follow a more direct line.
Thus in projecting the trace of the banks we must principally follow the
configuration of natural concave banks, except in cases where their windings
are feeble and irregularly developed.
At the points of inflexion of the bed great divergency is generally found in
the directions of the water threads; and this affords them comparative faci-
lity in passing round obstacles.
The loss of speed is, therefore not great, z, differs very little from z and
the transport of alluvion is weak,
To augment the value of z, we must unite the separate threads and give
them a convergent direction towards the projected line of the channel, so
that for the deepening of extensive beds the narrowing of the bed is not
sufficient, but it is necessary to give the bed a configuration, which will
cause the water threads to take always a convergent direction.
Consequently we find it possible to increase the excavating power of the
14
river bed, not only by increasing z, that is the average speed of the current,
but also, by increasing the value of m and diminishing that of zi. -
To increase z is not sufficient to narrow the section ; it is necessary that
the water-threads have corresponding directions, and this is required, also for
the production Öf the desired influence on the quantities m and z1.
It is likewise acknowledged that the regulation of the bed may be effected,
not by narrowing it, but chiefly by guiding the water-threads in a suitable
direction, by which it is evident that a narrowing of the section will occur.
In examining the question of the action of the force of the current on the
deepening of the bed, we have considered the inert power of the water as
an independant cause, while the active power is supplied by the force of
gravity of the water in its movement. We have, therefore, now to consider
to what extent we are able to dispose usefally of this force of gravity.
If Q be the efflux of water, A the density and H the slope, we obtain
as term for the force of gravitation the product of A Q Aſ. . .
The yearly efflux of water cannot be regulated, for this depends on meteo-
rological and climatic conditions; it is, however, known, that the cultivation
of forests conduces to the increase of moisture falling in the atmosphere.
But, for the maintainance of a navigation depth, it is not the general
quantity of moisture falling into the basin of the river which is of importance,
but much rather a suitable and regular supply of water. This is attained by
forest cultivation near to the basin of the river and by construction of reser-
voirs. The general slope of a river or of a more or less great part of it
cannot be altered ; still, care should be taken that it be divided on the
length of the river as far as possible in such a way as to obtain uniformity
of the longitudinal section.
Formulae concerning the uniform movement of water teach us the necessity
of regulating the slopes so as to obtain uniformity of longitudinal section of
the bed of the river. But in the solution of practical questions of regulation
of rivers a complete levelling of the bed is not necessary; the possibility of
such levelling as well as of uniformity of the current is very doubt
full, as the condition of the stream in the curves is very different to that in
the inflexions. This disparaty is especially shown in the disposition of the
water-threads, and if we could succeed in obtaining in the inflexions a con-
vergence of threads such as are shown in the windings of the bed the ques-
tion of levelling would be considerably nearer to an ideal solution. -
The above examination of the application of dynamic forms to river
currents shows the anomaly of the admission of parallelism of threads of
Water.
The very great difference of movement and of shock of solid, elastic and
liquid bodies arrises from the fact that in the first the mutual position of the
molecules and of the distances between them does not vary either during the
movement or during the shock. -
The direction of all the molecules is parallel or concentric, while in the
15
movement of liquid bodies, in consequence of the resistance of the surface,
on which they move and the surroundings in which the movement is effected,
there is in the interior of the liquid body a continual translation of molecules,
giving rise to interior independent currents, and this consumes a considerable
quantity of the stock of mechanical power acquired by the working of the
force of gravity. This loss of active force is especially great in the shock of
liquid bodies against solid bodies, since it consumes itself in the distribution
and the shock of the threads. In order to place hydrodynamics in the rank
of the exact sciences, abstract mathematical operations, such as those made
by NAVIER, HELMHOLTZ and their disciples, BUSSINECK and many others are
not sufficient.
It must be acknowledged that hydrodynamics is, just as physics, an expe-
rimental science and the bases of its conclusions must not be arbitrary admis-
sions, but data acquired by generalisation and direct experiments. As the
movement of liquid bodies in the midst of resistance are the result of laws,
which govern the movements of solid bodies, we consider it a principal
duty of those who make a study of the practical application of hydrodynamics,
to examine the combinations of the movement of water, resulting from the
configuration of the river bed and influencing its reformation, and especially
to pay attention to the particularities of the movements of the water, by which
liquids differ from solid bodies, that is, the interior translation of molecules
in bodies during their displacement. The researches made under our direc-
tion on the Dnieper near Kief have shown the possibility of examining the
direction of water threads relative to the surface of the water the particu-
larities then discovered concerning the direction of water-threads connected
wirh observations on the configuration of the relief of the river bed have
contributed to the explanation of the established law of the disposition of
isolated and independant currents appearing in every watercourse.
In order to solve the question as to the possibility of closing the lateral
bridge openings in the dike of the Dnieper on the causeway between Kief
and Tchernigoff and for the security of concentration of all the waters of
high tides in one principal bed at the right side of the town, so as to con-
duct them into the opening of the suspension bridge, we have made, in
addition to repeated measurements of the quantities of water, by means of
floats, definitions of the dispositions and the measurements of the speeds of
the water-threads on the surface of the water.
The floats are made round, of dry pine boards o,06 m. in thickness, o,25 in
diameter (see fig. I, Plate II). They are painted all round in a white oil-colour,
the upper disk is divided in 4 sectors, varnished in different colours, so that
the direction of its rotation may be observed from a boat at a certain distance
and the number of revolutions counted.
An iron rod is passed through the float, having at its lower end an iron
Screw on which is fixed es many iron plates as are sufficient to siuk the float
nearly entirely in the water. At its upper end is placed a glass ball of bright colour.
16
Before commencing the compilation of a plan Öf the disposition of the
threads of water on the section under examination, transverse sections are
drawn up at a distance of 50 to 44 meters from each other according to the
importance of the section for the projected works, and according to the
variability of the character of the bed. These profiles are indicated on the
banks at each side of the bed by double stakes, as are shown on the plate.
Then a plan of the sheet of water is made on a scale of 25 or 50 m. to
o,01 m. The entire section is divided into several parts, in such way that one
plan does not show more than 600 to 700 m. On each side, that is to say,
upstream and downstream, since at a greater distance with a KIPREGEL glass,
the glass balls of the floats cannot be distinctly seen.
In accordance with rough notes on the duration, of the courses of the
floats on the sections, plans have been made in two forms.
On the plans a are shown the directions of movements of floats and the
profiles of their speeds; on the plans b are shown, also, the directions of the
floats and their position at a certain lapse of time, after their passing the first
profile simultaneously, theſe were fixed on their lines of route, according to
their speed, the points at which they were at a lapse of 2, 4 or 5 minutes
after passing the first profiles; uniting these points we have the profiles of the
position of the floats at the end of these given intervals. From these points
in the direction of movement of the floats, the distances were traced which
they had travelled in the same interval according to the time. The union of
the points found, defined the second profile and so on.
In examining the positions of the lines of direction of the floats, it is im-
possible to overlook one particular characteristic, at the first view appearing a
strange one; namely, that all the floats move from the convex banks to the
channel and to the concave banks, and then their lines of direction cross.
And, as the points of these crossings have a certain fixedness, the fact
cannot be attributed to accidental causes, such as currents of wind, movement
caused by passing steamers, etc.; the more so, as these observations were
made in calm weather, and passing steamers were warned by means of a
speaking-trumpet to keep at a certain distance from the floats.
If the course of the float be considered as a water-thread, that is, as the
route followed by a certain mass of water, the intersection of these masses,
while they maintain each their own direction is evently impossible. For this
reason it is necessary to examine in how far the course of a float coincides
with that of the direction of a water-thread. Let us suppose a volume of water
in a spherical form or in the form of a rotating body with a vertical axis
placed on a quite Smooth horizontal surface.
A fload placed horizontally above this rotating body will, after the water
has flown off descend vertically. According to its movement as seen on the
plan, we can only judge, that the water was quite métionless. If, however,
the surface on which the water rests be not quite horizontal, or that there be
hollows or projections in the surface and inequalities in different directions,
17
by the increase of speed and of active force, the float will be drawn in the
direction of the greatest speed; from this, however, it does not follow that
the water does not move also in other directions.
Likewise, because the floats move towards the channel and towards the
concave banks, it does not follow that all the water moves in the same direc-
tion; it shows, however, that near the surface of the water the greatest speeds
of the current are not directed parallel to the banks, but obliquely to the
channel.
This deviation of the water-threads towards the channel is the reason that
the efflux of water, measured by us in different rivers gives sometimes results
very different from their true value. The difference in this respect is much
too great to be ascribed to want of precision in the instruments of measure-
ment, for these may be brought to a great degree of perfection if the turning
wings are carefully attended to and the coefficient of friction correctly defined.
With the confluence of two waterthreads their masses unite and the further
movement follows in the direction of the result of both their speeds.
The complete union of the two masses of water can be judged by the
colour of the water, which is different on each river. Marshy rivers have a
dark brown colour, mountainous rivers are transparant, others yellow, of a
greenish shade and so on. This difference in colour at the confluence of two
rivers is only observable at a certain short distance from the place of union,
and gradually disappears as one thread of water connects itself with the
other.
The float at the junction of two water-threads moves in the direction of the
result of its own speed and that of the two threads. Thus, we find that at
the confluence of two water-threads the floats carried by these threads will
not unite and will not float together, but their lines of direction will cross and
that if the place of union of the threads remains unchanged in a certain part
of the bed, the points of intersection of the lines of direction are not altered.
If a ship navigates a part of a river where another river or branch flows into
it at a sharp angle and where the concave banks form a point, if I1sually
passes into the thread issuing from the other arm.
The float receives at every instant a shock from the water which carries
it but it always tends to follow a straight line at a tangent to the curve of
the line of the thread. The mass of the water-threads oppose this movement of
the float and tend to draw it in the direction of their route. This opposition
is partly overcome by the active force of the float, so that the direction of
its movement does not entirely agree with the line of the water-thread and
the float deviates towards the concave bank and reaches it sooner than the
thread on which it had been launched.
Up to the present it has not been found possible to define to what extent
the float deviates from the direction of the thread which carries it, since the
direction of the current is only to be observed by the movement of the
floats. We will later on describe an apparatus which we have invented namely
LELIAVSKI. 2
18
a submarine vane, by means of which the direction of the current at any point
of the transverse section of the bed may be determined.
If the density of the float were very nearly the same as that of the water
and its dimensions infinitely small, its direction would coincide exactly with
that of the water-thread.
It the float were of final and very small dimensions its direction would
deviate very little from the movement of the mass of water surrounding it;
and we may, therefore, admit that the deviation of a solid floating body from
the direction of the mass of water which carries it, is to a certain extent
proportionate to the dimensions of the body. The deviation of the float results
from the power of inertia which is proportionate to the mass of the body,
that is to say to the quantity of three dimensions, and the resistance of the
water transmitted to the float by the shocks against its surface is proportionate
to the dimensions of the surface, that is, to the quantity, of the two measure-
ments; SO that the power resulting from inertia and resistance is proportionate
to a linear quantity, for example for floats, of equal height it is in proportion
to their diameter. From the deviations in direction of two floats of different
dimensions some idea may be formed of the extent of the error admitted,
when it is supposed that the direction of the float coincides with the position
of the water thread.
With the object of throwing light on this point we had a float made with
a diameter of one meter, that is tho say four times as large as the usual size.
Its organisation is shown on fig. 2, Plate II.
Observations on the progress of this large float showed that in weak curves
it moved almost identically in the same way as floats of smaller dimensions.
When the configuration of the water-threads is more curved the larger floats
deviate more strongly than dö the small ones towards the concavities of the
water lines. (See Plate IV thread No. 5).
. Generally the progress of a large float is less subject to deviation by the
shock of lateral threads of water, than is a small float, therefore, it may be
accepted that the floats follow lines which differ but very slightly from the
directions of the water-threads.
We consider it here the appropriate place to give an explanation of the
expression wafer-threads, an expression which we shall frequently use in the
following pages.
By water-threads we understand a mass of water of indefinite amount, but,
with a determined direction. This direction usually agrees nearly with that of
the float. Its dimensions being undetermined, the water-thread is not a physical
body, but a representation made ta explain the movement of the water.
In a river there are no separate water-threads of defined limits and extre-
mities. The movement of the water is the movement, not of a thread, but of
a mass, the same as the movement of a solid body, with this difference that
all the molecules of a solid body describe parallel and concentric directions,
while all the molecules of a liquid body, having different speeds describe
curved lines, not parallel and not concentric.
19
|
!
j
On further examination of the plans attached to this work, it is impossible
to overlook the characteristic particularity of the position of the water-threads
near the hanging bridge. In the neighhourhood of this bridge the threads
gradually move away from the banks.
Thus, also, on the projection IX, Plates IV and V, all the floats are direc-
ted towards the right bank and against the concave part of it; the one excep-
tion being float No. I on the left side, which only travelled a distance of
sixty meters from the concave part of the bed. The floats reaching the banks
were obstructed by the fascines, only floats IV and VI glided on to a
smooth surface of the bank, floated off it and descended farther with the
stream. The inclination of all the surface of the water in the entire bed
towards the channel, and towards the concave banks, therefore, from the
shallow water towards the deep parts, is a great Security to navigation.
Without this disposition of the character of upper currents, ships and floats
would ground on sandbanks, where as under the present circumstances a ship
has only to follow the stream and to take care that it does not strike against
the banks. The current itself does not allow the vessel to flow against the
Sandbanks on the convex side, Floats navigate on the Dnieper and its bran-
ches in calm weather without being steered. It is only on account of this
inclination of the water to stream towards the channel, that vessels find their
way between the shallows. We have often heard navigators say that the best
indication of the deepest waterway was shown by floating barrels filled with
tar and joined together. As soon as such a reſt is launched on the surface
of the water it follows the deepest parts, except at curves where by the force
of converging water-threads it is moved towards the concave bank.
The French engineer FARGUE, proceeding from the idea that the convex
banks drive the water towards the channel, based on this his principal of the
curved configuration of the banks on the inflexions of the bed.
f But, if the channel attracts to itself the threads of water and if the convex
banks reject them, we must ask from where comes the water on the convex
banks and where does it flow to from the channel and the concave banks?
We all know that the water on the convex bank is not staguant but has
sometimes considerable speed of current; thus, for example, in the stream
where a part of the hanging bridge on the Dnieper was temporarily removed,
the current was so strong, that two tugs were required to dräw a vessel
through it.
The answer to the question is very simple. The water flowing towards the
channel and to the concave banks having no other possible issue, rises
islightly and forms a transversal declivity in the channel from the concave
towards the convex side and by its pressure on the under currents causes
them to flow in the inverse direction and obliquely to the banks.
The existence of such an under-current from the channel towards the banks
has not up to the present time been exactly determined, as correct instru-
ments for the purpose of measurement do not exist, but it is confirmed by
20
\
\
|
many observations. Thus, for example, the excavations in Sandy concave beds,
by which large pieces of Sandy, marshy soil are frequently carried away do
not cause Sanding of the neighbouring parts, and the water flowing along such
banks apparently quite pure and transparent, while in the shallows it is cloudy
and lifts a quantity of alluvion from the bed. This is because the earth loo-
sened from the bank is carried away by the under-current, which distributes
it not only over the lowest tongue on the same bank, but also in the direc-
tion of the opposite convex bank. In this way is explained the increase in the
number of the tongues of land under watei on the convex bank and the
corresponding hollows in the concave banks in higher parts. The best proof
of the presence of the existence of an under-current is, however, obtained by
examination of the bottom of the bed.
If, in the bed there is a sandy elevation in the direction of the current,
the grains of Sand of the ridge of this elevation are thrown on to the lower
slope down stream to be replaced by others brought from the upper parts of
the stream. The upper slope is levelled, takes a slight incline, coinciding with
the power of the water-flowing above it; and the lower slope, protected from
the shock, becomes of a less incline. By the levelling of the upper ridge to
a slight slope and by the increase of the lower slope, the sandy ridge gradu-
ally descends with the course of the current. As the displacement of the par-
ticles of soil is effected on the side of the water-curent, the top of the sandy
ridge is directed along the line of the water-threads, that is to say on the
bottom-current.
These well-known appearances afford us a certain means of fuiding the
direction of the stream from the configuration of the bottom of the bed.
The soft banks which are visible at low water present a row of sandy pro-
jections which against the stream have a very slight slope ànd are rather
steep on the side of the bank. This form of tongues of land on sandy banks which
is everywhere observable, shows that there is in every river with an alluvial
bed, a bottom current directed obliquely āgainst the slighter sloped banks.
By examination, by means of a water-scale the direction of the sub marine
ridge can be defined and its limits determined. It is sometimes found that
these sandy deposits occupy the largest part of the width of the bed, rea-
ching even to the channel; sometimes even they cross in the bed, so that at
such places no channel really exists, at least, no channel caused by conver-
ging currents. In this case, the upper water-streads have a divergent direction,
that is to say, that the upper convergent uniform current is replaced in these
parts by an under-current, fan-formed, extending over all the bed.
The cuniform current converging towards the concave banks engenders by
its shocks an under current in a direction lateral to the surface so that the
current of the bed appears to be a consequence of the current of the channel.
A more exact examination shows however that the working of both of the
currents is dependant on different causes.
If we represent the transverse section of the bed with the speeds given on

: 21
|| -
design 4, Plate I, we see that these lines divide the section in different beds
of water which move away gradually from the bottom and the banks towards
the channel; the bed of water nearest to the channel is generally the one
with the greatest speed. t
The various speeds arise as is known from the exterior resistances to the
current of water represented principally by the friction against the bed and
partly against the air. If we leave the upper part of the bed out of notice
and consider only the bed of water which has the greatest speed relative to
the others we observe that flowing away over the others, it withdraws from
the smooth surface of the section. Then, to fill the place, of these removed
particles of water, all the molecules of the upper bed are thrown from upstream
into it. Thus, the current of the comparatively rapid channel absorbing the
water of all the bed is the cause of the deviation of the superficial current
towards the channel or towards the concave bank near to which it flows.
In this way the water-threads arrive at the concave bank by the force of
inertia and partly also by the result of centrifugal. Every bed and each thread
of water which moves more rapidly attracts a neighbouring bed or water-
thread; herefrom arises a deviation of the particles of water moving at a
Comparatively slow rate along the bank towards those moving more freely and
more quickly in the channel.
To find the cause of the deviation of the stream of the bed towards the
banks which have a slight slope we must consider the position of the water-
threads in a vertical smooth surface. As is known, the direction of the wind
blowing over the earth's surface does not follow a line parallel to it but at an
angle to the horizon which is sometimes as much as 15°.
, This arises from the friction of the air on the earth's surface and on its
inequalities and projections. A similar phenomenon occurs with the movement
of the water. The lower beds of water are arrested by the roughness and
unequality of the bed; the upper beds pass in advance of the lower ones and
descend before them to the bottom; there they are again arrested by the
shock and the friction against the latter and overtaken by still higher beds of
water. Thus the position of a water-thread in a vertical plan should be inclined
towards the depth, so that the angle of deviation from the horizon gradually
increases towards the bottom. There is to be observed in the upper-water beds
a certain deviation in the water-threads from the horizon to the surface of the
water, which deviation arises from its friction against the air. Such deviation
of water threads from the horizontal direction is related to the shocks of
surface in friction with the bottom and with the air and, with the consequent
loss of mechanical power or of active force in the water-threads. This loss is
accompanied by a lessening of speed in the current.
The upper current descending from the banks to the bed of the channel
has a direction almost parallel to the bottom and levels the bottom while
forming in it extensive longitudinal ridges; there are thus no isolated shocks
against the projections in the bed, and the speed of the bottom beds of water
22
differs but little from that of the upper beds. On the contrary when the move-
ment of the water is from a deep part to a shallow part, the lower water-
threads strike much more strongly, against the bottom and the loss of speed
be therefore more considerable. In fact the graphical representations of speeds
measured in a vertical plan, present Convex lines very nearly approaching the
direction in the channel and have a considerable inclination towards the banks
which are slightly sloped and towards extensive shallows. The inclination of
the water-threads to the horizon increases the error in our calculations of the
efflux of water. We can only obtain a correct calculation by multiplication of
the speeds on a smooth surface with the normal sections, therefore the speeds
on smooth surfaces must be determined for curved sections as well as for
horizontal and vertical directions. As however it is very difficult to find in
nature the position of these to be determined points, it is necessary when a
section has been chosen to measure the direction of the threads at the same
time as the speed of the current and to multiply the section not with the
speeds, but with their projections on the perpendiculars on the plans of the
sections. As the rectangular projections of lines are always less than the lines
themselves, it follows that the actual efflux of water is really less than shown
by our measurements.
The water-threads directed towards the bottom are the cause of shocks
against it, they move grains of Sand forward and rushing again upwards with
them carry them down the stream.
A particularity of this kind of movement of alluvion is the great speed
remarkable where there are extensive shallows. The power of the shock of
the water against the bottom is modified by the inequalities in the river-bed
and accordingly each mass of Sand as it is carried forward cannot directly
cross the bed but forms single stripes of different forms which are in the
middle at their highest and lower towards the extremities. The slope which
is directed towards the upper stream is slight and the one towards the lower
stream is sharp. As by the increase of the lower slope the upper gradually
disappears, the masses of sand are thus continually moved down-stream; and
their height, their length and their position with regard to the profile of the
subject to continual change. These changes are caused by the fact that the
water which rushes against the Sandbanks does not flow over them but flows
of at both sides where the height is less.
The water thrown of the sandbank forms a new stream which is directed
against the top and the two sides of the ridge and observations show that
the alluvion moves more in the directions of the two sides than over the top.
The smaller grains of sand are carried by the water from the top and deposi-
ted on the bed at some distance down stream where they form the beginning
of a new ridge. The movement of alluvion is thus caused more around the
ridges than over their summits.
The ridges formed lower down are opposite the upper ones. Generally the
ridges are not found on the horizontal part of the bed but on the slopes of
23
the banks. The water-threads flowing round the ridges have a greater speed
in the direction where the resistance is less; as the principal resistances of
the movement of the water-threads from above consists in the weight above
them, the water rather flows round the ridges sideways where the depth is
less, that is towards the bank.
By each shock of the bottom current the greater part of the water deviates
towards the bank; thus the union of the mass of these continually moving
impulsions causes a deviation of the stream towards the bank and a flow of
*e,
water in a fan-like form towards the shallows. - . _-
With regard to the causes of these bottom and upper-currents, we acknow
ledge that they depend upon the form of the profile of the transverse section
of the bed, which is deep in the channel and has a soft incline on One or :
both of the banks. We must, however, not conclude that these currents are
due to the existence of such a profile, on the contrary, the formation of the
profile of the bed arises exclusively under the influence of these currents,
without which that is to say, with a parallel waving movement of the water,
the transverse profile would be nearly a trapeze.
In consequence of the current of the cuneiform channel descending towards
the bottom, the smooth bed of the river within the limits of the stream must
have a triangular form of transverse section; the point of this triangle is only
observable in rivers with a more or less even efflux of water. Generally the
position of the axis of the stream of the channel varies in every river accord-
ing to the alteration in the height of the horizon and the efflux of water. This
is the cause of the triangular profile becoming obtuse at the rounded points,
and at the lower sides, rather concave, so that the profile of its form approa-
ches a parabola.
The upper part of the slightly sloping banks form convex curves in the
transverse section, so that the active force carrying away the alluvion of the
channel towards the bank, gradually diminishes; therefrom the slope of the
bank on which the particles of sand are moved, becomes less sharp. By this
we are able to approximately determine, by means of the shape of the trans-
vers section; the limits between the converging and diverging currents, which
limits must be near the point of inflexion at which the concave part of the
profile becomes convex (Plate I design 5). With the translation of the channel
at the inflexions of the bed from one bank to the other, its transverse profile
may take all imaginable irregular curves.
We are able to observe on a small scale the way in which flowing water
works on the profile of the bed, according to its movement in two streams,
the one in the channel and the one on the bank. For this purpose we have
only to follow the course of a mass of rainwater flowing in ground which is
easily hollowed out.
Even on the smooth places of the surface of the ground there are always
some parts which are lower, towards which the water firstly in a wide stream
directs its course.
|
|
|
|
N
\
\
.\
24
Where the thickness of the stream is the greatest, is seen the greatest speed
in the upper water, because the resistance caused by friction and adhesion to
the surface of the ground upon it, has then its least influence.
In any case an accelerated movement of the water arises; this attracts the
threads of the neighbouring parts on the bed, hollows out the ground and
causes a deepening in the bed, in the parts, lying under the converging currents.
At the same time, appears a current on the bottom which, arises in conse-
quence of the shock of the water in the direction of its quickest threads.
The converging current causes longitudinal cavities, which are especially
deep in their curves, and the bottom current rejects the soil on the slightly
sloped banks and on the widenings of the bed, and that in a wavelike form.
In a very short time the bed has depth and sandbanks of great extent which
are distinctly visible when the bed is dry.
According to the laws of its current the water does not only follow its bed
in porous and dry grounds. but, also in those which are hard and rocky. Of
this proofs àre found on the Dnieper. The old way, called the cossack-way
used by floats in the spring, flows in the deepest part of the rocky bed.
According to the explanations of persons well-acquainted with the cataract
district of the Dnieper these channels owe their origin to accidental fissures
in the rocks, these having suffered, in their less solid parts, destruction by the
rushing out of the water. If however, we examine carefully the conditon and
the direction of the old channel, it will be seen that this explanation of acci-
dental origin is unfounded.
The ancient waterway is situated near to the right bank and is the natural
channel of the Dnieper in the cataract district. The new channel at low water,
affords an excellent course for entering and leaving the canals. They are con-
structed near the left bank in parts which are less deep and less dangerous.
The natural deviation of the channel is in our opinion due to the action of
the northeast wind extending over centuries.
We have proved in a previous report that the steepness of the right banks
of rivers flowing southwards is not caused by the earth, rotation, but by
the influence of the wind at the time of the passing of the ice in autumn.
The greatest degrees of cold in our climate, which cause the ice on the rivers,
occur only with north and east winds. The curkting power of the ice in autumn
is so great that it is sufficient after a few hours to divide a beam of o,25 m. in
diameter. The current of the water itself has scarcely any effect of friction on wood.
The steepness of the right bank in the cataract, district and the approach
of the old channel to this bank are therefore not due accidental causes but
almost entirely to the effect of the northeast wind.
The rocky bed of the cataracts has a depth for floats nearly sufficient for
their passage even at low tides. The obstacles are the summits of rocks, which
Cross the bed in a straight line and are called lazes. Throug these laves the
old channel takes its course towards deepcr parts where there are no rocks
rising out of the bed.
25
If these deep parts were of an accidental origin, the old channels in the
cataracts would be curved, and have a winding direction when passing from
one lave to the other; in reality however the channel runs in a straight line
through the mutually parallel rows of laves. It is impossible to suppose an
accidental piercing of the laves at all the cataracts in the same perpendicular
line; we must therefore be convinced that the deepening and the natural
washing away of the laves is caused by the water in the direction of the
channel.
The absorbing power of the converging stream is so great, notwithstanding
the small width of the channel (at most 40 to Ioo m. with a river-width of
7oo m. that a vessel launched at Some distance from a cataract, in calm
weather finds, itsself, its way into the old channel; and is then carried by the
converging current over all the laves. To guide the vessel well, it is only
necessary to take care that it be not caught by any lateral current; for this
purpose a rudder is used which is formed of several planks.
If the converging currents were not as we have just described, the passage
of floats in the cataract districts could not be effected.
There exist, therefore, in the bed two currents; the upper one, convergent
and cuneiform, which, descending to the bottom of the channel causes there
longitudinal excavations, and might be compared to a plough throwing the
earth up on each side of it; and another at the bottom, divergent and fan-
shaped which gradually deviates from the convergent direction along the
channel to a direction nearly normal to the banks.
The soil washed ont by this second current and thrown on to the concave
banks forms slopes with slight declines and drives in zig-zag lines slantingly
over the ridges of sand. .
If we could examine the direction of a single particle of water it would
at first sight appear to us to be very irregular especially on account of its
different and apparently accidental deviations from its normal direction, which
are caused by the projections in the bed and on the banks produced by the
continual variation in the flowing quantity of water.
A particle of water in the Outer layer a short distance from the banks
takes a slanting direction towards the channel and when it has reached it,
falls slowly down, and then travels quickly over the bottom, in a line almost
parallel to it. It then turns on One side and joins the bottom current, rushes
against the foot of the slightly sloped banks, thereby losing the active power
acquired in its movement along the channel. Now it springs sometimes upwards,
sometimes downwards and so continues on its way, until it joins again the
upper water bed, with which it again descends in the direction towards the
channél.
The sharper the curve of the concave bank, the more rapid is the descent
of the particle from the upper beds towards the bottom, the greater is the
active power acquired by the movement and the greater the excavation of
the bottom. For this reason the depth at the hollowed parts agrees in inverse
T.ELTAVSKI. 2*
26
|
ratio to the radius of the curve; still, the parts of greatest depth are not
found exactly opposite the largest curves of the concave bank, but slightly
lower down stream where the water particles which have the most active
power reach the bottom.
In this way arises the constant mixture of particles of water, withôut which,
that is, with a direction parallel to the threads, the rapid mixture of the coloured
or troubled water of the affluents with that of the river, would not be
explicable. :
The upper converging current arising from the bottom current, after depo-
siting the alluvion, directs itself towards the channel; therefore this upper
current is of clear water, which causes no deposits in the channel.
If the power of the converging current is strong enough to hollow out the
!concave bank, this power is also sufficient to carry away the loosened earth
of the channel and without obstructing it, deposits this soil ou the slight
slopes of the banks. Freed from this alluvion, the bottom current arises at
the surface of the water and is transformed into the upper current of a pure
form and flows again to the channel. In this direction of currents the channel
with the exception of accidental causes can never suffer from deposits of
Sand. The sand can only descend in a tongue form upon them from up-stream.
Only at low-water and when the transverse section becomes exceedingly large
in proportion to the reduced quantity of water, the bottom may receive a
slight deposit of mud. -
The depth and constancy of the navigable bottom are thus the effect of
the converging current, therefore, in regnlation of rivers in the interests of
navigation care should be taken to grand to this stream the fullest possible
extent. It must, however, not be forgotten that to have a convergence of
waters, it is necessary, to admit a free divergence by a bottom current on
the tongues and the slight slopes on the banks, considering that it is only
by its equal divergence that the bottom current can be translated into the
upper current, and proportionately supply the channel with the water threads
of the converging current. - :
The converging currents are directed against the concave banks not in
consequence of centrifugal force; as is often seen and still more frequently
in regulated parts of rivers, there often exists a beautiful channel commencing
On the concave bank, and continuing along a great length of the convex
bank, which serves as a prolongation of the concave bank. The converging
current towards the concave banks results exclusively from the concave situa-
tion turning progressively to the side of the bed; it constantly reencounters
the current of the channel which deviates from it, divides again the water
threads flowing towards the concãve bank and in consequence of the hydrau-
lic pressure hereby caused is directed towards the bottom which it excavates.
At the same time the bottom current following the convex bank, being
transformed into an upper current supplies new water threads to the bed
which flows towards the channel. For the maintainance of the converging
27
current, all that is necessary is to give a sufficient curve to the convex bank,
for a constant intersection with a direction of the returning water threads of
the converging upper current. Not only the concave bank may be treated in
this way. but on a proportionately short extent, also the convex; therefore
the convexity of the bank should project considerably in the bed and be i
turned against the current with the object of meeting again the water-threads ;
flowing towards it. Therefore, the more the convexities forming the extremities
of the concáve banks are developed, the more they retain near them the
convergence of the water.
We have verified this principal on the surfaces of the entire Dnieper and
of the Pripet and found every where that the more the upper parts of the
convex banks project, that is the sharper the water is driven by them against
the opposite concave banks the greater is the depth on the neighbouring
points of inflexion. -.
In natural non-consolidated beds the spring current being directed with
great speed on the tongues of sand forms frequently at the convexities of the
bancs convergent watersthreads which excavate the bank and cause, on the |
Sandy ridges near the banks, longitudinal holes with a gulf or a lake-like
form. Such a hollowing out of the convex bank is always accompanied with
a reduction of depth on the inflexions of the bed and in time projections are
formed which are a hindrance to navigation. From the point at which the
concave bank ceases to intersect the upper current, the convergence of the
water lessens and a dimunation of the depths of the channel results.
In proportion as the bank diviates from the general direction of the bed,
the angle of convergence of the water-threads lessens and finally instead of
converging, they diverge. At this place the longitudinal channel of the bed is
replaced by a superficial wave-formed bed, the depth of which diminishes by
degrees; the channel ceases to be the meeting-place of the converging water-
threads and the muddy bottom-stream rises to the surface of the water.
The characteristic phenomena of convergence of water-threads in an under
current, and the principals of their divergences near the junction of the two
opposite curves of the bed, may be followed on several plans made in accord-
ance with our investigations ou the Dnieper at Kief. These plans are not
shown here in order not to burden the report with a too great number of
Supplements.
At the cessation of the convergent position of the water-threads, the fan-
shaped bottom currents reach the surface which then presents a boiling appea-
rance caused by impulsive local rising and falling back of the threads. The
displacement of alluvion is no longer effected directly but in zig-zag lines and
in the ridges of the sandbanks in a slanting direction. Banks disappear and
are replaced by others and in this way the bottom movement continues and
the banks moves down-stream. If the water flowing on the banks met with
no hindrances in its course, this movement of alluvion would be continual
as is seen in the deltas of sea-mouths.
28
In river-beds such an incessant descent cannot take place for at a short
distance from the ridge the water strikes against the bank of the river, whereby
the further removal of the bank is prevented. The ridge of each submarine
tongue at an inflexion of the bed unites the two banks, consequently the place
of its tangent with the bank which is left by the water is always situated
much lower down-stream as the point of the tangent of the ridge which meets
the bank towards which the current flows. (See design 3, Plate II). .
On this plan the tangent point A on the ridge with the left bank is much
farther up stream than the tangent point B with the right bank. The water
flowing over the ridge at point A strikes against the bank and springing back
encounters the neighbouring water-threads, forming a convergence of water;
which are strengthened by the additional stream of water-threads flowing from
the right towards the concave bank. .
By this convergence the extremity of the ridge is washed away, thus a
certain limit only is allowed to descend.
In consequence of the increase in the mass of the converging water-threads,
the power of their flow down stream is augmented and at the same time the
distance of the summit of the ridge from the concave bank becomes greater.
We know that the ridges in spite of the resistance offered by the bank
move farther downstream as the water becomes smoother. This has two causes,
first the excavation of the concave bank and second the reduction of the
power of convergence with the decrease of flow of water in the river.
If the curve of the left bank be sharp and long, so that is forms itself a
convergent current, as shown on the plan a deepness will arise. If the insuf-
ficiently developed curve of the concave bank cannot keep the convergence
of the water, a divergence to the right will result. If the right bank is at
some distance the diverging water meeting with no resistance diverges in dif-
ferent directions oblique to one another. .
In consequence of the deviation of the stream in different directions the river be-
comes divided into several single currents, which often become independent arms.
The wider the bed the easier is the formation of new currents and the
developement of these into separate arms.
Generally, rivers which flow through meadows have the greatest tendency
to divide into separate arms, whereas rivers with high banks never divide
into more than two arms and that only at places where the bed becomes
wider. (See design 4).
In consequence of the divergence of the water at the widening of the bed
a tongue of land is formed, which if the bed is straight is placed in a slightly
convex form towards the lower part of the stream in a line nearly normal to
the banks. This convexity continually increases in consequence of the excava-
tion of the banks produced by the water flowing from the top of the ridge.
The longer the tongue of land, and the smoother the water, the nearer be-
come the water-threads to a direction normal to the banks, in consequence
of which the excavation and the widening of the bed is increased.
29
The spring water advancing with great power of inertia on the central part
of the tongue of earth brings with it a mass of alluvion, so that in time an
island is formed, the height of which increases from one end to the other.
The difference between such a shallow or island and the shallow of a
river flowing in meadow grounds, (see Plate II). is that the first has nearly
always two submarine tongues, one at the beginning and the other at the end
of each arm ; the second has only one submarine tongue, or when the bank
is very irregular an indefinite number of them.
The force of convergence is proportional to the active power of the moving
water, therefore the united water-threads can keep on banks which are but
slightly concave and at spring-tides even on convex banks when all the water-
threads flow against all the Sandy shallows. -
At low spring-tides the convergent current is limited to the concave parts
of the banks and a larger concavity is always required to retain the line of
the axis of the converging current directed along the channel.
Accidental elevations on the submarine tongues of land may cause separa-
tion and divergence of the water-threads and even the formation of isolated
CUlrrentS.
On one of the attached plans (Plate II) are seen six dotted lines; these
indicate the direction of the axes of the converging currents at the deep places
and the most important depths above the elevations of the bed. The numbers
I to VI correspond to the gradual lowering of the level of the water.
Based on combinations confirmed by direct measurements we have pre-
sented on Plate II, design 3 six longitudinal profiles of the water surface in
the direction of the dotted axis-lines corresponding to the gradually descending
levels of water.
The increase of the superficial speed of the current and of the longitudinal
slope of the water depends on the angmentation of the divergence of the
water-threads, that is the flow of the water towards the wider parts of the
bed. When the sandy tongues are submerged at high-water the middle parts
of the deep places form eddies which extend to the extremities of the ele-
vation. -
The divergence of the threads of the Spring-water begins at the point where
the distance between the summits of the ridges commences to increase and
near the point where the concavity of the bank ceases. (Point B on the plan).
The divergence of the threads of the Spring water induces a descent of the
water-level below the shallows, which extending a little upstream increases
the slope of the lower part of the deep channels of the river.
The convergence of the threads of the Spring water resulting from the
lessening of the distance between the summits of the banks, begins about the
middle of the shallows. The diminution of slope hereby caused extending over
the entire sand-bank, gradually increases the current in descending to the
middle of the deep part. The longitudinal profile resulting herefrom has in
the depths a concave form. -
30
After the high-water has flown off and the Sandy tongues of land are dry
the current encounters an obstacle formed by the masses of soil brought down
by the spring water and deposited on the upper part of the shallow.
The Sandy alluvion of the upper part of the stream gradually disappears
under the influence of the bottom current and re-appears at the lower end
of the shallow, where at the same time the fall of the water is considerably
concentrated.
In consequence of the drying of the deposits of sand, the point of division
of the water-threads descends more and more down stream ; therefore, the
slopes below the deep parts and above the elevations are lessened. The dimi-
nution of the slope at this part is caused also by eddies, which are the result
of the accumulation of alluvion at the lower part of the shallows. On the
shallow, and particularly on the summit of the tongues of land, there is a
strong fall of water, the sleepness of which increases with the lowering of the
level of the water; the pósition of this fall on the longitudinal section moves
forward against the stream. So that, as the water lowers. the longitudinal
profile of the shallow from being concave becomes gradually convex. The
point of the strongest fall changes quickly after, the tongues of land become
dry. It passes suddenly from below a deep part to a place below a shallow,
then with a further lowering of the water it goes upstream, within the limits
of the summit of the submarine tongue of land.
The deposit of alluvion on the shallows is caused by the water at high
tide extending over the tongues of land; the deposit diminishes as the level
of the water is lowered, which results from the tongues laid dry diverting the
water-threads towards the middle of the bed and thus causing a narrowing of
the angle of their divergence.
At the beginning of this movement, when the mass of water has sufficient
power to displace large quantities of sand, the latter advance from the upper
part of the shallows in the direction of the greatest speed towards lower part
of the tongue of land (on our drawing on the right bank near the point B).
The increase of the summit of the submarine tongue at the point indicated
serves to turn the water in another direction (to the left) adding on one side
to the curve of the channel and on the other side to its depth and to the
intersection of the upper part of the submarine tongue. To this cause must be
attributed the well-known phenomena of the deepening of shallows with a
lowering of the level of the water. -
After examining the direction of the fluvial currents, resulting from the con-
figuration of the ridges of the banks and the influence of these currents on
the form of the bed, we can determine with precision the form of bank which
corresponds best with the requirements aſ navigation and assists to the forma-
tion of a deep and constant channel.
We have already seen that in order to keep the converging current of the
channel on the concave bank, the latter must have a sufficiently developed
and continuous curve. Therefore the naturel parts must be provided with a
31
dressing, projections must be cut down and hollows covered by regulating
dikes, connected by transversel planks with the bank, the object of which is
to prevent the water threads at high tide extending across the dike and for-
ming behind at a converging current capable of excavating the bank and
increasing the dimensions of the hollows.
There is no converging current at the inflexions of the bed; there are, so
to speak, not even banks, for at these parts the bed being placed at nearly
a right angle to the tops of the banks is limited on one side by the parts of
the river downstream and on the other by those upstream. In order to form
in the inflexions of the bed a longitudinal cavity, durable and of sufficient
depth it is necessary to have a converging current and for this purpose, taking
as a basis the combinations which we have shown, we must create an artifi-
cial bank, the direction of which must always intersect the flowing threads;
therefore, the banks should always be so constructed that the tangents of theire
curves form at every point angles with the direction of the converging current.
The concave bank must have, as far as possibe, a concave form, but it may
have a certain convexity at the place where, projecting into the bed, it inter-
sects the direction of the threads. The length of the artificial bank should be
so fixed that the converging current directed by it, not expanding at low-
water may reach the concavity of the opposite bank, where the water having
flown off the rongue of earth has already formed a converging current. As
the extremety of the artificial bank is intended to direct the threads at low-
water, the height of the bank at this part should be as little as possible, in
Order not to provoke a superfluous eddy at high water. The foot of the arti-
ficial bank, if it is submerged, should be constructed in masonry up to the top
of the bank, and when it is not under water to the highest water-level. In
Order to join easely the artificial with the natural bank, the foot of the first
must be in masonry at the part where the concavity decreases. As the object
of the artificial bank is to prevent the water flowing off on one side, to form
a convergence of the water-threads, and to retnrn them near to it, a suitable
style of regulation must be selected and a proper position and profile given
to it. To retain the current of the channel along the bank the most suitable
system is found to the groins laid slantingly with their top against the current;
as the water-threads not only follow the shape of the tops but endeavour to
cross over them and wet each head on both sides.
The upper part of the artificial bank wich serves to throw back the spring
water-threads from the convexity of the natural bank can be best preserved
from excavation by the construction of a longitudinal dike attached by trans-
verse work to the bank. - -
Sharp sloping banks contribute to the retention of a convergent current
along the banks, while slight slopes induce divergence of the water-threads
and the formation of a bottom current; for this reason, it is necessary to give
a sharp slope to the heads of the groins laid along the converging current.
In an arrangement with fascines on the Dnieper and on the Pripet at
32
summer low-water wo gave the part of the heads above water an incline
almost vertical and placed the fascines with their thick ends upwards.
This arrangement of the upper part of the heads of the groins is of great
service in preventing as much as possible injury to the fascine work by the
number of enormous floats which drift about without any order. If the slope
of the heads be steep the converging stream directed downwards hollows out
the bottom to a great extent; to prevent this a layer of facines of large
dimensions is placed under the heads, so that deep excavations cannot occur.
Danger of collision from vessels is less when the bank is steep, than when
it is at a soft incline. Notwithstanding the active navigation both by day and
by night on the comparatively small channel of the Pripet it has, up to the
present never happened that a steamer or any other vessel has run againt the
heads on the concave bank. This is due to the fact that the converging cur-
rent allong the steep bank carries the vessel away from the bank and prevents
any collision, even if the distance of the vessel from the bank be small.
A configuration of the bank in a soft incline would cause the water-threads
to drive against the banks, and the vessel would run aground.
The bottom ends of the groins may be unbedded in the sand-banks, but
in order to prevent to hollowing out of the tongues of land by the spring
current, the bottom ends of the groins must be prolonged to the bank and
arranged perpendicularly to the convex bank. They will form a curve as
shown on Sketch 3, Plate II and their height should correspond with the
height of the projected bank, gradually diminishing as it descends the
current. -
It cannot be doubted that with a configuration of converging bank as
represented on Sketch 3, Plate II a deep cavity is formed in the length of
the river-bed, its depth will, however, be less than the depth of the two
united current situated lower downstream, so that the form of the bank does
not provide a complete equalisation of depths. In order to lessen the depth
at the parts mentioned of the concave bank and at the same time to protect
the foundation from being hollowed out by the concentrated current, erections,
as shown by dotted lines in the plan may be applied, giving them a down-
stream direction, and thus change the converging current which is directed
downstream into a diverging one which tends upwards. In thus profiting of
the bottom elevations there is no danger of an increase of the hollowing of
banks, for the depths forming in the bottom beyond the elevations are of
but small width. The soil which is hollowed out is carried away by the
diverging threads. and heaped up at the foot of the bank, giving it a slight
incline. -
In reviewing the measures to be taken in the construction of a projected
bank, it may be accepted as a rule that it is advisable to lengthen the con-
Cave banks and to advance the convex extremities ln the bed; the projection
of the upper part of the convex bank should be developed as much as
possible.
33
There is no fear of any danger arising from the retention of the water by
the artificial bank, as the height of the bank does nos exceed that of the
elevation situated lower downstream in the direction D E (Plate II). An
eddy of the spring waters is formed above the shallows and the eddies in the
depths are proportionately diminished, so that the lower concave section of
the high tides approaches the natural straight configuration, and the slope and
the surface speed become more regular. After the excavation of the submarine
sandy reach along artificial bank, the eddy of the summer water will diminish,
the surface will extent upstream over the lower part of a depth and down-
stream over the upper part of another depth. Nevertheless, the surface of the
summer water concentrates, itself at the sharp curve of the banks, as this
causes a strong eddy. This concentration of the slope on the deepened
shoals preserves the neightbouring depths from the undesirable transference
upon them of the fall of the water, which often occurs in the application of
the system of retaining the water for the regulation of the bed.
The rule laid down for the advancement of the extremities of concave
banks in the bed has been practically applied in the regulation of the bed of
the Pripet, as we have shown in a previous report to the assembly of Russian
hydrostatical Engineers. Primitively, the width given to the projected bed of
the Pripet was the considerable one of 200 m., and for the execution of the
work groins were built on each bank. These works were done in 1884 and
1885. But the parts of the least depth moved from the shallows to the curves
of the bed. This result is inevitable, for, after the narrowing of the bed, when
the direction of the banks is divergent a divergence of threads and a deposit
of alluvion always ensues. Therefore it was necessary to narrow the bed
gradually up to the concavities by advancing the groins; and this explains
why the lengthening of the groins situated above the concave bank has no
influence on the deepening of the shallows; whereas the advancement of the
groins at the extremity of the opposite bank produces at once a deepening of
the channel and constancy in its position, especially as the number of bottom
elevations is increased by the construction of intermediate groins.
Tlle correctness of the rule has also been confirmed by the construction
of groins on the Dnieper above Kiev, where in order to deepen the entrance
to the port of the town it was found necessary to advance considerably the
extremity of the slightly concave left bank into the bed. The shape of bank
and the position of the groins as represented on Plate II have been applied
to the regulation of the Pripet on the sandbank Proghnoiski, to which, however,
so much developement has not been given on the converging bank in order
to avoid the expensive powerful strengthening of the opposite bank, for which
a considerable depth was not necessary.
After the configurations described had been made in the course of the
Pripet near Tschernobyl on four sand-banks, the depth at the inflexions of
the canal was 1.5 times more than was desired if the Summer water-level be
taken as a basis. No unfavourable results to the neighbouring parts were
34
caused, for a great part of the slope remained on the regulated reach, and
this on account of the eddies formed by the projections of the banks.
It is also, to be observed that these projections are far from being deve-
loped to the extent shown on Plate II; therefore, if a later deepening of the
bed became necessary, the convergence of the water could be strengthened
by strengthening the basis of the opposite banks. Thus the explanation given
of the positions of fluvial currents is quite confirmed by the data obtained in
practice, the manifestation of which preceded the theoretical explanation and
gave cause to examinations, observations and generalisation of the subject.
In order to have a considerable and stable deepening of the bed it is
necessary to give to the concave bank a regular form and a sufficient curve,
: and by an artifial lengthening to conduct the water to the concavity of the
opposite bank, which has to be treated in the same manner. With this the
inflexions of the bed disappear and we obtain banks alternatively concave on
; each side.
These banks may be designated conductors of the converging water-threads
and of the channel. - -
Up to the present we have spoken of concave banks, by the development
of which the inflexions of the bed can be obviated. The formation of such
banks is the principal means of regulating the current in the interests of steam
navigation ; we must, however, also consider the opposite lying banks against
which the bottom current flows. The bottom current rising on the slight slopes
reaches the upper beds of water and is transformed into an upper current,
which with the threads converging towards the channel forms a channel-cur-
rent near the concave banks. In view of the transformation of bottom-current
into an upper-current, care must be taken that the water diverges proportion-
ately along the convex bank, so that the divergence arises of the threads from
the channel which is winding and of diminishing depth.
A particular obstacle to the uniforme divergence of water along slightly
sloping banks is the side-arms by which the bottom current flows away,
depriving the principal converging current of its threads, and, thus, diminish-
ing the convergence of the water towards the channel; in consequence of
which may be caused a divergence in the channel and even its entire ces-
sation.
The sanding of the arms has often been observed ; this is a consequence
of the phenomenon described and is the reason why the side-arms should
be closed. - -
By these arms we understand those of which the direction, when they sepa-
rate from the principal bed, does not accord with the direction of its current,
flows into a side arm and is then changed into a converging current near to
one of the banks. -
Besides the side-arms in the banks the transformation of the bottom current
into an upper current arises from the increase in the slight slope of the convex
bank, when the bottom current, flowing to a considerable distance from the
35
channel ceases to supply it to a sufficient degree with converging threads,
from which results a diminution of convergence, increase of the distance of the
channel from the concave bank, divergence of the upper water-threads and a
deposit of alluvion. This phenomenon is principally observed on the shallows
at widenings of the bed.
Even a considerable narrowing of the bed at these parts produces no impro-
vement and the channel has neither the desired depth nor a permanent posi-
tion. That is because artificial narrowing iufluences the consequence and not
the cause. The widening of the bed is not the primitive cause of the Sanding
and instability of the channel ; the cause is the irregular distribution of the
currents of the river. In narrowing the bed by advancing the two banks con-
verging currents are created on each bank and the channel cannot possibly
maintain a durable position near to one of them, and so flows in irrugular
curves from one bank to the other under the influence of the changes taking
place on the neighbouring parts of the river and the rising and falling of the
water-level.
Parallel, or nearly parallel lines look very well on the plan, but are in
reality not applicable, as the idea on which they are based is in contradiction
to the laws of movements of currents in rivers. According to plans of regula-
tion works executed or several foreign rivers it is seen that in these the
channel deviates systemattically from the position expected, that the windings
of the channel are arbitrary and temporary, that the channel often extends to
the convex banks and the concavities are covered with alluvion in the form
of moving tongues of land.
These consequences of the applicatiou of the system of hydraulic obstruction
on the shallows will be understood if we examine the influence which the
elevations advancing from the extremity of the convex bank has on the bottom
current. The bottom current reaching the heads of the groins cannot turn
towards the concave bank, but is inevitably changed into a converging current
descending towards the bottom, rushing towards the elevations and excavating
holes in them. Then becoming again a bottom current it diverges, carrying
the excavated soil into the channel, which in this way is not only not deepe-
ned, but may become sanded up. The groins confining the width of the
diverging current in a fan-like form can only increase the flow of water
towards the channel at a certain distance downstream ; they must therefore
not be constructed near to the tops of the submarine tongues, but are of much
more use when situated at the commencement of the shallows. The arrange-
ment and the profile of the groins near the convex bank must be quite diffe-
rent to the extremity of the concave bank, for their purpose is not to attract
the current of the channel, but on the contrary to direct it towards the
opposite bank, and, in particular, to reduce the angle of divergence of the
threads of the bottom current, so that it can be sooner changed into an upper
current, which increases the divergence near the tops of the tongues. For this
reason these groins must be inclined downstream, their extremities directed
|
f
36
against the current and their slope very slight. The arrangement of the groins
near the tongues downstream, just where a diminution of convergence is
desirable, in order to prevent the excavation of the bottom towards the con-
cave bank.
However, in order to utilise the water-threads and to return them more
quickly to the channel, submerged works may be erected on the convex bank,
parallel to the bank. (Similar to those shown on Plate II).
It is to be supposed that such works in changing the longitudinal direction
of the bottom current into a transverse one may accelerate the transformation
of this current of upper water-threads into a current directed towards the channel.
In a natural bed the convergence and divergence of the water are unequal.
In the depths we observe a converging current and on shallows of great
extent a diverging current. The tendency of the regulation of the bed should
be to promote a proportionate partition of these currents along the river, to
accomplish which the current should be directed by a suitable construction
of the banks, in such way that a converging and a diverging current is Ob-
tained in every transverse profile It is in the interests of navigation to have
a converging current all along the river, and, for this reason great care
should be taken in transforming the diverging currents on extensive elevations
into converging currents; but, it is also necessary to attend to the conformity
of the divergence of the bottom current by reducing as required the angles
of the divergence of the threads, as will as to the increase, or their divergence
in the depths in causing submerged erections.
Narrowing of the bed is of no use and is only the consequence of the
advancing of the guiding bank in the bed on the shoals themselves, and of
the concave bank above the shoals.
The theory exposed concerning the directions of river currents and the
rules which have been deduced for the rational regulation of rivers are
founded on observations on the effect of regulating works, observations on
the movement of floats and, generally on any Objects floating on the water,
on examinations of the forms of river-beds and on the transference of allu-
vion. A part of these observations has confirmed the correctness of the rules
deduced; and the results gathered by means of the formulae of dynamics
likewise prove the exactitude of the theory. Nevertheless, for the develope-
ment of this scientific theory in the interests of regulation works and in order
to obtain principles which are exactly in accordance with reality for the
mathematical treatment of hydrodynamics, it is requisite that future observa-
tions on the directions and positions of water-threads be more exact. Up to
the present such observations could not be made for want of suitable instru-
ments. We must consider that it has hitherto been impossible to determine
exactly the direction of a current even in an upper bed of water, since the
direction of the movement of a float is, as explained above, not in exact
accordance with the direction of the water-threads. Therefore, in order to
become an exact science, hydraulics demands instruments by which the direc-
37
tion of the movement of water at all points of the transverse section of the
bed may be determined.
To determine the direction of the wind a fane or weathercock is used, and
a similar apparatus may also serve for the direction of water-threads; still,
the construction of such an instrument for use in water must be of a much
more complicated nature, than that of an aerial fane, and the observation of
the water-threads much more difficult. The aerial ſane indicates the direction
of the wind in an horizontal surface while a submarine fane must show the
direction of the movement of the water at the same time horizontally and
vertically. The deviations in the directions of water-threads are made slowly
and are weak, it is, therefore, necessary that the instrument of measurement
be very sensitive and exact. The principal difficulty is, however, the fixing
and arrangement of the submarine apparatus and the observation of its indi-
cations. However securely a vessel may be layed to with anchors and ropes,
there always exists some swinging and rotative motion, which is the result of
the force of the current, of the wind or even caused by the moving about of
the people on board. For this reason the placing and using of the apparatus
on a boat would afford inexact and even quite erroneous results. It is impos-
sible to take direct observations of the movement of the submarine fane. The
use of instruments for the transmission of the movements is however difficult,
because they hinder the free working of the fane and reduce its sensitiveness.
These observations show that such an apparatus must not but of ordinary
Construction, but must, to answer its purpose be of a very complicated nature.
Researches made by a submarine fane should be executed, as far as possible,
on an extensive scale, in order that exact deductions may be made from the
observations taken, leaving on one side accidental influences, which often so
complicate the phenomenon observed that it seems to be at first sight out of
all rule and subject to no definite laws.
Thus, for example, in order make clear the two kinds of currents in the
fluvial bed we have said that a part of the section is occupied by converging
and the other part by bottom or divergent water-threads. In reality, however,
it may happen that a convergence appears at several places and a divergence
may exist not only at two points, but at many points of a section.
In order to discover the causes of these complications we must examine
them with exactitude and in detail by means of repeated measurements at
points near to one another and on several adjacent transverse sections of
the bed.
For the execution of such examinations the writer of the present report has
projected two submarine fanes, one of wich is complete, and is found to be
quite suitable for its purpose. Designs of it are attached (See Plates VI, VII,
and VIII). It is composed of two steel arms A A, perpendicular to each
other, fixed across a steel rod F, which moves vertically, as well as horizon-
tally. To equalise the wings of the fane a leaden weight B in the form of a
Cone is placed at the other extremity of the rod.
38
A brass tube 7" serves as axis for the horizontal movement, with a conical
steel stop D at its lower end. The axis for the vertical movement passes
through the diameter E of this tube. The inner axis of the rests in a suppor-
ting steel socket S, fixed inside a brase ring Z. The ring Z is screwed into
the lower end of the iron tube U, which serves as base for all the apparatus.
The brass tube passes through the centre of this supporting tube, so that the
geometrical axes of both agree. To the upper part of the principal tube, as
also to its lower part a bronze arch I is screwed at the upper extremity of
which is a steel screw with a point and K supporting the upper part of
the middle tube.
Such a submarine fane gives the movement of a water-thread in horizontal
as well as in vertical diretions. The needle A shows the horizontal deviation.
This needle is fixed to the centre tube and to the index AM on the principal
tube. The water-thread having turned the wing of the the fane to the right
or to the left, turns the middle tube and consequently the needle, which
shows on the index the extent of the angle of deviation of the thread. By
means of the rod Aſ and the index O, the needle indicates the vertical
deviations of the threads. Both of these parts of the apparatus are fixed
on the middele tube; the needle moves on the axis and the index is immo-
vable. The vertical movements of the fane are transmitted to the needle by
two brass wires M AV of equal length running parallel to one another from
the bend of the rod of the fane to the needle. The correction and extension
of the brass wires is effected by means of screw-couplings P P.
For placing the fane at the desired depth the principal tube is marked out
in centimeters in colours.
To set the apparatus according to the profile designated by the indicators
on the bank pinules C are used attached to the side of the upper part,
and for placing it vertically a level G is employed which is fixed on a
horizontal index. -
The entire length of the apparatus is about 6 m., so that it can be placed
in the water to a depth of 5 m.
For placing the fane we take a support with three legs which carries a
rectangular frame of hollow iron tubes, and is made of oak or other heavy,
solid wood. The supporting table has iron plates at its sides, with projecting
ends which serve as holes for the feet. The feet are coated at the sides on
all their length with iron and are fixed in the holes by means oſ compressing
screws a a a. To prevent the feet sinking in the soft ground small iron cups
SSS are fixed at their extremities. These cups resting on their sharp edges
prevent the supports from slipping on stony soil. In order that the supports
may not separate from each other more than is desirable they are joined at
about half their height by ropes à & 5. The ends of these ropes are free, so
thet when the apparatus is placed in the water they may be pulled or slacke-
ned as required for the alteration of the position of the feet. -
The frame by means of which the fane is let down is fixed on the upper
39
part of the support by means of a double hinge r so that it can move freely.
On the principal frame a small frame d moves up and down on rollers. This
small frame has two Cramp-irons e e. A similar cramp-irion is placed on the
upper part of the principal frame g. The tube of the fane is placed in these
three cramp-irons. To keep the tube in a vertical position three tin cords
zz 2 issue from the lower part of the frame, each of which passes over the
pullies u at the end of the supporting feet, passing thence upwards along the
foot towards the winders and ratchet-wheels i : i. By winding up or unwin-
ding these three cords the ſane is kept in a vertical position.
For raising and for letting down the fane a cord k is used issuing from
the frame d', which turns with the apparatus. The card passes over the pulley
A which is fixed to the upper part of the large frame to the winder //.
For observations to be made in one single place at different depths it is
not necessary to rearrange the pinules each time an observation be taken, as
the tube of the fane can be fixed to the cramping-irons e e by the screws n m
at the commencement of the observations. .
In order to give greater wheight to the apparatus, with the view of obtai-
ning greater fixety, a cylindrical iron reservoir p is suspended by a pulley in
the middle of the upper plate and underneath it. This reservoir can be filled
with water and emplied by means of an opening and a valve.
For the transport and fixing of the fane and the supports two boats are
required, fitted with scaffolding as seen on the sketch. Scaffolding of 3.5 m.
in height is sufficient to lift the supports out of the water. The lifting and
lowering is effected by means of a small windlass or capstan placed on the
bridge at the after part of the boat. Moveable platforms at each side of the
apparatus serve as standing places for the observers and are so elevated as
to be always near the upper end of the tube and in view of the indices,
The same windlass or capstan which works the apparatus also raises the
platforms. For this purpose are attached to the principal cable at point B
two side cables, which travel together over a fixed pulley 7" with three
wheels, placed at the top of the scaffold, thence under the pulleys /) /),
over the pulleys F. E. and then descend to the platform. -
For lifting and laying out the anchors a small boat is required. The
arrangement of the boats is shown on the plan.
With the aid of this apparatus measurement was effected in the months of
September and October 1893 of the direction of water-threads on the Dnieper
at Jekaterinoslaw.
The results of these observations are embodied in a special report.
Ilºiſill; its Plălți's
*****
PLANCHE I.
Les courants divergent.
77 77 convergent.
PLANCHE II.
Wert.
Jaune.
Rose.
Rouge.
Façade.
Profils longitudinaux.
Mouille,
Banc de Sable.
A un niveau Élevé de printemps.
A un bas niveau de printemps.
A un niveau Élevé d'été.
Au niveau d'étiage.
A un niveau bas.
Au niveau d'eau le plus bas.
PLANCHE III.
Embouchure du bras . . . .
Embouchure du golfe et au prin-
temps du torrent Starik.
Digue conductrice des fils d'eau.
Culée fluviale.
ºn du bord.
Quai.
Culée riveraine.
Iles inscriptions sur les profils des
plans . . . désignent le nombre
de minutes écoulées du départ
des flotteurs du premier profil.
Les inscriptions, sur les profils des
vitesses désignent la vitesse en
Sagènes en une seconde.
Signes conventionnels.
LELIAWSKI.
Ill'ſ liſt|| || ||||||}|.
BLATT I.
Die Strömungen laufen auseinander.
J) }) n Zusammen.
BLATT II.
Grün.
Gelb.
Rosa.
Roth.
Aufriss.
Långsprofile.
Tiefes Wasser.
Sandbank.
Bei hohem Frühjahrswasser.
.niedrigem 7)
hohem Sommerwasser.
a niedrigstem 77
a niedrigem Wasserstande.
n dem niedrigsten n
BLATT III.
Mündung des Armes.
Mündung des Golfes und im Früh-
ling des Wildstromes Starik.
Leitdāmme für die Strömung.
Flusspfeiler.
Landpfeiler.
|Uferdamm.
Landpfeiler.
Die Inschriften auf den Profilen
der Pläne . . . geben die Anzahl
der Minuten an, welche Seit
Abgang der Schwimmer des ersten
Profiles verstrichen sind.
Die Inschriften auf den Geschwin-
digkeitsprofilen geben die Ge-
schwindigkeit in Saschenen pet
Sekunde am.
Zeichenerklärung.
D}\|| |f ill; Pālīš.
~~~~~~~
PLATE I.
The currents diverge.
7) 17 converge.
PLATE II.
Green.
Yellow.
Rose.
Red.
Elevation.
Longitudinal sections.
Deep water.
Sand-bank.
High spring level.
Low 77 37
High summer a
Low water level.
At a low level.
At lowest level.
PLATE III.
Mouth of the branch stream . . . .
Mouth of the gulf and rapids of
Starik in spring. -
Dike regulating the current.
Abutment in the river.
77 on shore.
Wharf.
Abutment on the bank.
The references in the sections of
the projections . . . . indicate the
number of minutes spent from
the departure of the floats of the
first section.
The references on the sections
showing the speed indicate the
speed in sagènes per second.
Conventional signs.
2
PLANCEIE IV.
Plan de disposition des ondes sur
le Dniépre à Kief dressé selon
les recherches faites en Avril
1892, a un niveau + 1,09 Sagène
de la tringle de l’hydromētre du
pont suspendu.
Profils des vitesses.
Limite naturelle de Natalka.
Voies des flotteurs.
Crue de l'eau au niveau du prin-
temps.
Démarcation à un niveau bas.
Crête du bord.
Direction de la rotation des flot-
teurs, les chiffres marquent le
nombre de tours entre les deux
profils voisins.
Travaux couverts d'eau.
Flotteur au diamétre de . . . .
Les chiffres les profils des
vitesses marquent la vitesse des
flotteurs en Sagènes en une se-
Sll?"
conde.
PLANCHE. W.
Plan de la direction des fils d'eau
et profils de la direction des
flotteurs
valles de temps égaux.
Les chiffres sur les profils de direc-
tion des flotteurs marquent les
minutes écoulées depuis le départ
à partir du premier.
à l'expiration d'inter-
(Pour les autres inscriptions, voir
*les traductions a Planche IV”.)
PLANCHE WI.
Dessin de la girouette sous-marine,
% de la grandeur naturelle.
Section de l'extrêmité du tuyau
par l'axe.
Wue de la partie postérieure.
Coupe par la ligne a—b.
BLATT IV.
Darstellung der Wellenbewegung
auf dem Dnjepr bei Kiew, auf-
genommen nach im April 1892
bei einem Wasserstande von
+ 1,09 Saschene am Hydro-
meter der Hängebrücke ange-
stellten Beobachtungen.
Geschwindigkeitsprofile.
Natürliche Grenze von Natalka.
Weg der Schwimmer.
Hochwasser im Frühjahr.
Begrenzung bei miedrigem Wasser-
stande.
Uferkamm.
Richtung der Drehung der Schwim-
mer, die Ziffern geben die Anzahl
der Umdrehungen zwischen zwei
benachbarten Profilen an.
Kunstbauten unter Wasser.
Schwimmer mit einem Durchmesser
VOIl . . . . -
Die Zahlen auf den Geschwindig-
keitsprofilen geben die Geschwin-
digkeit der Schwimmer in Sa-
schenen per Sekunde an.
BIATT. W.
Richtung der Strömung und Pro-
file der Richtung der Schwimmer
nach Verlauf gleichmässiger Zeit-
intervallen.
Die Ziffern auf den Profilen der
Richtung der Schwimmer geben
die Anzahl der Minuten an ,
welche Seit Abgang des ersten
verflossen sind.
(Die übrigen Inschriften
Uebersetzung zu Blatt IV.)
siehe
BLATT WI.
Zeichnung des Strömungsanzeigers
% der natürlichen Grösse.
Querschnitt des àussersten Röhrenen-
des durch die Achse.
Ansicht des hinteren Theiles.
Schnitt in der Linie a—b.
PLATE IV.
Projection of the state of the waves
on the Dnieper at Kiev drawn
up from investigations made in
April 1892, at a level of 1.09
sagene above the rod of the hy-
drometer of the suspension bridge.
Sections showing the speed.
Natural limit of Natalka.
Ways taken by the floats.
Water-level during spring floods.
Timit at a low level.
Top of the bank.
Direction taken by the floats in
rotation, the figures indicate the
number of turns between the two
neighbouring sections.
Works under water.
Float of a diameter of . . . .
The figures on the sections showing
the speed mark the speed of the
floats in sagenes per second.
PLATE W.
Projection of the direction of the
current and sections of the direc-
tion taken by the floats at regular
intervals.
The figures on the sections showing
the direction taken by the floats
mark the minutes that elapse
after the departure of the first.
(For other references see transla-
tions under Plate IV.)
PLATE WI.
Sketch of the submarine vane, half
actual size. -
Section of the extremity of the
tube made by the bed of the river.
Wue of the back.
Section at the line a—b.
3
PLANCHE WII.
Elévation de côté.
Vue de devant.
Dessin du support de la girouette
sous-marine.
Section du pied de Support.
Elévation de côté, 1/12 de la grandeur
naturelle.
|PLANCHE WIII.
Dessin concernant le projet de la
girouette sous-marine.
Chaland et structure pour le trans-
port et le posage de la girouette
sous-marine.
Plan schématique du posage du
chaland par rapport au jalon.
Pin.
Chêne.
Fer.
Fonte,
Vue de devant.
Inscriptions souvent répétées.
Bras.
Dessin.
Pile.
Mesures.
1 Sagène = 2,13 m. – 3 arsjines.
1 arsjine = 0,71 m. – 16 verchocs.
1 verchoc = 0.0444 m.
BLATT WII.
Seitenansicht.
Worderansicht.
Zeichnung des Ständers des Strö-
mungsanzeigers.
Querschnitt des Ständerfusses.
Seitenansicht 1/12 der natürlichen
Grösse.
BLATT WIII.
Zeichnung das Project eines Strö-
mungsanzeigers betreffend.
Schute nebst Worrichtung
Transport und zur Aufstellung
des Strömungsanzeigers.
Skizze der Aufstellung der Schuten
mit Hinsicht auf die Bake.
Tannenholz.
ZUl Iſl
Eichenholz.
Eisen.
Gusseisen.
Worderansicht.
Häufig wiederholte Ausdrücke.
Arm (eines Flusses).
Zeichnung.
Pfeiler.
Maasse.
1 Saschene–2,13 m.–3 Arschinen.
1 Arschine=0,71 – 16 Werschok.
1 Werschok = 0.0444 m.
PLATE WII.
Elevation of the side.
Front view.
Sketch of the support of the sub .
marine fame.
Section of the foot of the support.
Elevation of the side 1/12 actual size.
PLATE VIII.
Sketch relating to the project of
the submarine fane. -
Barge and arrangement for the
transport and fixing in posi-
tion of the submarine fame.
Projection of the scheme for the
fixing in position of the stake.
Pine.
Oak.
Iron.
Cast-iron.
Words frequently repeated.
Branch.
Sketch.
Pile, pier.
Measures.
1 sagène = 2.13 m. = 3 arsjines.
1 arsjime = 0.71 m. – 16 verchocs.
1 verchoc - 0.0444 m.
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Plan de la disposition des Ondes
sur le Dniepre à Kief,
dressé selon les recherches faites en avril 1892, a un niveau + 1.09
sagène de la tringle de l’hydrométre du pont suspendu. --~sº
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º crête du bord.
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Zes, chiffres sur les profils des vitesses marquent la zitesse des
flotteurs en sagèmes én une seconde.
STEENDRUKKERIJ vſh. AMAND, Amst,








3 ſawcfie V.
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Démarcation de l'eau & un niveau + 1,09 sagène.
Voies des foſteurs
------------
-----------
~ 5 Minutes » 4 - 0,&o sagene.
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travaua sous l'eau.
------------- A 5 × --
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Planche Nº. vi.
Dessin de la girouette sous-marine
*/s de la grandeur naturelle.
Vue de la partie
Vue de côté. Aostºrieure.
Section de l'extrêmezfé
du ſujau far "dare.
Tº º
T-- / AEche//e 4/4 de la grandeur nature/e,
º




Jº II.
Planche No.
Žlévation de côté.
===№
girouette sous-marine.
Dessin du support de la
Section du pied dº sºor
Vue de devant.
º
#
|
Hill
|H||
Flévation de côté.
№ſſae
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Aichelle Zºo de la grandeur nature/ſe.
C. D.
~~~~
2.
sº
**
Coupe par la ſigne
s, ſº
grandeur naturelle.
AEchelle 7/13 de la













Planche Nº. VIII.
Dessin concernant le projet de la girouette sous-marine
Chaland et structure pour le transport et le posage de la girouette
Sous-marine. -
!i
º
º
º
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|
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º
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|
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- -
Echelle */6o de la grandeur naturelle.
Photolithogr, procédé Mr. E. J. Asser. sTEENDR UKKERIJ v/h. AMAND Amst.
























































VIth International Inland Navigation Congress.
T H E H A G U E, 1894.
Observations On the formation of the bottom of a river
whose (Ourse is regulated by means of dikes and dams.
R. E. P. O. R. T
BY
NICOLAS MAKSIMOVITCH,
Ingénieur des voies de communication à Kiev.
The important question submitted to the 4” section of the sixth Inter-
national Congress at the Hague, respecting the relation which exists
between the form of rivers and the depth of their channels, demands
in the first place a detailed and comparative study of the various forms
of curves marking the banks of the bed that it is desired to regulate.
In order to reply to this question it is necessary to have the means of
studying experimentally, under conditions absolutely identical, the
influence the form of the course has on the currents and the forma-
tion of the bottom, disregarding all secondary influences exercised to
such an extent on every river in its natural state.
As regards the laying down of general rules and, with more reason,
general principles applicable to the movement of a water-course, along
a bank of a given form, the enormous mass of observations and facts
furnished by the study of the disposition of currents in water-courses is
not yet sufficient.
It is only by a general and complete study of all the conditions of the
problem that we shall perhaps be able to throw some light upon this
difficult question of hydraulics relating to rivers. Still, wherever regula-
ting works have been carried out in rivers with changing bottoms, we
possess Same observations and have arrived at certain conclusions con-
cerning the formation and position of bottoms with relation to the form
of artificial banks.
In Russia which is so rich in water-courses and possesses the most
2
extensive river system in the whole continent of Europe, this natural
wealth has long been neglected in consequence of the infatuation with
which the building of railroads has been taken up, and it is only during
the last twenty years that works for the regulation of Russian rivers and
the improvement of their beds have been undertaken, and this has only
been done in places where, when the water was low, shoals offered
great difficulties to navigation.
For the last twelve years I have been entrusted with the management
of the improvements of a section of one of the rivers in the south of Russia,
viz. the Dnieper at Kiev. The works executed, in the course of which it has
been necessary to resort to the use of dikes and dams for the regulation of
the bed, have led me to form certain practical conclusions which in some
degree bear upon the sixth question of the programme laid before the
Congress and which I should like to impart to my colleagues abroad.
Before making known the results of my observations it is indispensable
to explain in general terms the régime of the Dnieper in the neigh-
bourhood of Kiev. -
The Dnieper is as regards length the Second river in Europe; it takes
its source in the centre of Russia, in the valleys situated south of the
plateau of Waldai, where it issues from the small lake of Mehara, in
the midst of the forests of the government of Smolensk. It flows from
north to south, passes through the richest part of Russia and falls into
the Black Sea.
The length of its course is 2262 kilometres; its basin includes the
immense area of 616000 square kilometres with a population of 18 million
inhabitants. The width of the Dnieper in its upper course does not
exceed 80 m. ; but after receiving several affluents it increases and attains
an average breadth of 300 to 400 metres. Flowing towards the south it
meets in the neighbourhood of Ekaterinoslav one of the spurs of the
Carpathians, and, for a distance of 85 kilometres, is obstructed by a
series of small cataracts or rapids which up to the present only rafts
are able to pass. The improvement of this part of the stream is at
present the object of special studies in the Ministry of Ways and Com-
munications.
The most characteristic feature of the Dnieper is the extreme sinuosity
of its course and the facility with which it changes the direction of its bed,
the bottom and banks of which are for the most part sandy. The valley
inundated by the Dnieper at the time of spring floods is very wide, in
Some places as much as 15 or 16 kilometres. In its ordinary state the
bed is extremely capricious; there are places where it has changed its
direction four times in the course of the last century. During the spring
floods boats drawing as much as 2.60 m. can navigate upon it, while
when the water is low, boats drawing at most 0.80 m. only are able to
do so. The difference in level between the high and low water, measured
3
by a gauge, amounts to 7.25 metres. The incline of the bed varies between
0.00012 and 0.00008 m. and in cataracts it becomes 0.000385 m., the
total fall being 190.90 metres.
The principal navigable affluents of the Dnieper are the Berezina, the
Soy, the Pripet and the Desna. The Pripet is connected by canals with the
Vistula and the Niemen, which both fall into the Baltic; finally the Berezina
is in communication with the Western Dwina, which falls into the Gulf
of Riga. This brief account shows the extreme commercial importance of
the Dnieper and its basin. The total extent of water serviceable for
rafts on the Dnieper and its affluents is almost 12,000 kilometres and
that of the navigable way 5.900 kilometres. This river with its affluents
embraces all the country between the Baltic and the Black Sea, uniting
great commercial centres and meeting in its course with ten different
railways. -
The merchant fleet of the Dnieper is at present composed of 740 barges
and boats and 165 steamboats and tugs, representing in tonnage a
total of 180.000 tons.
The principal commercial ports and towns situated on the Dnieper are
Kiev, Ekaterinoslav and Kherson.
The relation between the height of the water according to gauge marks
and the corresponding discharge, determined by numerous measurements
taken at Kiev, is represented approximately by the following parabola, Fig. 1.
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4
The figures on the left of the scale indicate the height of the water in
metres, and the figures on the right above the horizontal dotted lines,
which represent the abscissae of the parabola, indicate on a Scale a
thousand times smaller the corresponding discharge.
The total fall of the Dnieper from its source to its mouth in the Black
Sea is 190.90 metres, which is distributed thus: 89.30 m. from the source
to Kiev and 101.60 m. from Kiev to the mouth. The average incline is
about 0.00008. The average velocity in the transverse section of the
stream when the water is at a normal height is 0.50 m. per second;
in the spring when the water is high it reaches 1.15 m.
The object of the regulating work, undertaken on the Dnieper at Kiev,
is to rectify the irregularities of the current, which at this point divides
into several branches, and to collect the ordinary waters into one com-
mon bed and give them the most advantageous direction, viz. along the
quays of Kiev.
Fig. 2. represents the plan of the scheme formed for the course of the
Dnieper.
---- T-> §s Tchertoroi
Fig. 2.
It appears from this plan that the Dnieper in approaching Kiev follows
a sharp curve, the concave side of which is towards the town, and which
does not coincide with the shortest road, which is taken by the water
in Spring when it can go straight across the fore-shore of the submerged
left bank. This circumstance combined with the want of consistancy
and the extreme instability of the sandy bed and banks of the river
has facilitated the formation of lateral branches and has contributed to

b
render the current of the river in this place both variable and inconstant.
Ancient plans and traditions that have come down to us show that the
principal course of the Dnieper at a remote period divided into two
branches, that on the left named Tchertoroi and that at the right named
Starik, while on the bank where the town Kiev is built there was a
series of sand banks and shoals which reached as far as the hills of Kiev
where the Potchaina fell into the Dnieper, that little historical river in
which under Saint Vladimir the Russian people was baptised.
In proportion as the town developed the inconveniences resulting
from its distance from the navigable branches of the river made them-
selves felt and at various times the inhabitants found themselves obliged
to take measures to draw the principal current of the stream within the
neighbourhood of the town. For this purpose, according to the tradition,
vessels laden with stones were sunk at the entrance to the Tchertorai,
which reduced the bed of this branch and made a considerable portion
of its waters flow into the right branch and towards the town. But it
also happened that in the spring the high water overflowed on the side
of town the banks upon which some houses had been built here and
there without protection; then the inhabitants thought of turning the
principal current into the Tchertorai branch and some canals were even
dug with this object.
These works were only recommenced in our century. Between 1840
and 1850, Kiev having become by the wish of the Emperor NICOLAs I
an important centre, from a military, administrative and commercial point
of view, of the vast and rich region of the south west of Russia, the
imperial treasury assigned several millions of roubles for the construction
of certain immense buildings for various military and civil administrations:
at the same time it was decided to build a fixed bridge, on the system
of bridges suspended by chains, across the Dnieper. It is also at this
time that the state commenced the first works intended for the improve-
ment of the Dnieper at Kiev.
In order to carry away the alluvial soil which had been deposited in
the principal bed and to direct the course of the current it was resolved
in 1842 to dam the Tchertorai in the place where it separates from the
Dnieper and to direct its waters into the principal branch (1). At the
same time a plan was formed to protect the bank on the side of the
town and to build a quay to enable vessels to land their cargoes with
ease. These works were completed between 1850 and 1860. Nevertheless
the Tchertorai was not at that time completely dammed up by the dike
of fascines at its entrance. For fear of sending all the water together, at
its mean height, towards that bank that was not yet protected, an opening
of about 50 m. was made in the dike. But the complete closing of the
(4) W. Plate I.
MAKSIMOVITSCH. 4+
6
Tchertorai was especially advocated by the English engineers, Vignolle
at their head, who were then by virtue of a contract with the Russian
Government building in stone the piers of the suspension bridge below
the quay of the town.
Whether it was with the idea of facilitating the construction of the
piers, which was effected within a coffer-dam emptied by means of a
pump, or in consequence of an insufficient knowledge of the régime of
the river or a lack of exact data for calculating the spans of the bridge,
in building it the English engineers committed two great mistakes, the
consequence of which has been an organic irregularity in the distribution
of the spring waters at Kiev, a circumstance which we are obliged now
to rectify with great difficulty. The first mistake was in prolonging the
suspension bridge by an insubmersible paved dike, by making three
openings in this dike (in all four with that of the suspension bridge)
and covering these openings with wooden bridges with struts on piles (2).
These wooden bridges on piles being in the direct course of the spring
high waters frequently when ice descended the river became damaged and it
was necessary continually to rebuild them. The opening of the suspension
bridge was about 680 m., while the total width of the three openings
amounted to 900 m. This insubmersible paved dike was about 3 km.
long, while the width of the valley inundated in front of Kiev and
above the dam in spring was as much as 8 or 12 km. and the high
water then rose 2 or 3 m. above the banks and all the islands.
The English engineers committed a second mistake by laying the
concrete foundations of the piers of the suspension bridge at different
depths and by allowing themselves to be guided by the form of the
bottom as it existed at the time. The result of this has been that while
the foundations of the three piles on the right were placed 10.80 m. below
the level of the summer waters, the two piers on the left were built on
piles driven into the bottom and cut off at the level of the summer
waters. The character of the hollows under the arches of the bridge
Soon began to change and changed in an inverse sense. In the right
hand arches the bottom commenced to rise, while it continued to
get deeper in the left hand arches. This circumstance aroused fears as to
the Safety of the piers and required serious measures for the strength-
ening of the bottom around the piling which protected the con-
Crete foundations of the piers. Finally in the spring of 1877, during an
extraordinary rise of the river, the second in importance during our
Century, the wooden bridges of the dam were once more carried away,
and in the opening left by the largest of them named the Roussanovsky
bridge, 470 m. long, a new bed was formed, into which the current of
the stream precipitated itself, leaving the fixed suspension bridge.
(2) W. Plate II.
7
The increase in speed of the high water in the two branches, the
Tchertorai and the Roussanovska, endangered the existence of the single
dam across the Tchertorai. This dam, although it was then completely
closed, continually sustained injuries, either from ice or from the violence
of the floods; finally during the winter of 1882 it became undermined
on the righthand side of its base, and the current of the Dnieper again
precipitated itself with extreme violence into the Tchertorai and the
Roussanovka, abandoning the quay of Kiev and the fixed bridge.
All these changes in the Dnieper in consequence of the construction
of the suspension bridge showed the necessity of regulating the course
of the stream at Kiev, of closing the superfluous openings in the paved
dike and bringing back the principal current to the quay of the town
and under the fixed bridge.
In 1883 a project was formed for the regulation of a section of the
river commencing above and finishing below Kiev. This section which
measures about 20 km, in length begins with the confluence of the
Desna, which falls into the Dnieper 10 km. above Kiev, and is limited
down stream by the railway bridge of the line between Koursk and Kiev.
Thus the problem of regulating the stream at Kiev had not for its object,
as is ordinarily the case, the creation of a navigable channel by means
of dams and dikes, but an end far more difficult to attain, viz. to unite
the ordinary waters of all the lateral branches into one and the same bed,
direct, regulate and fix this current along the quay that already existed,
reconciling all the above conditions with the necessity of making this
current pass under the suspension bridge, as this was the most advan-
tageous direction for it to take.
The system adopted was a mixed system, consisting of leading
dikes, works along the banks and submerged cross dams. The top of
the works constructed in the bed of the river rises to the line where vege-
tation ceases, which is 1.40 m. above the summer waters; they are built
of sunken fascines, laid in some places after the Dutch method in the
form of a fan and in others according to the manner employed by the
Germans and Poles on the Vistula.
The following has been the order adopted for the execution of
these works which have been carried out according to their relative
importance and the sums set apart each year for the purpose. First a
leading concave dike was built in front of the old dam across the
Tchertorai in order to dam up durably the principal lateral branch of the
Tchertorai; dams were next built in the lateral branches in order to raise
the bottom and unite their waters in one single bed under the suspen-
Sion bridge. In the Desenk, which branches off from the Desna and falls
into the Tchertorai, a dam of fascines in the form of a dike was raised
at its point of origin with an opening to let out a portion of the water
and matter brought down by the current so that this branch might
be blocked up as soon as possible.
8
Besides the works laid down in the bed of the river a series of dikes
has been formed along the banks to stop up the deep hollows and
secondary canals which cut through a large number of islands between
the principal branches of the Dnieper.
The results of the regulating works at Kiev have exhibited the following
phenomena: -
1. The three openings of the bridge formed by the paved dike have
been filled up, and I would add that of the 900 m. which formed their
total length, 700 m. are now closed by embankments, so that there is left
for the river besides the passage of the suspension bridge only a narrow
side-opening of 200 m. at the left hand extremity of the dike.
2. All the ordinary waters of the Dnieper are collected into one bed
and are directed towards the quay of Kiev; at the same time the bed
has assumed a more regular character, although it is not yet sufficiently
Constant. . -
3. A sufficient depth has been obtained and a free access for vessels to
the quay of the town. -
4. We have succeeded in giving to the current which passes under
the NICHOLAs suspension bridge a course both regular and advantageous
as far as regards the strength of the piles. *E-
Having thus given some account of the works on the Dnieper in
front of Kiev, we will now describe the phenomena of the scouring of
the bottom and the banks which has taken place in the principal bed
of the river, where as I said above, all the ordinary waters of the dammed
up lateral branches have been gathered together. In the form of the banks
of the regulated bed we have been guided by the general law of alter-
nate concavities and convexities. The normal width of the bed at Kiev,
calculated according to the formula of GANGUILLſ and CouTTER, was
found to be 350 m. ; but this figure is as a matter of fact too large,
for in the portions of the river contiguous to the regulated part, in
which the bed has in certain places natural and very regular concavities
and at the same time sufficient constancy, the width of the stream does
not exceed 300 m. The curves which in these places limit the bed of
the river are very different in form as well as in radius. These dif-
ferences are such that it is impossible to deduce from them any general
conclusions with regard to the law of their formation. Among the
engineers who have during the last few years studied the problem of
the influence of the form of rivers on the depth of their beds, we owe
the most valuable conclusions to the celebrated French engineer M. FARGUE,
who has among Russian engineers an authority equal to his reputation.
The results that he has obtained on the Garonne, where he has applied
the rules and conclusions which the Scientific study of the question has
led him to form, have fully confirmed the correctness of his views and
furnish us with one of the best and most fortunate examples of the
9
regulating of a river with an unstable bottom. The principal rules laid
down by M. FARGUE with respect to water-courses with unstable bottoms,
deduced from his observations on the Garonne, are applicable in a
general way to all rivers of the same class. Thus on the Dnieper
also the regions of deep and shallow water in most cases are found below
the apex of the curve and the point were the direction changes, and the
curvature of the apex always determines the depth of the hollow.
To reduce the met cost of the work while regulating as well as might be
the course of the waters gathered into one single bed along the town of
Kiev, the concave curves were traced as nearly as possible after the
natural form of the banks, only the most marked irregularities of which
were rectified. A form of bed was thus obtained more or less softened by
concave banks in suitably chosen arcs of a circle, avoiding sudden changes
in the radius of the curve in the junction of two consecutive arcs of
a circle. The length of the curved lines, counted from the apex of the
concavity of one of the banks to the beginning of the concavity of the
opposite bank, varies between 3000 and 3500 m. The project had first
been formed in 1882 to give to the opposite convex bank a direction
parallel to that of the concave bank, but soon after commencing
work it was perceived that in the place where the curve turned the
channel lacked stability. At this point the current, not being affected by
the steady flow observable in the concavities, spreads out and becomes
dispersed and in order to secure a channel of the requisite depth
in these portions, it appeared necessary to contract the bed by bringing
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10
the banks nearer together. Thus 350 m., determined by calculation to be
the normal width to be given to the regulated bed, on the hypothesis
of a mean speed at the bottom sufficient to prevent the formation of sand
deposits — a speed which under the local conditions ought to be about
0.35 m. — was found to be too high a figure for the places where the
change in direction is met with. The formation of a channel having a
serviceable section with a constant depth could not be obtained in
these places, in spite of the contraction of the natural bed by building
dikes in front of one of the banks. We have a striking example of this
in the place where the channel passes by the quay of the town. Before
the regulating of the bed the form of the hollows in this region, at the
Summer level of the water, was as shown in fig. 3.
After building groins of fascines in front of the left bank and
decreasing the width of the bed to 350 m., the dimensions indicated by
the theory, an arrangement of depths, as indicated in fig. 4, was after a
while obtained.
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Moreover the stream divided in a manner which formed in the middle
of the bed a slight shoal which the currents go round to unite again along
the quay of the town, where sufficient depth for navigation is obtained.
To lessen the change of direction in the channel at the point in question
where the bed turns in above the quay of the town, it is now proposed
to bring the two banks within 240 m. of each other.











































11
The usual phenomenon of the formation of hollows along concave
banks, which is explained by the crossing and accelerated movement of
the currents, depends especially, according to the observations made upon
the Dnieper, on the discharge of the river; this is never constant and
in the spring, as has been said above, increases in the proportion of 1
to 40 or more — the ratio between the discharge of the river and the
amount of water in Summer. We have also remarked that the greatest
depths corresponding to the concave banks are almost always found, not at
the apex of the concave curves (which in our river are formed by arcs
of a circle), but at a distance of ‘ls or */3 below this apex, and depend
both on the length and radius of the curve.
With regard to the seventh question brought before the Congress, viz,
the regulating of rivers at low water, there can be no doubt as to its
possibility and it is actually managed on the majority of our rivers in
Russia, provided in the first place that the season of low waters presents
the greatest difficulty to navigation and that this situation continues
throughout the greater portion of the time that navigation lasts. The
principal obstacle is caused by the fact that on the greater number of our
rivers it is impossible to regulate the spring currents. Russian rivers for the
most part flow through plains and being fed in the spring by the waters
produced by the melting of the snow which covers vast areas, they have
formed very wide and flat valleys of inundation which often reach a
width of 10 or 12 km. The bottom of these valleys is generally composed
of pure alluvial sand, which is very unstable and reaches according to
N i. %.
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12
soundings to a depth of 30 m. and more. After the spring waters have
passed the course of the river commences to be unsettled, forming a large
number of curves and bends, in which the water moves in a direction
which not only does not coincide with that of the spring waters, but
which is frequently at right angles to it. Examples similar to that repre-
sented in fig. 5 are not rare. s
Under these conditions the dikes raised to regulate the bed of the
ordinary waters may at the high water season produce directly contrary
effect by facilitating the deposit of matter brought down in great quanti-
ties by the swollen waters. Thus, according to the measurements made
by us on the Dnieper, the quantity of Solid matter brought down in the
space of 24 hours by the spring floods amounts to 150,000 cub.m.
This circumstance added to the greatness of our rivers and the enormous
destructive power of the ice when it breaks up, which occurs twice a
year and little by little destroys our works, singularly complicated the
problem of regulating the river ways of Russia. But the greatest
of the evils to which Russian rivers are subject is the formation of
masses of ice in their beds. In certain circumstances, the concurrence
of which it is impossible to foresee, enormous masses of floating ice often
having a thickness of about 0.80 m. and an area of 1000 to 10000 sq.m.
pile one on another, obstructing the stream and thereby obliging the
current arrested by this bar of ice to open for itself a new bed by
ploughing up the bottom and the banks in the most irregular manner.
Such unfavourable conditions do not deter Russian engineers from attemp-
ting to improve the régime of their rivers, principally in those regions
where navigation meets with the greatest difficulties from the raising of
the bed of the channel. Succesful examples of this partial regulation of
difficult passages in our rivers have of late years become more plentiful.
It goes without Saying that in modifying thus the incline of a certain
portion of the section regulated, great care is taken not to injure the
régime of the neighbouring sections. This kind of work being still
in our country of recent date it follows that we have at present hardly
any observations capable of enriching science, but we are not without
hope of collecting materials of value, which may be capable of solving
various questions relating to the improvement of the régime of water-
courses, and perhaps at Some future Congress our colleagues will find
Some interest in the observations which we shall have to lay before them.
(Translated by FRANCIs A. OLIVER.)
IISTrilliſ] ſº Plällſhº,
t \lºvº-vºlv,
L'approfondissement des eaux basses
en mêtres. *
Basses eaux.
Echelle. -
Etat actuel des travaux pour la
régularisation du Dniépre près
de Kiew.
Moyennes eaux.
Niveau des plus grandes eaux.
Plan du Dniépre près de Kiew.
Pont.
Pont suspendu.
Profil sur l'axe du remblai.
MAKs MoviTCH.
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Austiefung des Niedrigwasserbettes
in Metern.
Niedrigwasser.
Maasstab.
Gegenwärtiger Stand der Reguli-
rungsarbeiten
Kiew.
Mittelwasser.
Höchster Wasserstand.
Karte des Dnjepr bei Kiew.
Brücke.
Hängebrücke.
Långsschnitt in der Achse des
Erddammes.
im. Dnjepr bei.
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Deepening of the bed in shallow
places, in metres.
Shallow water.
Scale.
Present state of the works for the
regulation of the Dnieper near
Kiew.
Mean water-level.
Highest water-level.
Projection of the Dnieper near Kiew.
Bridge. •
Suspension bridge.
Section through the centre of the
embankment.

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VI* International Inland Navigation Congress.
T H E H A G UE, 1894.
THE REGULATION OF RIVERS AT LOW WATER
Y
Herr SEIDEL,
Inspector of Hydraulic Works, Memel.
During the last ten years the conditions favourable to navigation on the
great rivers of north Germany have been sensibly improved in proportion as
the methodical regulation of them has been effected. These improvements
have been carried out for the benefit of the districts through which they flow
and of the navigation on their waters by fixing the banks according to the
corrected form of the watercourses and by regulating their width.
The width normalised by groins and in certain places by protected banks
or parallel dams has been fixed in default of a scientific basis from such
hydrological observations as it has been possible to make. The works have
been carried to about mean waterlevel.
The contraction of the channel, has provoked the deepening of river-beds
and Scouring of the bottom. For this scouring action, while increasing the
depth need not completely but only in some measure replace the surface
that has been reduced in order to give the same volume of discharge
because the latter increases with the increase in depth. The raising of
the surface and swelling produced at first, a result which it would appear
desirable to suppress and which requires a greater velocity and more energetic
scouring action, will cease for the most part in course of time after the inclines
have become equalised and a new state of equilibrium has been established,
especially as by reason of the scouring the depth will every where become
greater.
The method of regulating according to a fixed plan adopted up to the
present has not always been sufficient and the results have not always been
complete; it remains for technical knowledge to improve the situation with
respect to commerce, wherever the need may be felt, by regulating the navi-
gable ways and transforming the bed of the river in such a manner that the
channel may offer throughout its length a sufficient width and regular
depth, which even at a low water-level or at the lowest water-level may allow
9
boats of ordinary size to navigate when fully laden. This end can only
be attained by regulating the transverse section in proportion to the quan-
tity of water available, to the velocity of the current (that is in proportion to
the incline, which changes little) and to the depth. Other reductions of the
width of the summer bed need not be effected except when the usual correc-
tion is inadequate and the dimensions chosen are found to be too large. The
actual decrease in the transverse section from the mean to the low water-level
by means of the talus in use does not correspond to that of the volume of
water necessary to give a sufficient depth. As an example we may mention
the conditions of the Elbe between Tangermünde and the month of the
Havel where the normal width is not so great as below the Havel.
The figures for the dimensions established have been borrowed from the
,,Report on the rivers Memel. Weichsel, Oder, Elbe and Rhine, drawn up by
order of the Minister of Public Works, Berlin 1888”, and refer to the mean
and low water-levels. -

Height above . - -
No. Water-level. the datum line | Discharge. Width. Area of (v)Mean (t) Mean
at Sandau. Section. Velocity Depth.
1 Mean. 2,26 m. 405 cu.m. | 188 m. || 517,5 sq.m. |0,90 m. |2,75 m.
2 Low. || 0,59 m. 107 cum | 178 m. 212 sq.m. |0.50 m. 1.19 m.
According to the formula for the velocity
w = c V/TX 7
Or
z = c \!/TZ 7
the difference between the velocity at mean water-level and the velocity at
low water-level when all other conditions remain the same, is in the following
proportion:
v. : vs = V/7 : V a.
For Z/2 o,59 m. may be substituted.
If a formula deduced from the hydrometric observations taken on the Elbe
in 1885 be taken viz. -
2 = 46,91 13- 2 – 1/7
it will be found that
Z/2 = O,68 m.
The actual decrease of v3 to o.50 m. is too great; the condition of the
river at mean water-level and at lower level does not sufficiently affect the
formation of a regular transverse section. A satisfactory formation of the
transverse section will be more readily effected by means of the dams pro-
posed in the first place for the consolidation of the ends of the groins. At
present the latter do not regulate the form of the bed suitably to the discharge,
3
because they are too deep below low water-level and fall away too abruptly
and are not long enough.
By making a more radical change in the form of the river, the discharge,
and at the same time the force of the current, may be gathered into a
narrow channel which should regularly decrease in width from the mean
water-level downwards.
The question then rises upon what system is the new form to be given
to the river to be based, whether sunken groins should be constructed to
establish the new conditions, or whether training walls should be built along each
bank or along only one bank with groins at given distances, as proposed by
M. FRANZIUS, Director of Hydraulic Works at Bremen (v. Centralblatt der
Bauzerwaltung for 1893, Nº. 1). -
Before comparing the two methods with regard to their probable effect on
the flow and bed of the river, it is necessary to make some remarks upon the
construction and use of Sunken groins and of leading dams.
For the entire transformation of the river-bed one is naturally inclined to
choose the well tried system of groins, copying as far as possible a form of
bed which resembles the profile it is desired to give to the river in question.
Sunken groins must therefore, in places where stone is used for their construc-
tion and the cost is moderate, be built of stone with an incline which expe-
rience will indicate. When they are made of wood, that is to say at low
levels, fascines will be used which will be sunk by placing stones upon them.
Sunken groins of wood will have a width on the top of the ordinary length
of a fascine, that is 5 or 6 m. and the incline will be as gradual as possible,
especially down stream, so as to resist the action of the water. In the same
way the ends are widened and consolidated with a level talus and with bot-
tom ridges. When stone is used the leading dams should be made of broken
stones; the incline and dimensions given to these dams will be indicated by
experience, while for the fascine work there must be stone work to sink it of
the height and width which experience has recognised to be correct, where
the river-bed is about the same height as the bed of the low water-level
should be after the work has been finished; this will be the case in the tran-
sition from one curve to another. To counter-act the effect of the current
leading dams must be constructed with fascine work with weights to keep it
down at their base or upper part if rubble walls alone cannot be erected;
Eddies should be suppressed. - -
Cross-works at present connected with inclined groins at various distances
from one to another and joined to about every 3rd or 4th one may, when the
attack of the water is less, be also formed of stone; when the action of the
water is more violent they must be made of pile-framing and fascine work and
a level talus must always be on the down stream side. They have like sunken
groins a covering of fascines which can be easily repaired when damaged. A
width of 5 or 6 m. at the top may be considered sufficient, while the top of
training walls is 2 or 3 m. wide and a simple talus on each side is enough.
4
Supposing the river-bed at low water should have a depth of 1.5 m.,
the training walls should have a height of 1 m., at the most of 1.5 m., the
foundations which sink into the ground being taken into account, for the top
of them is taken at about o.50 m. below low water-level and the bed slopes
towards the centre. The cross works end at the height of the leading dams
and gradually mount to the level of the inclined groins; they entail a continual
increase in the transverse section. The mud collected by the dredging of the
channel should be deposited between the leading dams and the fore-shore
behind the cross works in order to increase their power of resistance. For in
the case of the river-bed being too rough it is always necessary to have
recourse to dredging to assist the function of the works and to counteract
the too energetic action of the water.
The ideal cross section would be, after the intervals have been filled up, a
continuous progression corresponding to the discharge from the low water-level
up to the mean level, which in the curves would be found only on the
convex side.
The position of the training walls on both shores in straight parts is easily
fixed. The direction of the current regulates them in the transition from one
curve to another; they will be parallel to the direction of the current, and
not to the direction of the Original course.
The passages which are not arranged according to the general formation of
the bed of the channel disappear. In the curves a greater breadth must be
given than in the straight portions, for in curves the velocity of the current is less
and it is necessary to resist the force of the current, which is tending to
undermine the concave bank and injure the works. Naturally the leading
dams are not placed here at a great depth; the action of the water against
the groins should be avoided by gradually rising ridges and by raising the
bed of the river.
In order to increase the action of the groins the sand lying in front of the
concave banks is dredged. As regards the concave banks the adjusting of
them to the mean water-level is generally to be recommended, after the ridges
have been constructed, for the sake of navigation. In this case the corrected
shore lines for the mean and low water-levels coincide.
The system to be adopted for the regulation at mean water-level should
correspond to the actual conditions. In river-beds that have been made too
wide for the low water-level, the material of the bottom and especially the
Sand which is put in movement by the high waters are deposited as the water
goes down when the velocity of the current is no longer sufficient to keep
it moving. During high floods by their displacement they increase the trans-
verse sections.
These conditions are met with on the Elbe below the Havel, while on the
contrary the Memel is very much reduced at low water. Falling water must
always make a deeper channel on account of its bed being higher and wider.
This happens especially when the level of the water falls gradually and the
5
river bed is full, whereas a less depth is formed by a more rapid fall. Either
the channel or the course of the river remain always in the same position
between the banks in those places where the cross-section is not too large
and where the construction of the bed is solid, as on the Elbe above Havel;
Or the Sand-banks are moving irregularly in a down stream direction and are
even thrown upon the least curved concave banks, as is the case on the Elbe
below the Havel. In both cases the low water channel oscillates between
the banks from one side to the other and the shallows in the navigable channel
are found between two successive sand-banks. These regions determine the
available depth and render useless places where the depth is greater. When
the water subsides and is at its lowest, the number of passages of this class
is generally getting larger, the channel becomes longer, the course of the
river more sinuous, the fall less and the effective force of the current more
feeble. The quantity of water spreads over the layers of sand that have been
deposited and which do not dry and cross currents are formed; part of the
water falls over the Sand in a sidelong course and does harm its scouring
action in consequence of the loss of force that it entails.
The capricious changes in the channel when the water rises and falls and
the deposits of various forms should be avoided, care being taken to prevent
the formation of cross currents and to consolidate the bed. The construction
of groins at a low level would no doubt cause to appear a number of difficulties
which while only works at a mean level are used and the beds are less confined,
do not present themselves and cause no harm; but a closer examination of
them would decide against the exclusive use of them. The partial abandon-
ment of isolated works at a low level and the adoption of leading walls, or
according to this system the connecting of the ends of the sunken groins
placed farther apart by means of leading walls, entails a method of con-
struction different to that at present in use. Before preferring one method to
another it is essential to compare the probable influences of the two systems
and to consider the different advantages and defects that they possess.
Leading dams at a low level on each side only settle the question of the
regulation of the discharge at low water; a succession of side-walls is less
violent in its influence than isolated works; there is less loss of force at the
side of the stream, and therefore the average velocity is greater, the Scouring
action and the effective force more energetic. Also when the level rises the
leading dams determine, as for as regards the greater volume of the water,
the direction and utilise the effective force of the current for the scouring of
the channel. -
This continuity in the course certainly ought to influence advantageously
the formation of more regular transverse sections and more equal depths as
well as the maintenance of them. Groins form in the regular direction of the
stream only isolated fixed points at certain distances apart and leave the
stream to do the rest. -
With the groins at present in use perfect results are not obtained, as the
SEIDEL,
6
current has not yet a fixed bed, because the groins on both sides do not
act exactly as models even when (and it is not always the case) they are
placed perpendicularly to the direction of the current and opposite one another;
in fact the course of the river changes with the height of the water and in
this case the normal profile is perpendicular to the line of the current and
oblique to the course of the river. This is why groins are incomplete and
constitute local works for impeding the water ; for a regular profile they are
Out of place. Even in the case of more numerous isolated dams with sunken
groins this defect in the construction of the groins cannot be entirely remedied.
With continuous leading dams an equal incline will be formed of the
flow at low water when a proper height is chosen. Thus the incline when
the water is at its highest level, which is more uniform, will be transmitted
to the lowest level. In the same way a comparatively regular velocity will be
met with afterwards in the channel and this will guarantee the preservation
of the depth of the river-bed.
With the system of groins, in each place where the bed is contracted the
fall is stopped which prevents the formation of a uniform velocity. A regular
incline and uniform velocity are the first conditions for the preservation of a
river-bed that is still unfixed. Works for the regulation of the movement of
solid matter and the formation of sand deposits behind the works must also
be considered as of great importance, as they determine the formation of these
deposits and help to maintain a more regular profile. Only when in consequence
of Sand deposits in the river-bed the banks and shores are formed na-
turally at a low level according to the form indicated by the works, the
stability of the profile it is sought to obtain is assured. By means of leading
dams and shore connections the deposits in the actual bed of the mean waters
will be thrown upon the intermediate spaces. After the regulation has been
effected the main channel will contain but little solid matter.
By using groins the deposit of the sand will not be so certain. Below the
groins the current which is confined by them expands; forming eddies it
penetrates into the lower part of the succeeding interval and it a distance of
to to 20 m. behind the works, according to the position of the current, the
spaces between the works will not be filled by deposits.
A part of the deposit created by the fall is raised from the intermediate
space on the concave banks at the first floods if the water has any force;
the material of the bottom forms no deposits when there are no intermediate
works to facilitate them. The water which surrounds and covers the sunken
groins will act in the same way and probably most energetically; the con-
Solidation of the bottom must therefore be effected to a more limited degree
in the intervals between the sunken groins than in the case of leading dams.
The preservation of river channels which are found in their natural state
Or which have been dredged will probably be possible without further dred-
ging, for the material of the bottom is thrown behind the leading dams.
Nevertheless it must be supposed that it remains necessary to dredge systema-
g 7
cally along all the concave banks, because the regulation of the bed of the
higher waters cannot be effected on account ot the expense it would entail
and because the high waters would always carry away solid matter.
With the correction by means of sunken groins it will be necessary to
dredge continually, because the masses of sand will then be carried away
from the intervals when the works are submerged. As soon as the force
of the current is insufficient to move the masses of Sand they will be
deposited in the bed of the river where they have arrived and also in that
part of the channel where there are no groins and the width is increased.
The capricious formation of flat places is consequently more probable when
groins are employed than when the leading dam system is adopted even if
they are not to be looked for so much as has been the case hitherto.
If in the portions of the river that are to be regulated at low water large
quantities of solid matter had to be expected, which came either from
the upper stream or from side channels (such as may not have been
regulated), these masses would have to be removed from the channel, for the
sake of navigation, by means of more extensive works up stream in the shape
of groins and intermediate works; it would be necessary to form a place for
the deposits and for the matter dredged.
All regulation at low water and the formation of a deeper and narrower chan-
nel will help to effect the more expeditious clearing away of ice, for below it
there is always running water and therefore, as soon as the thaw takes place, it
will weaken. The ice will descend in a more regular manner, ice-banks and
formations reaching to the bottom will occur less frequently, for the sand
which favours the formation of these masses will be wanting and the floes
of ice will meet with no difficulty in floating down the channel already
or still open. - - .
Low leading dams with shore connections, as well as raised ridges or Sunken
groins, offer no obstacle to navigation if the channel is wide and not exces-
sively curved; the channel is confined, signs are put up to mark the route to
be pursued by navigation.
7%e action of running zeater on leading dams is continual, but in conse-
quence of the Continuity of the works and of the regularity of the incline it
may be distributed in a uniform manner and thus become less in each parti-
cular spot, the same is the case with connecting works and sloping groins.
Leading dams and shore connections prevent the current from leaving the bed
assigned to it, and consequently cross currents do not present themselves. It
is essential before adopting low leading dams te experiment whether they are
capable of withstanding the attack of the water. By placing them sufficiently
low and leaving not too great intervals between the shore connections the
ruption of the works is not to be feared, not is there any risk of causing
eddies liable to damage the bed of the river. In the same way the placing of
these works below low water-level is the most efficatious means of protection
against the damage caused by overflowing and bij ice and the undermining of
S ©
the works, so that their durability appears assured without their base on the
side of the current being strengthened with breast-work, except in the case of
the concave bank where the attack of the current is most violent. With regard
to observations upon the character of low leading dams we may refer to those
made during the last few years upon the Weser below and above Bremen.
The conditions met with in these places cannot it is true be taken as an
example for the upper course of rivers but nevertheless the advantages of leading
dams with regard to the ebb and flood of the tide may be taken into consi-
deration in treating the upper waters of these rivers, for the differences in the
direction of the waters are not very essential and the conditions affecting the
bottom are in theory the same. The way in which sunken groins are attacked
is in both cases much the same.
These works dam up the water and increase the velocity of the current.
This acceleration, causing in time of floods damage to the top of the works
as well as the formation of cross currents and eddies below the confined
portions, also partly tends to scour the bed and undermine the works.
The continuous and safe conduct which leading dams offer to the main
current cannot be obtained by means of groins, except by increasing the
number of them, especially where the current changes from one bank to
the other. - -
All these works require the ends to be solid and capable of resistance and
they are consequently more expensive. Long and practical experience alone can
determine whether low leading dams or sunken groins are cheapest to con-
struct and keep in condition.
The owners of property on the riversides are always afraid that, in
seeking to improve the conditions favourable to navigation, some alteration
may be caused in the character of the floods and high water and especially
any effects be produced prejudicial to the cultivation of the lands.
There is as little ground for fear when the correction is effected by means
of leading dams as when any other method is adopted and it is proposed not
to alter, but to reorganise, the form of the bed. Moreover it is evident that
the continual deepening of the bed of the low waters and the gradation of
the course can only have a favourable influence on the flow, even when the
water is at a high level, and also that the high waters are more easily carried
when the transverse section is enlarged than when they are confined between
banks of gravel. With regard to the high waters, however, the complete
regulation of them is considered as pernicious. -
It is very hard to eradicate this idea on account of the bad corrections
made at an earlier date, and the people cannot be persuaded that the present
works will not be equally detrimental; for reliable data for establishing a
proof with mathematical exactness are wanting. But that this may be possible
with future improvements it is to be hoped that it will be taken into con-
sideration in advance and that all changes however partial may be recorded.
With this object the conditions of the flow at all water-levels should be
9
exactly noted as well as the variations in incline, the discharge and depth.
These details respecting the incline and level of the water should be re-
corded not only with respect to the gauges, but also wherever regulation works
are undertaken. In this manner absolutely certain data will be obtained later
with regard to the situation. The placing of the ends of the works lower or
higher may cause a change in the level of the water; a considerable lowering
of level will be obtained, if it is necessary, by lowering the level of the
inclined groins and by placing the ends of them nearer the bank if the
scouring and dredging have not been sufficient; while too abrupt a fall may
be avoided by contracting the bed down stream, especially in the changes
in directon.
These measures must naturally not be employed except when it is sought
to obviate a rising or lowering of the bed in certain places.
Before deciding upon the form of cross section to be adopted, the factors
of the discharge should be determined exactly; thus the principles respecting
the details we mentioned above will be already fixed. The extent of the
contraction for any point of the river will not be based upon the possible
maximum depth, but the depth will be determined for the part down stream
according to the depth which it is possible to obtain in the higher part.
The waterway open to large boats will end at this point, from here
smaller craft will be used or (when the use of small boats is unprofitable
from an economical point of view) the stream will be canalised.
The greatest depth will naturally end at the mouth of a tributary or
at a trade or industrial centre. In the part frequented by large boats it is
necessary to provide besides the depth necessary for navigation a sufficient
width for lines of boats drawn by tugs to pass each other. The use of a steep
talus and breastwork are to be recommended in these places in order that
the full width of the bed may be utilised at low water.
The scientifically exact form of the bed has not yet been determined and it
will be impossible to do so until the influence of the training walls upon the
velocity of the current shall be as well known as that of the bottom (Cf. the
report of Herr JASMUND, inspector of hydraulic works, Zeitschrift für Bauwesen,
Berlin 1893).
According to the theory formulated in this report respecting the decrease
in velocity at the bottom with the hypothesis that there is a similar decrease
along the banks, it seems necessary to have recourse to the use of a steep
talus which shall always be covered with running water, that is to say leading
dams must be adopted.
The protection to the banks, such as is effected when leading dams are
employed, is often built in a different manner for various levels.
On the mountain streams in Saxony and Bavaria blind work is used,
fascines of Gumpenberg, which are simply leading dams.
On the middle course of the Rhine blind work is also used, as well as on
the Elbe near Torgau and Anhalt and on the Saale.
10
On the lower Weser a result has been obtained which proves the efficacy
of the regulation of a river by means of leading dams. The system may there-
fore be considered satisfactory. It is true that in the upper course of rivers
the ebb and flood of the tide is not felt; but it is replaced by the continuous
action of the high and mean waters. This will also be taken into account
when groins are employed. -
From the conditions of navigation in the neighbourhood of Hitzacker on
the Elbe it may be proved that groins alone are not sufficient to obtain a
channel of uniform depth and that the continuity of enclosure is in many
places preferable. -
In the neighbourhood of Hitzäcker the banks are provided with more solid
groins and intermediate works than in any other part of the river. They are
finished off by long ridges 60 m. in length and the corrected width is from
245 to 271 m. These works have an action similar to that of the Sunken
groins. Here therefore are models as complete as possible and established
strictly with regard to low water for the proposed formation of the bed.
Still the resulting effect upon the depth avalable for navigation is feeble in
Comparison to other neighbouring parts where, besides the groins, ridges have
been used to some extent together with a few intermediate works.
During the first few years the influence of these works was felt more con-
siderably, but after the stopping of the flow of solid matter, caused by the
isolated works, had ceased and the incline had become perfectly uniform, the
conditions of navigability in the neighbourhood of Hitzacker have not been
better than in other places, especially as regards the depth. As to the width
available, a considerable improvement has been obtained by the use of
breastwork; the sand has been collected and the depth increased.
In the portions which still present at low water-level passages that are
difficult or of the kind which occur at low water without depending on the
real constitution of the part in question, another expedient is adopted in order
to utilise to the full the effective force of the water by making it dredge
these passages and destroy the cross current in the intervals. Where there is
no tendency to form a rising, or natural leading dam, the interval will be
blocked up by a narrow dike parallel to the current a little above low water-
level, or partly so by a dam which will be joined to the groin downstream.
This system obviates the violent action of the current in the intermediate
spaces and prevents the formation of eddies but it does not prevent the
entrance of sand. It has given the best results as regards the deepening of
bad places in the navigable channel by gathering the water into the channel
of the summer bed. This result leaves us to hope that leading dams will
also be able to increase the depth, which groins alone are unable to do.
It seems theoretically possible to obtain the greatest possible depth at low
water by determining the dimensions of a transverse section of the river-bed,
which shall correspond to the volume of the discharge at every level and
by constructing the profile on these lines by means of leading dams. But in
11
practice the requisite depth will not be the greatest that can be obtained,
unless in the upper part which is to be corrected. Navigation does not
require everywhere a maximum depth, but as far as possible throughout
the navigable way uniform dimensions advantageous from an economical
point of view, the width also being taken into account.
Moreover there is no general system practicable for the regulation of rivers,
for each improvement applies only to certain levels, and this is why for the
parts that are to be treated uniformly serious irregularities are always met
with as well as the influence resulting from local conditions, the varying
height of the fore-shore in the wider parts of the river and the sinuosities of
the course. There is therefore no model that may be copied in regulating
rivers at low water.
In practice the use of leading dams, although offering important advan-
tages, should be modified and only employed where sufficient stability may
be looked for. •
In curves on all rivers there is more than a sufficient depth ; it is only
necessary to increase the width and suppress eddies resulting from the centri-
fugal force of the water. As blind work is always employed in the sharpest
Curves, especially at mean water-level when there are dikes to be protected,
these latter should evidently be preserved as breastwork for the banks; they
are most useful to navigation when the water rises above the mean level.
Ridges on the concave sides will help to increase the width, to remove the
Sand to the opposite banks and to withstand the action of the water.
But where the navigable channel changes from one bank to another accord-
ing to the general character of the river-bed and passes from one curve to
another curve or to a straight reach, or in places where shallows are always
met with, the summer bed must be contracted and strengthened to a greater
degree and a more certain direction must be given to the current, if possible
On both sides.
It is true that with leading dams on both sides the inconvenience may
subsequently arise that when a limit is fixed for the width one of the
walls will have to be put aside on account of the absence of sufficient data.
It is therefore necessary to be content with building leading dams on the side
attacked by the water, and to provide shore connections rising to the training
walls at mean water level. On the other side sunken groins must be employed,
So that the alteration of the transverse section shall afterwards offer no
difficulty. - -
It must be here remarked that for the passages in the actual bed only a
construction of this nature with leading dams can cause a sensible improve-
ment with respect to the depth. If the width of the summer bed is too great
and the passages are not fixed leading dams cannot be employed, except when
it is a question of a more extensive correction of the low waters and a con-
Solidation of the summer bed; for in spreadout beds and with the movement
of Sand low leading dams appear to have no power of resistance. But for this
12
also experiments may be made with regard to the force of resistance and the
effect of low leading dams where they did answer the purpose of fixing the
channel in the passages.
If the system of leading dams is appropriate it may facilitate the conditions
favourable to navigation on rivers at low water.
The gathering together of the low waters into one channel of suitable form
by means of leading dams laid at the height of low water should have an
advantageous influence upon the direction of the water and offer the means
to utilise more completely the discharge at low water and to take advantage
of the possibility of creating a greater navigable depth.
Since in regulating a river-bed by means of low leading dams the preten-
tions of the dwellers on the river-banks must be respected, when it is a
question of altering rivers, we may recommend the employment of low leading
dams beſore any other more fundamental system of regulating 7°izers at loze,
water be adopted in order to obtain a greater depth and conditions more favou-
rable to navigation.
VI* International Inland Navigation Congress.
T H E H A G U E, 1894.
REGULATION OF RIVERS AT LOW WATER,
BY
H. G.I.R.A.RL) ON.
Ingénieur en Chef des Ponts et Chaussées chargé du service spécial du Rhône.
I.
GENERAL REMARKS UPON THE CONDITIONS OF THE FLOW OF WATER
AND SOLID MATTER IN RIVERS OF UNSTABLE BOTTOM.
Most rivers of unstable bottom flow through valleys where the soil is
composed of ancient alluvial deposits the thickness of which is generally
considerable.
In their natural state they change the position of their principal bed
upon the submersible plain, carrying it from one side to the other of the
valley.
Every flood of importance brings down fresh solid matter from the
tributaries, and also carries away something from the bed and banks of
the principal water-course, thus modifying both its form and position.
When the waters subside the submersible plain is found to be cut up
by a number of branches, between which the discharge is divided, and
these leave large spaces covered with gravel and sand between their res-
pective beds. Such lands are generally unsuitable for any cultivation;
after some years they become covered with shrubs and sometimes with
trees; but their form is constantly variable and their existence is not
permanent; the most recent floods may increase them, but they are more
frequently washed away by them to be reformed elsewhere.
In great water-courses the space occupied by these variations may be
very considerable, for they may reach the foot of the mountains on either
side of the area occupied by the bed of the great floods and they fre-
quently cover stretches of country several kilometres in width.
Sometimes on the contrary the bed is confined, the mountains which
form the limit of the valley are close together and the water-course
2
|
passes through a narrow and deep defile. Such is the famous defile of
Razan on the Danube and such on a small scale are the gorges of Pierre-
Châtel and St Auban on the Rhône.
At other times, without the shores being so near together, a mass of
rocks traverses the valley near the surface of the water, often with points
emerging, thus forming rapids like those of Struden or the Iron Ports
on the Danube or the falls of Sault on the Rhône.
These passages between serried mountain chains or over bars of rock
are not only indispensable as regards the formation of the bed, but they
also occasion peculiarities in the course.
In deep and narrow defiles the incline, often considerable when the
water is high, becomes less and sometimes almost imperceptible when the
water is low, so that the course at low-water comes upon a level run, or
nearly so, preceded and followed by more pronounced inclines.
Rapids produce similar effects. In time of low water it is ascertained
that on a ledge an abrupt fall is preceded by a gentle incline and in
Some places by normal inclines.
However, this form of course is not invariable; although in these pas-
sages the water flows over hard ground which it is powerless to remove,
its action nevertheless has some effect upon it; a part of the effective
force is lost in friction against the rocks over which it flows and which
it gradually wears away, and if no flood causes the course to change, if
its action continues for a long succession of centuries, it finally digs
deeply into and opens a passage through them. This is the origin, not
certainly of all defiles, but at least of a certain number. But compared
to the time which regulation works may last, the modifications which
these passages undergo are insignificant. And as on the other hand the
works it is possible to carry out cannot, without exceeding the limit of
cost admissible, effect more than the improvement of local conditions or
influence a wider area than that for which they were undertaken, these
passages should be considered to determine fixed points both in the form
of the bed and in the course, and thus establish a clear line of demarca-
tion between the character or constitution of the various sections of the
stream which they separate. -
The conception therefore is here at fault which is often formulated
for the course of a stream and according to which a series of gradually
decreasing inclines should be formed; neither does it answer in the inter-
vals between these passages as we shall see later on. In order that an
obstacle may stop the scouring process effected by a water-course, form
a bar and reduce the incline up stream to increase it down stream,
it is not really necessary for this obstacle to present as great a resistance
as the mass of rocks; it is sufficient that the undermining influence
necessary to remove this obstacle be greater than the effective force of
the water. `--
3
This circumstance is often met with and among others tends to give
the course a less simple form than the parabola, and we only meet with
it approximately realised in water-courses which have no tributaries or
only tributaries of small importance, or in the parts of other rivers which
receive no tributaries of any considerable size.
Between these accidents of mountains which only occur at wide inter-
vals, plains of alluvial soil, which we have described and in which on
the contrary everything is variable and continually unstable, sometimes
extend over several hundred kilometres. The form and condition of the .
bed depends at every point and at every moment upon the nature of
the soil and the incline, the discharge of water and its variations,
circumstances which change under the influence of causes proper to the
water-course itself, causes which are themselves modified by the tribu-
taries which successively swell its current.
Each of these tributaries has its own characteristic constitution and
consequently a different action, and the water-course which is affected
by the resulting action of these tributaries is modified in various ways
according as they act collectively or separately.
Some of these tributaries are themselves rivers of considerable size and
furnish the principal water-course with an appreciable portion of its
discharge; but whatever their importance may be the regularity with
which they contribute to its alimentation is most variable.
Some proceed from mountains more or less lofty or situated in com-
paratively hot regions and their character then especially depends on
the temperature which accelerates or retards the melting of the snow or ice.
Their waters have a low level in winter and an average level in summer.
The tributaries whose basins are wooded or grassy and which flow through
valleys with gentle inclines have a peaceful and regular character. Their
discharge even in the dry season always preserves its relative importance,
their floods gather slowly and last long, and the difference between their
maximum and minimum discharge is moderate.
Those on the contrary whose basins are bare and inclines abrupt
are diluvial in character. Their discharge when the water is low
becomes almost nil, their floods rise suddenly and rapidly subside,
the difference between their maximum and minimum discharge is
very large ; they suddenly pour forth enormous quantities of water
which rapidly flows away, sometimes in a few hours, relapsing immediately
afterwards to a very inconsiderable discharge.
Between these extremes are included all intermediate forms, and
among those which partake of both characters there are some whose
upper portions proceed from high mountains and flow over considerable
inclines, while their lower course stretches over extensive plains. Their
floods are here rapid as in torrents, but their discharge when the water
is low nevertheless remains considerable,
4
\
*t
If the different tributaries present very decided varieties as regards the
character of their waters, they show differences quite as marked as
regards the dimensions and the quantity of the solid matter that they
carry down.
All rivers, with the exception of some springs which flow over hard
ground at a gentle incline, have a double discharge—that of the water and
that of the solid matter brought down. The flow of these is produced in
very variable proportions in different rivers, or in one and the same river
according to the circumstances and the state of the water, and it is regu-
lated by laws with which we are very imperfectly acquainted or, to speak
more correctly, laws which are unknown to us and which will probably
remain so for a long time. -
We know however that there is a relation between the quantity of
water and of solid matter. The most simple observation shows us that
the quantity or volume of solid matter brought down increases, all other
things being equal, with the volume of solid matter in movement; it
also shows us that it increases with the incline in the river-bed. If it
depends on these two elements which influence the effective force of the
river, it depends equally on the resistance opposed to this force, on the
nature more or less unresisting of the ground over which the river flows,
On the cultivation, woods and grass upon the slopes, and all those cir-
cumstances which combine to prevent the wearing away of the bed and
any decrease in the effective force of the water.
Water-courses of a quiet character which flow over gentle inclines, the
upper basin of which is wooded and grassy, generally bring down a
large volume of water but little solid matter; during their floods however
they carry with them a large quantity of the latter in the form of fine
sand and light clay. g
The water-courses, on the contrary, which partake of the character of
torrents carry down large quantities of solid matter. In the upper
part of their course they often roll down great lumps of earth the edges
of which are hardly touched. These lumps stop at the foot of steep
inclines, without however there acquiring a definite and constant position;
but from this point their movement by successive stages becomes slower,
until they are first carried down in the general movement of the descent
of alluvial deposits or are removed by an upheaval of the bed and
become broken up. The incline becomes more gradual the further from
the source and the volume of solid matter decreases, either because the
lighter portion only can have been carried so far, or because the rest
has been worn away and broken up on the journey.
These phenomena are particularly noticeable in torrents properly so
called, because the degree of the incline and the excessive variation in
the discharge place it as it were on a larger scale and allow of better
observations being taken. The general form of these water-courses may
5
be regarded as two cones, the upper of which has its top turned down
stream, forming the vast funnel which constitutes the receiving basin
and which wears away and changes its position in course of time, while
the lower of them has its top turned up stream and is formed of all
sorts of débris gathered from the first, débris which presents itself in every
direction and spreads the further the more finely divided it may be and
the less abrupt its natural angle of repose. These two comes are united by
a passage more or less long and rapid, which constitutes the bed of the
torrent. When a portion of the bank is worn away the débris which des-
cends by this passage continues its fall over the incline formed by the
preceding débris, over which the bed wanders guided by the resistance it
encounters; the come is worn away little by little while it grows longer
and longer until it reaches the principal water-course which receives the
torrent and into which the solid matter brought down so far falls
together with the water.
Quiet rivers whose course appears quite different are none the less
subject to similar phenomena, which occur with the same general though
less pronounced characteristics. They all take solid matter from their
beds, roll it along mingled with that brought down by their tributaries,
wash it away in greater quantities in time of in flood, deposit a portion
of it as the floods subside to take it up again later and conduct it by
successive stages to places where the inclines are less steep; here these
substances are exposed in a more or less flattened cone, they advance
progressively and reach the more important water-course which in its
turn takes them up until at last by a series of similar phases they arrive at
the sea, into which the come of evacuation of the river advances a certain
distance and preserves its form according to the more or less energetic
action of the tide, the currents and the waves. -
In this incCessant levelling of the earth’s surface which is effected by rivers,
the water passes through a constant cycle and follows a continuous movement,
descending from the mountain to the sea, where it evaporates, to return
through the influence of winds from the sea to the mountain. But if on the
whole the movement of the water has the character of continuity, its fall
upon the earth's surface appears on the contrary to be intermittent, or
more properly speaking periodical, and gives that character to the move-
ment of solid matter which it is observed that it provokes. Every fall,
that is to say every flood, detaches fresh particles from the mountain,
stirs up in its passage the solid matter already collected in the bed,
carries them along so long as the mass of water in movernent has suffi-
cient force, deposits them to take up others less heavy, when it can
carry them no further, and finally conducts to the sea those of them
which being lighter have already by preceding floods arrived nearer the
river’s mouth. -
In this manner the descent of Solid matter from the mountain to the
6
Sea takes place somewhat after the fashion of the propagation of a great
wave which the water-wave raises in its course and which subsides with
the water; its magnitude and length vary from point to point by reason
of the continually varying circumstances encountered in its course.
It is clear also that this rate will be the more marked as the perio-
dical character of the movement of the water is more pronounced, as the
difference between the maximum and minimum discharges is greater,
the inclines more accentuated and bare, and the flow more rapid.
On the contrary where the watercourse depends only on the nature of
the rains, where the nature of these rains is itself more regular, where
the ground which receives them is more pervious and retains them
longer and in larger quantities to part with them by degrees, where
finally the inclines are slight and the flow regular and gentle, the wave
will lengthen out and be depressed, but it will never be effaced and the
movement of solid matter will always remain intermittent and always
be caused by a series of successive violent movements separated by a
Series of stops and pauses.
This is a necessary consequence of the periodicity of the movement of
the water and the invariability of the discharge. The force of the water
only causes the movement of solid matter when the former reaches a
certain volume, which may be called efficient, and when by the decrease
of the discharge it becomes less than this volume the movement ceases
and a deposit is formed. It is a natural law that it is impossible to
infringe and the engineer in devising improvements for the regulation
of the bed must abandon the idea of substituting a continuous movement
for this intermittent movement and confine himself to foreseeing the
position of successive haulting places and to regulating as far as possible
the form of the deposits. -
But this is not the only fact which observation enables us to verify.
It is possible to deduce other facts quite as certain, other consequences
quite as necessary to the reciprocal reactions of the movement of the
water and the solid matter, by making a closer examination of the
action of this effective force which varies continually over ground offering
an equally variable resistance. -
We have said above that the effective force increases with the amount
of water in movement and with the incline. In an interesting memoran-
dum published in the Annales des Ponts et Chaussées (1879, Vol. II),
M. DU BOYS established that this power is directly proportional to the
volume and the incline, so that the effective force exercised over a square
metre of the bottom by a prism whose base is 1 sq. m. and altitude equal
to the depth H of the water-course at this point, if i represents the
incline, is found to be
F = 1000 H.
This expression, established without reference to any theory of the
7
flow of water or any hypothesis respecting the variations of speed, Sup-
poses only that in the uniform movement the apparent active force of
the volume of water is constant ; we admit it for our explanations
because the only hypothesis upon which it is based appears to us diffi-
cult to contest. We will however only have recourse to it because it
simplifies the language; but we have no intention of putting through a
process of calculation such complex phenomena as those which we are
studying, nor of Seeking to express in figures the effects produced. We
only seek to determine the sense of it, so that our conclusions shall
remain exact even when the law which connects the effective force of
the river with the volume and the incline may differ from the idea of
simple proportion, because it is certain that the variation of this force
depends on that of the volume and the incline and is felt in the same direction.
If it is possible to conceive and even to express in a simple manner
the force calculated to modify the bed of a water-course; it is not the
case as regards the forces opposed to it.
These resisting forces are extremely variable and it is impossible to
give a simple expression for them ; but a certain number of the causes
affecting the magnitude of them may be found. We shall confine our-
selves to indicating the principal of these.
In the first rank must be placed the dimensions, density and weight
of the solid matter. The influence of these causes is evident and the
most superficial observation of them, or mere common Sense, is sufficient
to understand that the finest and lightest Solid matter is most easily
carried away.
It should be remarked however that the matter composing the bed
of a water-course is not always the same, but on the contrary differs
greatly in dimensions, nature, and form and is mixed in very variable
and different proportions; the more or less intimate conditions of this
mixing influences and modifies their individual resistance to the current.
Mixtures of moveable gravel and pure Sand are met with, as well as
more resisting mixtures of gravel and argillaceous sand, masses of rocks
and mud firmly stuck together and conglomerate lumps which present a
resistance similar to banks of rock.
The shape of the pieces of Solid matter has equally an influence upon
the process. It is clear that round stones are more easily put in move-
ment than sharp cornered or flat stones. Fragments of rocks descended
from the mountain lose their angular form, they get blunted in succes-
sive violent movements and assume most various shapes, either because
their faces are not equally exposed, or because their hardness is not the
same on all sizes. The result is that all shapes and sizes are found from
perfectly round pebbles to absolutely flat stones.
The manner in which these stones are grouped and mixed together has an
evident influence upon their resistance to the current, but this resistance
|
\
8
also depends apon the way in which they lie. A flat stone laid upon its
smaller side will be more easily carried away than if it lies upon its
flat side, and it is evident that once set in movement, if it should stop
or fall without anything opposing it, it will rest upon its flat surface.
Therefore, if in a current which carries with it a quantity of pebbles, a
large proportion of which are always more or less flat, the effective force
should decrease, the pebbles will be deposited on their flat side one
above the other; and when after a flood a recently formed bank of sand
or shingle, which still preserves the form given it by the action of the
water, be examined, it will be found that the stones are laid one above
the other precisely like the scales of a fish. Sands so formed and
composed of very unstable material will throughout present con-
siderable resistance to the current according to the set of the stones.
This resistance would be almost nil to a current coming in the other
direction and but slight for a transverse current. It is thus that we
can explain the existence, often long maintained, of banks which in
themselves are unstable and are exposed to the full force of the current,
and also their sudden disappearance under the influence of a flood less
considerable than others they had resisted, but in which the direction
of the current has been modified.
The effective force of the current is exercised over a bottom composed
of equally heterogeneous and resisting elements. It can be conceived that
when the current is feeble it will act only on matter offering a feeble
resistance, since in proportion as it increases it will put in movement
matter of a more and more resisting character. Therefore the finest and
lightest description of matter will first be put in movement, then succes-
sively and by Order of resistance larger and heavier substances. Inversely
when the effective force shall decrease the solid matter will be deposited
Successively, the larger and heavier elements first, and so on down to
the finest and lightest.
Observation entirely confirms this. If we look at the water in a river
that has been low for a considerable length of time we generally find
that it is clear. If the bed is composed of large fragments no movement
of Solid matter will take place, but if it contains fine and closely packed
Sand the clearness of the water is often compatible with a certain move-
ment of the bottom and often enables us to perceive the grains of sand
which are washed down. In proportion as the discharge increases, that is
to say the depth and the volume, the movement of the bottom increases
and becomes faster; shocks are produced, small whirlpools are formed
and the Solid matter is no longer simply rolled along, but is stirred up
and mixed with the water. The latter becomes first discoloured, then
troubled, then muddy, as when a vase containing clear water and
a sediment is violently shaken. The discharge always increasing and
with it the effective force of the current, solid matter of a larger
9
and larger size is put in motion, and if we go down the river in a boat
without rowing or making any noise it is easy to hear a continually
increasing sound mingled with loader and harsher noises, which exactly
remind us of the noise made by pebbles rolling down a slope as they
strike against one another and are frequently hurled a considerable
distance by the shock. Exactly similar movements take place when
pebbles are washed along in a water-course, and it is not unusual after
a flood to see pebbles as large as one’s fist, sometimes as big as one's
head, deposited outside the bed three or four metres above the low-water
mark and beyond the dikes above which they have been cast. This
movement and noise is the more marked as the discharge increases;
the size and quantity of the solid matter increase at the same time and
during the highest floods of large water-courses a sound is produced
like a continuous fall and precisely similar to the roaring of the sea.
Then when the water subsides the same phenomena are produced
inversely, the larger fragments are deposited first, then the rest succes-
sively, the lighter substances only remaining mingled with the water,
which ceases to be muddy, becomes discoloured only, and finally clear.
To each permanent state of the water therefore corresponds an effec-
tive force which should be counteracted by the wear and movement of
the solid matter. Once the quantity of matter corresponding to this
power is in movement, the current is incapable of carrying down more :
it is then, as has been correctly stated, saturated. If the volume of
Water in movement or the incline change, the saturation capacity also
changes and the current deposits or gathers more solid matter.
These continual variations in the effective force of the current or
the Saturation capacity of the water on the one hand and the resistance
of the bed on the other must have the effect of constantly modifying
the form of the bed, and this explains the variable condition of most
water-courses in their natural state.
If these variations are considerable and frequent, the form of the bed
will be unstable and continually changing; but every circumstance which
has the effect of decreasing the changes caused by one or other of these
forces, or of making them periodically acquire the same values, will
restrict the modifications of the form of the bed or periodically occasion
similar modifications. And as among the different phenomena which
take place on a water-course we can distinguish certain things which
reproduce themselves, such as forces which are always exercised in the same
direction, or on the other hand there are places where the resistance
remains the same either naturally or in consequence of improvements,
it is not impossible to determine a number of constant conditions which
the formation of a river should satisfy.
In the first place it is clear that if the floods only brought down an
increased volume of water, their effect would be to wear away the bed,
10
to deepen it by degrees and progressively decrease its incline, until it
should be reduced to a condition where all movement ceased. But such
is not the case. They wash down, mingled with the water, a quantity
of Solid matter stirred up in the principal basin and the basins of its
tributaries.
For the bed to maintain its general position without being worn away
or raised, the volume of matter brought down by each flood must be
equal to the amount ejected. It is evident a priori that this equality
will not be produced in every flood, that some will carry down more,
others less solid matter and that a certain mean stability will only
result from the alternation of high and low waters.
But the successive tributaries which a river receives have not all the
Same nature or constitution. They will consequently each have a differ-
ent influence upon the conditions of the flow of the principal water-
course and upon its form.
When a tributary falls into a water-course it is in a state of Saturation
which corresponds to the volume of the water and the incline upon which it
flows. The water with which it is about to mingle is itself in a state of
Saturation corresponding to its volume and incline. The waters and solid
matters of the two water-courses intermingle. If the new volume of
water and solid matter corresponds exactly to the state of Saturation of
the mixture as regards the the incline at which it flows, nothing will be
changed in the movement of the solid matter, which will continue to
descend as though no mingling had taken place.
But it may be conceived that such a condition is not realised in
practice and that the quantity of matter resulting from the supply of the
tributary together with that of the principal water-course will never
be exactly equal to that which corresponds to the state of Saturation
of the new volume of water. It will be either greater or less.
In the first case a part will be deposited which will raise the bottom and
increase the incline of the deposit down stream, until the effective force of
the current shall have become sufficient to carry away all such supplies.
In the second case the water will become saturated at the expense of
f the principal bed, which will deepen while the incline down stream of
the tributary will decrease, until the effective force of the current
becomes equal to the power necessary to remove the Solid matter.
But among the tributaries which a water-course receives, there are
Some whose nature is quieter than that of the principal water-course
and others on the contrary more difluvial in character.
The first will carry down more water than solid matter. After their
junction the water in the main water-course will be below the saturation
point, the bed will be worn away and the confluence will be followed
by more pronounced inclines than those which precede it.
The others on the contrary will carry down much solid matter and
11
little water. After their junction the united waters will be powerless to
wash away the whole of the solid matter, a part of which will be
deposited, the bed of the principal water-course will rise and the confluence
will be followed by less pronounced inclines than those which precede it.
Each tributary therefore in consequence of the difference between its
nature and that of the main water-course, will determine a break in the
general incline of the water-course. This effect will be more or less marked
according to the relative importance of the two water-courses; but if
the principal tributary may be compared as regards its discharge to the
main water-course, the effect will be considerable and the resulting modifi-
cations will influence the form of the course in a more pronounced manner
than such resisting obstacles as ledges of rock; they will continue moreover
until a distribution of the inclines is established, so that the effective
force at any point will acquire the value which corresponds to the
power expended in ordinary floods. The incline will then become con-
stant so far as it is possible for it to be, that is to say that except in
quite extraordinary floods, which stir up the bed to the very bottom,
changes in the incline will be reduced to an oscillation within the
narrow limits of its average position.
Observation fully confirms these remarks. The Rhône in particular
offers several examples which make the fact sufficiently evident.
In the middle of its course it receives three tributaries which, without
being as large as itself, are nevertheless considerable water-courses — the
Ain, the Saône and the Isère.
The Ain is of a diluvial nature, its discharge at low water is very
small, its discharge at high water considerable, it flows over friable ground
and carries down large quantities of solid matter. It should therefore at
the confluence occasion a considerable deposit and its cone of evacuation
should create a bar across the valley, while determining down stream
more pronounced inclines than up stream. In fact from the falls of Sault
to the confluence with the Ain, that is over about 30 km. above this
confluence, the average incline is 0.30 m. per kilometre, while below this
confluence and as far as the confluence with the Saône, over 35 km.,
the average incline is 0.81 m. per kilometre.
The character of the Saône on the contrary is quiet; it only carries
down sand and shingle; the volume of water is great, that of the solid
matter small; its action therefore should be the inverse of the Ain and wear
away the bed of the Rhône and reduce its incline. In fact while above
the confluence this incline is as we have just seen 0.81 m. per kilometre,
down stream on the contrary and as for as the confluence with the Isère,
Over a distance of 100 km., it is not more than 0.50 m. per kilometre.
Finally the Isère has, like the Ain, a more diluvial nature than
the Rhône, it should therefore have the same effect as the Ain, occasion
a rising in the bed and an aggravation of the inclines down stream. In
12
fact, while between the Saône and the Isère the average incline is 0.50 m.
per kilometre, below the confluence it increases to 0.775 m. and main-
tains this angle for a distance of 90 km., until the Rhône, swollen by a
Series of less important tributaries, carries down a volume of water suffi-
cient to reduce the incline to 0.50 m. per kilometre.
All the tributaries evidently do not act with the same force on the
distribution of the inclines, but at a slightly different angle. They all
have a similar action which is felt by the introduction of fresh and less
marked, though more frequent, breaks in the form of the course, and these
breaks are determined by ledges of rock and the large tributaries. And as,
at least as far as concerns the time it is sufficient to regard for the duration
of the regulation works, the general conditions of the nature of the main
water-course and of the tributaries are very slightly variable, the influ-
ence of each tributary is always felt in the same direction and will always
tend to give a certain permanency to the form of the course and the
position of the deposits.
Still this influence is not alone to be considered; if it is predominant
in the case of large tributaries it is less so when they are small; its
effects must combine with those produced in the main bed and which
result from the distribution of the resisting forces throughout its length.
And it will immediately be understood that the form of the course and
the position of the deposits will become the more constant as the situa-
tion of the resisting forces shall itself be more fixed. -
It is therefore important to describe the influence which the distribution
and nature of the resisting forces met with in the bed of the water-
course exercises upon the general conditions of its form and inclines.
Let us first examine the form of the river. If we suppose a recti-
linear bed, the transverse section of which is rectangular and in which
the water flows with a depth and incline such that the effective force of
the current is insufficient to put in motion the solid matter which con-
stitututes the bottom and the banks, the flow will continue indefinitely
without causing any change in the form of the bed or the course. This
is what takes place for example in a canal of masonry.
But if the bottom is not absolutely resisting, when the discharge and
the depth increase the effective force of the current will become superior
to the resistance of the bottom and the movement of solid matter will
commence. In order that the section should remain rectangular and the
bed rectilinear, it would be necessary that at every point the quantity of
solid matter carried off should have exactly the same thickness, which
would require that the effective force and the resistance should every-
where be constant. It is evident that this conditon is never fulfilled in
natural water-courses. On the contrary, the volume of water will find
before it materials offering very different resistance and the current will
open a passage and establish itself in the line where it meets with least
13
resistance. A thalweg will thus be formed, that is to say a line where the
depth is greatest, and upon this line the effective force of the current will
increase while it decreases over the rest of the bed. The scouring process
will therefore become more and more energetic until a new form of
course is obtained in which there will everywhere be equilibrium.
The current will therefore find itself turned aside from its primitive
direction parallel to the banks and thrown against one of them. If this
bank is unassailable the force will be spent in whirlpools which wear
away the bed and the current will cross over to the opposite bank, it
will pass from one to the other and pursue a more or less sinuous
route, the form of which will be determined by the new initial direction
of the water and the stability of the bottom. If the bank is not unas-
sailable it will be washed away, the deviation of the current will be
accentuated and this effect will continue until sufficient resistance is met
with to cause a turn in the current. The same thing will take place
therefore in either case, the change in direction or the curve followed
by the new bank only being more accentuated in the second case than
in the first.
It is evident moreover that one bend will be followed by another and
then a third, so that whether between unassailable or between crumbling
banks the current will follow a sinuous course and pass continually
from one bank to another.
The sinuous forms which all rivers present is therefore not only
general but also necessary and results from the heterogeneous con-
stitution of the bed; but we can easily understand the influence
exercised upon the constancy of the channel by the consolidation of
the banks; it limits the extent to which they are washed away and
more especially affects their form which, by determining the points
where these bends occur and the direction of them, that is the initial
direction of the current when it abandons one bank, leaves only the
resistance of the bed as a variable element of its ulterior direction.
The transverse section gives rise to equally important observations.
We have pointed out that the rectangular form of this section, that is
to say the absolute flatness of the bottom, was not more constant than º
the rectilinear direction of the current, and we have observed that this
Section deepens first where the soil presents the least resistance ; but
after this first modification has been produced the depth and the incline
cease to be constant and the effective force of the current varies from
one point to another in the section. The position in the section of the
deepest hollows, and consequently the position of the line of the thalweg,
will therefore depend at once upon the resistance of the bed and all the
circumstances calculated to influence the effective force of the current.
When the current strikes against one resisting bank from which it
crosses over to the other, the waters successively arrested by the obstacle
14
they meet with create a pressure which must be counterbalanced by an
opposite pressure and the level rises along the wall that is struck. The
same thing occurs for the same reason when the current follows the
concave bank; the centrifugal force drives the water against the bank
and is counterbalanced by a pressure of the water nearest the bank, the
level of which is raised. In both these forms the surface of the water is
not horizontal in the transverse section ; it indicates a rise against the
bank, a deviation which it is easy to observe and is often pronounced
enongh to be apparent to the eye.
The consequences of this as far as the shape of the course is concerned
are sufficiently important for it to be useful to examine them in detail,
and to simplify our explanations we will first take the case that most
frequently occurs, namely that of a cencave curve (1).
We have said that as any given volume of water approaches the bank it
exercises on that immediately in front of it a pressure which must be
counterbalanced by a rising of the surface; but as the speed is not the
same throughout a section of the current, being greater near the surface
than the bottom, the pressure exercised by one section will not be equally
distributed over the whole of the preceding section; the upper stratum
animated by a greater speed will exercise a greater pressure, and the
lower stratum a less pressure than the middle stratum. The upper stratum
will therefore force back that which immediately precedes it and will
create a cross current against the bank. This may be easily observed.
Against the bank the strata successively swamped by the succeeding
strata will gradually sink down and thus create a descending current ;
arrived at the bottom and meeting with strata that exercise less pressure
they force back the latter and create a cross current, leave the concave
bank and return to their point of departure creating an ascending cur-
rent along the opposite bank. So that at the same time that they take
part in the general movement of the translation of the mass of water,
they follow a sort of circular movement in the transverse section, and
finally their resulting movement being very different from the movement
of parallel currents will be somewhat spiral in character.
This movement will necessarily influence that of the solid matter. If we
first suppose the bottom to be horizontal the effective force of the current
will be greater where the depth itself is greater, that is to say on the
side where the deviation takes place; as the water must become saturated
with solid matter it will carry away more from the concave than the
convex side, and as the movement constantly carries it from the concave
to the convex bank, where the effective force of the current is less, a
part of the solid matter will be there deposited. This effect will gradually
(1) BoLSSINESQ. Essai sur la théorie des eaux courantes. Du Boys. Annales des Ponts
et chaussées, 1879.
15
become more marked, because the difference between the two banks will
continue to increase until the talus of the convex side shall have assumed
an incline sufficient for the force of gravitation to stop the cross move-
ment of solid matter.
If the bed is very wide it may happen that the energy of the cross
current is insufficient to effect the transport of the solid matter over its
entire width as far as the convex bank; the deposit will then take place
before arriving at this bank, near the middle of the bed, and two thal-
wegs will be formed, the principal one in the neighbourhood of the con-
cave bank, the secondary one near the convex bank and separated from
it by a bar lying in almost the same direction as the banks.
If on the contrary the energy of the cross current is sufficient as
regards the width of the bed for the removal of solid matter to be effected
as far as the convex bank, there will be but one thalweg in the neigh-
bourhood of the concave bank, and the transverse section will acquire
a form similar to that of a triangle the base of which is formed by the
surface of the water and the apex is on the line of the thalweg.
If the bend in the river is very sharp the deviation will be very
pronounced and the energy of the cross current very great; consequently
exactly at the foot of the concave bank the bed will be deep, while on
the convex bank the deposits will be considerable and capable of keeping
their position upon a fairly sloping incline; the convex bank will advance
and contract the bed as it becomes dug out. That is to say the channel
will be deeper and narrower and the thalweg nearer the bank in pro-
portion as the curve of this bank shall itself be sharper.
Moreover it is clear that similar effects will be produced along any
resisting obstacle or sharp projection against which the current shall be
directed, produce a deviation and lose a portion of it force. The intensity
and extent of these effects will depend on the length and direction of
the obstacle or bank and also on its form.
If the resisting bank has a very gentle slope the rising water will be
disposed of without difficulty, the deviation will be hardly perceptible
and the deepening of the bed inconsiderable. If on the contrary the
resisting bank consists of a steep slope or is perpendicular like a wall, a
dike or a wall of rock, the rising water is confined, the deviation is
sharper and the deepening more considerable. Finally, if the obstacle is
very high the same effects will be produced whatever the condition of
the Water may be, that is to say the same in time of flood as when the
Water is at its average level, and they will be the more marked as the
forces at work are more considerable.
Every obstacle, every oblique or concave resisting bank therefore has
the effect of deepening the bed in its neighbourhood, and the more so as
it is more resisting, abrupt, perpendicular or oblique or has a sharper
curve or greater height; and as it constitutes a permanent cause, at least
|
i
16
relatively, its action will not only occasion an increased depth but will
also maintain it.
It remains for us to examine what takes place in the longitudinal
Section. It can be conjectured that the same causes which produce sinu-
Osities and an inequality of depth in the transverse section will have a simi-
lar effect in the longitudinal section and will prevent a uniformity of incline.
The distribution of depths in the transverse section depends upon the
resistance of the bottom, and at the same time upon the form and nature
of the banks which modify the movement of the water and effective
force of the current. These circumstances are not the same in all sections
and consequently the maximum depths with not be the same and will
not occupy the same positions. On the other hand as the sinuous form
draws the current from one bank to the other, each bank will alternately
present points where local conditions help to maintain the depths and
will consequently be unfavourable to the formation of deposits. From
which it results that when after a flood the solid matter stops, it is
between these points, generally in passing from one bank to the
other, that deposits will be produced, of which the form, importance and
set will depend at once on the local conditions and the peculiar nature
of the flood.
Therefore after the flood has passed and the movement of solid matter
is suspended the profile of the thalweg, the locus of points where the
bed is alternately deep and shallow, will be composed of a series of
inclines and counter-inclines fluctuating from one side to the other of
the mean incline of the water-course. And the bed will consist of a
succession of hollows sometimes near one bank, sometimes near the
other, and separated by ridges of which the form, height and set will
vary from one point to another.
Regular observation confirms this induction. All the soundings taken in a
river indicate this form, and it becomes perfectly apparent in rivers with a
variable discharge when the volume of water becomes very small. And
if the discharge becomes absolutely mil, as happens for instance at the
time of low water in a secondary branch fed only at the average
water-level, instead of an absolutely dry bed, as would be observed if
the incline was uniform or always in the same direction, a series of
small lakes is met with, filled with smooth water and separated by
perfectly dry bars.
To a more or less marked degree this form is met with in all rivers
and the flow actually occurs as in artificially dammed rivers. The form
of the bottom reacts upon the profile and the ledges cut up this profile
into a series of reaches with gentle inclines separated by rapids. This
form is especially met with at low water; in proportion as the water
rises the ledges becoming more and more submerged disappear and the
local irregularities are toned down. Moreover, they are the more marked
17
as the general incline of the water-course is more pronounced, the discharge
more variable, the bottom more unstable and its accidents more decided.
Nevertheless between rivers artificially dammed and natural water-
courses there is another difference besides the magnitude of the effects
produced, namely that in the former the position, the set and the height
of the dams are absolutely fixed, while in the latter they are variable.
In fact if we consider the moment in which the discharge is sufficiently
feeble for no movement of solid matter to be produced, the form of the
bed and the situation of the ledges will not vary as long as the water
does not rise. But when a flood occurs the effective force of the current
will become sufficient to put the materials in movement, the form of
the bed will change and its disfigurement will increase to the maximum ;
then when the water subsides an inverse change will take place which
will contiue until by the decrease in the discharge the effective force of the
current will everywhere become inferior to the resistance of the bed, all
movement of solid matter will cease, and the form will change no more.
By this time, the solid matter which carpeted the bed before the
flood and which was carried away during the rising of the water
will be replaced by that which has been brought down and
deposited as the water subsided; but it may be that the quantity
and position are not the same. In fact all floods are not alike, but
differ in nature and importance; in some diluvial tributaries predo-
minate, in others peaceful tributaries. Each one finds before it a
different bed to the floods that have gone before and has a different
flow while rising and falling. After it has passed it will leave, like those
that have preceded it, a sinuous bed formed of a series of channels sepa-
rated by ridges, because for this general character to be produced it is
only necessary that the uneven resistance of the bed shall remain a
permanent cause in spite of the variety of the floods; but it is evident
that the form of the bed, the direction of the banks, the varieties in
depth, the position, set and relief of the ridges will be modified.
These modifications will be more or less considerable according to the
differences presented by successive floods, and according to the differences
they meet with in the form and resistance of the bed and the banks.
For this reason after every flood continual upheavals are met with
on most natural water-courses, while on the contrary in those whose
banks are absolutely constant and determine by their form the position
of the different depths, the form of the bed changes little in ordinary
floods, the variations in depth are reproduced in places favourable for their
formation and the deposits always reform in approximately the same
place, varying only in their set and relief according to the nature and
quantity of the solid matter in movement.
This comparative constancy constitutes a considerable improvement
for property along the river-banks, but an insufficient improvement for
GIRARD ON. - 2
18
purposes of navigation; for the chief difficulties consist precisely in the relief
and set of ridges that must be removed, but it simplifies the problem
and in many cases allows of a satisfactory solution.
We will confine ourselves to these general observations which might
easily be developed and extended, but it is sufficient to draw attention
to Some of the essential facts when regulation works are to be undertaken,
and we will summarise as follows:
1. Natural water-courses carry down solid matter with the water. The quantity
of this matter depends on the resistance offered by the bed and the soil
composing the basin; it increases, all things being equal, with the volume of
water and the incline. . . . . .
The movement of the waters is periodical; they pass from a feeble to a
greatly increased discharge, once started they continue their movement without
stopping until they reach the sea. The movement of solid matter follows that of
the waters, but instead of being continuous it is intermittent and is effected by stages.
2. The form of all water-courses is sinuous, consisting of a series of curves
and counter-curves which are connected more or less abruptly.
3. The depth is whequally distributed in the cross section, being greater in those
parts of the bed which offer least resistance to the current. Resisting or sharp pro-
jecting obstacles and concave curves provoke and occasion the continuance of hollows.
4. The profile of the thalweg presents neither a wniform nor continuous incline,
but a certain number of main inclines the breaks in which and the angle are
determined by ridges of rocks or large tributaries. Between these points it is
composed of a succession of inclines and counter-inclines forming a tortuous
line as they approach each other and fluctuates about the mean incline. The
ºrising and falling of this line is determined by secondary tributaries and the
distribution of resistances throughout the bed.
5. The bed is composed of a series of hollows separated by ridges. This
form is the more pronounced as the general incline of the river is greater;
it is especially perceptible when the water is very low and it becomes less
ºnarked and the incline of the surface becomes more regular in proportion as
the discharge increases.
6. Every flood brings down a fresh Supply of solid matter which carpets the
bed and modifies the form. The new form takes after the old one in its general
character, the sinuosities of the banks and the profile of the thalweg; it
differs from it in some degree according to circumstances in the form of the
sinuosities, the position of the various depths, the position, set and relief
of the ridges.
But when in a water-course the banks are firm and constant, ordinary
floods only modify the form of the bed to a very limited extent and after they
have passed the same variations in depth occur in the same places and the
ledges reform where they were before, differing only in relief and the way they set.
19
II.
Regul at i on W or k s,
C0NFINEMENT OF THE BED.
The first operations effected on rivers are ordinarily for the protection
of property against the crumbling away of the banks and against inun-
dations. They consist in the building of revetments along the banks,
groins to draw off the current from the banks and dikes to prevent over-
flowing. But as they have been undertaken in different epocs, often in
ancient times, without any methodical plan, without being viewed as a
whole, they have not as a rule increased the facilities of navigation and
sometimes have even created obstacles.
Regulation works properly so called, and in general all works of which
the main object is the improvement of the condition of rivers with
respect to navigation, have only been attempted within quite recent
times and were not carried out to any large extent until the opening of
railroads. The regularity of transport which has been the result has
become an imperative necessity to trade, and it is now essential to
take means to render it possible upon navigable ways by improving
their form, increasing their depth and lengthening the period during
which they may be used to advantage.
The problem is therefore comparatively new. Wherever it has been
possible it has been found perfectly satisfactory to canalise rivers by
means of moveable dams. But where various reasons, the examination of
which would lead us astray from the subject which occupies us, have made
it desirable to abandon this means for the regulation of the free course
of the river, the problem has become much more difficult and the solu-
tions of it less complete and still susceptible of numerous improvements.
This gives a real interest to the examination of the attempts that have
been made and to a knowledge of the results obtained.
In regulation works, such as are generally effected, it is usual to com-
mence by gathering into one bed the water in the false branches. Irregula-
rities in the banks of this single channel are next removed, the sharpness
of their outline is smoothed down and it is endeavoured to give their
form, as far as regards their greatest depth, a direction that may easily
be followed. We seek therefore, especially by confining the waters within
the summer bed by constructive works sufficiently near together, to obtain
20
a flow with the requisite depth by the double effect of the swelling pro-
duced by the contracting works and of the more emergetic action they
exercise in wearing away the ridges and scouring the bottom. --
The first operation requires no particular observation; the necessity
of it is evident. Navigation is generally easy when there is a fair quan-
tity of water; difficulties only commence when the discharge decreases.
The first condition therefore is to lose nothing that can be disposed of
and to gather into the channel of navigation all the water in the river
in the dry season.
The regulation of the form of the banks is a much more delicate
operation, first because local circumstances often occasion considerable
inconvenience and because the expense is much less and the result more
certain when too great displacement of the bed is avoided.
In some rivers the form is simply composed of arcs of a circle con-
nected by straight lines, in others a sinuous form or a system of conti-
nuous curves has been adopted; but whatever the forms adopted may be
they are nearly always sinuous and must conform to certain general
principles dictated by experience. -
Long straight reaches give rise to an uncertain and variable thalweg,
moreover by decreasing the distance they increase the incline and the
speed and are detrimental to the formation and maintenance of a deep
channel. -
On the other hand sharp curves fix the thalweg, but they determine
the formation of a deep and narrow channel, a circumstance which as
well as the sharpness of the curves renders the passage of boats very
difficult. -
Curves of large radius offer neither of these inconveniences and on this
account they are generally adopted when possible. However, without it
being possible to formulate precise rules, there are certain proportions it
is well to observe between the width of the bed, the radius, the length
and the height of the curves. If for instance the height taken between
the top of the curve and the tangent common to two inverse contiguous
curves was less than the width of the bed, a direct current might form
between the constructive works and the channel being insufficiently
guided would be inconstant; in general the condition necessary to avoid
this inconvenience is found naturally fulfilled in the comparatively narrow
summer bed, but it is necessary to consider it with regard to the winter
bed which is much wider, because a defective direction in the main cur-
rent of the high waters might occasion very serious disturbances in the
channel of the low waters. In the same way it is necessary to prevent
the current when it abandons one concave bank, that is to say the direc-
tion of the tangent at the point where the direction changes, from run-
ning into the opposite bank where it is convex; this latter would be
attacked if it was not protected and the form of the bed would be dis-
21
torted; and even if it were protected deep places would form none the
less at the foot of the protecting works and these would also cause dis-
tortion in the channel.
The conditions necessary, together with the local circumstances that
have to be submitted to, generally indicate the solution to be adopted
for the form of banks within rather narrow limits, between which there
remains however a certain latitude. It is necessary to take advantage of
these conditions to give the banks the most suitable form for the satis-
factory distribution of the variations in depth.
General experience and the precise observations of M. FARGUE upon
the Garonne have clearly shown the Superiority of continuous curves in
this respect.
Finally the most difficult question remains, namely the determina-
tion of the distance between the banks or of the mean width of the
normal profile corresponding to a given discharge.
This width is calculated by means of the well known formula for
permanent movement in open canals:
R i == b w?
in which i is the mean incline of the river throughout the part under
consideration , and where the discharge is the same, w the mean speed
and R the average radius *) which in large water-courses differs little
from the mean depth.
As to the coefficient b, sometimes that which results from experiments
which have gone to establish the formula is adopted, choice being given
to those experiments in which the nature of the walls of the canal used
for them resembles as nearly as possible the conditions met with on a
river; at other times for the sake of greater precision it is determined by
direct experiment on the water-course in question.
So that if L = mean width required and Q = discharge of that part of
the river under consideration,
Q = L X R X w.
and therefore
2
L? = b%
where all the letters represent known quantities if the mean depth R be
determined.
Sometimes the depth of water it is sought to obtain is simply taken
for the value of R, or by an examination over the whole river where the
discharge remains equal to Q a mean depth R, is sought for by making
k
J
*) If J2 is the section and x the wet perimeter R = x
22
calculations upon a great number of sections; at the same time the
minimum depth t is taken, naturally on the same section of the river,
and the mean depth R is thus obtained; this is to be introduced into
the formula for the determination of the mean normal width from either
of the following equations in which T = depth of water required:
R — T = R — t
OT
which are evidently both arbitrary.
The width of the section being thus calculated, the bed it is required
to create may be confined either by dikes running parallel to the course,
or by cross works which at intervals determine the normal profile. The
choice between these two methods depends upon circumstances. On rivers
with a considerable incline leading dikes are generally employed, on others
preference is generally given to cross works. Where the nature of the
materials to be disposed of makes it desirable to use stone for these struc-
tures dikes are most generally used, but the contrary is the case when
it is a question of fascine-work which is more easily placed crosswise
than the other way.
Dikes guide the current better when the speed is great; groins more
easily provoke accretion ; but the great advantage which the latter
present when they can be employed is that by lengthening them it is
easy to modify the profile adopted in the first instance. It is easily
understood how uncertain is the determination of the width by the
formulae that we have given ; the variety that we have pointed out in
the manner of applying them would be sufficient to show the many
chances of error which their use entails. These errors are much more’
easily corrected with leading dikes than with cross groins, for it should
be remarked that when works of this nature are constructed to modify
the width of the profile adopted, it is nearly always with a view to
contracting it and this may be due to many causes: either from motives
of prudence a very marked contraction has not been made in the first
instance, or it has been necessary to construct the projected works at a
comparatively high level and the profile has been established for the
discharge at the average water-level, and when the water is low and the
works should come into play, they remain separated from the channel
which not being confined by them fluctuates in the gap between them;
or again it is recognised that they have not fulfilled the expections
formed of them, that the depth it was sought to obtain has not been
reached and it has become indispensable to try to increase it by resort-
ing to further contraction. When the channel is confined by dikes
there is no other resource than to build new ones, a method which
23
presents many inconveniences besides its expense; with cross groins
the modification of the profile may be satisfactorily effected at a moderate
cost, because it is sufficient to lengthen the groin at low water-level,
which in reality produces two distinct profiles – one for low water and
another for the average level. This very rational system is met with on
many rivers, having either been adopted in course of time or introduced
since the commencement of the works.
But this advantage however real it may be could not give the cross
works the qualities they want for certain purposes and especially for
guiding the current into the sharper concave curves and more consi-
derable inclines; therefore in a great number of cases a mixed system
has been adopted in which each kind of work has been employed
wherever either was found most suitable. -
Such are the main characteristics and rules most followed for regu-
lating by means of the confinement of the bed. The application of the
method on different rivers presents very sensible differences, both as
regards the principles which regulate the forms of rivers, the methods of
calculating the normal profile and the choice of the works by which the
confinement is effected.
But whatever these differences may be the principle remains the same,
viz. to determine with reference to the known incline and discharge the
profile corresponding to the flow with the requisite depth and to induce
the regulated course of the river to follow it throughout, as long as the
discharge remains the same, either continuously by the help of leading
dikes, or by the placing of groins at intervals.
Thus by gauging the river as it were and fixing the normal profile,
which would be found in a channel with a regular incline and constant
depth, we endavour to provoke this regularity of incline and depth.
This method was for years adopted on the Rhône to the exclusion
of nearly all other systems up to 1882. It has often given excellent local
results and it would be easy to mention many important sections on this
river which have been greatly improved by it and the success of some has
even been greater than expected; but it has also occasioned numerous
mistakes and these mistakes have become more frequent in proportion
as the works have been more extensive and it has been possible to
judge well of their effect, not only on the rectified portion, but also on
the neighbouring sections. This effect which is nearly always detrimental
is the same when a small portion of the river is regulated or a considera-
ble distance is included in the improvements. And it is easy to see
that it could not well be otherwise considering that the principles upon
which the works are arranged are the same.
From the explanations given by us in the first part of this Report it
results that the bed of a water-course consists of a series of comparatively
deep hollows separated by ridges or ledges; the profile of the water
24
presents but a slight incline upon the hollows and a fall upon the ridges.
The depth of water is always less upon the ridges and it is these that
give most trouble and must be regulated. To increase the depth which
is insufficient the ridge is enclosed for a certain distance above and
below by works which reduce the width of the bed, as has been said
above, to the dimensions calculated, which correspond to the flow
with the requisite depth. If the bottom is resisting our expectations are
realised and the estimated increase in depth is approximately obtained,
but such is not generally the case; if the bottom is unstable, it is com-
posed of matter which, where the confinement is effected, the water is
no longer able to wash away after the floods have subsided on account
of its depth and incline.
The confinement modifies the state of things to which the formation
of the bed is due and by increasing the depth the effective force
of the current is augmented, the bottom is scoured, the ridge is
removed and the requisite depth is obtained and often even sur-
passed; but at the same time the bar disappears which retained the
water in the hollow above it, and this hollow also disappears. What
takes place in this case is precisely analogous to what happens in
a canalised river when a dam is lowered — the obstacle disappears,
the water of the reach sinks, and the fall is added to that of the
dam above, unless in the interval there is a natural ridge which, sub-
merged when the dam is raised, will after it has been lowered form an
intermediate bar and distribute the fall effaced by the dam above. In
the same way the removal of a shoal increases the fall of the bad pas-
Sage immediately above and makes it worse; it often also uncovers
intermediate shoals which, sufficiently covered before for them to offer
no inconvenience, make their appearance and in turn become difficult
paSSages. .
- However these effects may be reduced by those which take place
below the works. The solid matter taken from the shoal is carried away
as long as the effective force of the current is sufficient ; when this
decreases they are deposited, ordinarily where first the width increases,
either immediately below the works or in any other favourable spot;
a new shoal is formed and the resulting bar may partly take the place
of that which has been suppressed and compensale to a certain degree
the lowering of the level of the water.
But as the profile of the course of a river is formed by a succession
of steps, when one is suppressed either one or other of these conse-
quences is the result: either the step suppressed is developed elsewhere,
or its height is added to one of those in the immediate neighbourhood,
or it is distributed among them ; but finally either the same number of
steps remains, their position only having changed, or there is a smaller
number and the height is increased. The resulting improvement where
25
the shallow has disappeared is compensated by an aggravation at One
or several other points.
For it to be otherwise it would be necessary for the ridge suppressed
to be replaced by an incline the total height of which should be the
same as that of the ridge, that is to Say that the two reaches which
were separated by the ridge should be replaced by a channel with a
regular incline which would extend from the upper to the lower ridge.
The necessity of obtaining this result, if it is desired to obtain real
improvements by the process of confining the banks, renders the regu-
lation of the incline on rivers where it is attempted a matter of such
importance. This necessity also soon leads to the impossibility of
confining the regulation simply to the part affected by the bad passage,
but requires the prolongation of the works, both up and down stream,
over the whole length of hollows contiguous to the ridge, and from
point to point, from one ridge to another, systematically throughout the
course of the river. e
It is in fact natural to suppose that the various parts of a river are in
some way severally answerable for its condition, to attribute these
inconveniences to works partially effected for their isolation, and to
think that by everywhere following the lines pursued where good
results have been obtained these results will be generalised.
It is still more natural from a technical point of view to say that if
the water flows over different inclines the fact is connected with the
diversity of the profiles, and that by regulating the profile the incline
will also be regulated, and to hope that the lowering of the water resul-
ting from the suppression of a ridge may be compensated by the Swelling
produced up stream by the lengthening of the confining works and by
forcing the water from the hollow to flow into a narrower section at a
greater incline.
This argument would not raise any very serious objection if the
bottom was stable, but as it is unstable what actually takes place is .
very different from this ; the new conditions under which the water flows
occasion modifications in the form of the bed, and the new form which
it assumes will in turn influence the conditions under which the water flows.
Let us consider a long section of a river confined by regulating works.
The first effect of confining the bed is to increase the incline and the
depth, and the flow continues as though the bottom was fixed. But the
form that the bed presents at this moment and the nature of the materi-
als which constitute it are such as suited the circumstances anterior to
the erection of the works and which at a certain moment in the fall of
the water had realised an equilibrium between the effective force of
the current and the resistance of the bed. This equilibrium is upset by
the modification in the conditions under which the water flows, the
effective force increases throughout the confined section and the bottom
26
is attacked; but as the incline has changed the depth has increased more
up stream than down stream, the increase in the effective force is more
considerable and the scouring more energetic ; the water becomes charged
with a greater quantity of matter than it is capable of carrying to the
end of the dike, so that it is gradually deposited down stream, the bot-
tom of the bed is dug away up stream and is raised down stream. This
distortion acts upon the profile of the water, the incline of which decreases,
and this effect will continue to be produced until the reduction of the
incline shall have caused a sufficient decrease in the effective force of the
current for a new state of equilibrium to be established. If as generally
happens the successive layers of alluvial deposit which are uncovered by
the Scouring do not present very different resistances, the incline will
become less than it was before the regulation, a condition necessary for
reducing the effective force to its original value, since the depth having
become greater the volume of water which acts on the bed has become
more considerable.
Thus while on one resisting water-course the confinement produces an
increase in the incline, on a river with an unstable bottom on the con-
trary the confinement occasions a decrease in the incline. Throughout the
contracted section, if the conditions of the form of the bed are satisfac-
tory, a channel may be obtained with a direction more easy to follow
and of greater depth, that is to say a combination of circumstances more
favourable to navigation; the improvement may even appear the more
complete as the depth obtained is frequently greater than expected, for
the increase depends both on the decrease in width, which was taken
into account, and the decrease of the incline, which was not taken into
account.
This modification of the incline moreover is not effected rapidly; in
time of low water, although there is a sensible scouring action, it is incon-
siderable; it only becomes more pronounced in time of floods; as at first
it had increased plenty of time might pass before its decrease might entail
detrimental consequences; but in the long run the modification becomes
more marked and its effect is felt at both extremeties of the Section con-
fined, where the increase in depth becomes evident.
The experience derived from the works formerly erected on the Rhône
after this system has several times exemplified this consequence of regu.
lating a river by the confinement of the bed; but although it has been
observed elsewhere and already noted by a certain number of authors it
does not appear to be universally known; we therefore think it may be
of service to give an example of it which we will choose from among
the works which, regarded simply within their limits, have produced a
certain and incontestable improvement. (Plate I).
Between the confluence with the Ain and the confluence with the
Saône the Rhône has a course of 35 kilometres. The physical conditions
27
met with before regulation were the following. Throughout the 10 km.
below the confluence with the Ain, from this confluence as far as the
neighbourhood of the village of Sons, the waters were united almost
continuously in a single branch along the hill on the left bank, the
right bank consisting of plains which became submerged in time of
high floods.
Throughout the 8 km. above the confluence with the Saône, which
form the channel to Lyons, the waters were equally united in one bed.
Navigation in these two sections where no regulation had been effected
encountered conditions which were certainly difficult, but incomparably
less So than in the intermediate section.
In the latter, over a distance of 17 km., the stream spread itself over a
surface which in some places was nearly 6 km. wide and was broken up
into numerous branches; on some profiles as many as eight could be
counted, among which the discharge at low water was distributed un-
equally. The main branch followed by the navigation changed its position
incessantly, at every flood in fact, and even in an almost constant
manner under the action of the mean waters which were sufficient
to carry down earth which was constantly moved and was therefore
most unstable.
The improvement of this channel was undertaken according to the
method the main lines of which we have already indicated. At first a
project was studied in 1847 which consisted in separating the navigable
branch from the false branches by a dividing dike at the entrance and
in building a dam in front of the village of Thil across the principal
false branch where nearly all the other branches began; next a channel
was opened across the plain over its whole length of 17 km., the normal
profile of which was calculated to give a depth of 1.60 m. at Ordinary
low water. The form of the channel, studied with the greatest care, was
composed of a succession of very rational curves and counter-curves.
The expense however was very considerable and the project had to be
abandoned for another which, while it preserved the works of separation
and the same normal profile, applied this profile to a less expensive form
of bed and included the branch named Miribel, also regulated, at that
time used for navigation.
The works were carried out according to this programme and finished
in 1857; the resulting improvement was very evident and the navigation,
in place of the continual uncertainty in which this passage left it, found
in the canal of Miribel a channel easy to follow and of sufficient depth
at any time of year. For several years this improvement appeared to be
the Only result of the works and nothing indicated that they could have
any inconvenient consequences. Nevertherless the bottom of the canal
was attacked; lower measurements began to be registered at low water
than before the works were executed and these got lower and lower,
28
while at the exit they marked higher and higher; then the foundation of
the works, which had been made at low water-level, appeared in the
upper portion of the canal and was even uncovered at the mean Summer
level of the water, while below the same water-level the tow-path was
submerged and became useless throughout the greater part of the year.
It became necessary to improve this situation which might at any time
become very serious. The tow-path was first raised over half the length,
that is the part submerged; then to arrest the movement it was decided
to lower the dividing dike and to cut down the dam of Thil as low as
possible, in order to allow the greatest possible volume of water to find
its way through the false branches, not only in floods but also at the
mean water-level. It was supposed that by this means the main branch
would be relieved and that by decreasing the volume of water which
crossed it its scouring action would cease. The result aimed at has bien
partially realised; the movement of the profile has become much slower,
but has not entirely ceased; and although the volume of water which passes
into the canal has become notably less, the incline which will set up
any equilibrium between the resistance of the bottom and the effective
force of the current under the new conditions of depth has not yet been
attained.
Plate I gives the projection, the profile lengthwise and three transverse
sections before the works were built, and in its present state. The profile
on a large scale only gives the regulated section; the profile on a small
scale extents from the confluence with the Ain to Lyons and shows the
junction of the old and new profiles at the two extremities. The first
indicates the mean incline for every kilometre, the second the mean
incline for every five kilometres; the scale did not allow of more
detailed indications, but the actual profiles are far from giving regular
inclines over these distances and they take, like all the profiles which we
have had occasion to refer to, the form of a flight of stairs, a profile
which the bottom gives rise to. .
A glance at these profiles, in which the surface of the Water and the
bottom are indicated along the line of greatest depth, Suffices to show
clearly the movement down stream of a portion of the matter composing
the bed, the decrease in the incline of the bottom and the decrease in
the incline of the surface which has been the necessary consequence.
We will briefly recapitulate the results that these works have given.
In the canal itself a direction much more easy to follow has been
obtained and also a greater depth. The plan of 1847 shows that the
curve where there is a depth of 1.20 m. below low water mark is in
several places interrupted and the minimum depth in the channel
of navigation is 0.80 m. or 0.90 m. The plan of the present state of
the river shows on the contrary that the curve of 1.40 m. is not
interrupted; nevertheless this depth cannot be fully utilised, because
29
it is not found everywhere over a sufficiently wide area and because
it is not met with in all the profiles where navigation is possible;
in fact a depth of about 1.20 m, or 1.25 is the greatest available,
which however is a great improvement on the original state of the
river. The mean depth in the canal when the water reaches the discharge
upon which the calculations of the project were based is more than
1.80 m. ; it is greater than was expected, which is not surprising as the
incline is considerably less; the average depth at the time the water is
lowest is still 1.50 m., but it is very irregularly distributed; from one
Section to another it varies from 1.20 m. to 2.20 m. ; as to the extreme
depths they vary from a maximum of 4.70 m. to a minimum of 0.50 m.
measured at 30 m. from the bank. The form of the profile is sometimes
a rectangle, more often a triangle the apex of which is alternately near
each bank. Finally the profile realises neither the incline nor uniformity
that was anticipated. The mean incline throughout the length of
the canal is 0.696 m. per kilometre; it varies from 0.41 m. to 1.09 m.
per kilometre and the local incline varies from 0.20 m. to 2.20 m.
per kilometre.
Thus in spite of the improvement realised, in spite of the enormously
extensive alterations that the river has undergone while passing between
the constant banks, neither regularity in the cross section has been
obtained, nor constancy in the mean depth, nor uniformity in the incline;
and the bed that has been opened remains formed as everywhere else
of a series of hollows separated by ridges, while the profile presents a
series of reaches with a comparatively feeble incline separated by falls.
Outside the canal the general incline of the combined streams at the
entrance to Lyons, at kilometre 5, where the profiles join, has not
sensibly varied; it was and still is 0.81 m. per kilometre, but its distri-
bution has changed considerably. Throughout the canal, from kilometre
8 to kilometre 25, it was 0.883 m. ; it is not more than 0.696 m. per
kilometre on the other hand above the canal; from kilometre 25 to kilo-
metre 34 it has been raised from 0.75 m. to 0.96 m., and below kilo-
metre 8 to kilometre 5 it has been raised from 0.49 m. to 1.06 m. per
kilometre.
Navigation has become very difficult in the channel, but it has become
most difficult at its extremities, where not only the speed is very great,
but the depth at times of low water is less than 0.80 m., which stops
navigation as formerly the difficulties of the plain of Miribel did.
If would seem natural to continue both up and down stream similar
works to those which have given throughout the canal so great an improve-
ment, and the continuation of them up stream has in fact been
effected ; but as similar results have been produced in consequence in
many places, it has been necessary to recognise the fact that the lower-
ing of the incline was an inevitable consequence, that has long been
30
taught by experience, of the contraction of the section; the same method
has not been pursued and as we have said more attention has been
given to works which might be able to lessen or remove the evil than
to those which simply risked the changing of the position of it.
The causes which provoke the decrease in the incline are independent
of the length of the section confined; the only difference which appears
possible between a long regulation of this nature and a short one is that
the decrease in the incline corresponding to one and the same resistance
in the bottom will give at both extremities a greater fall in the first
case than the second ; but there is no reason for us to believe that the
bottom will be better maintained with the original incline, when the
depth and scouring action of the water will be increased by the decrease
in the width if the works embrace a large portion of the river, than
if these works are confined to a shorter section.
This grave inconvenience cannot be obviated by works of this nature,
except by increasing the resistance of the bottom at the same time as
the effective force of the current which acts upon it is increased. It is
a very simple idea which all engineers should have who have occupied
themselves with these questions and who have been in a position to
make the observations we have indicated; it has been applied upon a
certain number of rivers, and upon the Rhône itself it is very old.
The employment of works, not only on the banks to increase their
resistance or modify their form and pitch, but on the bottom to increase
its resistance, to fix or modify its incline, has been proposed since 1842
for the regulation of the rapids at Sault.
The project consisted in covering the falls by the eddy produced
by raising the incline down stream by means of a series of bars or sub-
merged ridges; and the inventor, M. Goux, C. E., from the effect of these
works was able to make very clear explanations which have lost nothing
of their value and their generality. We will state them briefly.
Let us suppose that it is sought to establish over a certain distance
On a river a given incline which shall differ little from the natural
incline in other parts of it. If this distance be divided into equal parts
and a bar or ridge be constructed at each point of the division so that
a line along the tops of these ridges shall have precisely the requisite
incline, the levelling down from one ridge to another will be equal. Let
h = their common value.
A series of reaches will thus be formed identically similar, separated
by similar bars, and if the discharge of the river becomes so small that
in each reach the speed and superficial incline are almost nil, the differ-
ence in level between two consecutive reaches, that is the fall from one
to another, will be constant and equal to h. Now if the discharge increases,
an incline will be established in each reach and from one to the other
a different fall than that which previously existed, but all the ridges
31
being subject to identically the same conditions the variations in the
surface of the water will be reproduced in a similar manner from one
to the other, the inclines in each reach will be equal, the falls on each
ridge will be the same, and the difference in the level of the water between
two consecutive ridges or between any two points separated by the distance
equal to the space between two ridges, will be constant and equal to h.
This constant difference in level consists of the total incline of one
reach and the fall of the next reach, so that if p = this incline and c =
the fall,
h = p + c
from which it follows that :
1. The difference in level between two consecutive ridges is the maxi-
mum limit of the fall from one to the other.
2. This maximum fall is not reached unless the discharge is so small
that p becomes nil. -
3. So soon as this condition ceases, the height of the fall c becomes
less than h and decreases as the incline of the reach is more pronounced;
so that as the discharge increases a moment will arrive when p will
equal h and then all fall will be obliterated on the ridges and the
incline of the surface of the water will be regular, as though the bed
formed by the series of ridges was continuous.
Moreover it is evident that the equidistance between the ridges, which
we have admitted to simplify the argument, is not indispensable and
the falls would be effaced even if this equidistance was not maintained.
Experience fully confirms these inductions and continually shows that
the fall produced upon a ridge, when the discharge is inconsiderable,
becomes less and less until it disappears entirely in proportion as the
discharge increases. Falls of 0.50 m. or more which are frequently met
with on fixed bars in time of low water, are entirely obliterated when
these bars are covered with two or three metres. The incline on rivers
is always small, so that it is sufficient to place the ridges at suitable
distances from one another to reduce the height h, maximum in a fall
when the discharge is very low, to a very small quantity, and conse-
quently to make sure that when the ridges are covered with a depth of
water equal to that required for navigation purposes, it will no longer
cause any appreciable undulation on the water's surface.
This depth of water sufficient for effacing the falls would also be suffi-
cient to counteract every other inconvenience, if the ridges could be
executed in masonry with a surface perfectly smooth like the sills of a
lock; but the excessive expense would make the use of them in most
cases impossible. They can generally only be used when they cost little
and, with the only known economical means of constrution, their surface
remains irregular; under these circumstances they may become danger-
ous to boats and may also cause eddies calculated to interfere with
32
steering; and for these two reasons prudence obliges us to keep them
below a greater depth of water than the maximum draught and to place
them lower than would be necessary to obtain the requisite incline.
The project for the correction of the falls of Sault, for which they
were proposed for the first time, has not been carried out; various
reasons have tended to give the preference to the formation of a
branch stream with locks; but since then sunken groins have
frequently been employed upon the Rhône; experience has shown that
by placing the top of them at least 2.50 m. below the lowest water-
level they present absolutely no inconvenience. Experience has also
shown that the use of them for procuring a greater regularity in the
incline, an object first aimed at in all works of this sort, only gave very
inconsiderable results; but it has enabled us to see that much benefit
could be derived from the regulation of the bottom and the prevention
of Scour. It has also proved that by establishing them in certain con-
ditions other very important effects could be obtained, complete expla-
nations of which we will furnish later.
However, in certain special cases, the groins being kept at this depth,
we have been able to make sure that they have produced an appreciable
effect on the incline and a slight rise in the level of the water. This
effect has been especially marked when they have been employed to
counteract a fall caused by a sharp obstacle, such as some old artificial
works, a bar of rock etc.; but different and much more complex con-
ditions are then presented than in the flow of water over a ridge of
gravel. The form of the latter is always rounded off, its slope up stream
and even down stream has a very slight incline, so that the depth
increases progressively and slowly all along the top. A bar of rock on the
contrary is a sharp obstacle, invariable in form and position, while at
the foot of it the soil is unstable. These bars are nearly always followed
by deep hollows, so that the water which falls over them descends
abruptly to a considerable depth to rise again further on ; in most cases
the surface of the water presents a very apparent rise and this pheno-
menon is particularly noticeable below a passage confined by two
obstacles close together, such as the piers of a bridge. By establishing
in the hollows a series of submerged ridges below the obstacle, not only
is the deepening arrested, but a barrier is opposed to this plunging
action of the water, it is forced to expend itself on the surface and the
rise, the main cause of excessive inclines, is decreased and sometimes
even suppressed. Many important improvements have been thus effected
under very different local conditions. We will mention only a few
instances. On the Rhône at the entrance to Lyons some old works com-
posed of piles and hewn stone produced an abrupt fall with very dan-
gerous eddies; a few ridges have entirely done away with the fall and have
completely suppressed the tempestuous movement of the water. On the same
33
river near Bourg-St Andéol there was a bar of rocks which caused a
rapid which powerful steamboats could not ascend without being towed
up; the placing of a few ridges below the rapid has sufficiently reduced
the fall for the heaviest laden vessels now to pass over it with the use
of their own power alone. On the Saône, the bridge of Ainay, the arches
of which are narrow and confined with rocks, at times of high water
presented some difficulty to navigation on account its arch ; the same
method has given similar results and boats which were unable to pass
the arches are today able to do so without serious difficulty.
But except in these exceptional cases groins or submerged ridges, laid
down under conditions dictated by prudence and experience, exercise
but a limited action on the incline; and although they are in many
respects of undoubted utility, they do not effect any more than other
methods complete uniformity in the incline.
Moreover, even when their execution might be possible at a
moderately high level and their action might be more effective they
would supply the means for maintaining the incline, for raising it
even where the scouring of the bed has reduced it; but they would be
without effect on the modifications caused in the incline by the raising
of the bottom, and that such modifications might be avoided it would be
necessary to bring about such a combination of circumstances that it
would be impossible for a deposit to form in any part of the water-
course, and this is evidently impossible.
If on a river there was a constant discharge both of water and solid
matter and at the same time the bed was not affected by scour, or at least
was sufficiently resisting for it not to be attacked by the current under
any conditions, a channel might certainly be conceived having a regular
width and incline and in which the flow of matter would never be
decreased or suspended and the depth would remain constant. But it is
not so; on all rivers the Solid and liquid discharges are continually vari-
able. Every flood brings down matter from the mountains and stirs up
that which the preceding flood had left in the bed. The matter is carried
away as long as the volume of water is sufficient; when the water sub-
sides the matter is deposited to be taken up again by the next flood and
so on by successive stages until if reaches the sea.
There is not in all fluvial hydraulics a fact which appears to be better
established than this intermittent movement and transport by stages of
the solid matter. By constructing suitable works here and there a greater
speed may be maintained than elsewhere and a combination of circum-
stances may be created which will prevent the deposit of solid matter;
but the illusion one is frequently induced to fall into is that by pursuing
the regularity of the profile and the incline the constancy of the move-
ment of solid matter to the sea will be obtained without cessation.
Thus, if it be supposed that an artificial canal has been constructed with
GIRARD ON. 3
34
;
incline and resistance suitable for preserving the liquid discharge with
the requisite depth without variation in the form, the end in view would
cease to be attained so soon as water charged with matter was intro-
duced into this canal. Above the resisting framework of the bed deposits
will be formed in places across which similar phenomena may be seen
to develope as those caused on rivers with indefinitely inconstant bottoms;
the principal difference would consist in this, that the artificial bottom
would be more opposed to the development of hollows than the beds of
other rivers, a resistance similar to that frequently met with on natural
water-courses where their bed is absolutely unassailable.
Whatever progress hydraulics may make, whatever certainty may be
given by the known or unknown formulae which’show the relation in
their continual movement between the discharge, the incline and the
section of a water-course, the assimilation of a river with a variable
discharge and unstable bottom to a canal with a resisting bottom, which
carries only water, will always fail to realise the results expected if it.
Such has been the case upon the Rhône and other rivers and it has
been the more marked as the water-course operated on agrees less
by reason if its nature with the conditions in which the hydraulic
formulae have been established and found applicable.
But although it showed the inconveniences resulting from this assimi-
lation, which frequently was forced, the experiment established more
clearly the necessity of certain facts and certain forms; it made the effect
of artificial works better known and gradually led to the adoption of
them in conditions more conformable to the laws which influence the
flow of the current in matural water-courses. We have now to consider
the attempt made upon these principles upon the river Rhône.
35
III.
Regulation Works.
METHOD ADOPTED ON THE RHôNE.
§ 1. Explanation of the method.
The methods that we have concisely explained were employed exclu-
sively upon the Rhône before the law of 1878 and for several years after
the passing of this law, which, while creating considerable resources for
the regulation of this river, allowed of the works being constructed on
a thorough basis such as their assured success seemed to demand.
This immense experiment has caused the abandonment of the system
of regulation based on the use of the normal profile calculated as though
the bed was resisting and the discharge exclusively liquid, and the
renunciation of the possibility of rendering the incline uniform. And it
has established as a necessary law in the movement of water and matter
in a river with unstable bottom the variable and intermittent flow of
gravel and consequently the preservation of ridges and the stair-case-like
nature of the profile.
The system adopted therefore no longer requires from hydraulic for-
mulae, which may be sufficiently exact for the circumstances in respect
to which they were established, conclusions which could not be so under
essentially different conditions. Far from seeking to modify the natural
flow of rivers it respects these conditions, and instead of entering into a
Struggle with nature it seeks to aid her by imitating the manner and
form by which she herself in certain cases obtains the desired results.
Observations on the natural form of the bed. — It results
from the observations contained in the first part of this Report that the
bed of a river with unstable bottom consists of a series of curves and reaches of
various lengths according to the incline of the river, the comparative depth and
the incline of the surface being moderate, and that these are separated by
*idges forming natural bars and the flow is produced from one hollow to
a??0ther as over more or less Submerged dams.
These general conditions not only exist on water-courses in their
natural state, but they are also reproduced between regulation works
in spite of efforts made to avoid them. It is therefore necessary to
maintain them.
Their general character, such as we have just defined it, is constant,
36
but they differ from one point to another in numerous details. If we
consider in particular the distance on a river composed of two hollows
separated by a ridge or two curves in opposite directions, a distance to
which we will give the name of passage, many varieties in the form of
passages may be observed ; but these varieties may however be grouped
in two principal classes.
Bad class of passage. — The first class is met with almost every-
where when the stream spreads itself out and often even when the water
is united in one branch, when local circumstances or the presence of
defective works favour the continuance of deep water along either bank.
The following are its characteristics (Pl. II).
Two hollows run into one another; slight inclines are prolonged
Over the whole extent of these hollows; the channel passes abruptly
from one bank to the other following a direction which more or
less approaches the general direction of the banks. The ridge which
separates two hollows forms a sharp turn in the current; it constitutes
a long dam slightly below the surface and the water flowing over it is
shallow and the fall is short. Under the conditions peculiar to the Rhône
the depth may fall to 0.40 m. As regards navigation all difficulties are found
united in such a passage, namely the want of depth and abrupt change
in direction, which renders ordinary restrictions insufficient and requires
boats to go round with the help of ropes without their being able
to follow the channel and utilise the full depth available, and finally
a very violent current.
Passages of this class were formerly very numerous on the Rhône and
they put a stop to navigation even before the depth fell below the
limit; boats could only pass them when the water was high enough
to give the necessary depth in a direction more easy to follow and to
reduce the fall by further immersing the dam.
Good class of passage. — The second class was also met with
where no artificial works had been constructed, but hardly anywhere
except where all the water was united in one branch between stable
banks. The following are its characteristics (Pl. II).
Two hollows have their extremities opposite one another without over-
lapping. The thalweg presents gradual and regular curves; the change in
direction takes place gradually; the ridge separating the two hollows has
an almost normal direction; it consists of a low dam a long way below
the surface, above which the water is deep and the fall is distributed.
In the conditions peculiar to the Rhône the minimum depth in the
hollows in passages of this class varies from 1.50 m. to 2.00 m. ; the
direction of the channel is easy to follow and the current is moderate;
they are easily passed by boats.
Con version of one class to a mother. — A r tificial works
necessary. — With regard to the regulation works which have been
37
carried out upon the Rhône, all that was done was to convert all the
passages of the first class to those of the second, while it was sought
to obtain in the cross Section a profile of the character and form which
is met with in passages which are naturally good.
To obtain this result the necessary operation consisted in:
1s' Uniting all the waters into one bed at time of low water;
2nd Fixing in this bed the position of the hollows and consequently
of the ridges;
3rd Controlling the formation or set of the ridges.
C on centration of the waters. — To unite the waters into a
single channel it is necessary to close the Secondary branches. The arti-
ficial works necessary for this must have a limited effect on the low
waters which alone it is important to concentrate; they should admit of
the high waters spreading out over as large a surface as possible so as
to reduce the speed and avoid the Scouring of the bottom; for this purpose
the dam which separates the false branch from the main branch must
be cut down to the level at which the concentration of the water is no
longer necessary. To make sure of its strength and to decrease the weight
it has to support when the overflow takes place, a weight which differs
little from the difference of the levels in the stream between the entrance
and the exit to the false branch, a Series of dams called tra verse S is
laid along this false branch, which divide the total fall and distribute
it among them; that is to say that the frame-work of a new bed is
formed in this branch the bottom of which is guided by the series of
traverses and is raised to the level at which the false branch comes into
play and relieves the main stream. -
Finally it is necessary, especially if the formation of the false branch
corresponds to the direction of the current in time of floods, to prevent
the main current from becoming established in it at the risk of causing
serious disturbances in the channel of navigation; to obtain this result the
principal dam, which forms one side of the channel, is joined to the river
bank by means of connecting works similar to those which are employed
behind dikes and the use and form of which we will indicate later.
Fixing the depth in curves. – We remarked in the first part
of this Report that when the banks were durably fixed and presented at
certain points conditions favourable for the creation and maintenance of
hollows, deposits formed between these points. Successive floods encoun-
tering at the same points the same resisting forms produce similar effects
and without giving to the hollow identical forms or dimensions, they at
least produce them in the same places and consequently preserve the
ridges in the same position. The first thing to be done therefore is to
make sure of the constancy of this position by determining upon a
suitable form for the banks and artificial works to be adopted and to
take steps to ensure their preservation.
38
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!
Experience shows that the depth is easily maintained in the concave
curves when no adverse action draws it in another direction, and
it is greater and nearer the bank as the curve is sharper. Experience
also shows that hollows are formed and remain at the foot of smooth
raised banks against which a deviation in the current may be produced,
or at least along which the speed ramains considerable under all condi-
tions of water. It is therefore necessary in the form of the works in
a curve of the channel to prevent these effects from counter-balancing one
another. If the two banks are formed of dikes with smooth steep walls the
water will have a tendency to form hollows by both banks, to form a
deposit between the two and a passage of the first class will be the
result. It might even happen, if the form of the banks is defective, that
an accidental circumstance might impel the current against the convex
bank where the action of the dike would retain it; and in this case there
would be an error in the calculations, the sinuosities of the channel
would not follow those of the banks and the hollows would not be pre-
served in the same places. Instances of this sort are not uncommon
where leading dams are adopted. If therefore it is wished to fix the
position of the hollows along the concave bank, it is not sufficient to
give this bank a form by which it may retain the thalweg, it is also
essential to treat the convex bank in such a manner that it may be
unable to attract or retain the current; that is to say dikes must be
avoided on the convea, bank; it must have the form of a shore with a gentle
incline, such as it naturally presents in the good passages of the Second
class. This form also has the advantage of leaving the space free before
the water as it rises and of avoiding the action of confinement, the
troublesome effects of which on the preservation of the incline we have
already drawn attention to.
Form of the concave bank. — It is generally an advantage to form
the concave bank by a dike the continuous action of which is more
favourable to the good direction of the current and the repetition of the
effects which produce the hollow. The form of this dike has a great
influence upon the satisfactory direction of the thalweg and the set of
the ridges. If the thalweg of a good passage is examined, it is found that
it gradually leaves the bank at the top of the curve and passes about
mid-way between the banks where the change of direction takes place.
It therefore presents a continual curve passing from a maximum at the
apex to nil where the direction changes. The bank should not be
parallel to the thalweg and its curves should be such that the thalweg
may be able to leave it gradually as the point where the direction
changes is approached. If it was otherwise, if the curve of the dike
retained the thalweg in its vicinity until the turn was nearly reached,
the same effect being produced in the inverse curve of the passage, the
change in direction would be abrupt and the passage would more or
39
less resemble the first class. And as the bank attracts the thalweg the
more forcibly the sharper the curve is, the curve must decrease in pro-
portion as the thalweg removes itself further and further from the dike,
that is as it passes in a continuous manner from its maximum at the
apex to nil at the turn in direction. The observations taken upon the
Rhône therefore fully confirm those of the Garonne and clearly establish
the advantages of continuity in the form of dikes.
As regards the choice of curves to be employed to realise this condi-
tion, there appears to be none that is absolutely preferable and local
circumstances often limit the number of possible solutions. Sinuosities
and spirals volute have been employed upon the Rhône, as upon the
Garonne, but it has been affirmed that for works formed by rocks and
constructed often under difficult conditions a sufficient continuity is
obtained by simply employing a series of arcs of a circle with radius
increasing from the apex of the curve to the point where the direction
changes. It is clear moreover that when a concavity is found between
two turns the same condition of continuity must be fulfilled on each
side of the apex by the different curves which form it.
Considerations of the same kind determine the profile of the dike. The
top of it must be placed at such a height that it may retain the waters
as long as there is any use in concentrating them for increasing the
depth. So soon as this depth is sufficient for the requirements of naviga-
tion when boats are fully laden, it is on the contrary desirable
to let the water spread over as great a surface as possible, so
as to avoid excessive scouring, which is calculated to injure the incline
and the width of the channel. In the conditions peculiar to the
Rhône this level must not be more than about 1.00 m. above the
lowest water-level; they are frequently placed at a higher level, either
to facilitate the formation of hollows in the first stage of the works or
simply to render the building of them easier, and they are afterwards
reduced to the level indicated above. But this level must not be the
same throughout the length of the dike. Since the hollows are greater
and nearer the bank as the latter is itself higher, it is essential, for the
channel to be able to leave it, that the effect of the dike continues to
diminish as the turn in direction is approached ; and as the curve is
reduced the top of the dike is made lower in proportion to the distance
from the apex. It should be highest at this apex and is reduced to the
natural level of the shore in the neighbourhood of each turn in the
curve. We are therefore induced by similar reasons to establish con-
tinuity and not uniformity in the profile of the dike.
As long as the level of the water remains low the use of the dike is
easily conceived; but when the water rises above the dike, if this class
of work is resorted to, absolutely pernicious effects may be produced. The
water by flowing over the dike would wash away its foundations; there
40
would be a risk of its being carried away and of secondary currents
being created behind it which might open a new channel; also boats
might be drawn against the dike by the cross current caused by the
overflowing. To prevent these results the dike is connected with the
bank by means of cross works which are called traverses, tenons or con-
nections. These are run in an up stream direction from the fore-
shore from which they slope downwards to the dike, so that the
combined effect of the incline and the way they are set helps to draw
the current into the centre of the principal channel and prevents the
formation of secondary currents and the overflow of the water. Their
action must be the more energetic as the effect they have to combat is
more pronounced, and consequently their incline towards the channel
must be the more marked as the water is more violent in its efforts to
escape. It is where the curve is sharpest that the centrifugal force is
greatest, and therefore the incline of the traverses will be sharper. The
traverses of one group, which all end in the dike at the level which it
has where they join, will therefore be formed with different inclines and
will rise the more abruptly from the dike the nearer they are to the
apex of the curve.
In those parts of the river where the incline is feeble and the bend of
the channel is slight, this combination of works may be simplified, the
dike may be done away with and simply connecting works may be
adopted to direct the flow of the water; but the action of these is less
effective, and the circumstances in which this system may be adopted
are rarely met with on the Rhône.
Form of the convex bank. — We have remarked how important it
is to fix the position of the hollows, to avoid on the convex bank all works
or forms capable of causing scour. This bank should be of such a nature as
is met with in good passages, that is a shore with a gentle slope So that
the water may spread over it without anywhere acquiring sufficient
speed to cause scour. When the shore already exists and offers sufficient
resistance there is nothing to be done; if the resistance is too feeble it
is strengthened by in clined groins which do not rise above the
natural level of the soil and which constitute as it were the skeleton of
the bed and give it the necessary solidity. If there is no shore, the
framework is constructed in the same manner by means of inclined
groins which mark the form and direct the water just as the shore
would do and thus provoke its formation. These groins should be set
so that they throw the main current into the line pursued by the
thalweg ; their incline should be regulated to the same end and they
should therefore exercise a more energetic action the further the thalweg
is removed from the convex bank. The groin corresponding to the
sharpest part of the curve must therefore be the most inclined, and on
41
both sides of this maximum the incline of the groins should diminish
till it attains a minimum at the turn in the curve.
Position of the turn. — Fixed position of the ridge. — The
rules adopted for fixing a channel in a curve may be briefly summarised:
the forms and artificial works most favourable for the formation and
maintenance of hollows must be adopted for the concave bank and the
same features are to be avoided on the convex bank. The most Suitable form
must be given to the latter for these effects not to be produced and it
must be strengthened so as to prevent all scouring. By these means the
formation of hollows along the convex bank is avoided and the preser-
vation of them is assured along the concave bank between the groins,
where they will be found regularly after every flood.
If similar features are given to all the curves of the channel the posi-
tion of all the hollows will remain constant, so that by maintaining
the variations in depth along the concave banks the periodical return
of deposits is at the same time provoked between two inverse con-
cavities.
To determine the form of the banks it only remains to fix the posi-
tion of the points where the curve changes and between these points the
bends must be distributed in such a manner that they may satisfy both
the local circumstances and the condition of continuity, the utility of
which we have pointed out.
This position cannot be arbitrary ; in fact the points in question are
stopping places for matter when the water subsides and the movement
of solid matter ceases.
It is clear that we are not entirely at liberty to fix these stopping
places and that we cannot without inconvenience and mistakes increase
or decrease their number to any considerable extent. The distance Sepa-
rating two deposits depends essentially on the character of the river,
the discharge of water, its incline and the quantity and the nature of
the matter carried down ; these conditions vary not only in different
rivers, but also in different parts of the same river; the influence of
them on the distribution of deposits is certainly very complex and if it
is wished to determine a priori by means of these elements the
distance between the ridges, we should be led to formulate arbitrary
hypotheses and to draw from them conclusions which could not be
proved. But fortunately the observation of what passes in any given
section of a river furnishes indications which are sufficient for practical
purposes; it enables us to affirm when the conditions of discharge and
incline differ to an inconsiderable degree that the distance between two
ridges is fixed by limits which are not very far from one another. It is
between these limits that the distances between the turns in the curves
must be maintained by following the lines indicated by good passages
and the local circumstances, so that the number of ridges formed
42
naturally may be approximately preserved, or, if a slight modification
is attempted, that this number may be increased rather than diminished,
for each ridge corresponds to a fall in the profile of the water and the
height of each fall is less when their number is increased.
Such is the combination of conditions to be fulfilled with regard to the
distance between the turns in direction, the distribution of the curves, the
choice of works, their height, direction and incline. Within the narrow
limits depending on local circumstances these conditions determine the
form of the banks with sufficient precision and at the same time make
sure of the periodical return in the same places of the hollows and
ridges.
The set of the ridges. – It may frequently happen that a good
form of bed and a judicious choice of artificial works suffice for directing
the channel, for guiding it from one concavity to another with easy turns
one way and the other, and for giving the ridge such a set and form
that it may be a satisfactory shallow easily passed by boats. The con-
tinuity of the curve, the height and incline of the artificial works
exercise a certain influence on the good direction of the channel. But
it may easily be conceived that this action, however useful it may be,
may be insufficient.
The curve acts upon the position of the channel on account of the
cross current which is the consequence of it, and scouring is the result ;
the height of the works has a similar effect, the result being always
produced in the same direction, that is the hollows are always, every-
thing else being equal, more marked and nearer the bank as the latter
is more curved, more even, deeper or higher; but the extent of this
effect depends on a combination of variable circumstances, in the front
rank of which must be placed the incline of the river and the resistance
of its bed, which vary from one point to another, so that two artificial
works identically the same in height and form may according to the
circumstances in which they are employed determine very different forms
of channels.
If in fact two passages be supposed in which the local requirements
lead one to adopt the same curves, it is clear that if one of them has a
considerable incline on a bottom easily washed away and the other has
a slight incline on a more resisting bottom, the effects produced will
not be the same. In the latter case the channel will generally be wide,
the thalweg will be without excessive variations in depth and the
channel will keep at a sufficient distance from the bank for it easily
to be followed by boats, passing over to the opposite bank with a
gentle and gradual turn in direction; the forms will resemble those
of the Second class of passage and the good set of the ridge will ensure
a Satisfactory shallow with a gentle fall and will be easily passed.
In the other on the contrary the Speed will be greater, the scouring
43
more energetic, the channel narrower, the thalweg deeper and nearer
the bank, it will keep by it longer and will with difficulty separate
from it to pass over to the other bank in a short and abrupt turn;
the form will resemble that of the first class, the set of the ridge will
be very slanting, the shallow will be feeble, the fall considerable and the
direction of the thalweg difficult or impossible to follow. -
The form of the banks, although it is sufficient to cause the for-
mation of the ridges always in the same place, is not so for regu-
lating their shape and giving them a satisfactory set and formation.
It is essential in many cases to increase its effect by means of artificial
works intended specially to regulate the change in direction and to effect
the gradual transition from the concave bank of one curve to that of
the succeeding curve. The comparison between good and bad passages
indicates what must be done.
In a good passage the hollows are not excessive and the channel is
wide; the thalweg, always sufficiently removed from the bank, without
difficulty leaves first one and then the other, while the depth gradually
decreases as the point where the change in direction is approached. If
the form of the transverse section be examined, it will always be found
to be more or less like a triangle the apex of which corresponds to the
thalweg and the base to the surface of the water; the base will be wide
and the height moderate; the apex will always be at some distance from
the concave bank and the incline of the sides, sharper near this bank,
will be inconsiderable. This form of section gradually changes; the height
decreases as the apex moves away from the bank; the slope of the two
sides diminishes at the same time, but more rapidly along the concave
bank, so that it becomes the same on both sides near where the turn in
direction takes place. On the other side of this turn symetrical forms are
reproduced in the same order.
In a bad passage on the contrary, the channel is narrow and the depth
considerable in the neighbourhood of the concave bank; the thalweg
keeps close to this bank and leaves it with difficulty, passing abruptly
to the other; the hollows are preserved nearly up to the change in
direction, when they stop suddenly and appear on the other side. The
transverse Section always has the general form of a triangle, but its base is
narrow and its height considerable. The apex is very near the concave
bank, is often even at its foot, and the incline of the two sides is very
considerable. This form is preserved without much change till the neigh-
bourhood of the turn in direction is reached beyond which without any
transition symetrical forms are found. -
That the ridge may set well it is therefore necessary to substitute for
these defective forms, which the transverse section presents in bad
passages, the rational forms which are found in naturally good
passages. This result is obtained by placing in deep places sunken
44
groins and cross dams at certain distances from one another and at a
sufficiently low level for them not to interfere with navigation or cause
any eddy on the surface.
These groins, while they reduce the depth in some degree, increase
the width of the channel. They should be set with a slant from the
bank up stream as they are intended to draw off the current ; for the
same reason they must slope from the bank downwards and the lowest
part of them, which determines the maximum depth, determinines at
the same time the spot where the greatest speed and the centre of the
channel are found. This centre should be nearer the bank as the point
under consideration is nearer the apex of the curve; the greatest depth
should also be found near the sharpest curves (a little below according
to general observation); the groin corresponding to this point will there-
fore have its foundations lower than the rest, its incline will be greater
and its end in the river will be deeper. The succeeding groins will rise
higher and higher and their incline will decrease in proportion as the
apex of the curve is left further away. Thus successive groins will really
cause an inclination in the surface, which will be changed by Successive
gradations until the normal form is realised ; this should be met with
at the turn in direction beyond which the inverse of these conditions
should be presented.
We are thus led after having realised continuity in the form of the
channel, the height and incline of the artificial works along the bank, as
regards the general form of the river, to also determine the same with
respect to the profile of the bottom and the nature of the transverse
section.
Sunken groins therefore, employed as has been said, fulfil a double
function. They guide the transition from one curve to another and
prevent excessive scouring of the bed on either side of the turn in
direction. By preserving the ridges and by limiting the depth in the
hollows, they preserve the falls and stair-case-like form of the profile,
and they prevent the general lowering of the surface of the water, that
is to say the objectionable effect which we have referred to and which
is so frequently produced when the bed is confined by regulating works.
But at the same time by regulating the set of these ridges they lengthen
without suppressing the falls upon them and thus make them easy
to pass.
The depth at which, on account of the possible imperfection of their
construction, the safety of navigation requires these structures to be
placed, limits their action on the inclines and this action generally simply
preserves them by preventing the scouring of the bed, which would
reduce their influence. Experience however has shown in certain special
cases that it is possible to attain slight rises in the level of the water
above the hollows, and it is clear that this effect would be the more
45
marked if it were possible to raise the tops of the groins. Such a result
would be very effective when from accident and the lack of precautions
an inconvenient fall in the level of the water might have been produced;
it would be useless, as we have shown above, and would not justify
the expenditure of the sum it would require, if we wished to render
the incline uniform — a result which it is impossible to obtain. The
preservation of the inclines on the contrary is in itself a result both
possible and entirely sufficient and the sunken groins, constructed
without ordinary precautions, allow of this object being attained with
certainty. Frequently further steps are taken to secure the consolidation
of the bottom when it is very liable to scour, and it is fixed through-
out its width by lengthening the groins from one bank to the other;
they are then called bottom ridges and are constructed of wood,
having the end turned up stream and reaching to the centre of the
channel the position of which they fix by determining the maximum
depth in the hollows.
But if the depth at which the groins have to be placed diminishes the
effect of them upon the incline of the surface, it exercises but little
influence on the effect they have on the current. This action in fact
depends especially on the way they are set, the incline of each of them
and its variation from one to another, conditions which suffice to deter-
mine the distribution of the variations in speed in the cross section, and
consequently the Order and the form of the deposits. But it is also clear
that this ruling action will be the more effective the better the incline
of the works, by means of which it is exercised, is regulated, and it is
on this point especially that the greatest care must be taken in the con-
struction of the works, for it, is easy to take these precautions and costs
little to do so.
Flow of gravel. – Relative constancy between the form
and the depth. — Such is the combination of rules followed and
works adopted on the Rhône since 1884. .
The choice of the works employed for the form of the banks in the
curved portions of the bed has the effect of ensuring the fixed position
of the channel and the preservation of the various depths and of pre-
paring and facilitating the satisfactory transition from one curve to
another. The form of the transverse section resulting from the use of
sunken groins completes this ruling action and ensures, besides a sufficient
width of channel, the continuity of depths, the resistance of the bottom,
the preservation and good set of the ridges.
It is therefore not sought to give the water-course the form of an arti-
ficial canal and to pursue both in the profile and cross section a unifor-
mity of which nature sets no example; on the contrary the natural
forms will be preserved which the water-course assumes under the action
of the laws which control the flow of water and matter, but it will be
46
necessary to establish continuity by the variation of these forms. They
are therefore not made to undergo any considerable modification and
they are simply regulated on the model of those which are naturally
good, and for accidental and perfectly unnecessary causes of irregularities
troublesome to navigation resistances are substituted and suitably distri-
buted, so that they form permanent causes of the periodical return of
the situations which are most favourable.
The banks of the stream remain sinuous and their form is made to
differ as little as possible from what it has made itself, but continuity is
introduced in the succession of curves. The bed continues to be formed
of a succession of hollows separated by ridges, but the passage from
hollows to shallows is managed by continuous gradations. The profile
preserves at low water an undulating form, it remains composed of a suc-
cession of reaches with slight inclines separated by falls; but the incline
of the reaches is sustained by the consolidation of the bottom and the
sharpness of the falls is reduced by the satisfactory set of the ridge.
When a flood is produced it modifies the form of the bed, as would
be the case on a natural water-course, the bottom is scoured in Some
places and is filled up in others; but these modifications are kept with-
in the narrowest limits by the greater resistance of the bottom and the
banks and the accidents which might fix their position are suppressed.
As the water rises it overflows the artificial works which regulate the
summer bed and spreads out without occasioning the deep disturbances
which are produced in a confined bed; but as it spreads out it meets with
artificial works on the convex bank, which is strengthened by them,
and works on the concave bank which connect it with the submerged
fore-shore. These works direct the water from stage to stage without
interfering with its expansion and flow, and by their action draw the
main current into the line of greatest depths and into the same position
which it occupies at low water, and thus the fixed position of the
thalweg is ensured. When the water subsides and comes back to the
Summer bed, it meets with a combination of circumstances which deter-
mine the return of the hollows and ridges to the places occupied by
them before the flood and the reproduction of formations similar to
those which existed before. -
The solid matter carried down therefore continues to flow in successive
stages, but the position of these is determined beforehand, gravel cannot
stop in the curves where everything has been arranged to favour the
preservation of the hollows and it can only be deposited in the turn
from one curve to another; but here is placed a whole series of artificial
works which regulate the form of the bed and the distribution of the
variations in speed, which without being an obstacle to the deposit
determine the form and set of it.
The depth upon the ridges after each flood varies continually and
47
depends upon the nature of the flood and the quantity of the matter
carried down. Variable causes cannot have constant effects. But this
depth is always the greatest which can result from the conditions under
which the ridge has been formed and which is the effect of the nature
of the river, for its maximum invariably corresponds to the satisfactory
set of the ridges.
The improvement that may thus be realised has not therefore precisely
the same character as that which can be obtained by canalisation by
means of moveable dams, or which it is sometimes sought to obtain by
the method of confinement of the bed; it is none the less considerable,
for the difference which exists between the depth upon the ridges which
are well or badly set is always very great. On the Rhône in particular
experience has shown that in the passages where the transformation is
accomplished the depth always remains sufficient to ensure easy and
regular navigation.
Method of constructing the artificial works. – If the judi-
cious choice of the form of the works is an essential condition of success,
the order followed in their execution and the care taken may also
exercise a considerable influence upon the result.
Every sharp obstacle, every isolated projection, provokes eddies and
Scour. It is therefore essential to round off the form of the works, to
connect the talus of the dikes with the incline of the bottom by means
of a bank, to lengthen the talus of the sunken groins by means of a
covering more or less long according to their relief, to regulate their
incline and widen their profile near the dike so as to effect the transition
between the two classes of works, and for the same reason to reduce
their incline where they join the bottom.
It is necessary to effect the modifications of the channel by degrees,
by gradual and successive changes, to give the works at first but a
slight relief, to construct them as far as possible in series, for their effects
are completed or counteracted by each other ; then after making a com-
Inencement to wait to let the stream do its work, and return to the same
place later. Not only are the eddies which projecting works provoke
thus avoided as well as the crumbling away which must be compen-
Sated for, but advantage is derived from the alluvial deposits which are
ordinarily produced about works of small relief and rounded shape, and
they are thus built up to the requisite height with appreciable economy.
The effects produced can in this way be judged by degrees, foreseen
conditions can be rectified if it appears necessary and the result aimed
at may be obtained with more certainty.
The rules which apply to the form of the bed and the choice of arti-
ficial works are therefore to some degree applicable to their execution ;
and if it is essential in the form of the bed to observe continuity in the
profile and in the transverse section, it is less important in the con-
48
struction to conform to the rule of continuity and to observe the same
gradations in the successive transformations which are to lead up to the
permanent form.
The success of this progressive and prudent method and the magnitude
of the experiment enable us to draw from it much useful information
and observations which are applicable to most river artificial works
when it is a question of effecting improvements with a view to navigation
or for the fixing of the banks.
The natural forces which come into play in a water-course are con-
siderable; they sometimes acquire enormous power and the laws which
regulate them are very complex. The struggle against these forces is
difficult, costly and often doubtful; failure is certain if the end in view
is contrary to the laws which govern them. But if instead of com-
bating them we confine ourselves to directing them, if instead
of seeking to entirely change the nature of their effects we content
ourselves with guiding them by progressively modifying their action by
a series of combined efforts which succeed and follow each other with
continuity, success is much more certain, because the result to be attained
at each point is very small and possible and the means at our disposal
are better proportioned to the object in view.
§ 2. Examples of its application.
To complete the foregoing explanations it will be sufficient to cite a
certain number of instances in which the method we have explained has
been adopted. We will take examples from the whole of the river, that
is to say under the most varied conditions as regards incline, discharge
and the nature of the solid matter carried down. Divided in this manner
they will give as exact an idea of the works already carried out on the
Rhône as a complete chart of the river, and the repetition of them would
only uselessly reproduce circumstances which are everywhere alike.
Concentration of water. — Tr a verse S and in cline d groins.
— Secondary branches always have the inconvenience of decreasing at
times of low water the discharge in the navigable branch. The closing
of them at the level of low water, under the conditions which we have
indicated, is understood without it being necessary to give any further
explanation; it will be effected either by the aid of traverses confined
to the width of the secondary branch, or by means of in cline d groins,
that is traverses which are prolonged beyond this branch to the main
branch the convex shore of which they regulate. We will mention as
examples the passages of Sénzan and Grigny, from kilometre 13 to kilo-
metre 15 (Pl. IV), and the passage from Gervans-Crozes, from kilometre
86 to kilometre 89 (Pl. IX).
But besides this and without there being any question of an important
49
secondary branch it often happens that the channel is divided in two in
the curve, one branch following the bend and the other following a
chord of the curve through a depression in the shore; a deposit is formed
where the two currents meet in a position that is not normal, sometimes
even in the bend itself. This undesirable effect is easily suppressed by
cutting up the Secondary channel by a few traverses and inclined groins,
which will re-establish the continuity of the shore and suppress the
secondary current which is the cause of the accidental deposit. We will
mention as an example the inclined groins of Jassoux in the passage of
St Auban, kilometre 44 (Pl. VI), which rapidly removed a badly situated
ridge which other artificial works were unable to touch; the traverses of
La Perine in the passages of Oiselet and Boulangère, kilometre 230 (Pl.
X); and finally the groins of La Cabane, at kilometre 322, which, three
in number, were sufficient to remove in a short time a deposit formed
at the foot of the quay-wall of Port St. Louis where they re-established
the necessary depth (Pl. XI). - -
Concave bank. — Leading dams and connecting works. –
As examples of leading dams regulating the form of the concave bank
and of traverses connected with these dams we may mention:
The dikes of St Tous and Ivour, from kilometre 4 to kilometre 7
(Pl. III), the dike of Sénszan, at kilometre 14 (Pl. IV), the dike of Les
Pêcheurs and the dike of Les Roches in the passages of Gerbay and
Condrieu, from kilometre 39 to kilometre 41 (Pl, V), the St Auban dike,
from kilometre 44 to kilometre 45 (Pl. VI); the Vions, Gervans, Lemps
and Crozes dikes in the Gervans-Crozes passages, from kilometre 86 to
kilometre 89 (Pl. IX), and the dikes of Le Dragonet, La Boulangère and
Oiselet, from kilometre 228 to kilometre 232 (Pl. X).
The most interesting are the Les Roches, La Boulangère and Sº Auban
dikes, all in very curved passages; the radius of the curve in the channel
becomes 450 m. at the apex for the first two and 650 m. for the third.
The St Auban dike which corrects a very irregular turn and is built
along the bank for a considerable distance is connected with it by a
group of twelve traverses the incline of which varies from 1.75°), to 3°/.
Convex bank. — Inclined groins. – As examples of groins
regulating the convex shore we may mention the inclined groins of
Berne, Limony and Brèze, from kilometre 53 to kilometre 55 (Pl. VII),
and the inclined groins of Lemps and S' Estève in the Gervans-Crozes
passage, from kilometre 86 to kilometre 89 (Pl. IX).
The most remarkable are those of Limony (Pl. VII) which, five in
number, regulate an extensive shore with a gentle slope varying from
0.8 °]. to 1.5 °].
Consolidation of the bottom. – Set of the ridges. –
Sunken groins. – As examples of sunken groins we may mention:
The group of 20 groins at St Tous, laid at a depth of 3 m. to 5 m.
GIRARD ON. 4.
30
below the low water-level; they have been constructed to consolidate
the bed and check the scour provoked by an old stone pitching pro-
tection raised 4 m. above the level of low water, and at the same time
to draw the thalweg away from the bank against which it is always
inclined to run when this bank is curved, high and smooth (Pl. III).
The group of 11 groins at Ivour, constructed for the same purpose as
those of St Tous and at similar depths. They have checked a general
fall in the level of the water, which had begun to show signs of taking
place, and rectified the change from the one curve to another the direc-
tion of which was bad (Pl. III).
The sunken groins at Les Roches which cut through the hollows and
guide the thalweg from the bank and regulate the change in direction
(Pl. V). We might also mention, as being specially intended to regulate
the change in direction and the set of the ridges, the groins of Les
Pécheurs in the Gerbay passage (Pl. V); the inclined and sunken groins
of Gervans, Lemps and Crozes in the Gervans-Crozes passage (Pl. IX),
and finally the groins of the Bac d'Oiselet, La Boulangère and Oiselet
(Pl. X).
Bottom ridges. – Finally we will mention as examples of bottom
ridges, that is groins made of wood and placed right across the channel
to consolidate the bed when it is liable to scour, the ridges at St Auban
(Pl. VI) and the ridges in the Creux des Mailles (Pl. VIII).
Concave bank with out dike. — The same plate (VIII) shows, a
little above the Creux des Mailles, the Ste Rose passage; the local con-
ditions of the curve, the incline and the resistance have allowed of the
Suppression of the concave dike and the simple use of connecting works
ending in inclined groins. The number of passages of this kind is very
limited.
§ 3. Character of the river.
Situation before the last artificial works were
constructed.
To give an account of the results of the method we have described, it
is first essential to indicate the nature of the river on which it has been
adopted and the conditions it offered previously to navigation.
Character. — The course of the Rhône from its source to the sea
is 750 kilometres in length of which 227 are in Swiss and 523 in French
territory. -
As regards its use for purposes of commerce the French Rhône may be
divided into two principal sections; 1st the Upper Rhône, from the
Swiss frontier to Lyons, which may be regarded as a waterway of purely
local interest serving for the transport of large quantities of building
materials along its banks; its length is 193 kilometres; 2nd the Lower
51
Rhône and the Maritime Rhône, between the confluence with the Saône
at Lyons and the Sea, which, connected by the Saône with the navigable
ways of the Centre, the North and the East, form part of the system of
principal waterways and seem called upon to exercise a decisive influence
upon the commercial movement of many of them.
The works for the confinement of the bed have been constructed at
various times in these two sections. The Miribel canal which we have
mentioned belongs to the first. The works constructed after the method
we next described belong to the second Section, the only one which by
reason of its commercial importance could justify the expense of a com-
bined operation. We will therefore only occupy ourselves in the latter
portion of this Report with the second section of the river.
The length of the Rhône between Lyons and the sea is 330 km., be-
tween Lyons and the lock of the sea-water canel of St. Louis 324 km.
The height of the confluence of the Saône and the Rhône is 158.58 m.;
it results that the average incline is 0.48 m. per kilometre (º)
This incline is very unequally distributed and presents the following
principal variations:
from Lyons to the Isère for . 103.50 km. Average incline . 0.50 m. (in )
- 1
n t * o the Ardèche . º º n * . 0.775 m. (++
he Isère t € AI'CléCIle 87.00 km IY). 1304 )
n the Ardèche to the Durance 57.00 km. n * . 0.513 m. (ii, )
1
the Durance to Soujean . 28.00 km. * , * . 0.260 m. (i. )
Sollie to St. Loui 47.00 km 0.023 m. ( 1
º Jean to llS . . º II]. ** º • vºw - e 43 †)
At certain points the incline is greater than the average and passages
are met with in which for a short distance it even becomes more than
3 or 4 m. per kilometre.
The superficial velocity of the current varies greatly in the same sec-
tion; the variations in velocity met with within the limits of the navi-
gable waters are included in the following: ~
at low water-level from 1.00 m. to 2.50 m. per second at Varions points;
at mean water-level from 1.60 mi. to 3.50 m. ;
at high water-level from 2.50 m. to 4.00 m.
But at mean and high water the channel is very wide, the velocity
varies greatly from point to point and boats going up stream can avoid
the swiftest parts of the current.
In time of high floods when navigation is interrupted a velocity of 5
or 6 m. has been registered.
The bed of the Rhône consists of a very thick layer of gravel which is
very unstable and easily washed away. In certain places rocky points
emerge, in a few others cross bars of rock stretch from one bank to
52
the other. This formation of the bed is almost the same over the whole
river and the only difference from one point to another is in the size of
the gravel. From Soujean to 28 km. below the Durance, the last con-
fluence, gravel disappears and only fine sand is found.
The discharge of the Rhône is very variable; the difference between the
volume in time of low water and floods is enormous, as appears from
the following table:

Minimum Conven- Maximum
observed in tional low observed in
- water in
1884. 1878. 1856.
Above the confluence with the Saône. 130 (ub.m. || 140 (Ill.m. || 5,400 (Ill.m.
Below , 22 57 22 22 150 240 7,000
92 }} 2) ,, , Isère . 250 365 9,700
22 22 ,, , , ,, Ardèche. 300 380 11,900
2 3 25 22 ,, , Durance. 370 450 13,900
Moreover the discharge during the flood of 1856 is certainly less than the
possible maximum, because on the one hand the floods of several tribu-
taries were considerably less than their known maximum, and on the
other hand the maxima of the different streams did not coincide.
However, these extremes are very rare and in order to judge of the
character of the river with respect to its navigability it is less necessary
to regard exceptional circumstances than such as those the repetition of
which is sufficiently frequent to influence trade.
The floods on the Rhône rise suddenly and rapidly subside; they
nearly everywhere cover considerable areas and easily managed currents
are met with, in fact navigation is not suspended until 4 m. above low
water-level is reached, when the passage through bridges becomes danger-
ous. Interruptions on account of floods are always of short duration.
Low water, the duration of which is generally much greater, is a much
more Serious obstacle, because the inconvenience it causes lasts longer
and because in spite of the decrease of the discharge it presents in certain
places of little depth, that is to say in most unfavourable conditions,
almost as great a velocity as at high water. It is then that the profile
of the water consists of a series of falls and the local inclines differ most
from the average. The increase of depth therefore in time of low water has
the double effect of lengthening the periods during which navigation is pos-
53
sible and of diminishing the efforts necessary for making head against
the current in these periods.
To define the depth of a river it is customary to give the depth above
a certain low water mark which is taken as a standard; generally it is
the level of ordinary low water. On the Rhône the level has been adopted
which was observed when the regulation works were commenced.
The low water discharge of the Rhône in the most difficult part, where
the most pronounced inclines between the Isère and the Ardèche are met
with, is almost entirely supplied by the upper Rhône, the Saône and the
Isère. The upper Rhône and the Isère, fed by glaciers, have their mini-
mum in winter; the Saône, fed by rains, has its minimum in summer.
The conventional low water of the Rhône occurs when the upper Rhône
and the Isère are both at their minimum and when at the same time
the Saône is at its lowest winter level. For the Rhône to reach a lower
level than this, a long and cold winter, the condition of the minimum
of the upper Rhône and the Isère, must succeed a prolonged drought with-
out autumn rains, the condition of the minimum of the Saône. This circum-
stance occurred in 1884, a year when the supply of water in canals
presented serious difficulties; it had not been observed before, so that
the low water mark adopted on the Rhône as a standard of comparison
may be considered to correspond to the state of water which, without
being the lowest possible, is exceptional and rare.
All the information give hereafter refers to this low water-level which
has been chosen considerably lower than on most rivers. It is essential
that this should be known that the importance of the results obtained
may be fully appreciated.
The above remarks suffice to show that, as regards the mobility of
the bed, the velocity of the current and the irregularity of the
discharge, the Rhône offers a more unfavourable combination of condi-
tions than any other large navigable river. And these remarks at the
same time reveal the extent of the difficulties in the way of shipping
which it has been necessary to remove to improve the navigable condi-
tion of the river.
The principal difficulties met with by boats were the bad direction of
the channel, the violence of the falls over the shallows, the insufficient
depth and the prolonged and frequently unlooked-for stoppages which
were the necessary consequence.
The irregularity of the channel and the sharp turns of the thalweg
did not admit of boats being steered simply by the helm ; ropes had to
be used in these passages to keep the boat in the right direction, and
this method was dangerous and tedious, and as it had to be resorted to
a great many times in one journey it considerably increased the expense
and caused much delay.
The fall of some rapids at low water was such that boats fitted with
54
1000 or 1200 horse-power were unable to pass them without being
hauled up.
The depth at low water-level became 0.40 m. and even less in some
passages; the length of time during which the river was navigable was
short, stoppages were produced every year and often lasted 90 or 100
days and Sometimes more.
The extreme instability of the bed occasioned at each flood consider-
able changes in the channel and the transport of enormous quantities
of gravel, causing the sudden formation of shoals capable of stopping
navigation even at comparatively high water.
In many places dangerous reefs were to be feared. Moreover a certain
number of bridges constructed at too low a level stopped navigation
considerably before the speed of the current demanded, and thus deprived
it of a fairly long period when the river was available for fully laden
transports.
In spite of this combination of unfavourable circumstances the Rhône,
upon which a considerable fleet of fast and powerful boots had been
established besides those which simply floated down with the current,
served an extensive commercial movement and continued to be the best
way of communication, both as regards rapidity and the low price of
transport, until the opening of railroads.
During this period of activity however very few regulation works were
undertaken and excepting a few tow-paths the greater part of the works
constructed before 1860 are of another order and were generally intended
for protection against inundations.
But with the opening of the railway from Lyons to Avignon the
situation changed completely. Finding in the railroad a more rapid and
essentially more regular means of communication, commerce would no
longer put up with the frequently unlooked-for and prolonged interrup-
tions it had up to that time submitted to and it gradually forsook navi-
gation. The shipping trade then vociferously demanded the improvement
of the river. Several projects were studied, but the resources swallowed
up every year in this sort of work did not admit of the execution of the
plans. From 1860 to 1878 only the worst passages were attempted, accor-
ding as the needs for their improvement were most pressing and the
extent of the funds available would allow. A series of corrections was
thus undertaken which were similar in idea to the Miribel canal on the
Upper Rhône, which we have already discribed, but on a considerably
smaller scale. The results obtained were very various; certain local im-
provements were effected, but without the results being of any real
Service to commerce, either because in many places the improvements
realised were compensated by aggravations up and down stream, or
because even without this inconvenience local improvements were unable
to modify in any effective manner the conditions favourable to navigation,
55
the progress of which remains uncertain as long as there are bad passages
and is always regulated by the worst of them.
These works had moreover shown many errors in the system employed;
they had demonstrated the importance of a good form of bed, the in-
convenience of long straight stretches, the necessity of maintaining numer-
ous changes in direction and of ensuring continuity in the curve of the
banks, and the desirability of lowering the level of the dikes.
With these successive improvements it seemed that the good results
obtained in certain places would easily be generalised and that it was
especially necessary to continue the works upon this method throughout
the whole length of the river at once, in order to ensure for the whole
distance a really effective improvement for purposes of commerce.
This idea gave rise to the last project of improvement. This project
was adopted by the law of 13th May 1878 which laid aside the sum of
45 millions for its execution.
Work was immediately begun and rapidly pushed on with, but the
more it progressed the more evident the errors in the system adopted
became; it was clear that the inconveniences observed were not only due
to the lack of Solidarity, but also to the principle itself upon which the
method was based, and the fact had to be recognised that by a system
of regulation based upon the confinement of the bed with low leading
dams which should fix the normal profile, complete success would not be
obtained and only a partial and insufficient improvement would be
realised. -
This conduced to the employment of cross works, concurrently with
the leading dams, and to the completion and modification by means of
sunken works of the action of works rising above the water; their effect
would be better noted and advantage would be derived from them.
These works however were not new; they had frequently been proposed
and employed in France and abroad; but the use made of them on the
Rhône, under the conditions that we have indicated, constitutes a method
that is new in most respects, not only as regards the employment and
combination of the different types for obtaining combined effects, but
also, as appears from the account we have given, from the principles
themselves upon which they are based and from the difference in the
end it is sought to attain.
The first trials on this new method were in 1882; they were continued
for two years; the success obtained and the experience acquired have
established opinions and allowed of the formulating of the very simple
rules which we have stated and which since 1884 have been applied to
new works, while at the same time the type of the old works was followed
as nearly as possible.
5
6
§ 4. Results obtained.
Although the regulation works upon the Rhône, undertaken upon the
passing of the law of 13th May 1878, are not entirely finished and
although their construction must continue for several years longer, the
bulk of the work is complete; what remains to be done is inconsiderable
and the expense of it does not amount to much ; these works will be
more especially for the consolidation of the results obtained; the limit of
possible progress is now almost reached and the conditions of naviga-
bility, at present very satisfactory, are hardly susceptible of further
modification. - >
Having got so far it is therefore possible to judge of the importance
of the progress effected and to define the new conditions shipping encoun-
ters today upon the Rhône.
This progress is seen in the increase in the minimum depth, the
reduction of the number of bad passages and consequently the extension
of the periods favourable to navigation, and the reduction of stoppages.
In crease of minimum depth at low water. — The minimum
depth before the regulation often fell below 0.40 m. in a certain number
of passages (it has even descended to 0.35 m. and 0.30 m.). This depth
has increased progressively and the observations taken at low water since
1878 enable us to quote the following figures for the minimum :
At low water in 1878 the depth was 0.40 m.
* *} º 1882 r) r 11 0.80 º
* º 1884 º n º 0.90 º
ºn r) n 1887 m 17 m 1.05 m
r) * º * º n
1893 1.25
7)
º7)rr;
º
This minimum of 1.25 m. may be counted upon today; it only exists
in one passage which is in the course of transformation. Therefore
0.85 m. has been gained upon the condition before the regulation works
were commenced; the minimum depth has become more than three times
what it was. The actual gain for shipping is still more considerable,
because the direction of the channel is better, the transition from one
curve to another is less abrupt, from which it results that boats are
more easily able to follow the line of greatest depth and make use of
the deepest channel available.
Reduction of the number of bad passages. – The number of
bad passages in which there is at no time a depth sufficient for boats
when fully laden has been decreasing every year.
The depth available on each ridge is determined by soundings which
are taken every week in time of low water and every fortnight when
the Water is at an average height. All the Soundings relating to one
shallow are expressed by a curve drawn after a scale by which the
position of the low water mark is determined. The examination of the
57
curve therefore enables us at any given moment to find what the depth
would be in the shallow if the water reached the low water-level, and
consequently to determine by means of the plan of comparison the
position of shallows throughout the whole length of the river.
The following table summarises this situation for a few years since
the commencement of the works; these years have been chosen from
those which have given the lowest water-levels and during which it was
possible to check the depth at low water from direct observation.
The results are given, first for each of the districts into which the
Rhône is divided, and afterwards grouped together for the whole river.
Diagrams annexed to this Report reproduce in a striking manner the
same indications for three years: for 1878 at the commencement of the
works, for 1884 a year of exceptionally low water, and for last year,
1893 (Pl. XII, XIII, XIV). Low water-level has been represented in
these diagrams by a horizontal line and depths of 1.00 m., 1.20 m.,
1.40 m. and 1.60 m. are marked below. The existing shallows are marked
in their kilometric position and at their depth below low water.
These diagrams as well as the table are most instructive; the improve-
ment effected is shown in them most clearly, as a few examples will
suffice to prove. --
The passages which presented less than 1.20 m. at low water were
81 m. in number before the regulation was effected ; only 10 remained in
1884, 3 in 1887 and none today. -
The passages which were less than 1.40 m. in depth were 104 m.
in number before the regulation; 31 remained in 1884, 16 in 1887 and
only 3 today.
But this examination not only shows that the progress has been con-
siderable, but also that this progress is regular and constant and becomes
more pronounced year by year, a fact which is not less important since
it points to the favourable duration of the results obtained.
It may therefore be very reasonably supposed that in course of time
and with the help of a few improvements the minimum low water-level
will be raised to about 1.40 m. or 1.50 m. The detailed study of the
regulated passages would perhaps lead to more sanguine expectations; it
seems however of little use to go into the matter as the conclusions
would be too uncertain. In work of such an entirely novel character, to
which experience everyday reveals more certain facts and by degrees
supplies data to a science that is still imperfect, it seems prudent to
pass over doubtful eventualities and to regard only the realities before us.
GIRARDoN. 4%

Passages in which Frºm Lyons to S Willier. From SVallirt the Ariëlº. Frºm tit Arlit to the H. | From IJI; t if it.
the depth below low Number of passages. Number of passages. Number of passages. Number of passages.
water-level T *-ºs---~~~~ m- ~~~-sºm-T-- __*-* TT- _s=---
was less than : 1878, 1882, 1884, 1887, 1878, 1882, 1884, 1887, 1878, 1882, 1884, 1887, 1878, 1882, 1884, 1887,
0.50 metre . . . . . . | – | – | – | – | – || 2 | – | – | – | – || 3 || – || – | – | – || 5 – | – | – || –
000 . . . . . . | 1 ||—||—||—||—|| 4 || – | – ||—||—|| 8 ||—| – ||—||—|| 8 – |-|-|-
0.70 , . . . . . . 5 || – | – | – | – || 9 || – || – || – || – || 5 || – | – || – | – || 19 – | – | – || –
0.80 , 5 | – | – | – | – || 9 || – | – | – | – || 8 || – | – | – | – || 22 — | – | – || –
0.90 ... . . . . . . 7 || 2 | – | – | – || 14 || 2 || 1 || – | – || 9 || – | – | – | – || 30, 4 || 1 || – || –
1.00 . . . . . . . . 12 || 2 || 1 || – || – || 17 | 3 || 4 || – | – | 11 || 2 | – | – | – | 40 7 || 5 || – || –
1.10 . . . . . . . 22 || 4 || 3 || 2 | – || 27 | 6 || 5 || – | – || 14 || 2 | – | – | – | 68 12 || 8 || 2 || –
1.20 , . . . . . . 31 || 6 || 4 || 2 | – |34 || 10 || 6 || 1 || – | 16 || 2 | – | – || – | 81|18 || 10 || 3 || –
1.30 . . . . . . . 33 10 || 5 || 2 | – || 38 11 || 9 || 5 || 1 || 20 || 4 || 2 | – | – || 91 25 | 16 || 7 || 1
1.40 . . . . . . . . 40. 18 || 14 || 7 || 1 |42 | 19 || 14 || 9 || 2 |22 || 5 || 3 || – || – || 104 42 |31 | 16 || 8
1.50 . . . . . . . . 43 || 23 21 | 16 || 1 |45 27 25 20 || 5 || 23 || 5 || 5 || 2 | – || 111 55 || 51 38 || 6
59
These results correspond nowadays to a very satisfactory state of naviga-
bility, but which the above figures however much information they may
give do not alone suffice to make perfectly evident. It is easy to show
in a still clearer manner the importance of the improvement effected and
the advantages it ensures for navigation.
Lengthening of periods favourable to navigation. — On
a canal or canalised river the depth is almost constant; it is one of the
essential conditions of navigability on the waterway under consideration;
but on a river of a variable nature and free course like the Rhône, the
depth is variable, and its minimum at low water gauges these same
conditions of navigability the more imperfectly as the low water-level
with which this depth is compared represents a more exceptional and
unusual state of water and as this minimum is consequently also excep-
tional and unusual. ... • -
To have a suitable means of comparison with other navigable ways,
it is necessary to translate these data and extract the duration of periods
favourable to navigation, or better still the average duration corres-
ponding to the various depths according to the supposed or already
realised minimum of low water. te
This result may be obtained in the following manner:
By studying the nature of the shoals it is found that when the
water rises the depth rarely increases in proportion to the variation
registered by the neighbouring scale, and it becomes apparent that under
the most unfavourable conditions a rise of 0.25 m. only corresponds to
an increase of 0.20 m. on the shoal,
On the other hand by comparing the movement of the water with the
principal scales on the Rhône a calculation has been made of the num-
ber of days during which the water keeps at a height varying from one
0.25 m. to another. This list has been made for a period of twenty years,
from 1871–1890, and the condition of the water during an average year
has been deduced. This condition varies from one section of the river to
another, the water falling more or less rapidly or with greater frequency in
each of them according to the character of the tributaries which feed it.
The section presenting the most unfavourable conditions has been chosen,
a section in which low water occurs most frequently and lasts longest.
The figures indicating the number of days during which the water
remains at a height varying from . one 0.25 m. to another above low
water-level, evidently, from what has been said above, give the number
of days during which the depth varies from one 0.20 m. to another
above the minimum at low water-level.
The results of these calculations are collected together in the following
tables which give, under slightly different forms, the conditions af navi-
gability corresponding to the minimum depths at low water which vary
from 0.40 m, to 1.60 m.
60
Number of days corresponding to the variations in depth within the
following limits:
The minimum at low water being
_- —T- *~.
D E P T H : 0.40 m. 0.80 m. 0.90 m. | 1.05 m. | 1.25 m. | 1.40 m.
Situation|Situation|Situation|Situation|Situation |Probable | 1.60 m.
in 1878. in 1882. in 1884. in 1887. in 1893. Situation
Days. | Days. | Days. Days. | Days. | Days. Days
below the minimum 2 2 2 2 2. 2 2
between 0.40 m. and 0.60 m. 9
, 0.60 , ,, 0.80 , 18
, 0.80 , ,, 1.00, 26 9 4
,, 1.00 , ,, 1.20 , || 37 18 13 6
,, 1.20 , ,, 1.40 , 46 26 22 | 16 6
, 1.40 , , 1.60, 45 37 33 24 16 9
,, 1.60 , ,, 1.80 , |. 43 || 46 41 || 35 | 24 18 9
,, 1.80 , , 2.00 , 38 45 44 42 35 | 26 18
above 2.00, 101 | 182 206 || 240 282 310 336
365 || 365 || 365 || 365 || 365 || 365 || 365
In this first form we have for each stage the number of days corres-
ponding to the variations in depth within the given limits. It may be
seen that as a rule the water remains for two days in the year below
the low water-level (that is for 40 days during the period of twenty
years which have been taken to arrive at the average); it may fall to
about 0.25 m. below and consequently during these two days leave only
a depth of less than 0.20 m. for the corresponding minimum.
The same results may be given in a still more practical form by
showing the number of days during which the depth is above a certain
limit, that is the number of days during which, given a minimum low
water-level, boats may be loaded to such and such a degree. The second
table shows this.
61
Number of days corresponding to a depth above the following limits:

The minimum at low water being.
—TN— --~
D E P T H : 0.40 m. 0.80 m. 0.90 m. | 1.05 m. | 1.25 m. 1.40 m.
Situation Situation|Situation|Situation|situation | Probable 1.60 m.
in 1878. in 1882. in 1884. in 1887. in 1893. Situation
Days Days Days Days Days Days Days :
Above 0.40 m. 363
, 0.60 , 354
, 0.80 , 336 || 363 || 363
,, 1.00 , 310 || 354 || 359 || 363
,, 1.20 , 273 336 || 346 || 357 363
,, 1.40 , 227 | 310 || 324 || 341 357 || 363
,, 1.60 , 182 273 || 291 317 | 341 354 363
,, 1.80 , 139 227 250 282 317 | 336 || 354
,, 2.00 , 101 | 182 206 || 240 282 310 || 336
These figures facilitate the comparison between the successively
different conditions through which the improvements have passed and
those that it may be hoped will be obtained. We will confine ourselves
to comparing the condition before the work began and the present time
by bringing together the corresponding figures in another table which
Will show the gain realised for each depth from the minimum 0.40 m.
up to 2.00 m.
ſlºtils illáll illiliſat{l by tilt figurES DElſW.
NIllillºſ Oſ ſlayS in all AWBrăgº WBAI (OIIBS)01ſling iſ gr[ätäI

0.40 m.ſ0.60 m. |0.80 m.[1.00 m.11.20 m. 1.40 m.[1.60 m. 1.80 m.12.00 m.
Present condition (1893) 365 365 365 365 || 363 357 342 || 317 282
Before the improvements . 363 || 354 || 336 || 310 273 227 | 182 | 139 || 101
Difference. 2 | 11 29 || 55 | 90 | 130 | 160 | 178 181
Thus before the improvements the minimum depth at low water fell
to 0.40 m.; there was a depth of more than 1.60 m. during 182 days
and more than 200 m. during 101 days. •
62
Now that the minimum depth at low water is 1.25 m., there is more
than 1.60 m. for 342 days and more than 2.00 m. for 282 days; 160
days have been gained for the first depth and 181 days, six months, for
the second.
If a minimum of 1.40 m. is arrived at, as observation seems to
indicate we may depend upon, there will be a depth of more than
1.60 m. during 354 days and of more than 2.00 m. during 310 days;
the duration of this last depth will be more than trebled.
This comparison, besides its principal result, namely the demonstration
of the improvement effected, confirms the observation made above and
shows how far the expression of the minimum depth is always insuf-
ficient to characterise the navigable conditions of a river with an open
course. Taken in an absolute sense it shows between a state in the river
which gives 1.60 m. at low water and that which gives only 1.25 a.
difference which as regards commercial utility appears at first sight enor-
mous; in reality the question is reduced to this : in the first case there
will be more than 1.60 m. for 363 days, and in the second case there
will be more than 1.60 m. for 341 days. The difference only comes to
22 days during which the depth remains between 1.25 m. and 1.60 m.,
and is not less than 1.40 m. for more than 6 days.
Thus the observation we made at the commencement of this paragraph
is confirmed ; the actual minimum depth at low water will continue to
increase; real advantages for navigation and greater safety for goods will
certainly be the result ; but the combination of conditions favourable to
navigation cannot be further modified to any great extent, because their
transformation is almost entirely accomplished and the margin of possible
progress is very much reduced. -
Reduction of stop pages at low water. — The lengthening of
the periods of easy navigation corresponds to a reduction of the duration
of stoppages. It is useful in this manner to show the progress made;
in fact the stoppages have the effect of reducing the cargoes and
they especially influence commercial movements, because by decreasing
the utility of the plant they increase the cost of transport; but when
they last a very long time and occur in a more or less unlooked-for
manner, as was the case upon the Rhône, they exercise a still more
pernicious influence, rendering it impossible to maintain regularity, a
condition not less essential than a good market for a large trans-
port trade. -
Stoppages in consequence of low water have almost ceased to occur
and the progressive manner in which the commencement of them has
been retarded demonstrates the extent of the progress.
The following table gives for each year the height above low water-level
at which navigation became impossible,
In 1874 this height was . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.80 m.
n 1877 ºn * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 0.78 m
r 1878 m * * * * * * * * * * * * * 0.73 m
n 1879 n n n . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.67 m
n 1880 m º * * * * * * * * * * * * * 0.60 m
m 1881 in * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 0.53 m
n 1882 n. º * * * * * * * * * * * * * 0.35 m
In 1883 navigation was not interrupted and in 1884 it was only
stopped when the water reached low water-level. In 1884 the water was
quite exceptionally low and for the first time since observations have
been taken on the Rhône it went below the low water-level. Navigation
was able to continue until this extremely low level was reached; there-
fore the depth in 1884 at this low water-level was 0.90 m., whereas in
1874 it was 0.40 m. With this minimum of 0.40 m. below low water-
level, when the water was 0.80 m. above this level the depth became
1.05 m. and boats which could still navigate with advantage when
drawing 0.85 m. were obliged to stop; whereas in 1884 with a depth of
0.90 m. on one ridge and 0.95 m. on others they were still able to pass.
The gain for navigation therefore has been more considerable than is
indicated by the increase in depth, and while the depth on the ridges
increased only 0.50 m. the level of the water which stopped navigation
was reduced by 0.80 m. This is due, as has been said above, to the fact
that the direction of the channel is easier to follow over the more sub-
merged ridges and consequently the available depth can be better
utilised.
Since the winter of 1884–85 stoppages at low water have almost
ceased to occur, and during the last mine years there has only been one
stoppage due to this cause which has lasted for eight consecutive days.
It must also be remarked that although this stoppage was occasioned by
the extremely low level of the water, the main cause of it was not due
to the decrease in depth; navigation was not completely interrupted
during these eight days and some boats continued on their course; but
this stoppage occurred with the first frosts of the winter of 1890–91
and it was caused more particularly by the severe cold which froze the
ropes and rendered navigation very difficult and trying; it was moreover
of little importance as the other navigable ways were closed and the
ports of Lyons could not be approached. -
During the period from 1871–77, before the regulation was effected,
there were stoppages for 479 days, or an average of 71 a year, for 111
days in 1871, 102 in 1872, 145 in 1874.
During the first period in which regulation was attempted, from 1878
to the end of 1884, there were stoppages for 171 days, or an average of
24 days a year. If navigation had had to cease with 0.80 m. above low
water, as was the case before the regulation, there would have been
stoppages for 375 days, or an average of 55 a year. In 1884 when the
64
water was exceptionally low there were stoppages for 44 days; there
would have been stoppages for 145 days under the conditions existing
in 1874.
Since the end of 1884 the total for stoppages has been 23 days, which
gives an average of 3 days a year; there would been have 76 if navigation
had had to cease at 0.80 m. above low water-level; and there would
have been stoppages for 112 days in 1890 and for 107 in 1891, or 219
days for these two years, during which in reality the last interruption
to navigation only lasted 8 days. -
On an average for 66 days the water is less than 0.80 m. above low
water; this is therefore the average length of time stoppages would last
if an improvement in the river had not been effected. Under the present
state of things however, with a minimum depth of 1.25 m. at low water,
a considerably lower level than this would be necessary to arrest navi-
gation. But the water only remains below this level for 2 days in the
year, therefore the possible length of time for stoppages to last is redu-
ced to a maximum of 2 days in the year instead of 66. It may be said
without exaggeration that stoppages at time of low water, which were
formerly a serious matter, practically no longer occur.
Suppression of other hind rances to navigation. — But the
improvement does not simply consist in the increase of the depth, the
Suppression of stoppages at times of low water, and the lengthening of
the periods favourable to navigation; other less important but still con-
siderable results have been obtained. The channel has been regulated,
the transition from one curve to another has been rendered less abrupt
in proportion as the depth upon the shallows increased; the manoeuvres
of boats have been simplified and steering has been made easier, while
the falls have been lengthened out, the rapids reduced, and the draught
of boats has continually increased. -
Moreover the greater part of the dangerous reefs have been cut down
and the bridges that were too low have been raised, so that navigation
has not only been possible for a greater length of time during low water,
but it has also been considerably extended during high water. -
The only obstacles which have not been reduced are those upon which
regulation works can have no effect — fogs and winds which never cause
long interruptions but merely delays, high floods which quickly subside
and ice which only appears upon the Rhône later and lasts less time
than upon other navigable ways.
Comparative summary of the combination of conditions
favourable to navigation before and after the construction
of the works. – As a conclusion to this investigation it will be well
to summarise the combination of circumstances which determine the na-
vigability of a river and thus to compare the present with the former
condition of the Rhône. This is effected in the following table.
65
In this table the year has been divided into three periods:
1. That in which navigation is impossible on account of floods, low
water, ice, winds or fogs. This period which consisted of 93 days is re-
duced to 14. -
2. That in which navigation is possible but difficult and tedious on
account of the complication of manoeuvres and the reduction of cargoes.
This period which consisted of 129 days is reduced to 14 and other
improvements besides the increased depth have singularly lessened the
difficulties. - -
3. The period in which navigation was easy for boats when fully
laden, which used to last for 145 days, is now increased to 337 days.
Comparative table of the combination of conditions favourable to
navigation in an average year.

Before Present
the regu- tº $ tº Gain.
. . condition.
lation.
| Days. | Days. |Days.
Ice. 6 6
tº 2
Navigation Fog and wind. 2
º 2 -
interrupted Low water. 66 93 14 || 77
by Floods more than 4.50 m. above low -
water-level. 4 4
Lowness of the bridges. 15 —
Navigation ) on account of necessary reduction of
rendered cargo and the difficulty of steering 129 14 | 115
difficult and manoeuvring.
Navigation ) for boats when fully laden, steering
rendered being easy and the currents mana- 143 337 || 192
difficult geable.
365 365
Formerly the state of the Rhône could be very simply defined :
Navigation was stopped for three months, was difficult for four and easy
for five. - -
Today however we can count upon :
Fourteen days during which navigation is interrupted, fourteen during
66
which it is difficult, though not so much 80 as formerly, and eleven months
during which it is easy for vessels when fully laden.
There are probably few navigable ways on which the combination of
conditions is better; the only difficulty which still exists is the velocity
of the current, which cannot be modified more than has been done by
the toning down of the falls; it is certainly considerable, but it only
tells upon one of the items among the expenses of transport, viz. the
traction, and it is every day reduced by the progress made in mechanical
arrangements. Moreover the great speed of the Rhône is due to its
incline and the shortness of its course, and if the boats which have to
overcome these difficulties cannot hope to make their tariffs as low as
on navigable ways without a rapid current, they at least find a partial
compensation for this inconvenience in the fact that they have not to
traverse the great distances which many waterways present.
The enormous change upon the Rhône in the conditions favourable to
navigation has allowed of steamboats utilising their full capacity and
doubling their tonnage without increasing their dimensions. The number
of vessels, formerly excessive, is now insufficient to satisfy the growing
needs of commerce and the necessity of increasing it has become most
pressing.
Two causes have prevented this from being done already ; one was
the timidity felt by capitalists unaccustomed to enterprises of this nature
on account of the falling off of navigation after the opening of railroads
and the difficulties met with before the regulation was effected ; the
other was the uncertainty prevailing with regard to the importance and
duration of the improvements which might result from these works and
consequently with regard to the manner in which boats should be built
for a profit to be realised. These two causes have disappeared. The
improvement realised has allowed of freights being reduced and of the
establishment of regularity such as never existed before, and these two
results have brought back the trade to the river and with it the con-
fidence of the public ; moreover the evidence, magnitude and excel-
lence of the results have become certain and the new conditions of
the river are today well defined and well known. The boats have also
undergone considerable transformation and their size has been increased,
a large number of new ones are in course of construction and we might
with little risk of mistake assign an almost certain date in the near
future to a large development of the commercial movement. .
In direct advantages resulting from the works. – Besides
the improvements realised with respect to navigation, the works upon
the Rhône have resulted in advantages of another kind which are cal-
culated in course of time to indirectly produce a notable increase in the
public wealth. -
That part of the Rhône which has not been regulated is divided up
67
into a number of branches and spreads over a considerable area. A
glance at the chart of the river which has existed for rather more than
twenty years shows false branches in every direction and often one or
several positions abandoned by the main channel. In many places the
surface occupied by these branches is several kilometres wide and when
the Rhône moves to one side or the other it destroys everything if meets
with and leaves behind it stretches of sand and gravel that are of no
value or utility. -
On the lower Rhône, below Lyons, the danger of the banks being
undermined and washed away has for a long time been contended with
and the area given up to the capricious movements of the river has been
considerably reduced. When the works were commenced this area was
still considerable and as regards the danger it entailed could be divided
into two parts, in one of which, the furthest from the stream, the land
was cultivated but had a depreciated value on account of the risk of the
crops being carried away; the other part, in the immediate neighbour-
hood of the stream, consisted of land which yielded practically nothing
and the possession of which was in the last degree precarious.
This state of things has already been considerably modified wherever
the regulation works have been completed, the banks are fixed and the
property which was exposed to the danger of disappearing no longer has
anything to fear. Moreover accretion is produced behind the works,
alluvial soil is formed and vegetation commences; in some places the
modification has been fairly rapid and the number of farmers anxious
to rent this recently formed land continually increases. These holdings
are becoming more and more numerous and it is of the highest impor-
tance to encourage their occupation. By these means, that is to Say by
renting for short periods the recent alluvial deposits which are still
covered at mean water-level, the State finds itself in a position to direct
the formation of these deposits so that they may not be provoked by
works which might be prejudicial to the general interests of the valley,
which would certainly be the case if they remained the property of per-
Sons dwelling on the river banks. -
Although the fixing of the banks improves the property while it
ensures its preservation, if must be remembered that it has been effected
with the object of bringing together the low waters into a summer bed
which is naturally narrow and quite inadequate in time of floods. And if
the alluvial deposits which form behind the works were not kept at a
sufficiently low level to allow of the expansion of the high waters and
floods, the height and violence of these latter would rapidly increase and
would endanger both the preservation of the works and even the safety
of the property which their presence had brought into existence.
The lands reclaimed from the river should therefore be kept at a low
enough level for them to be inundated by the highest floods. This however
68
need not prevent them from acquiring a considerable value. Formed
between the works that slope towards the river they naturally assume a
similar incline and when the water covers them it will merely pass over
them and flow away again leaving behind the fertilising elements it has
brought down, which will go a long way towards compensating any
damage that may have been occasioned. Such has been the result upon
the Rhône. In the upper part of its course there have for several centu-
ries existed dikes which were constructed as a protection against inunda-
tions; between these dikes alluvial deposits have been formed which are
often inundated and which nevertheless in some cases have become more
valuable than lands in the immediate neighbourhood which are beyond
the reach of the floods. - -
What will the twofold increase in value amount to resulting on the one
hand from the Security to property throughout a widely extended area,
and on the other hand from the absolute creation of new lands of perhaps
equal dimensions? It is difficult to foresee and it will always be difficult
to calculate; the first it will always be difficult to estimate and the
second will always be represented by the whole value of the newly
formed lands. And if it is remembered that the area which benefits from
these works in either one way or the other stretches over a distance of
more than 300 km. and amounts to several thousand hectares, it will be
apparent that the total increase in value is considerable and more or less
equivalent to the amount expended on the works.
§ 5. Cost.
The cost provided against by the law of 13th May 1878 was 45
millions, which covered besides the regulation works a certain number
of undertakings which were not directly connected with the improvement
of the channel. The expenses actually incurred for the combination of
works of the first project amounted to fr. 39,500,000. We may therefore
be certain that they will be completed within the prescribed limits.
If from the total cost we deduct that of the works which have no
connection with the regulation properly so called, the cost of the latter
actually amounts to fr. 36,900,000, or for the 324 km. in question a cost
of fr. 114,000 per kilometre, and this may when the work is complete
amount to fr. 120,000 or fr. 125,000.
This cost, which is less than any other system of regulation would
have entailed, would have been less still if we had from the commence-
ment had a knowledge of the methods which have been gradually
developed from the experience acquired in the earlier stages of the
work and the observations of all the engineers who took part in the
management. -
It must in fact be remarked that until 1882 the only system adopted
69
was that of leading dams to fix the normal profile and the very elaborate
forms given to these frequently involved tedious and costly work. The
first attempts upon another method were only made for the first time
in 1882, and it is only since 1884 that the experience acquired has allow-
ed of the definite adoption of the system that we have described and
which, while it effects less change in the natural form, is more easy of
execution and is less expensive.
The comparison of the expenses during these two periods and of the
results they have given respectively completely established the fact that
the second method is the most economical.
The diagrams of the position of the shoals before 1878 and in 1884
show the progress made during this first period; the corresponding cost
of the work was in round numbers fr. 32,500,000.
The comparison of the diagrams for 1884 and 1893 shows the progress
made during the second period; the cost of the regulation works amoun-
ted to fr. 4,400,000.
The saving due to the change of system is certainly less than the
difference between these amounts, for many works of the first period
have contributed to the progress made; but at the same time many of
them had to undergo great alterations and a good many had to be
demolished, especially, the dikes on the convex banks, most of which
were pulled down. -
However without stating a definite sum it clearly results from this
comparison that the difference in cost between the two methods is con-
siderable and it is certain that we shall find in the one which complies
most with the laws which regulate the flow of rivers of unstable bottom,
not only greater chances of success and a greater possibility of effecting a
more complete improvement, but also an economical advantage. After
the great experiment that we have given some account of we are firmly
convinced that works of this nature, whether it is a question of facili-
tating navigation or of simply fixing the banks for the protection of
property, only require a little observation and intelligence and much
patience, and should entail only a moderate expenditure.
||||rilliſ]|| || Plälºh;
*-*s, *-*.*
PLANCHES I & II.
Regularisation entre . . . .
Profils comparatifs dans l'étendue
du canal.
Fond du lit.
Altitudes rapportées aunivellement
général de la France.
Plan de la plaine de Miribel avant
l’exécution du canal.
Plan actuel du Canal de Miribel.
Profil en long comparatif entre le
confluent de l'Ain et Lyon.
Passage.
PLANCHES III & IV.
Epis plongeants. |
n noyés.
Atterrissement.
PLANCHES W & VI.
Digue de halage.
Carrière.
Eglise.
(Pour les autres inscriptions, voir
les traductions, Planches I–VI”.)
PLANCHES WII & VIII.
Graviers.
Ruisseau.
Moulin.
Route nationale.
Seuils de fond.
(Pour les autres inscriptions, voir
les traductions, Planches I–VI”).
PLANCHES IX—XII.
Château.
(Pour les autres iuscriptions, voir
les traductions, Planches I–VII”.)
GIRARD ON.
||f|| || |||||||}|.
*…*.*.*, *-*.
BLATT I U. II.
Regulirung zwischen . . . .
Vergleichende Profile in der Kanal-
länge.
Sohle.
Wasserstände, bezogen auf die allge-
meine Nivellirung in Frankreich.
Plan der Ebene von Miribel vor
Ausführung des Kanales.
Plan des mummehrigen Kamales von
Miribel.
Vergleichendes Långsprofil zwischen
dem Einfluss des Ain und Lyon.
,??
nPass”.
BLATT III U. IV.
Untergetauchte Buhnen,
Auschwemmung.
BLATT W U, VI.
Leinpfaddamm.
Steinbruch.
Kirche.
(Die übrigen Inschriften siehe unter
Uebersetzungen zu Blatt I–VI.)
BLATT WII U. VIII.
Grand.
Bach.
Mühle.
Landstrasse.
Bodenerhebungen (Untiefen).
(Die übrigen Inschriftem siehe unter
Uebersetzungen zu Blatt I–VI.)
BLATT IX—XII.
Schloss.
(Die übrigen Inschriften sind unter
den Uebersetzungen zu Blatt
I–VIII zu finden.)
DHRCrilliſ] [f till Plălăş.
^*** *** *-*-*.
PLATES I AND II.
Regulation between . . . .
Comparative sections in the length
of the canal.
Bottom of the bed.
Altitudes brought to the general
levelling of France.
Projection of the plaim of Miribel
before the making of the canal.
Projection of the Miribel Canal.
Comparative longitudinal Section
between the confluence of the Ain
and Lyon.
Passage.
PLATES III AND IV.
Submerged groins.
Alluvial deposit.
PLATES W AND WI.
Towing dike.
Quarry.
Church.
(For other references, see transla-
tions under Plates I–VI.)
PLATES VIL AND WIll.
Gravel.
Stream.
Mill.
High road.
Ridges in the bottom.
(For other references see transla-
tions under Plates I–VI).
PLATES IX—XII.
Castle,
(For other references, see transla-
tions under plates I–VIII).
2
Inscriptions souvent répétées.
Altitudes.
Chenal.
Comparatif.
Digue.
Echelle.
Epis.
Etiage.
Hauteur.
Insubmersible.
Longueur.
Longueurs partielles.
Normales kilométriques.
Perré. -
Profil en long.
traverS.
77 7°
Traverse.
Häufig workommende Inschriſtem.
Wasserstande.
Fahrrinne.
Vergleichend.
Damm, Deich.
Maasstab.
Buhnen.
Niedrigster Sommerwasserstand.
Höhe.
Uniiberschwemmbar.
Länge.
Theilweise Längen.
Kilometrische Normallinien.
Steindamm.
Långsprofil.
Querprofil.
Qūerbuhne, Querdamm.
Words frequently repeated.
Altitude.
Channel.
Comparative.
Dike, dam.
Scale.
Groins.
º Low water.
Height.
Insubmersible.
Length.
Partial lengths.
Normal lines 1 km, in length.
Stone dam.
Longitudinal section.
Transverse
Cross-dike.
7)
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VIth International Inland Navigation Congress. -
T H E H A G U E, 1894.
Regulation of rivers at low water,
REPORT
BY
Ph. W. WAN DER SLEIJIDEN,
Chief Engineer of the Waterstaat at Maastricht.
AND
R. J. CASTENDIJK,
Tirst-class Engineer of the Waterstaat at Nijmegen.
| N T R 0 D U C T || 0 N.
On every river we distinguish between a summer and winter bed.
The summer bed comprises that part of the bed of the river which
as a rule during the summer months is covered with water and
consists of coarser and finer elements, which are liable to displacement
under the influence of changing conditions of water.
The peculiar characteristics of the winter bed are that it is a
Sufficient height above the summer bed and remains sometimes during
several consecutive months free from water. It can therefore produce
vegetation and obtain more firmness of surface, so that when the water
does stream over it, it is only by exception that holes are formed in it
or that any Solid part of it is carried away. -
The slopes which join the summer bed and the winter bed are, even
on the same river, sometimes steep, sometimes of slight incline,
but nearly always plainly perceptible. It is in vain, when looking at a
river, to seek for any other plainly visible distinctions between low
and high water than that above-named between summer bed and
winter bed.
As long as the river remains in its natural state, the summer bed is
liable to continual alterations of its course, and the winter bed to
decrease on the one haud and to increase on the other, for the stream
works upon the slopes of the winter bed at many points. The loosened
elements are carried over some distance and then form an increase of the
winter bed at a place, where the working of the stream is less powerful.
2
By regulation of a river we more particularly understand the deter-
mination of the course as well as of the breadth of consecutive
sections of the river, so as to make them comply with certain previously
determined conditions of regularity. For the determination of the curves
which can be admitted in the course and for the measurement of
the width, a few sections of the natural river are selected, on which the
proportion between the depth and the width of the summer bed is a
desirable one and where no rising sand-banks cause a division of the
stream or where there are no other irregularities. Coming to the execu-
tion of the work, the desired course is given to the summer bed, thereby
narrowing a number of Sections, enlarging a few others, and strength-
ening the banks of the remaining Sections, which can be left unchanged.
The constant position of the summer bed is thus secured and further
damage to the winter bed by the current cannot occur. -
When this work — aided as far as is necessary by dredging —
has been executed on the whole length of a part of a river, there can
be no doubt that the bed of this part of the river will have become
more regular.
Shallows will have entirely or partially disappeared, while narrow and
excessively deep channels will have increased in width and decreased
in depth.
If the question be put, what influence can be exercised on the river
thus regulated by means of connected dams, which enclose a part of the
width of the summer bed and are of such a small elevation, that even
at low water they are still covered, it appears necessary, in order to give
a clear and satisfactory answer, to leave the field of general consideration
and review certain rivers or parts of them.
For this purpose we have selected:
1st The river Waal. :
2nd The river Maas as far as regards its course through Limburg.
T H E W A A L.
As regards the Waal, we can give the following information with
reference to the above question.
Firstly, a short summary of some details respecting the nature of this
river.
On Dutch territory the Waal is the principal arm of the Rhine, both
from the point of view of traffic and of the discharge.
Traffic.
The movement of shipping between Germany on the one hand and
Rotterdam and the Belgian harbours on the other is directed entirely
along this river-arm. -
The number of laden vessels declared as passing Lobith in both direc-
tions rose from 25,955 with 7,339,000 tons (cubic metres) in 1888 to
3
31,005 with 9,155,496 tons (cubic metres) in 1892. The quantity of goods
imported and exported by way of Lobith was in 1892 a total of 6,312,870
tons, out of which to or from Rotterdam 2,661,496 to or from Nijmegen,
Tiel, Gorinchem and Dordrecht, together 263,554 and to or from Belgian
harbours 1,447,016 were carried on the Waal.
All goods sent from or to Amsterdam, and other Dutch harbours go
by Way of the Lower Rhine and the Lek.
The dimensions of the large ships that navigate the Rhine at the pre-
Sent time are
Length 81 m.
Width . 10.5 m
Depth. 2.5 m
Burden iso tons cube metres)
At Krimpen on the Yssel a short time ago there was built for a
German firm a tug with a length of 88 m., width 10.5 m., depth 2.6 m.
and a carrying power of 1800 tons.
Water level and discharge.
The following table shows the high and low water-levels and other
particulars concerning the character of the Waal.

à N
Above N.A.P. Above N.A.P.Above N.A.P.Above N.A.P.Above N.A.P.Above N.M.P. #)
Highest known water-level with Iſl. Ill. Ill. ill. lil. Hl.
open river in this century
4th to 6th January 1883. 16.88 15.19 13.42 9.63 8.08 7.09
Average summer level (1st May
to 1st November 1871 to 1880 | 11.13 10.35 8.77 5.57 4.40 3.39
Average low level correspond-
ing to 1.50 m. above zero
at Cologne (Protocol of the
Central Commission of the
navigation on the Rhine, 1st -
October 1885). o 9.60 9.13 7.52 4.32 3.00 2.08
Lowest level in September 1893 9.12 8.61 7.06 3.67 2.39 1.55
Lowest known water level with
open river . 8.77 8.21 6.64 3.54 2.89 1.23
15 Nov. 15 Nov. 15 and 1626 and 29 27 Sept. 30 Oct.
1874. 1874. |Nov.1874|Oct. 1814 1893. 1832.
Distance from the frontier. 4.2 km. |11.9 km. 26 km. |56.6 km. 67.8 km. |76.7 km.
Fall per km. at average — — — — — — — — — — .
summer level . e 0 1018 0.1128 0.1075 0.1045 0.1135
Fall per km. at the low level -
of September 1893 . 0.0662 0,1107 0.1 104 0,1143 0,0943
*) At St. Andries observations were first begun in 1854.
†) N.A.P. = New Standard of Amsterdam,
4
The division of the water at the point where the Upper Rhine divides
into two branches, the Waal and Pannerden canal, is so arranged that
of the entire quantity of water two thirds is received by the first named
and the rest by the latter. At all events this is what was declared as
desirable by the States of Gelderland, Holland, Utrecht and Overijssel in
1745; and it is still always endeavoured to maintain it so.
In reality, the quantity of water from the Upper Rhine received by
the Waal is rather more than two-thirds, especially at times of low
Water. -
According to observations which have been made nearly every year,
the distribution of the water has not undergone any important change
the last sixty years.
The quantity received by the Waal at high water-levels is about 6,200
cubic metres, at the average summer level (1871–80) about 1,400 cubic
metres, and at the lowest water level (with open river) about 500 cubic
metres per second.
Regulation of the summer bed.
In 1850 a beginning was made to improve rivers in the Netherlands.
Until that year only insolated works had been effected and mostly in
the interest of the owners of the banks.
The improvements effected in the period from 1850 to 1874 consisted
in connecting central points with one of the banks, limiting superfluous
width, and removing projecting banks or other obstructions from the
normal river-bed. The width temporarily accepted in 1866, regulated for
the Summer bed, was 360 m. from Pannerden to Zaltbommel, increasing
to 400 m. from the latter place to Loewestein.
After 1874, the work of bringing the regulated summer bed to the
required width by means of groins or by dams of which the tops
emerged above the average summer level was continued.
In 1888 this work was completed.
Thus a great improvement was both obtained in the interests of the
river and of the navigation.
For navigation, however, the improvement was not complete, as in some
points, for instance in the straight sections and where the current is
passing from one side of the river to the other, there was not found suf-
ficient depth at times of low water.
Though at the time of the original regulation the dicharge of water
and ice was the primary object, more attention was paid later to the
interests of navigation.
The requirements of navigation were therefore now submitted to a
fresh examination with the result that it was decided that a continuous
depth for navigation of 3 m. at average low water level, corresponding
5
to about 1.25 m. below the average Summer level, and given in the fore-
going table, over a suitable width of the river-bed, was essential for
shipping of large tonnage on the Rhine.
In curved sections the depth of the navigable channel or thalweg
along the concave banks was very Satisfactory and considerably above
the average; in the straight or nearly straight Sections, as well as at the
turning points, the depth presented was the average of the depth over
about the entire width of the profile, and this was insufficient. The
deduction was made that in the last named sections the requisite depth
could not be obtained so long as the regulation width accepted in 1866
was adhered to, but that a contraction would be necessary in the
sections.
The equation
A.
c Lºdi,
y
in which A represents the discharge per second in cubic metres, b the
regulation width, c a constant = 50, d the average depth and a the
incline, shows that by substituting different values for A, d and o, the
regulation width in the straight sections should be 310 m. for a discharge
of 870 cubic metres per second at the low water-level referred to, and
would differ only a few metres refrom this amount for a discharge of
1,400 cubic metres at the 1.25 m. higher average summer level.
The contraction here referred to, while still preserving as much as pos-
sible the existing width in the curves, has been effected on the Waal by
lengthening the existing groins (see note respecting question Nº. 6).
To the increased length of these groins a height has been given
corresponding to the average water-level, while the tops of the existing
works were more or less high.
Use of low dams.
The confining of the river-bed between two parallel dams, with
their summits below the lowest water-level, could not in the case referred to
have led to the desired result, unless the distance of these dams from
one another was accepted at considerably less than 310 m.
In determining the distance from one another at which these dams
should be laid in order that the required depth, as mentioned above,
may be obtained, we have in the above equation to take for A, the
discharge at the lowest water-level (with open river), estimated at
500 cubic metres, and for the average depth 2.25 m. because this lowest
water-level is about 0.75 m. lower than the average low-water level above
referred to, corresponding to about 1.25 m. below the average summer
level (see table supra).
6
It then follows from the equation :
500
50 V (225); X 0.00011
The regulation for the lowest water-levels would thus depend on the
establishment in the normal bed of a width of 360 m., or of a second
normal bed with a width of 280 m., enclosed between two parallel dikes
with their summits two metres below average low water, or on a regulated
bed of 310 m. if the summits of the dams be brought to the average
low water-level. In each case, as appears by the calculation, may be
expected the same average depth of three metres below the average
low water line, which was determined above to be necessary.
The course of this low summer bed would not generally be the same as
that of the 360 m. wide regulation bed, but repeatedly cross it, because
the line pursued by the first would in the curves have to approach the
concave banks, so as to profit as much as possible from the depth to be
found there.
In order to keep all the water possible in the low summer bed, the
continous dams which border it would have to be connected at certain
distances by dans placed obliguely to the groins or the shores which
confine the wider normal bed.
Difficulties.
By of contracting the low water bed between two parallel dams
Some advantage may perhaps be obtained in favour of a regular
and deep channel. Nevertheless, the plan here considered of parallel
works which are submerged at low water is not to be recommended:
1st on account of the great expense of construction, as well as of main-
tenance;
2nd on account of the difficulty of building them ;
3rd on account of the great inconvenience submerged works cause to
navigation, especially to sailing vessels and fishing craft.
Worthy of mention here also is the general disadvantage inseparable
to regulation by these parallel dams, namely, that the sand which is
worked loose finds no opportunity of Settling as it does between the
groins. -
Neither could the contraction in the way shown under b, viz. by means
of parallel dams rising to the height of average low water at a distance
of 310 m. from each other, although less damaging to navigation and
fishing, be taken into consideration in the regulation of the Waal on
account of its great expensa.
This would have been very much higher than it was for the work that
has been carried out, viz. by lengthening the existing groins to the new
7
regulation line. The average distance between these groins is 200 m.
The execution of this contraction by 50 m. only necessitated therefore
over 200 m. Of the river in length the laying of 50 m. of groins; while
for the application of the parallel dam system, for 200 m. length of
river a dam of at least 200 m. would have been required, not including
the necessary connections with the existing groins.
Against the disadvantage here recounted, the advantage of a more
perfect direction of current through the parallel dams is not of
sufficient weight.
Besides this, on account of the great mobility of the bottom, which
consists chiefly of Sand mixed with a very little coarse gravel, there
would be a danger at times of high water of choking up the smaller
channel between the two dams, especially at points where the direction
of the full stream in the river-bed does not coincide with that of the
low summer bed. -
Conclusion.
It appears from the above that we may base the conclusion that a
regulation with submerged parallel dams for low water-levels is not to be
recommended, at all events not on the Waal.
T H E M A A S.
Incline.
In southern Limburg, where the Maas on the greatest part of its
length forms the division between the Netherlands and Belgium, the
incline is about 0.40 m. per km.; this section is about 60 km. long.
The current is here very powerful and the bed consists exclusively of
gravel, of which the largest pieces have a measurement of 0.15 m.
Then follows another section of about 40 km. in length, on which
the incline regularly decreases.
In northern Limburg between Venloo and Mook over a distance of
about 60 km., the incline is only 0.06 per km.
The bed here consists of fine gravel and sand.
The condition of the river in southern and morthern Limburg is thus
very different.
In the followiug pages we shall, where necessary, expressly state
which part of the river is referred to, while the middle section is left out
of our review.
Widt h S.
The widths of the summer bed of the river in its naturel state vary in
southern Limburg from 60 m. to 130 m., and in northern Limburg from
90 m. to 180 m., that is when sand-banks and vegetation showing just
8
above the average summer level is regarded as belonging to the
Winter bed.
Winter bed.
Over by far the greatest part of the length of the river the winter bed
rises from 3 m. to 5 m. above the average summer level and is connected
with a slope of about 3 in 1 with the border of the summer bed or
with recent deposits.
Discharge.
The discharge of the Maas in southern Limburg is about 125 cubic metres
per second at the average summer level and about 320 cubic metres per
Second at the average winter level. -
It occurs almost every winter during one or more days that the state
of the water is such that the discharge is more than 1000 cubic metres;
and the largest known discharge may be placed at at least 2200 cubic
metres per second. During long or short periods in the summer the
discharge is reduced to 50 cubic metres per second, and less.
The smallest discharge may be reckoned at about 25 cubic metres per
Second, of which about 6 cubic metres per second are drawn off at Maas-
tricht. For northern Limburg these quantities are increased by 10 0/0
to 15 °/o.
Water levels.
In Southern Limburg the average winter level is nearly 1 m., and in
northern Limburg from 1.50 m. to 2 m. above the average summer level.
In southern Limburg the lowest river levels sink to about 80 centi-
metres and in northern Limburg to about 1.20 m. below the average
summer level. -
The highst levels rise 5 m. to 5.50 m. above the lowest levels; while
in northern Limburg the difference is 8 m. or at most 10 m.
Depth of Channel.
The Maas in southern Limburg is in its present condition as a rule
navigable for vessels of 0.80 m. or more draught in the spring and in
the autumn.
In the summer the navigable depth generally decreases to less than
0.50 m. In the exceptionally dry summer of 1893 there was only a
depth of 0.25 m. In northern Limburg the navigable depth is generally
1.20 m., or more, and seldom less than 1 m. In the summer of 1893 it
decreased, however, to 0.60 m.
Regulation of the summer bed.
Since 1850 regulation works have been executed on those sections of
the river which were most in need of them. In 1866 the regulation
9
width of the summer bed in southern Limburg was fixed at 100 m. and
in northern Limburg at 120 m. This regulation is, however, far from
being completed. In the beginning the tops of the parallel dams and
the groins were made very little higher than the summer level, but
were later on raised, so that they now reach nearly to the average winter
level; and consequently their favourable effect has been improved.
The incline, however, still shows many irregularities. This must be
principally ascribed to the fact that up to the present almost nothing
has been done towards the regulation of maximum discharches, so
that the velocity varies exceedingly in the various sections and is the
cause of the continuation of the irregular displacement of gravel
and Sand. :a
Use of low dams.
Whatever expectations we may have with regard to the usefulness of
a regulation system for rivers at low levels, there can be no question
of the execution of works for this object before the regulation of the
summer bed, and of the profile at higher water-levels is further advanced
than it is at present.
This, however, need not prevent us from entering upon a consideration
of the works which might have to come under notice in the execution,
and of the results which might have been expected to occur.
In the curved river sections there is now already hollowed out a
deeper channel along the concave banks on the summer bed.
By means of low dams it will be possible to enclose these channels
within steeper walls, still these are not necessary for the preservation of
the channel and their influence on the condition of the river will be of
Small importance. It is more particularly the question, whether by placing
low dams at certain distances from each other in the straight sections
and in the turning points of the river, where as a rule the summer
bed is of nearly enough the same depth over all its width and therefore
a deeper channel is necessary, a channel can be obtained and main-
tained, which would connect itself in a suitable manner with the
channels already existing above and below the curved sections.
Let us first examine what the condition is of the normal summer
bed without the deeper channel and what measurements could be given
to the channels in question.
On the Maas in southern Limburg the width is b = 100 m., and the
incline g = 0.0004. If now C = 50 be taken for the value of the
constant, the discharge at average summer level will be A = 125 cubic
metres per second, the depth
* 3
12 A* pº 1252
c2 b2 & 50% X 1002 × 0.0004
d = = 1.16m ..
10
and the velocity
v = c \!/ d a = 50 U/ 1.16 × 0.0004 = 1.08 m.
If the discharge A be reduced to 50 cubic metres, the depth becomes
d - L^ 50° ------ - s o
50, a loºz 0.0004 - "" "
and the velocity
v = 50 V 0.63 × 0.0004 = 0.795 m.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Discharge-------... 125 cub. Imetres
-- * * * * * - - - - - - - - - - - - - Discharge…~$.....…. !------.50 cub. Im.
—º
--------------------------------------------------- 100 metres ->
If it is required that the depth d, be = 1 m. in a channel enclosed
by low dams, with an discharge A = 50 cubic metres per second, the breadth
of the channel now becomes
bi = a vºz - 50 visix00004 - ©
and [the velocity
v, - c Vºd, a = 50 VTX 0.0004 = 1 m.
If now the discharge A again increases to 125 m. per second, the water
level will rise about 0.60 m. so that di = 1.60 m., and there will be
carried off by the deeper channel
A = c v blº dº a = 50 V 50' x 13 × 0.0004 = 101.2 cub. m.
with a velocity
v = 50 U/ 1.60 × 0.0004 = 1.265 m.
while on the remaining width of the summer bed b – b = b =
50 m., where the depth is da = 0.60 m. will be carried off
A, - c \!/ b,” dº a = 50 V 503 X 0.608 × 0.0004 = 23.8 cub. m.
with a velocity of w
v, - 50 l/ 0.60 × 0.0004 = 0.775 m.

11
For the Maas in northern Limburg we obtain the following results.
On the normal summer bed with a width of b = 1.20 m. and an
incline & = 0.00006 the depth for the average summer level, with a
discharge A = 140 cubic metres per second will be
3 3
d = P 4* – lº. 1402 = 2.085 m.
c2 b% of 502 × 1202 × 0.00006 IYl
and the velocity -
v = c \!/ d or = 50 U/ 2.085 × 0.00006 = 0.56 m.
If the discharge A be diminished to 58 cub.metres the depth becomes
3
d = } 582 = 1.16 m.
502 × 1202 × 0.00006
and the velocity
w = 50 U/ 1.16 × 0.00006 = 0.42 m.

• * * * * * * * * * * * *Discharge A 140 cubic metres
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -Discharge… “3-… 58 cubic metres ..........----------
K->
* :
•b :
H t
r: :
W. W.
<----------------------------------------------------- 120 metres ->
If it be now required that the depth d, be = 2 m. in a channel
confined by low dams with a discharge A = 58 cubic metres per second,
the breadth of the channel becomes
b. = *—— 58
' T c vid; a T 50 v2.25 × 0.00006
= 53 m.
and the velocity
v, - c vid, a = 50 v.2 × 0.00006 = 0.55 m.
If now the discharge A increases to 140 cubic metres the water level will
rise about 1.08 m., so that d = 3.08 m., and there will be carried off by
the deeper channel -
A1 = c \!/ b,” d,3 & = 50 l/ 53° X 3.088 × 0.00006 = 111 cubic metres.
with a velocity.
v1 = 50 V 3.08 × 0.00006 = 0.68 m.
while on the remaining width of the summer bed b — bi = b, - 67 m.
where the depth is d, = 1.08 m., will be carried off:
A, - c \!/ b,” d.º. a = 50 V 672 X 1.083 × 0.00006 = 29 cubic metres.
12
with a velocity of
v, - 50 v1.08 × 0.00006 = 0.40 m.
* * * * * * * * * * * * * Discharge---------.............................. 140 cubic metres----------------------------------------------------------
*
&
c. :
H :
#Discharge * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 58 : cubic metres *
<-- - - - - - - - - - 33.5 m.-----...---> e <---........ 33.5 m.---------.->
Ç -
º 3
co
Y Y
<-----------------------. 53 metres ---------------------- ->

By means of dredging and the placing of low dams the channels thus
calculated can certainly be established and there is no danger of their
decreasing in depth at periods of low water. As soon as, however, at times
of high water gravel and sand are put in motion, we seek in vain
for reasons why a channel enclosed by low dams should remain un-
changed, unless a disposition to the forming of a channel had existed
before the laying of these dams. And when a deposit has once been
caused, the strength of the stream at low water is insufficient to re-open
the channel to its former depth.
Thus the object cannot in the first place be obtained by laying low
dams; but by continuous regulation of the summer bed and of the pro-
file at high water care must be taken that the water at different levels
flows in one direction and at the same level and presents as little diversity
in velocity as possible, so as to increase the chance that channels opened
by dredging may become more permanent.
When such channels have been formed there is a possibility within
certain limits of maintaining a greater depth by limiting the width, but
this is at all times a work of which the chance of success is doubtful.
We can, for instamee, as shown above, calculate the dimensions which
must be given to the channels in order to obtain a given depth with
a certain discharge, but we fail to find any rule by which it can be
judged to what dimensions such a channel can be maintained by the
natural working of the stream assisted if necessary by moderate
dredging.
The case may occur that improperly laid continuous dams instead of
favouring the depth, only help to make the channel more shallow. Ex-
perience only will prove whether, for example, the channels calculated
above can be maintained or not. Only when the bed of the river on its
entire width and for a very considerable length is so sufficiently forti-
fied by artificial works that not only removal of gravel and sand is
prevented, but also the arrival of Solid matter from the upper waters is
13
limited to a very small amount, does it become possible to maintain
any given channel in the summer bed. It is, however, scarcely neces-
sary to remark that for the attainment of this result such extensive and
costly bottom-dressing would be required, that there could seldom or
never be question of such work, and it may thus be left out of consi-
deration.
C O N C L U S I O N.
From the above it appears that the building of low parallel dams must be
considered as premature, until by regulation of the summer bed and of the
profile for higher levels a continuous channel has been formed; while, even
after such a channel has been formed, it remains quite wheertain what
would be the increase of depth which might then be obtained by laying low
dams. If we consider in addition the eaſpense both of construction and
'maintainance of low dams and the danger they cause to navigation, which
difficulties we have more fully dwelt upon above while treating of the Waal,
it must be concluded that neither on the Maas can the building of low dams
be regarded as an efficacious means of improving the depth necessary for
navigation at low water.
As a means of obtaining the greatest possible depth for navigation with
a minimum discharge, the canalisation of the river is much to be preferred
for it attains its object with more certainty and in the end perhaps is not
more eaſpensive.
The forming of a lateral canal fed by the river is also a subject worthy of
consideration.
(Translated by G. J. Rowland.)
FRANÇOIS DE WOLLANT,
INGENIEUR HOLLANDAIS,
auteur du premier projet d'amélioration des cataractes
du Dnièpr.

THE RAPIDS ON THE DNIEPER
BY
V. E. DE TINKONOFF,
Engineer of Ways and Communications,
Professor at the Institute of Ways and Communications, St. Petersburg,
Membor of the Commission for the creation of commercial ports in Russia.
ITNT IEI A. L T :
CHAPTER I. General description of the river.
II. Brief description of the principal rapids between Ekaterinoslav
22
and Alexandrovsk.
III. Regulation of the rapids on the Dnieper, methods that have
been adopted.
IV. Principles of the scheme ander consideration.
------><>----|--
T H E H A G U E,
Printed by Belinfante Bºº, late A. D. Schinkel,
- — 1894. —
D E D I C A T E D
TO THE MEMORY OF
TH e Du t c H E N G N E E R.
LIEUTENANT - G E N E R A L

FRANCIS DE WOLLANT,
DIRECTOR-GENERAL OF WAYS AND COMMUNICATIONS IN RUSSIA. -
C. H. A. P. T. E. R. I.
General description of the river.
Contents: § 1. Importance of the Dnieper. — $ 2. Hydrography. — $ 3. Commerce.
tºn
§ 1. Importance of the Dnieper.
No river which traverses the vast plains of Russia is more intimatety
connected with the history of the country than the Dnieper.
Like the Rhine in Germanic traditions, the Dnieper plays a prominent
part in many of the exploits of ancient Russian heroes and in the oldest
legends.
The waves of this beautiful river have heard the early songs that wept
for the Sorrows of Igor and his brave companions. They have seen the
golden headed naiads enticing by their magic voices the belated traveller
to the depths of the abyss, while the coil spirits on the other hand
beckon him from the dark recesses of a neighbouring forest,
Later, following the majestic course of the same river, Oleg leaves Kiev,
reaches the Black sea and appears before the walls of Constantinople. The
valorous conqueror nails his shield to the doors of the imperial palace
and after concluding a glorious peace with the Byzantine Emperor, he
returns to Kiev, on the banks of the Dnieper, and makes the city his
capital. -
During the same epoc Constantine Porphyrogenetus, in his administrative
treatise, gives a very clear description of the Lower Dnieper and the
navigation which plied upon it.
It was also about this time that a great princess erected the first
Christian cross. -
Centuries then succeeded, centuries of desolation, of misery and Suffering.
Barbarous flags float victorious on the holy waters which formerly bore
the ships of Igor, Oleg and Sviatoslao.
The Dnieper seemed lost to Russia.
But the efforts of a great Emperor, succeeded by an Empress worthy
of him, created a fleet of war-ships which not only restored to Russia
what she had lost, but opened up new countries for her. -
Thus the Dnieper became for ever a river flowing through the interior
of Russia.
6
The commercial relations which existed through the Dnieper as far back
as the tenth century between Kiev and Bygantium were revived with
renewed vigour and under a different system.
But the same obstacle, the rapids which interfered with the first boats
to descend the Dnieper still barred the route.
Among the first reforms undertaken during the reign of Catherine II
in this part of Russia, the works for the regulation of the rapids on the
Dnieper occupy an important place.
Neither these works nor those which succeeded them obtained the
desired results, and for more than a century the original problem, viz.
the regulation of the section between the towns of Ekaterinoslav and
Alexandrovsk in order that it might be accessible to navigation against
the current, has not yet been solved.
The importance however of obtaining this solution has only continued
to increase. - .
The basin of the Dnieper is 527.000 square kilometres in extent and
with its tributaries embraces 14 governments (fig. 1). The total length of
the waterways of the system of the Dnieper utilisable for floats and navi-
gation is about 13,466 versts (1) (14,365.3 Km.), of which 9,061 versts
(9,666.1 Km.) are navigable.
This immense system is barred by the rapids a few hundred kilometres
from the Black Sea, where the Dnieper having received all its most impor-
tant tributaries reaches its maximum.
Moreover the construction of a great number of railways through the
basin of the Dnieper, the development of agriculture and industry in the
South of Russia, the discovery of remarkable beds of iron-ore and coal
in the neighbourhood of Ekaterinoslav, etc. render the establishment of
an uninterrupted navigable way to the two seas, the Baltic and the Black
Sea, a matter of the highest importance. - -
On account of these and other reasons His Excellency the Minister of
Ways and communications, M. A. C. KRIVOHCHäIVE, has taken steps
(1) 1 verst = 1.06678 kilometre = 0.66288 English mile.
1 verst – 500 sagènes.
1 square verst E 1.138 square kilometre. -
1 sagène – 7 Englisch feet = 84 inches = 12 quarters of an archine =
48 verchoks – 2,13356 metres.
1 cubic sagène = 9.2121 cubic metres.
pud E 16.88 Kilogrammes.
ton of 1000 Kilogrammes – 61.048 puds.
|
HºNTCHOUG
EſtáñCŞū
S &q
OTSMANSH %.
HAMENRA
Titchi's
Nº.
£RISLAN
HAHHOWHA
Fig. 1. — Map of the Dnieper and its tributaries.
M.B. The section, between E/caterinoslav and Aleacan-
drovsk, where the rapids present themselves and navigation,
is only possible down stream, is marked by a single line.

8
for the resumption of the study of the methods for regulating the
cataracts of the Dnieper. -
Honored with the direction of these studies, I have thought that a
brief account of the question presented to me would perhaps not be with-
out interest to the members of the Sixth Inland Navigation Congress,
and I have hoped also that after reading this account they will kindly
throw such light upon the situation as they can, as has been done in
former Congresses with respect to other questions concerning Russia.
§ 2. Hydrography of the Dnieper.
The depth of the Dnieper varies greatly throughout its course and it is
impossible to give an average for each section. Numerous shoals, ridges
of sand and rock, etc. cause shallow and dup places to appear in close
proximity. Thus between Kiev and Ekaterinoslav the depth in times of
low water falls in Same places to 74 cm., while in the same section it
reaches in other places depth of 20 m.
The velocity of the current, although variable, is not a serious hin-
drance to navigation, except in the section which includes the rapids,
where it is so great that it is next to impossible for vessels to make way
against the current. -
Floods occur once a year, in the spring, and last a comparatively short
time, They increase the discharge to an enormous degree, which varies
for the section including the rapids from 300 cub. m. (at low water) to
17,000 cub. m. during a high flood (fig. 2).
;
i
GT
g-
T
E.
}* * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
* - * * * * * * * * * *
ET
T
A XE DES DEB ITS,
:: : - -º
N OTA – LE ZERO DE L'Éc HELLE DEKATERİNOS LAV EST
A0397. SAGENES AU DEssous DE LAXE DES DžBits.
Fig. 2. — Diagram showing the variatiouns in the discharge of the
Dnieper near Ekaterinoslav in 1882–83.
The periods during which navigation is possible vary for different
parts of the watercourse. Near Smolensk it is hardly 200 days; at Kherson
there is an average of 277 days (figs. 3, 4).





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10
The Dnieper is connected by means of three systems of canals and
canalised rivers with the basins of the Western Duna, the Niemen and
the Vistula, but these waterways are now only used for the transport of
timber, for the most part in floats.
The enormous system of navigable ways included in the basin of the
Dnieper is blocked at a few hundred kilometres from the Black Sea by
a large number of rapids which form a section 66.7 Km. in length and
present an insurmountable barrier to vessels ascending stream and
render navigation extremely dangerous with the current.
§ 3. Commerce.
In spite of the very favourable situation of the Dnieper basin and the
waterways which pass through it, commerce although considerable falls
far short of the development which it whould assume if the different
hindrances which limit its extension were removed.
The rapids divide the Dnieper system into two distinct sections. The
upper of these comprises more than 9000 kilometres of navigable ways
and is almost isolated, for the artificial waterways which connect it with
the Baltic hardly admit of the transport of timber in floats and the
rapids can only be passed by vessels going down stream. Moreover it is
only possible to short the rapids during a short period every year and the
operation is attended with much loss on account of stoppages, damages
Sustained, the absence of insurance, heavy pilot expenses, etc.
Floats of wood to the number of 500 to 600, a few hundred boats of
inferior build (fig. 5–20) go down the rapids every year, carrying in all
some 100,000 tons.
Consequently there is no commercial movement in the opposite direction.
Therefore the Lower Dnieper between Alexandrovsk and the mouth, a
distance of 347 Km., or about 1/25 of the upper section, surpasses it com-
pletely in commercial activity. Such is the result of direct communication
with the sea. -
This state of things has the most unfortunate influence upon boat
building on the Dnieper, since boats having once descended the rapids
from the upper to the lower section are unable to return to their
original ports.
-:
G on teh a k,
Coupes transversaïès
Coupe tongitudinate.
Vue (atérale. == }; : 33. -
& $2tºn, º
3.33.
\–1
A LA DESCENTE
DANS LES CATA RACTES
DU DNIEPR
4 : 1%.
--————— ; & BATEAUX NAVIGUANT
i
§.
Bafque de Briansk.
Vue latārale.
Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1, 12. – Boats used in the descent of the rapids on the Dnieper.







§
ERTEXUx NAVIGUANTATA DESCENTE .
DANS LES CAT ARACTES
OU on [EPR
Barque – Luza. C- i ––fissi
Wue latérate
gº e
Coupe transversale
Fig. 13, 14, 15. — Boats used in the descent of the rapids on the Dnieper.




13
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14
TABLEMUGRAPH|UEDUMOUVEMENTIESBATEAL)(ETES TRANS
DE BUS ATRAVERSLES (ATARACTESDJ DNEPREN 1852–1879.
MA||
TJTAUX
Fig. 21. — Diagram of the movement of boats and timber floats
over the rapids of the Dnieper between 1852 and 1879.

C H A P T E R II.
Brief description of the principal rapids between
Ekaterinoslav and AlexandroVsk.
Contents: § 4. Names of the principal rapids. – $ 5. Channels in the diluvial
Section of the Dnieper. — $6. Characteristics of the rapids: length, fall, incline, etc.
— $ 7. The Old Kodak. — $ 8. The Sowra. — $ 9. The Cuvette. — $ 10. The
Résonnante. — $ 11. The Insatiable. — $ 12. The Wolnigi. — $13. The Boudiloo. —
§ 14. The Superflue. — $ 15. The Libre. — $ 16. Pilots on the Dnieper.
§ 4. Names of the rapids.
The principal rapids of the Dnieper, which may be divided into nine
groups, extend over a distance of 62% versts (67.7 K.m.) in the govern-
ment of Ekaterinoslav (figs. 22, 23, 24, 25). Their total fall amounts to
15,723 sagènes (33.49 m.). They come in the following order:
The Staro-Kodakski rapid (Old Kodak).
,, Sourski , (Soura).
, Lokhanski , (Cuvette).
, Zwolnetski » (Résonnante).
,, Nenassytetski , (Insatiable).
, Volnigski , (Volnigi). f
, Bowdilovski , (Boudiloo).
, Lishmi , (Superflue).
, Vilny , (Libre).
16
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Figs. 22 and 23. — Map of the diluvial section of the Dnieper between Eaterinº d
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18
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low water level; high water
Dnieper.
is indicated by te dotted line.




20
§ 5. Channels in the diluvial section of the Dnieper.
The diluvial section of the Dnieper has two channels known as the
,,old” and the , new”. The ,old” channel, which is also called the Cossak’s
channel, keeps near the right bank for the greater part of its course and
passes by the places least encumbered by rocks. The depth from 2 to
4 m. in the hollows falls at low water to 1 m. and even 0.50 m. in
the rapids.
When the water is low (– 0.60 S. = — 1.28 m.) quantities of stones
emerge and render the movement even of timber floats impossible.
The , new” channel lies for the most part near the left bank. It passes
by the canals, which will be referred to later (§ 22). Between the rapids
the two channels frequently coincide.
The depth of the new” is greater than that of the ,old” channel. It
reaches 0.50 s. (1.07 m.) below low water level.
The entrance to the canals is often difficult on account of the numerous
rocks which have not yet been removed. Nevertheless the creation of this
artificial channel has lengthened the period during which navigation is
possible by an average of one month. -
Timber floats are able to make use of the new channel when insur-
mountable obstacles would be met with in the old channel. But when
the water is very low the new channel also becomes impracticable.
The period during which navigation is possible in the rapids even for
timber floats going down stream, is therefore always much shorter than
either above or below the rapids. -
21
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TABLE SHOWING THE MEAN LENGTH, FALL AND INCLINE OF THE RAPIDS ON
§ 6. Characteristic:
T H E O L I
tic
JW3 || NAMES OF THE RAPIDS. || Length Low water. º
in Sagènes Ea.II IFall
(metre). ºr º ºr tº
1 || Staro-Kodakski . 290 0.961 0.0033 0.871 0.003
(619) (2.049) - (1.857)|
2 || Sourski . 40 0.257 || 0.00643 0.24 0.06
(85) (0.547) (0.512)
3 || Lokhanski. 70 0.745 0.01064 0.525 0.0075
(149) (1.587) (1.120)
4 || Zvonetski . 140 0.722 || 0.0051 0.552 0.0039
- (299)|| (1.540) (1.177)
5 || Nenassytetski. 408 2.148 || 0.0053 2.258 || 0.0055
(869) (4.57) (4.810)
6 || Wolnigski . 392 1.556 || 0.00897 1.326 0.0034
(836) (3,314) (2.827)
7 || Boudilovski 140 0.272 0.00194 0.272 0.0019
(298.20) (0.580) (0.580)
8 || Lishni b0 - * 0.031 || 0.0006
(106.5) (0.0661)
9 || Wilny 400 - ºg 0,928 0.00232
(852) (1.981)
Totals 1930 sºmeº * 7.003 *

yf the rapids.
THE DNIEPER. (TAKEN FROM THE STUDIES of H. SouLKovskI 1887/88).
D. H. A. N. N. E. L. C A. N. A. T. S.
High water. Length Low water. Conventional low water. High water.
4. in Sagènes
in sºme Average (metres). in sºme Average in gºes Average in sºme Average
(metres). incline. (metres). incline. (metres). incline. (metres). incline.
0.451 0.00156 208 0.774 || 0.00372 0,684 0.0034 0.264 0.001.22
(0.962) (444) (1.649) (1,459) (0.563) |
0.125 0.00178 125 0.823 || 0.00658 0.613 0.0049 0.213 || 0.00170
(0.267) (267) (1.753) (1.308) (0.454)
0.272 0.002 112| – *g 0.588 0.0089. 0.856 00032
(0.580) (239) (1.244) (0.759)
Up p e r C a n a 1.
1.828 0.0448 200 0.206 0.0010 0,206 0.0010 0.206 || 0.0010
(3.983) - (427) (0.439) (0,439) (0.439)
L o w e r C a n a 1.
545 2.829 || 0 00427 2.439 0.0046 2.009 0.0037
(1163) | (4,961) (5.203) (4,286)
1.216 || 0.00310 221 1.233 || 0.00056 1.003 0.004.5 0.893 0.00404
(2.589) (472.5) (2.626) - (2.140) (1,903)
--- -- 107 0.310 0.00291 0.31 0.0029 - *E*
(228.1) (0.660) (0.661)
*= *-* 90 tºmsºmº tº-ºs- ().035 | 6.00039 — --
(191.7) (0.070075)
* --- 380 * *-* 1.148 0.003 tº-mº tº-sº
(811) (2.449)
mºmºmºsº *- 1988 * --- 7,021 * * *
24
VELOCITY OF THE CURRENT IN THE RAPIDs of THE DNIEPER WHEN
THE WATER Is FAIRLY LOW. (TAKEN FROM THE STUDIES
OF GENERAL POLYKARPOF. — 1880–82).
- T HE OLD CHANNEL OF THE NEW CHANNEL OF THE
Height THE RAIPIDS. CANAT.S.
º
..W3| RAPIDS. º, Mini- A Mini
evet (0). - |VIII'll- V6I'- º IIll-
i. Maximum. . age. Maximum. IIl Average.
Sag & n e s (m et res) per se c on d.
At the
entrance.
0.275
(0.587)
1 || St.-Kodakski —0.26 ().569 0.471 ().527 1.514 || 0.137 At the left
(—0.555) (1.214) (1,005) (1.124) (3.230) (0.292) Of the
Canal.
- 1,408
\ (3.004)
Old
channel.
0.969 || 0.565 0.742 * -*. -
2.067) (1.2 2 583
2 || Sourski . —0.36 ( ) (1.205) ( )
(—0.768)|| “...º
highwaters.
0.916 || 0.415 0.649 *-*. -** -*.
(1.954) (0.885) (1.385)
Old
Channel.
2.431 || 0.748; 1.744 1,415 || 0.479 1.197
5.187 3,721 .019) (1,012 &
a || Lºs -oss º (1599)|&tº 6019 (1019 (2.5%
(–0.597)|| “...º.
highwaters.
1.394 || 0 562 0.985 - - * -s
(2.974) (1.199)|(2.102)
4 || Zvonetski .ii —0,305 1.452 || 0 625, 1.085 1.565 0.745 1.162
(–0.651) (3.098) (1.334) (2.315) (3.339) (1.590) (2.479)
Upper
Canal.
0.670 || 0,415 0.529
5 || Nenassytetski || –0.445 1.295 || 0.734 1,004) (1.430) (0.885) (1.129)
(–0.950) (2.763) (1.566) (2.142)|| Lower
Canal.
1,415 || 0.996 1.168
(3.019) (2.125, (2.492)
6 || Wolnigski –0.38 1.495 || 0.584 0.99 1,316 || 0.241 0.897
(–0.811) (3.190) (1.246) (2.112) (2.808) (0.514) (1.914)
7 || Boudilovski. —0.34 1.248 || 0.475|| 0,867 1.297 || 0.34.1 0.843
(—,0725) (2,663) (1.013) (1.850) (2.767) (0.728) (1.799)
The mean
channel
Inear the
Canal.
8 || Lishni —0.34 0.845 || 0.414] 0.614 0.815 || 0.316 0.573
(—0.725) (1.803) (0.883) (1,310) (1.739) (0.674) (1.223)
9 || Wilny. —0.34 1.105 || 0.395 0.81 1.205 || 0,505 0.825
(—0.725) (2.358) (0.843)|(1.728) (2.571) (1.077) (1.760)

25
MAXIMUM INCLINES AT LOW WATER LEVEL (0). (TAKEN FROM
THE STUDIES OF M. SouLKovskI).

- THE OLD CHANNEL. CANALs.
Nº NAMES OF Partial Corres- Partial Corres-
º { 3.T1518, Ondin r: artial | ponding ; row,
THE RAPIDs. º' ºf Pºlº º 'º'; ſº
Sag. Sag. Sag. Sag.
1 || V.-Kodakski. 0.426 65 0.00655 || 0.306 50 0.00612
2 || Sourski. 0.214 30 0.00713 - - -
3 || Lokhanski 0.169 15 0.01.126 || 0.545 100 0.00545
4 || Zvonetzki. 0.169 9 |0.01877 || 0.224 17 0.01817
5 || Nenassytetzki 0.540 41 0.01817 || 0.465 50 0.0093
6 || Wolnigski. 0.519 69 0.00752 || 0.347 50 0.00694:
7 || Boudilovski . 0.156 33 0.004.73 || 0.136 40 0.0034.
8 || Lichny. - - - O.016 30 0.00053
9 || Vilny . 0.443 7() 0.00683 || 0.577 100 || 0.00577
MINIMUM DEPTHS IN THE CHANNELS IN THE DILUVIAL SECTION AT
CONVENTIONAL LOW WATER AND when THE WATER was AT ITs
LOWEST IN 1892. (TAKEN FROM THE STUDIES OF M. SouLKovskI).

OLD CHANNEL.
NEw CHANNEL.
NAMES OF
THE RAPIDs, ###| ### ää, #:
No ZABORES # # # º: Minimum # ää. # *: Minimum
º §35 | *- : depths compared|## *ś| *: # depths compared
rC; L + q) Cº ré + 3 as Q 3 & -
AND ### äää with the low #: É| #3. with the low
SHOALS. ãáč | ### waters of 1892.Éá' jää waters of 1892.
3 #3 # $º 5 §: ## e.
###| *śā § 3. aga
Sag Sag. Sag. Metres. Sag Sag Sag. Metres.
Above the first
rapid. 0.90 0.43 0.47 1.00 - - - e-
1 || Kodakski rapid 0.75 0.46 0.29 0.62 || 0.58 0.44 0.14 0.30
Boutzef zabore. 0.93 0.49 0.44 || 0 34 || – || – a- - -
Nemetzki reach . || 1.16 0.50 0.66 | 1.40 || – - - -
2 |Sourski rapid . ().98 || 0.42 0.56 | 1.19 - - - *-
Bondarev zabore . || 1.04 0.43 0.61 1.30 - - - -
26
OLD CHANNEL.
NEw CHANNEL.

NAMES OF
THE RAPIDS, # #: tº e #s #: * †
No. ZABORES #: # º # s #: º
AND # #: with the low # s: # with the low
SHOALS. #: É āā; waters of 1892. ###" # waters of 1892.
Sag. Sag. Sag. | Metres. || Sag. Sag. Sag. Metres.
3 || Lokhanski rapid . || 1.20 0.49 0.71 | 1.51 || 0.84 0.48 || 0.36 ().77
Bogatyrski zabore || 0.61 0.58 0.03 || 0.06 || – - --- *
Reach 1.12 || 0.53 ().59 | 1.26 || 1.0 *mº -------- *
4 || Zvonetski rapid . || 0.70 || 0.50 0.20 || 0.43 || 1.08 || 0:49 0.59 | 1.26
Gloukhi zabore 1.15 0.62 0.53 | 1.13 || – - gºmº- *
Reach 0.92 || 0.53 0.39 0.83 || 0.69 || 0.50 0.19 || 0.40
5||Nenassytetski rapid || 0.81 0.48 0.38 0.70 ||0.58 0.41 01" | 0.36
Reach || – * – --— || 0.57 || 0.38 0.19 || 0.40
Golodaika zabore. 0.75 || 0.38 || 0.37 || 0.79 || – — *m- ---
Kolotnitchev zabore || 0.65 0.39 - &m-sº 0.66 0.39 0.27 0.57
Voronov zabore . || 0.50 | 0.40 0.10 || 0.21 || 0.64 || 0.41 0.23 0.49
6 || Wolnigski rapid 0.98 0.55 0.35 | 0.74 || 0.80 0.55 0.25 0.53
Reach 1.15 0.73 || 0.42 || 0.89 || 1.04 || 0.73 || 0 31 || 0.66
7 || Boudilovski rapid. | 1.03 || 0.69 || 0.34 0.72 || 0.62 0.69 (–)007 (–0.15
Reach 0.95 || 0.69 0.26 0.55 || 0.95 0.69 0.26 0.55
8 || Lishny rapid . 0.50 0.69 (–)0.19 (–)0.40|| 0.70 || 0.69 0.01 || 0.02
9 || Wilny rapid 0.56 0.69 (–)0.13|(–)0.28||0.61 0.69 (–)0.08 (–)0.17
Jaview, za bore. 1.00 0.60 || 0.31 || 0.66 || 1.23 0.69 0.54 | 1.15
§ 7. The Old Kodak (Staro-Kodakski).

At 13.2 versts (14.2 Km.) below the town of Ekaterinoslav and 6 Km.
from the village of the Pilots Kamenka, opposite the village of Staroi-
Kodak, the first rapid, Staro-Kodakski, is met with (figs. 26, 27).
In this region the Dnieper has in time of low water a width of about
one kilometre; with the mean waters the width becomes 1.51 Kn. and
during floods a little more. The rapid is formed by several rows of rocks
which bar the entire width of the river. The banks reach a height of
20 m. and form promontories which advance in some cases 300 metres
into the stream.
the time of year and the direction of the channels (§ 6).
The fall of this rapid varies between 0.563 and 2.049 m, according to
a-inaw …….aaa…au-ro º que os au wn w （w uwaelolo： ***x-audą indimp sºnowaensømi-ºut：rox-owi）.
"Tywyſº mu LNOWY 338 LNG
·(Ixsxvcıoyſ-oavis yr I)
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2
7
HAUTES EAUX(HE)1888—-------.
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k— 45 –
|
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|
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ETſAGE (O)—H- * ==>
i | *
BASSES EAUx(BE) 899—Re-
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WIEUX
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DIST
CHUTES
PENTES
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PENTES
Fig. 27. — Longitudinal section of the two channels in the Staro-Kodakski
rapid (Old Kodak).





















28
*
Between 1787 and 1800 some of the largest stones were blown up and
a canal, 50 Sagènes in length, was thus cut along the right bank. To direct
the current into this canal a groin, 60 Sagènes long, was constructed.
Between 1845 and 1854 a new canal was formed in this rapid near the
left bank by means of dikes (v. § 22).
Finally between 1882 and 1884 the rocks in the old channel were
blasted by means of dynamite over a width of 30 sagènes (64 m.), which
gave this part of the channel a depth of 0.75 Sagènes below low water.
The result of the removal of these rocks was to lower the low water
level of the rapid by 0.045 sagènes (0.096 m.).
The depth of the new channel presented a minimum of 30 c.M. (p. 17).
The old channel was principally used in this rapid.
At 2"|2 kilometres below the Kodak rapid there are rocks and stones
which project from the right bank for 300 m. towards the middle of the
river. Isolated rocks from the left bank join these rows of rock thus
forming the Sinelnikovna, Volockinova, Boatzeva and Nassoullina zabores.
§ 8. The Soura.
Eight versts (8.5 Km.) below the Kodak rapid is the island of Sourskoi,
near the right bank, thus named after the river Soura which here falls
into the Dnieper. This island runs parallel to the banks of the river and
is joined at its lower end by two ridges of granite 50 sagènes apart.
These ridges form the Soura rapid, the fall of which is 0.512 m. (fig. 28).
§ 9. The Cuvette (Lokhanski).
At 1.25 verst (1.33 Km.) below the Soura rapid the continuation of
the same granite bottom is met with, where it emerges above the water
in isolated rocks and continuous ridges. These masses of rock advance
from both banks towards the middle of the stream and end in three
small islands of granite formation, thus completely barring the river and
forming the Lokhanski rapid (the cuvette). This rapid, with a fall of
from 0.267 to 1.753 m., is one of the most dangerous for navigation. It
has a canal with dikes on each side, which is not however well situated
with regard to the main current.
bı'nı， ‘quae aegaalau-o "ºudos nuwe ºm wu…o… *ſ*…x
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·LNÝTTOM AT TYMÄN!) 00 SASI（T)} \ TYNYO AT NYTā ſāIWĀH） mſ
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·øıntıſød-ºuy-ºnelºvuºi ‘i ‘o*oqu-uouuat ººk
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Fig. 28. – Projection of the Sourski and Lokhanski rapids (the Soura and Cuvette).




























































30
After the Lokhanski rapid the two channels become amalgamated and
continue along the left bank of the river, the right bank being sprinkled
for a distance of two versts with a quantity of stones and sand-banks
which render navigation impossible. Two ridges and a small island of
granite end in this line of rocks, on the left side, and form the Boga-
tyrskaia or Streletchaia zabore.
§ 10. The Résonnante (Zvonetski).
At 4"|, kilometres below the Lokhanski rapid is the Zvonetski rapid
(Résonnante), formed by two ridges of rock some 200 m. apart. The
Zvonetski rapid, which has a fall of 0.580 to 1.540 m, has two separate
channels: the older of these is open, whille the new one passes through
a diked canal. There is a zabore known by the name of Glaukhaia about
1 kilometre below this rapid, but as the stones which form it are sepa-
rated by considerable intervals the only difficulties its presents are due to
the shallowness met with over certain isolated stones. -
Four versts further on, near the mouth of the little river Voronaia, the
Dnieper is divided by a number of islands and becomes 1’, verst wide.
The channel passes between the last of these islands, the Kozlov, and the
left bank. Protected on both sides boats halt in this region and wait for
a favourable moment to pass the most dangerous of the rapids, the
Nenassytetski. A few separate ridges of rock end on the right side of the
island of Kozlov and form the Tiaghinskaia rapid, which has a fall of
more than a metre. -
As this rapid only bars one of the branches it is generally called a
zabore.
§ 11. The Insatiable (Nenassytetski).
At a distance of 7 versts 253 sagènes (8 Km.) from the Zvonetski rapid
a collection of large rocks is met with on the right bank of the Dnieper;
from this point stony ridges stretch right across the river in every direc-
tion uniting with numerous islands on the right bank. The current being
thus barred and diverted by an immense number of obstacles scattered
over a distance of nearly 1 Km., strong cross currents and eddies are
produced. A little below the islands a ridge of rocks appears on the left
bank and advances obliquely for a considerable distance into the river.
This ridge throws the current again towards the right bank where the
water breaks upon the rocks with the greatest violence. These cross cur-
rents, confined and broken by the rocks, cause falls in which the water
Pl. 7 Ch. IV.
N. Ivanoff->ho. o. I. Ignatieff.-Art.-peintre.
L'JNs A TIA B L E
(LA NENAssytºts KI).
ENTREE AWALDU CANAL INFERIEUR ET BATEAU-TOUEUR 5'EXPERIENCE.
TIMONo FF.—Les caractos du Duièpre- xya. ºotorwn as a bºmbsoprº, c.-nate pºwer b, Mºhut-d


31
boils and surges with irresistible force. The most dangerous of these falls
is named. Hell (fig. 29).
Fig. 29. – The Insatiable (Nenassytetski) Cape Monastyrko and Hell.
The combination of these different obtacles forms the Nenassytetski
rapid, the total fall of which is from 4,810 to 5.203 m. (figs. 30, 31). The
slightest deviation in a boats course or a sudden rise in the wind cannot
fail to cause the loss of the craft.
By the side of this violent rapid, near the right bank, a canal has
been constructed with two locks (§ 19). The length of this canal is 290
sagènes and its width is from 8 to 10 sagènes. The lock-chambers have
a width of 5 sagènes and a depth of 6 feet on the sills below the mean
water level. This canal was very seldom employed. The smallness of the
lock-chambers, the great loss of time in getting through the canal and
the unfavourable position of its lower end have led to its abandonment
(§ 19).
Subsequently another channel near the left bank was created in the
Nenassytetski rapid with the help of open canals 745 sagènes long with
dikes on each side (§ 22).
These canals have the same defects as those of the other rapids: the
depth is insufficient and the entrance is difficult (§ 5).
Descending the Dnieper the Voronovaia zabore, with a fall of 2' 2",
is met with 6 versts from the Nenassytetski rapid, and 1 verst lower
down is the Krivaia zabore.
There are a great many other zabores between the Nenassytetski
and the following rapid, the Volnigski, so that navigation in this section
is extremely difficult.

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Fig. 30. – Projection of the Nenassytetski (Insatiable) rapid showing the
works at present in existence.





























|
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34
§ 12. The Wolnigi.
Twelve versts 204 sagènes from the Nenassytetski rapid the river is
again crossed by four almost parallel ridges which form the Volnigski
rapid, the fall of which is between 1.903 and 3.314 m. The bed of the
river is here only 200 sagènes wide, but a little further down stream the
Dnieper increases both in width and depth.
From the foot of this rapid the two channels are separate until the
next is reached.
§ 13. The Boudilov.
Five versts down stream the bed of the Dnieper is again contracted
by rocks on both sides which leave it only a width of 200 sagènes. Two
rows of islets 100 sagènes apart produce the Boudilovski rapid, the fall
of which is 0.580 m. at low water. This rapid is not dangerous.
Two versts from here there are many islets, the principal of which
are: Ossokorovaly, Tavaljany and Orlov.
In this region the river is more than one verst in width.
§ 14. The Superflue (Lishni).
About 16 Km. below the Boudilvoski rapid and above the island of
Koukharev the bed of the river, confined by its banks of granite, is not
more than 300 sagènes wide; but below this island it expands again to
a great width. In this contracted space above the island detached rocks
and collections of stones extend obliquely from the left to the right bank
and form the Lishni rapid, the fall of which is 0.066 m. This rapid is
the least dangerous for navigation.
§ 15. The Libre (Wilny).
The last large rapid, named the Vilny, is 4 versts 235 Sagènes from
the Lishni (fig. 32, 33). The channel passes between the islands of
Lantoukhov and Gavine. The river-bed contracts visibly and finally is
not more than 300 sagènes in width. - -
There are a large number of stony islands on the right bank. In this
rapid, which is one verst in length, the old channel has a most irregular
course. Near the right bank, at the foot of the rapid, three separate rocks
stand up, between which there is a fair depth and a rapid current. The
position of these rocks is such that a great many boats are drawn into
this dangerous passage. Sometimes they are dashed to pieces, while at
other times, if they do make their way through, they sustain such in-
juries that it is impossible for them to continue their journey. The name
of Wolf's Saw has been given to the place. The Vilny rapid is regarded
as one of the most dangerous.
35
The new channel in the Vilny rapid is guided by two dikes. The
shallowness of this channel is its greatest defect.
§ 16. Pilots on the Dnieper.
The dangers with which navigation is attended in the diluvial section
of the Dnieper gave rise in the sixteenth century to the formation of a
corps of Cossak pilots who steered the boats and timber floats across the
rapids. This corps of volunteers was under the superintendence of the
Cossak Zaporogs. Towards the end of the eighteenth century, when the
Zaporogs lost their independence and their capital (the Setch) was
destroyed, the government did not cease to encourage the pilots on the
rapids, but conferred upon them many privileges and rewards.
The villages of Lotsmanskaiakamenka and Kaidaki upon the river-banks
are to day free from all duties and taxes, even from military service, on
condition that they devote themselves to pilotage.
In 1872 the total number of pilots on the rapids was 837. In 1892 it
was 570.
These pilots, who are wonderfully skillful and plucky, are entirely
depended upon for the navigation of the rapids, which without them
would be impossible.
Still, even under their guidance, it is not always fortunate. Mishaps
to boats and timber floats unfortunately frequently occur and sometimes
there is a loss of human life. As insurance companies will not take the
risk of insuring goods over the rapids, these accidents inflict severe losses
upon trade.
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37
0.
Fig. 33.5— Longitudinal section of the Vilny rapid (Libre).

CHA PTER III.
Regulation of the rapids on the Dnieper, methods
that have been adopted.
Contents: § 17. Introduction. — $ 18. Works of the eighteenth century. — $ 19.
Works and schemes of General DE WOLLANT. — $ 20. Schemes of the engineer
CHICHOFF. — $ 21. Experiments made in 1833–37. — $ 22. Construction of open
canals in the rapids on the Dnieper. — $ 23. Latest schemes, studies and works
(1855–93).
§ 17. Introduction.
The rapids on the Dnieper, which so seriously impede navigation on
one of the most important waterways in Russia, have continually occupied
the attention of the government since the annexation of the provinces
which constitute New-Russia.
Numerous attempts have been made to improve the condition of the
rapids with respect to navigation, but the works executed on various
occasions with this object have not so far been able to realise any definite
results with regard to the ascent, for the matter of expense has always
stood in the way. w -
In briefly reviewing the principal works which have been executed for
the regulation of these rapids we have no intention of merely going into
a matter of history. These works taken together may in many ways serve
as a technical lesson, for the conception of them, which dates back to
last century, is founded on the principles which are followed nowadays
in works of this kind, notably upon the Danube, the example of which
will no doubt be followed upon the Dnieper.
§ 18. Works of the eighteenth century.
In the year 1771 Prince PotºMKINE, Governor-General of New-Russia,
anxious to try every means for the development of the fleet and the new
cities on the Black Sea, suggested the regulation of the rapids on the
Dnieper. The works executed by Colonel FALEIEFF are mentioned in the
description of a journey to Kherson in 1782 (1)
(1) ZOUEFF.
39
Among these works is included the canal in the Kodakski rapid as
well as that in the Nenassytetski rapid, which stilll goes by the name of
Faleieff’s canal.
To judge from the latter they were small branch canals cut in the
bank for the purpose of making a detour round the rapid.
These works are considered to be the first which have been undertaken
on the rapids of the Dnieper. Nevertheless according to some authors it
is to PETER the Great to whom the honour of the initiation of the first
works for the regulation of the rapids with respect to navigation is due;
but no trace of these works exists and only the tradition remains.
An impetus was given to the prosecution of these improvements by the
journey of the Empress Catherine through the south of Russia. She paid a
visit to the rapids in 1787 and established the corporation of pilots
(§ 16), the members of which have since been exempt from taxation. By
this act of generosity the Empress wished to glorify the courage and skill
of the brave villagers, the inhabitants of Kaidaki, who in her majesty’s
presence were able to steer the imperial flotilla over the Nenassytetski
rapid, the most dangerous of them all.
§ 19. Works and schemes of General de Wollant.
In 1795 Colonel, and later General, de Wollant of the Engineers and
Director-General of Ways and Communications (1812–18) was delegated
by the imperial government to study the question of the rapids upon
the spot. De Wollant's first idea was to make locks on all the rapids, but
economy subsequently obliged him to modify his scheme. His next
scheme was to adopt different methods according to the importance of
the rapids, either a simple deepening of the navigable channel, or the
erection of leading dams to prevent boats impelled by cross currents
from leaving the channel, or the construction of locked canals. At first
De Wollant's scheme included the construction of a lock for the Nenas-
sytetski rapid only, while he proposed to regulate the others by more
economical methods in the first instance and only to make locks when
the requirements of navigation should render it necessary. The estimated
cost of these works was only 1,136,000 roubles. General de Wollant's
Scheme was in 1797 honoured with imperial approval and the execution
of it was commenced the same year. The work lasted until 1810.
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Fig. 34. Projection of the Old Kodak rapid showing the works executed
according to the scheme of General de Wollant.
The principal operation was the deepening of the navigable channel.
Leading dams which were built of unhewn stone were next constructed
in the first three rapids, Starokodakski, Sourski and Lokhanski. The
depth and width of these canals was small. The canal on the Old Kodak
was hardly 20 m. wide (fig. 34).
The leading dams were also on a very small scale. That on the Old
Kodak was only 50 sagènes in length, that on the Soera 80 Sagènes and
that on the third rapid, the Cuvette, 90 sagènes (fig. 35). The dams were
very feeble and could not long withstand the effect of the ice and within
a few years no trace of them was left. -
... 100. 200. 800. "Grººt. DiRECTRicFS
Nº CES,
º
Fig. 35. — Projection of the Soura and Cuvette rapid showing the works executed
according to the scheme of General de Wollant.










41
In the other rapids only the deepening of the channel was attempted
and only in the Nenassytetski rapid was a canal made 105 Sagènes in
length having a lock with two lock-chambers and an intermediate
basin, the total fall being 14 feet. The depth on the sills of these locks
was 6 feet below a level which was considered the mean water level
(figs. 36–41). -
C *0, 100, 200. 300. 400 ºzzeózed.
* * --~
Fig. 36. — Projection of the Insatiable rapid showing the works executed
according to the scheme of General de Wollant.
The following is the manner in which as inspector of the work DE
WOLLANT described this lock in a letter addressed by him, under date
of 2nd January 1805, to the Director of Ways and Communications.
,These two locks on the Nenassitetzky are constructed of hewn granite;
...they are larger than the locks on the Ladoga-Canal. To get them into
»position it has been necessary to cut a canal through a solid rock 55
, fathoms in length, 24 feet deep and 56 feet wide.
,It is well known that the Nenassitetzky rapid has baffled all methods
»of improvement and that it only remained to construct the locks in
,,Guestion in order to prevent the desasters to which navigation is con-
»tinually exposed in this rapid.
, All the other rapids, since their regulation and the fixing of the
»direction of the navigable channel, are now passed without danger or

42
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43
,loss; but on the Nenassytetzki there are always 5 or 6 craft lost in
, the descent and as many timber floats, without counting the loss of
lives.
22
Fig. 42. – Present state of the lock constructed according to the scheme of General
de Wollant in a lateral canal near the Nenassytetski (Insatiable) rapid.
-
..There is no doubt therefore that it depends upon the construction of
ºthese locks and other works in this region to obviate all danger in the
,descent of the Dnieper over all the rapids during high and mean water,
..and even in time of low water, if the level is not extraordinarily low.
, In this latter case and for vessels to ascend the river — which the first
oscheme provided for — there is no other method than to resort to the
,construction of locks upon eight other rapids, for which those upon the
...Nenassytetski when complete might serve as a guide and model.”
The Nenassytetski lock was finished in 1808 and an experiment made
with a boat proved the perfect working of the apparatus. By a decision
of the 6th March 1808 the Emperor distributed rewards to the personnel
directing the works.
Unfortunately this fine piece of work was of little or no utility for
navigation.
The timber floats and boats which went down the Dnieper were larger
in dimensions than the lock. Floats therefore had to be re-formed in
order to pass through the lock and boats had to be lightened. Moreover
the lock was difficult to approach on account of the shallowness of the
channel leading to it. These inconveniences caused boats going down
stream to pursue the old route.
With regard to navigation up stream, no use could be made of the

44
lock on the Nemassytetski on account of the other rapids, which could
not be passed. - -
The lock was gradually abandoned and finally fell into decay; but it
always remains a monument worthy of its author and a lesson, dearly
bought it is true (the cost of it was 1*/2 million roubles), of enterprises
insufficiently studied from a financial point of view. If at the time when
this lock was built the necessary funds had been available for completing
the series, by making similar locks in the other rapids, we should to day
find upon the Dnieper a navigation the activity of which would hardly
be equalled in Europe. -
$ 20. Schemes of the engineer Chichoff.
Ten years later the Direction General of Ways and Communications
again took up the question. This time the engineer CHICHOFF was
charged, in 1824, with the detailed study of the rapids on the Dnieper
and the drawing up of a complete scheme for their regulation. -
In 1826 the scheme was ready. It consisted in a detailed analysis of
the Solutions possible, such as the formation of a branch canal connecting
the Dnieper above the rapids with the Black Sea or Sea of Azov, or of
a lateral canal which would make a detour round the rapids, a locked
canal in the bed of the river with dikes on each side throughout the
diluvial section of the Dnieper, the removal of rock from the channel
for ascending navigation with locks in each rapid, and finally open canals
with dikes on each side, within the limits of each rapid, for navigation
with the current. - -
With the locked canal in the bed of the river CHICHOFF calculated
there would be 16 locks. The dikes required more than 5 million cubic
metres of material. The estimated cost amounted to 10.643.014 roubles.
Moreover CHICHOFF thought that constructive works placed in the bed of
the river could not be sufficiently protected against the ice and that wind
might render the canals inaccessible or difficult to approach.
A branch canal would according to CHICHOFF be free from these incon-
veniences. But after studying the different aspects of this solution CHICHOFF
came to the conclusion that a lateral canal would require au enormous
sum of money, for it would be necessary to cut the canal through hard
rock rising often to a height of more than 35 Sagènes or to lead it
through a number of deep valleys.
CHICHOFF therefore regarded all these solutions as impracticable and
adhered to the necessity of establishing two different and separate routes
for navigation up and down stream. For the former be recommended
between the rapids a channel 30 Sagènes wide along the right bank,
which should be formed by removing the rock for a depth of 5"|2 feet
below low water level, and locked canals on each rapid; for boats going
down stream a channel 15 Sagénes wide with a depth of 5"/2 feet below
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45
low water (?) and with dikes on each side in the rapids. According to
CHICHOFF the carrying out of this scheme would cost 4,200.000 roubles
and would take 7 years.
It is remarkable that, although CHICHOFF proposed to build leading
dams along his canals, he intended them to do no more than protect
boats from the effects of wind from the side and he does not seem to
have foreseen the much greater influence they would exercise on the
distribution of the incline.
§ 21. Experiments made in 1833–1837.
The Direction General of Ways and communications only approved of
part of CHICHOFF's scheme, viz-that part which dealt with navigation
with the current. It was decided not to carry the scheme into immediate
execution and it was agried to reserve the right of making certain
modifications after an experimental study, which was judged to be indis-
pensable.
A commencement was made with the dikes. At first it was thought
that they should be done away with completely and that elastic supports
which might protect boats from shocks under the action of the wind
should take their place.
It was then proposed for the sake of economy to do away with one
dike and to dig a second channel on the other side of the remaining
dike, so that boats might find shelter from the wind on either side.
Finally the sheme was reduced to an experiment upon the first rapid
(the old Kodak).
Under this form the scheme obtained in 1833 the sanction of the
Emperor, and the same year the execution of it was begun. This dike
was built at a distance of 120 sagènes from the left bank of the river.
It was composed of large blocks of stone, placed dry, and had a length
of 150 sagènes, a height of about 121/2 feet and a width of 2 Sagènes on
the top (figs. 43–55). The channel was given a depth of 6 feet below
low water level (?).
In the course of the work, from reasons of economy recognised by
experience, it was agried to revert to the construction of two dikes one
On each side of a single channel.
The second dike was only 9 feet high and 1 sagène wide at the top.
The work was finished in 1837. Five years later a portion of the left
hand dike at the entrance to the canal was demolished in order to render
the approach less difficult. At the same time this dike was raised to the
height of that on the right hand.
The cost of this canal amounted to 89,427 roubles, but this sum
increases to about 95.500 (fr. 238.750) if the previous works upon this
rapid are included.
46
Experiments made
in 1833–37.
Regulation of the
Old Kodak rapid.
Fig. 43–55.
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48
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according to the observation of the engineer Regoulski (1858).




49
§ 22. Construction of open canals in the rapids on the Dnieper.
From 25 observations taken in 1842 in the canal of the Olk Kodak
rapid it was found that the velocity of the current was 8 feet per second.
This result appeared so favourable that it suggested the possibility of
doing without locks for ascending the rapids on the Dnieper by
hauling boats up, when necessary, by means of capstans fixed on the
dikes of the open canals (1).
An experiment made with a boat confirmed the hypothesis.
This result helped greatly to accelerate the construction of canals in
other rapids on the Dnieper (2).
For the canals in other rapids it was first proposed to establish a run
at the entrance in order to facilitate the approach of the boats, but this
idea was afterwards abandoned and the dikes were arranged as
follows.
In the places where the width of the river is about equal to the
normal width the distance between the dikes was to be diminished pro-
gressively towards the end of the canal. When the circumstances should
be the reverse, it was proposed to diminish progressively the incline of
the bottom, while preserving the same distance between the dikes
throughout the length of the canal.
The scheme thus conceived was approved of in 1843 and the same year
a commencement was made to carry it into effect in the 8 succeeding
rapids as well as in the reformation of the canal in the Old Kodak rapid.
This work was completed in 1854. The cost amounted to about
2,000,000 r., which sum includes the expenses of maintenance up to 1872.
The result of these works was to prolong the period during which navi-
gation was possible with the current by One month.
The canals thus made in the rapids on the Dnieper, of which figs. 26,
27, 28, 30, 31, 33, 56 give a tolerably clear idea, were far from being
quite finished. The inadequacy of the means available did not allow
of giving the requisite width and depth, of removing the ridges in the
channel between the rapids, of raising the dikes to a suitable height, etc.
The depth obtained was only 4 feet below low water level and in Some
places only 31/2 feet. The bottom of the canals was therefore visible in some
places at times of lowest water. The dikes rose commonly 8 feet (2.4 m.)
above low water level, while the high waters rose two or three times
this height, even more. The canals could only be used for navigation
during a limited period, when the average level was high enough to give
a sufficient depth, and low enough not to overflow the dikes.
(1) The rapids on the Dnieper. Ann. des Voies de Com. 1845.
(2) Id. (observations of M. GoLOWATCHEF) A. W. C., 1863.
W. E. DE TIMONOFF. 4
50
There were difficulties in the way of navigation against the current
which were considered insurmountable. -
Nevertheless the works of 1843–54 put in practice a principle which,
nearly half a century later, found most weight in the choice of a solution
for the Iron Gates on the Danube, viz. the adoption of open canals with-
Out locks.
§ 23. Latest schemes, studies and works (1855–93).
The comparative failure of the method of regulation with open
canals in the rapids on the Dnieper, the causes of which were attri-
buted to defect in the principle rather than to the manner of execution,
caused locked canals again to come into favour.
Therefore in 1873 we hear of a new scheme for the regulation of the
rapids, in which locks are considered as the only means for rendering
this part of the river navigable against the current. This scheme, prepared
by M. MITROFANOFF, engineer of Ways of Communication, unhappily
since dead, provided for locked canals in all the rapids. Each canal was
to be formed by means of a single leading dam at a short distance from
the bank. The locks were placed at the lower end of the canal and were
preceded by a weir, which was intended to keep the water in the canal
at a fixed level. The number of locks provided for by this scheme was
nine, three of which had two chambers and one a series of three chambers.
The dikes rose 0.20 sagène above the navigable water level and the
sills of the locks were to be 5 feet (0.714 m.) below the conventional low
water level (0) of the river.
The dimensions of the lock-chambers were 55"|2 by 6 sagènes (118.4 ×
12.8 m.). The side-walls were 0.25 sagène (0.533 m.) above the level of
the highest floods (1845). The cost was estimated at 10,157,000 roubles
(fr. 25,380,000).
The necessity of asking the treasury for such a sum frightened the
Minister of Ways of Communication; the scheme was not approved of
and the question was submitted to a series of fresh studies.
The question was again asked whether it was not possible to provide
for navigation against the current without employing such costly works
as locks, by making use of the canals already in existence. With this
object a system of towing in the rapids was attempted. The experiment
was not successful, both on account of the defects in the canals, which
we have spoken of above (insufficient depth, irregular incline, etc.), and
the defective means of towing. The failure therefore proved nothing, for
there were instances of boats and even a dredger ascending the rapids;
but the failure helped still further to discourage public opinion. It is to
the personal influence of an eminent engineer, whose death is also much
to be regretted, M. GOLOVATCHEF, director of Ways of Communication
51
in the district of Kiev, that the continuation of the studies and works on
the rapids during this period of mistakes is due.
Strongly advocating the regulation of the rapids without locks, M.
GoLOVATCHEF caused experiments to be made with the blasting of rocks
below water by means of dynamite.
The work accomplished during the years 1884–86 were intended to
give the old channel in the Old Kodak rapid a depth of 10 quarters of
an archine (1.778 m.) below low water level with a width of 30 sagèmes
(64 m.).
It proved, on the one hand, the economy of using dynamite instead
of powder, which had previously been employed, and, on the other hand,
it disposed of a prejudice which greatly hindered the solution of the
question and upon which we will say a few words.
The years of drought, which occurred after the construction of the
canals in the diluvial section of the Dnieper, led people to believe that
the removal of rock from the rapids was the cause of the lack of water
in the river in the dry season. The hypothesis soon became a certainty,
as far as the inhabitants in the neighbourhood of the river were con-
cerned, and the report spread throughout the Empire, doing much harm
to the cause of the ultimate regulation of the rapids. Numbers of people
stated with the utmost assurance, although they had no knowledge of
fluvial hydraulics, that the works on the rapids had lowered the level of
the Dnieper as far as Kiev, several hundred kilometres from the rapids!
The works on the Old Kodak rapid proved de visu, the absurdity of
this statement.
The maximum lowering of the water level in the rapid, even below the
excavation, was only 0.045 sagène (0.096 m.), and this could evidently
only be observed near the rapid. Taking these experiments as a basis,
M. GOLOVATCHEF with the help of M. SouLKovski, engineer of Ways of
Communication formed a new scheme for the regulation of the rapids.
This time there were to be two different ways, one for the descent and
One for the ascent. -
The first of these ways was to follow the old channel, all ridges of rock
were to be lowered so as to give everywhere a depth of 10 quarters of
an archine (1.778 m.) below low water level.
The second was to pass through canals with a depth of 7||, quarters
of an archine (1.335 m.) below low water level (0), and the dikes etc. of
these canals were to be restored. The necessity of providing mechanical
means of traction in the rapids was foreseen and only the ascent of empty
boats was thought of.
The estimated cost was 1,600,000 roubles (fr. 4,000,000).
This scheme, presented to the Ministery of Ways of Communication
in 1889, was not sanctioned like those previously drawn up, and,
M. GOLOVATCHEF having died, it seemed that the rapids on the Dnieper
B2
would be forgotten for long time, when the question was again taken up
most energetically by His Excellency the Minister of Ways of Com-
munication, M. A. C. KRIvoCHáINE, who gave it his attention almost
from the time of his assumption of office (1892). Upon his visit to the
ports and rivers of southern Russia M. KRIVOCHáINE was struck with the
state of negligence of the diluvial section of the Dnieper, barring, as it
did a hundred years ago, this water-course which offered such enormous
possibilities to trade almost at the gate of the Black Sea.
A new study of the question was therefore decided upon in order to
form a scheme for the complete regulation of the rapids. We have had
the honour of being charged by His Excellency the Minister with the
task, as flattering as it is difficult, of drawing up this scheme and of
directing the experiments which are to furnish the basis of the system
to be adopted.
In the following chapter we will explain the principles which we think
must be followed in the investigations.
C H A P T E R IV.
Principles of the scheme under consideration,
Contents: $ 24. Comparison between the rapids on the Dnieper and those on the
Danube. — $ 25. Essential differences between the rapids on the Dnieper and those
on the Danube. — $ 26. Aim of the proposed regulation. — $ 27. General discussion
of the systems of regulation and the division of the rapids into categories. – $ 28.
Canals. – $ 29. Projected locked passages. – $ 30. Mechanical traction of boats and
utilisation of the motive power of the rapids. – S 31. Experiments. – $32. Conclusions.
§ 24. Comparison between the rapids on the Dnieper and those
on the Danube.
In order to facilitate the examination of the principles upon which
the regulation of the rapids on the Dnieper is based, we will commence
this chapter by a succinct comparison between the characteristics of the
diluvial section of the Dnieper with those of the diluvial section of the
Danube, which the members of the present Congress are well acquainted
with, thanks to the report presented by M. de Gonda to the Paris Con-
gress in 1892. (1)
The Danube.
The Dnieper.
(a.) Length of the diluvial Section.
The length of the diluvial section
of the Danube between the first rapid,
Stenka, and the last, the Iron Gates,
is 86 Km.
The length of the diluvial section
of the Dnieper between the extreme
rapids is 62.5 versts, or 66.7 K.m.
(b.) Total length of the sections obstructed by rock.
The total length of the places
obstructed by rock in the diluvial
Section of the Danube is about 10
Km., or 12 °ſo of the entire length
of this diluvial section.
On the Dnieper the combined
length of the 9 rapids is equal to
about 7 9/o of the total length of
the diluvial section. If the extent
of the obstacles formed by the
Zabores etc. is added together, it would
be found to compose not less than
20 °ſo of the diluvial section.
(1) We avail ourselves of this opportunity to express our thanks to M.M. WALLANDT,
HoszPoDSKI and DE GONDA for the fund of informatiou they have been kind enough
to give us with regard to the rapids on the Danube upon our visit to the remarkable
Works under their direction. --
54
(c.) Width of the bed.
The width of the bed of the
Danube in its diluvial section varies
within the limits of 170 m. (the defile
of Kazan) and 2020 m. (near Greben),
or from 1 to 12.
The width of the bed of the
Dnieper in its diluvial section varies
much less, the extreme limits being
in round numbers 400 to 1200 m.,
or from 1 to 3. -
(d.) Depth at low water.
The depth at low water varies
from 2 to 52 m., with the exception
of five places, the rapids properly
so called, where the depth becomes.
1.05 for the Stenka rapid.
1.8 , , Kozla-Doyka 22
0.2 , ,, Izlas-Tachtalia-Greben,
0.7 , ,, Tucz 25
0.3 , ,, Iron Gates .
5 *
The periods of low water which
give so little depth are exceptional
and last only a short time.
According to the observations taken
in a period of 40 consecutive years
(1840–1880), during 158 days out
of the 275, which is the average for
navigation to be possible, the depth
in the rapids on the Danube allowed
of the navigation of boats drawing
1.5 m.
Besides the 9 principal rapids there
are as many as 60 Zabores, in which
rocks upon the bottom or moveable
stones reduce the depth, contract the
channel etc.
The depth at low water is very
small, falling to a few decimetres in
a great many parts of the channel.
Many stones in the channel emerge
at this season.
When the water is not quite at
its lowest level, 0.15 verschoks (0.67
m.), the descent even of timber floats
becomes impossible.
(e.) Total incline and average incline.
The total incline of the Danube
in the section between the extreme
rapids is 23.392 m., which gives an
average incline of 0.00027.
The total incline of the Dnieper
between the extreme rapids, is 15.7
sagènes (33.44 m.), which gives an
average incline of 0.0005.
(f) Maazimum inclines.
The inclines of the surface at low
water on the Danube vary in the
rapids from 0.0001 to 0.00417. The
latter limit is only met with over a
distance of 410 m. in the Iron Gates,
where the average incline is 0.0032
The inclines of the surface at low
water on the Dnieper are in many
places much greater than the maxi-
mum upon the Danube.
Thus in the Cuvette the incline is
0.01064, in the Insatiable 0.0055, etc.
55
for one kilometre and 0.00199 for
the entire length of the rapid (2.59
Km.), the total fall being 5.156 m.
(g) Maximum Velocity.
The maximum velocity in the
rapids on the Danube is found in
The maximum velocity in the
rapids on the Dnieper is met with
the Iron Gates. It is hardly more in the Cuvette, where it is 2.5 sagènes
than 5 m.
(5.33 m.) per second.
In the Insatiable it is 1.92 sagène
(4.1 m.).
(h.) Discharge.
The discharge of the Danube accor-
ding to the latest data is: at low
water 1475 cub.m. and for a rise in
the level of:
The variations in the discharge of
the Dnieper are much greater. The
discharge calculated for low water
is 29 cub. sagènes (282 cub.m).
1 metre . 2440 cub.m. At conventional low water the
2 × . 4000 a discharge becomes about 500 cub.m.
3 × 5500 , At high water it rises to 9000 cub.m.
4 » 7700 , . The maximum calculated for the
5 : . . . . . .” 22 highest floods is 17000 cub.m.
(k.) Floods.
The floods on the Danube rise 5
m. above low water level and in one
place only (Greben) the difficulties
of navigation increased on account
of the falls and eddies which were
here produced by a sudden widening
in the bed.
The floods on the Dnieper cause
the level to vary within the limits
of more thau 8 m. According to the
scale at Lotsmanskaia Kamenka the
level rises to + 3.7 sagènes (7.9 m.)
and sinks to — 0.60 sagène (1.28 m.).
As soon as the water level rises
over 6 archines (4.27 m.) above low
water level, the current, deviated by
rocks, which emerge when the water
is low, becomes so disturbed in many
places that all navigation is forbidden
by law in order that disasters may
be avoided.
High water therefore on the Dnieper
is attended with infinitely greater
difficulties than on the Danube, the
56
conditions under which the river
flows in the winter and summer beds
differing greatly.
(l.) Wind.
Wind, always an inconvenience in
a part of a river, where obstacles to
navigation are met with, never causes
a cessation of traffic in the diluvial
section of the Danube. This is due
both to the small number of rocks
encountered and to the power of the
engines of the steamboats.
Wind in the diluvial section of the
Dnieper in its actual condition ren-
ders the descent of boats and floats
absolutely impossible.
As they are carried along by the
force of the current the crews cannot
keep them in the channel if there
is any side wind to speak of.
It is therefore often necessary to
wait for days and weeks for favou-
rable weather in order to pass the
rapids.
Without this precaution there is
great danger of disaster.
It should be remarked that, when
a deep channel is created throughout
the whole distance, the use of steam
power will greatly diminish this in-
convenience; but it can never com-
pletely disappear without the con-
struction of far too costly works, on
account of the enormous quantity of
rocks scattered over this part of the
river. It is not only in five places
as on the Danube, but in dozens of
places that a boat would run the
risk of being injured if it left the
channel under the influence of the
wind.
(m.) Navigation.
The existence of the rapids on the
Danube has not prevented navigation
from developing to a remarkable
extent upon this part of the river.
Numerous boats belonging to
Austria-Hongary, Servia, Roumania
and Russia ascend and descend the
The rapids on the Dnieper, in spite
of the extensive works executed
during the present century, do not
admit of navigation with the current
without risk; it is moreover only
possible for some 75 days in the
year. Against the current navigation
57
rapids. The draught of the boats is impossible, only small craft being
may be 1.83 m., the engines of the able to use the canals on the rapids.
steamers are of 400 horse power, and
the capacity of the boats is 1.000 tons.
It is true that the rapids hinder
navigation and even stop it tempor-
arily, but out of the 275 days during
which navigation is possible, on an
average for 158 days boats drawing
1.50 m. are able to pass the rapids.
(n.) Regulation of the rapids necessary for navigation.
Two metres at low water for all Five feet (1.52 m.) at low water
the rapids except the last, the Iron and the possibility of ascending the
Gates, for which 3 m. is demanded. river with Safety and economy.
§ 25. Essential differences between the rapids on the Danube and
those on the Dnieper.
The comparative examination of the rapids on the Dnieper and those
on the Danube leaves no doubt with regard to the relative difficulties
which both present to navigation.
The fact noticed in the preceding paragraph, namely that there has
been active navigation for centuries against the current on the Danube
and that the same has been impossible in spite of extensive regulation
works on the Dnieper, alone suffices to show that the latter in its diluvial
section is a more powerful enemy than the Danube.
This conclusion is only too well confirmed by the results furnished by
the above comparison.
It has been shown that :
the length of the section occupied by the rapids, rocks and obstacles in
general is greater for the Dnieper than for the Danube (§ 24, a, b);
the depth at low water is much less in many places on the Dnieper
than is met with in the shallowest places in the rapids on the Danube (d);
the total incline of the rapids on the Dnieper is nearly 500|o and
the average incline 100% more than on the Danube (e);
the maximum incline of the rapids on the Dnieper is 150 % more than
the maximum on the Danube (f);
the maſcimum velocity is in many places greater than the maximum on
the Danube (g);
the variations in the discharge of the Dnieper (from 1 to 30 and even 60)
are infinitely more considerable than on the Danube (h);
the floods on the Dnieper are nearly double of those on the Danube (k);
and finally
winds render the passage of the rapids on the Dnieper most dangerous
and frequently impossible, while on the Danube they are at the worst
inconvenient.
58
There would therefore be a risk of falling into error if we proposed to
apply to the Dnieper the system of regulation adopted for the rapids on
the Danube without a scrupulous analysis of all the physical divergencies
between the two rivers, as well as of the requirements of navigation in
either case.
§ 26. Aim of the proposed regulation.
We have already said that at present the rapids on the Dnieper only
allow of navigation with the current. Still this is only possible during a
very short period and it is always dangerous. Five per cent of the total
number of boats with their cargoes are lost every year. The boats, once
they have descended the rapids cannot return to the ports from which
they start. They can be used for only one journey, a circumstance which
puts an enormous tax on goods. No serious improvement therefore in the
construction of the boats is possible.
The regulation of the rapids therefore should do away with or diminish
the causes which render the ascent impossible and the descent so
dangerous for boats.
These causes are:
the sinuosity of the channel,
the insufficient depth,
the insufficient width, -
the rapidity of the current and the abruptness of the inclines in the
rapids, -
the irregularity in the direction of the current, frequently oblique to
the general direction of the channel,
the influence of winds.
With regard to the depth which should now be obtained on the rapids
of the Dnieper, in order that navigation may be not only safe but econo-
mical in both directions, it is determined by the following considerations.
Boats from Berislav-Kakhovka, where the maritime portion of the Dnieper
commences, should be able to ascend the river as far as Ekaterinoslav
and farther; not only the boats which navigate to day upon the Lower
Dnieper, but also those which will be able to navigate when the depth
on the Lower Dnieper shall be 5 feet on the shoals, and it is hoped that
this depth will be obtained.
It would also seem indispensable to increase the depth of the channel
to 5 feet in the diluvial section between Ekaterinoslav and Alexandrovsk.
s 27. General discussion of the systems of regulation and the division
of the rapids into categories.
Various methods may be adopted for the creation of a channel suffi-
ciently straight, wide and deep with a suitable incline and velocity of
current.
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59
The universal method, which can always be adopted and which always
gives certain and unquestionable results, is to build locks.
The most Superficial observation however suffices to show that the
adoption of this method for a river of the size of the Dnieper would
require a most enormous outlay.
Moreover the adoption of such a method would not always be in
keeping. The shoals of rock which form the rapids are in fact natural
dams which divide the diluvial section into a number of reaches the depth
of which is for the most part sufficient even at low water.
It would seem therefore that as the dam is already formed by nature
it only remains for art to find the means of passing this dam from one
reach to the other. -
This may be effected either by a simple deepening of the channel over
the rapid, or by means of a diked canal or by a lock.
There are several ways of adopting these different methods.
As we have seen upon the Dnieper itself the construction of locks, the
cutting of canals and the removal of rocks from the bottom have been
attempted.
In Sweden on the western branch of the Gotha canal, formed partly
by the Gotha-Elf river, there are very considerable falls, which furnish
an example of the adoption of locks on a large Scale.
In America the branch canal of the rapids of Sault St Marie, on the
St Marie river between lakes Superior and Huron, has a lock through
which 10,000 boats pass every year.
Finally on the Danube, where the regulation of the rapids is still in
the course of execution, it has not been thought possible to make use of
locks. It has been sought to create a safe and deep channel by the direct
removal of rock from the bed of the four upper rapids accompanied by
a partial contraction of the bed and an open canal for the Iron Gates.
Which system is to be preferred for the future works upon the Dnieper?
We think all three must be admitted.
In our opinion in rapids with a slight fall and incline, when the
principal defect lies in the insufficient depth in the channel, a very con-
siderable improvement may be effected by a direct removal of rock from
the bottom. -
As was proved by the experiments made upon the Dnieper in the Old
Kodak rapid (§ 21) in 1884–86, there is no occasion to fear that such
an increase in the depth, if it extends over but a small portion of the
width of the river, will be accompanied by any considerable lowering of
the water level, either in the rapid or with less reason in the
reach above.
It is hardly possible to fix an absolute limit of incline up to which
only a deepening of the channel is necessary.
The following inclines are met with on the Danube:
60
in the Stenka rapid # = 0.000357 per M.
in the Kozla-Dojke rapid. # = 0.00099 , ,
g e . , 2.041.
in the Izlas-Tachtalia-Greben rapid Tăsă î 0.00129 , ,
This limit is therefore about one in a thousand for the above rapids,
especially if the last is not included, as the contraction of the bed by
means of a dike complicates the situation.
We think also that it is undesirable to go much further. The obser-
vations taken with regard to the velocity of the current prove that in
these conditions the maximum velocity is not more than 6 feet (1.83 m.)
per second.
On the other hand it is shown by calculation that the incline of the
diked canals should not be much more than one in a thousand for the
limit of 6 feet which is not to be exceeded.
It would therefore be necessary to remove the rock directly from the
bottom in the Lishni rapid and in the numerous zabores (ridges of rock
with a slight incline).
However, the reach between the Nenassytetski and Volnigski rapids,
where the zabores are close together and where the depth at low water is
exceptionally small, appears to require a special study, in order to discover
whether it might not be possible to reduce the expense which the removal
of rock from the bottom of this section would entail by building either a
locked dam or dikes to contract the river-bed like those of Greben and
Jucz on the Danube.
To return to the remaining eight rapids (leaving the Lishmi out of
account), it remains to group them according to the two different Solu-
tions: locks and open canals.
If on the one hand the adoption of locks is a method which applies to
every case, it is on the other hand excessively expensive and the cost is
Out of proportion to the importance of the fall.
With regard to open canals, if the Iron Gates may be taken as an
example, it would seem that they can be adopted in rapids of any size.
Thus in the Iron Gates a canal of this class regulates a rapid with a
fall of 3.42 m. and an average incline of 0.00247. This however is only
the case within certain limits. Too great a velocity is allowed in the
canal or, in order that advantageous conditions may be established for
navigation, the canal is made so large that the prime cost is increased.
It is therefore evident that the choice between a lock and a canal does
not admit of a general solution.
It the fall is abrupt and violent, the lock, serving the same commercial
movement, may cost much less than the canal.
For less considerable falls, especially if the rapid is long, the initial
61
expenses for the canal may on the contrary be considerably less than
the cost of the lock.
The limits, within which each system is available, depend essentially on
local circumstances, and these limits are extremely complex depending on
the total fall and the length of the rapid, or on the average fall as well
as on the cost of the items in the construction.
For the Dnieper this limit seems to be a fall of 2 m. and an average
incline on the rapid of 2 mm. per metre.
Therefore the Nenassytetski, Volnigski and Vilny rapids, which each
have a fall of more than 2 m. and an incline of more than 2 mm. per
metre, should be regulated by means of locks.
The Sourski and Boudilovski rapids, which have a fall of less than
1 m, require on the other hand the creation of open canals.
Finally the two rapids Lokhauski and Zvonetski, having a fall more
than 1 m. and less than 2 m., will be the subject of a comparative study
in order that a decision may be arrived at.
This study should by no means be confined to the comparison of the
cost of first establishment, but should also include considerations on the
technical and commercial working expenses in the widest acceptation of
these terms.
§ 28. Canals.
As we remarked in § 27, there are among the rapids on the Dnieper
Some whose fall is not more than 2 m. In these rapids it is evidently
possible to make open canals, which would cost considerably less than
locked canals and would furnish almost equal advantages to navigation.
The possibility of such a result was shown by commissions on the
scheme for the regulation of the rapids on the Danube.
Thus for instance according to the scheme of the commission of 1874,
the open canal in the Iron Gates rapid would only have cost about
fr. 4,000,000, while the cost of a locked canal in the same rapid was
estimated by the commission of 1879 at fr. 12,000,000 (1).
It is true that the commission of 1874 allowed of a velocity of as much
as 4 m. and more per second in the canal, which would be impossible
on the Dnieper; but on the other hand those who advocate canals point
out that the comparatively rustic work of building an open canal with
dikes on each side costs much less in Russia than abroad, where as with
regard to the more delicate work necessary for locks the reverse is
the case.
Besides the economical reasons with respect to the first establishment
(1) W. Actenstücke zur Regulirung der Stromschnellen der Donau zwischen Moldova
wnd Turn-Severin, Wien, 1880, pp. 89, 124. . - -
(2) Loc. cit. pp. 86, 87.
62
of canals in rapids with a medium fall, there are also many other reasons
which make them preferable to locks. It is therefore evident that the
maintenance and working of an open canal cost less than for a locked
canal; that locks cause far more hindrance to navigation and do not
admit of the same amount of traffic, especially when navigation down
stream predominates, etc.
Finally there is another special reason for preferring canals to locks,
a reason which only applies to the Dnieper, but which nevertheless
merits our attention.
As the rapids still make navigation impossible against the current,
many people think, as appeared at the last national inland navigation
congress in Russia (held at St. Petersburg at the commencement of the
present year) that, even after the disappearance of the main obstacles
which the rapids offer, a shipping movement up stream of any impor-
tance, at least at first, cannot be depended upon.
For the first few years after the regulation, according to the opinion
of the authorised representatives of the navigation on the Dnieper, no
other navigation up stream cau be expected except empty boats, such as
are at present broken up after their arrival at their destination.
If therefore, these critics affirm, it is proposed to effect from the com-
mencement a complete regulation of the rapids in question, it will be
necessary to run the risk of laying out a sum of money out of proportion
to the utility immediately realised. The government might thus overreach
the end in view, which should at first meet simply the actual require-
ments without burdening the budget with expenses which could only
serve for the distant future.
It this view of the case is admitted, another argument in favour of
open canals is added.
An open canal admits of a certain elasticity with regard to the expenses
it entails. Being appropriate only to actual requirements it can be
enlarged subsequently in proportion to the development of navigation.
The dikes of an Open canal can be lengthened or raised, the incline may
be reduced and the depth increased. As much may be said of the width,
even when the bank of the river takes the place of a second dike.
Moreover nothing prevents of locks being subsequently added, if the need
of it is felt.
Canals thus allow of the distribution over a certain length of time of
the outlay necessary for the regulation of the rapids on the Dnieper.
All these reasons démand the study of the requisite conditions for open
canals in Some of the rapids on the Dnieper (1).
The canals will be cut in the riverbed itself.
**.*-*
(1) The canals in the rapids have been Stüdied by us in collaboration with M.M.
Kandiba, engineer of Ways of communication, and Packiewicz, Anc. E. Ec. P. Ch.
63
They should be near the bank which allows of the length of the dike
being as small as possible and the incline as uniform as possible throughout
the length of the canal. -
The advantages realised by this arrangement, in comparison with the
system of placing the canal in the middle of the river, have been con-
firmed by the commissions which were charged at different times to
study the scheme for the regulation of the rapids on the Dnieper.
Thus the commission of 1874 remarked with reason ,that it would not
,be impossible to make a diked channel in the central part of the river,
, but it would be much more difficult and expensive than near the banks;
, moreover the two dikes in the middle of the river would cause great
,,confusion at times of high water”. (1) The commission of 1879 confirms
this opinion and adds that ,the canal in the middle of the river would
, not regulate the bed of the low waters. It would in fact meet with
,either high ridges or deep hollows. The lowering of one ridge would
,only carry the fall to the ridge above and a considerable quantity of
,, rock would have to be removed on the upper falls. We will not insist
,on this point, for all agree that a channel in the centre of the
, Danube should not be adopted.”
Whereover the surface of the river or the natural formation of the
banks do not admit of the dike along the bank being completely done
away with, it might perhaps be built only for a certain distance, at the
beginning and end of the canal. In this way a partial increase in width
might be allowed in the intermediate portions of the canals, an increase
which in certain circumstances might be more useful than otherwise to
navigation. In fact an increase in width for a short distance, followed by
a contraction, may be accompanied by a rise in the level; (2) also the
velocity of the current being in inverse ratio to the area of the transverse
section, with respect to a constant discharge, and the resistance which
boats offer to traction decreasing in proportion to the increase in the
transverse section of the canal, a partial increase in width would facilitate
traction, serve as a siding or passing station, etc.
As to the velocity of the current, it should not be more than about 6
feet, or 1.83 m., per second, and it is proposed in the future to reduce it
as far as possible.
The length of the canals should at least be such that the mean incline
is not much over 0.001 per metre a figure we are inclined to consider as
the maximum limit for navigable rivers. (3) But provisionally, perhaps,
(1) Actenstücke zur Regulirung der Stromschnellen der Donau zwischen Moldova und
Turn-Severin, Wien, 1880, p. 85. -
(2) See f. i. Cours d'hydraulique by M. Flamaut. p. 273.
(3) Elie de Beaumont, Lecons d'hydraulique, torrents, riviéres, flewves, vallées,
Cours professié au Collège de France. Paris, 1869.
64
more pronounced inclines will be tried, without probably adopting an
incline of more than 0.002 per metre, which is more or less the limit
between torrents and rivers (1).
As regards the depth in the passages over the rapids on the Dnieper,
it is thought that for the present not more than 5 feet (English), or
1.524 m., below the low water level of 1892 can be obtained, for it would
be impossible to realise at once a greater depth between the rapids
without an excessive outlay.
This depth moreover depends upon the state of the Dnieper below
Alexandrowsk, as we pointed out in § 26.
The width of the canals is determined by the following considerations.
To give greater freedom of movement to boats, as well as greater faci-
lity to traction, there would be some advantage in increasing the width
of the canals (2).
But on the other hand with the increase in the width, the velocity
and especially the volume of water necessary to feed the canal, also
increases, although these elements increase more particularly with the
depth, while the width. as is well known; has less influence.
As we have already Seen, the greater number of the canals made in
the rapids on the Dnieper (§ 22) between 1843 and 1854 for the descent,
have a width of 15 Sagènes (32 m.) on the bottom. This width is very
small, as among the boats which navigate the Dnieper there are some
which have a breadth of beam of 9 sagènes (19.2 m.). Although the
number of boats having this exceptional width is very limited, the width
of 15 Sagènes at the bottom is considered insufficient and there is a
general tendency to admit a greater width for the canals intended for
the use of navigation against the current.
In the canals through the Iron Gates on the Danube a width on the
bottom of 80 m. (about 38 Sagènes) was admitted, with a depth of 2 m.
below low water level (3).
Such dimensions can not be adopted on the Dnieper.
With a width on the bottom of 15 Sagènes, a depth of 5 feet and an
incline in the bed of 0.001, a velocity of 0.93 sagènes, or about 2 m.
and a discharge of about 16 cubic sagènes (155 cub. m.) would be
obtained.
This discharge is relatively great, since the total discharge of the river
at low water is only about 30 sagènes. But there is reason to believe
that the actual discharge would be much less than what we have indicated.
(1) See Bazin, Recherches hydrauliques.
(2) See Du Buat, Principes d’hydraulique, 3rd part.
(3) Bella de Gonda. Les Cataractes du Danube. Paris, 1892. — The depth has since
been increased to 3 m., which has reduced the width on the bottom.
65
In fact to find this discharge, the coefficient c in the formnla
v = c \!/ Rä
was calculated according to the formula of Ganguillet and Kutter by
taking for the coefficient of friction n = 0.02, a value which has refe-
rence to walls of rough unhewn stones.
The numerous observations taken on the canals on the Dnieper
prove that the actual velocity is much less than it ought to be if the
above formulae and the coefficients correspond to the state of the case.
A series of calculations made for the canal in the Insatiable and Libre
rapids seems to prove that the coefficient c in the formula.
v = c \!/ R i
is about 20 for measurements in sagènes and 39 for measurements in
metres, while its value for n = 0.02, according to the formula of Gan
guillet and Kutter, would be 37 for measurements in Sagènes and 54 for
measurements in metres. -
The discharges of the canals destined for ascending navigation there-
fore will be unquestionably less than the calculations indicate. If it is
observed also that the state of low water, for which the proportion seemed
unfavourable, is quite exceptionable and that with the average depth the
discharge of the Dnieper is about 50.3 sagènes, it will be evident that the
creation of canals 20 sagènes (42.6 m.) wide on the bottom with au incline
of 0.001 per metre is quite possible.
At high water the velocity of the current will naturally be much greater,
as the following formula indicates approximately :
v = a V/ h i
v = b 19° () 73
OT
If k represents the ratio between the discharges at high and low water,
7m the ratio between the mean inclines and or the ratio between the varia-
tions in velocity in the same states of the river, it is easy to see that
0 = 19 km.
For the Dnieper we may put k = 30 (§ 2); m varies within very wide
limits, from 1 to 10, for the different rapids (§ 6), Putting m = 1, we
have for this case, the most unfavourable,
or = 2.02.
It will always be possible to keep within this maximum, for it can be
arranged so that the discharge of the canal shall increase less in propor-
tion to the quantity of water in the river.
DE TIMONOFF, 5
66
The dikes shaull be composed of the stone removed from the channel.
They shall have a width at the top of 1 to 2 sagènes (about 2.10 to
4.20 m.); the talus shall have a height of 1 m. for each metre of base.
With regard to the height of the dikes, it would be difficult to fix it
absolutely. Dikes that are too low will only have a limited influence on
the distribution of the incline and the moderation of the velocity when
the water is high. But the extent of the variation in the level of the
Dnieper is more than 9 m. The dikes would therefore have a very fair
height if they were raised above the high water level.
This level however is exceptional, and the floods on the Dnieper, which
only occur once a year, in the month of April, last for a very short time.
These data therefore are sufficient, after making a series of observations,
to fix a height for the dikes which it would be of little use to exceed.
§ 29. Projected locked passages.
In the rapids which have a considerable fall and would require canals
more than 1 or 2 km. in length, and especially if the fall is concentrated
and the rapid is of limited extent, a locked canal may be more econo-
nical than an open canal.
In these conditions are included the creation of locked passages, the
principles of which we will here briefly explain (1). The locked passages
will be near the bank the approach to which is most easy and the locks
will as far as possible be placed below the rapid, in order to reduce the
work of excavation, which is very expensive in consequence of the ex-
tremely rocky nature of the bed. Instead of building two leading dams
one on either side of the locked canals, which is the usual thing to do,
only one will be built wherever local circumstances will allow of it and
the neighbouring bank can take the place of the other dike. In this man-
ner a certain economy may be realised which promises often to be very
considerable, thanks to the form of the banks which in most cases is
favourable.
By this arrangement other advantages will be obtained which will be
treated of later.
Generally it is sought to avoid all current in the lock-chambers as well
as in the canals approaching them, except such as are inevitably pro-
duced each time they are opened. But in the special case which occupies
us, the absolute absence of current in the canal approaching the lock
might cause some inconvenience. The current of the river, which becomes
stronger as the rapid is approached, being unable to pass through the
canal must necessarily turn away from the entrance, which the boat
might fail to fetch and thus be lost in the rapid, the more easily the
more oblique the current is to the entrance of the canal.
(1) We have stndied the locked passages in collaboration with M. P. BERESINE, engi-
neer of Ways of Communication.
67
In order to avoid this inconvenience it would be desirable to allow a
certain amount of current in the canal leading to the lock,
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Fig. 57. — Projection of the proposed works for the passage of the Insabiable.
We therefore propose to build in the canal above the lock a weir B
which will give a certain discharge corresponding to the discharge at the
entrance to the canal leading to the lock (fig. 57).
In order to be able to regulate this discharge according to the variations
in the level of the water, the width of the weir may be varied by means
of movable shuttings. The discharge will thus be regulated so that at the
entrance to the canal leading to the lock there will be no eddy capable
of causing a cross current, but there will on the contrary be a current
sufficiently strong (without however causing inconvenience) to facilitate the
movements of boats entering the canal. -
When navigation ceases, the weir may be completely closed, so that
there may be no current when the ice breaks up; the ice is thus preven-
ted from entering the canal and the protection of the works is secured.



























68
It is evident from what has been said that the dike, which with the
bank forms the canal leading to the lock, need only be water-tight if it
is certain that the filtrations will not be greater than the charge available
for feeding the canal. As there is no certainty of this we propose to make
the dikes water-tight. As regards the position of these dikes, it is to be
remarked that they will not be parallel to the bank. We prefer that the
dike should make a certain angle with the latter so that the canal leading
to the lock gradually widens out in a down stream direction. By this
arrangement it is intended to gradually diminish the velocity of the
current in the canal and thus to reduce to a minimum the inconvenience
which this velocity might present to navigation in a locked canal.
The locks will be able to receive boats whatever the condition of the
water may be. The filling and emptying of them will be assured by
means of aqueducts in the side walls which communicate with the lock
chamber by a series of openings along the bottom. The advantages of
this mode of filling are too well known for it to be necessary to dwell
upon it here. We will only remark that to obviate as far as possible the
action of the water on the hulls of the boats, which are often very lightly
built, we have thought it desirable to place the apertures much lower
than is usual and to increase the number of them rather than to make
them too large.
The sills will be of a depth of 8 feet (2.44 m.) below the water level
of 1892. It is greater than the depth to which it is proposed to increase
the navigable channel in the near future. But in projecting works of such
a costly nature is it not essential to take into account the requirements
of a more distant future ?
The other dimensions of the locks have been fixed in accordance with
the dimensions of the boats which navigate the Dnieper and the navigable
passages in the bridge of Kiev.
The length of the lock-chamber is 90 sagènes (192 m.); it can conse-
quently receive a train composed of three of the longest boats that are
met with on the Dnieper.
A greater length in the chambers could only be useful in certain
cases, while on the other hand if would rather tend to hinder navigation
as it would increase the time necessary for filling in ordinary cases.
The width of the lock-chambers will be 7 sagènes (14.94 m.)
The gates for closing the locks will have only one leaf. We have
adopted this arrangement, because it presents several advantages over the
use of mitred lock gates. They are more simply and more easily handled,
they exercise no pressure on the side-walls and the forces are distributed
over them more regularly. The greater the opening and more considerable
the forces to be withstood, the more pronounced are these advantages.
The opening as well as the closing of the leaf will be effected by
69
rotation round a vertical heel-post. This arrangement is better adopted to
the circumstances than any other. -
The working of the gates, as well as the traction of the boats at their
entrance to and exit from the lock-chamber, will be managed by means
of suitable apparatus which will be moved by the motive power of
the fall.
To complete this sketch of the arrangements adopted for the locked
passages, we have to add that we endeavour to utilise as far as possible
the works already in existence, while it is sought to leave the old natur-
ally navigable channel intact.
Thus for the Insatiable we have arranged to build the lock on the
site of the old lock of General DE WOLLANT, making use of the excava-
tion already effected. - -
With regard to the details of the arrangements adopted, they are made
sufficiently clear by the sketches of the plan drawn up by us for the
new lock on the Insatiable. (figs. 58–64).
70
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Echelle.
* t t
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Eckills.
f
tº 3 3 r & g { } t i º Mºtas
Fig. 63, 64. — Plan of a one leafed gate for the lock on the Insabiable.


72
§ 30. Mechanical traction of boats and utilisation of the motive
power of the rapids.
No method of regulating the navigable channel in the diluvial section
of the Dnieper would ensure complete Safety for navigation during a cross
wind, such a wind by driving the boat against the rocky talus of the
channel might be the cause of disaster. -
It is true that a deep and wide channel is certainly a considerable
guarantee in this respect, both in consequence of the protection afforded
to the boat and on account of the possibility of giving the motors a
sufficient power to struggle against the effects of the winds.
It seems to us however that a warping cable placed in the channel
would be a useful precaution, not to speak of the possible economy to
be derived from the use of a regular warping apparatus throughout the
diluvial section, both with respect to the working of this section and the
cost of first establishment.
It goes without saying that the motive power of the falls formed by
the rapids should be utilised as far as possible for warping, towing,
lighting, etc. The transmission of power by means of electricity would here
be of the greatest Service.
§ 31. Experiments.
Since the regulation of the diluvial section of the Dnieper necessitates
the extraction of a large quantity of rocks in an excavation of compa-
ratively little length, the exact determination of the net cost presents
considerable difficulties.
Although the works that have been carried out might furnish many
elements which would throw light upon the situation, the Minister of Ways of
Communication thought it prudent, before making any definite estimate,
to do some work by way of experiment on a sufficiently large scale to
obtain the necessary information.
The last rapid, the Libre, was chosen as a field of operation. -
The trial works form an integral part of the works projected for the
regulation of this rapid.
The scheme elaborated for the Libre consists in making a locked canal
with a minimum depth of 5 Englisch feet (1.524 m.).
The site of the canal is chosen SO as to use as far as possible the old
canal which is cut through the rapid and is 380 Sagènes (811 m.)
in length. -
The trial excavations in the rock will be partly excecuted in this canal.
In this manner not only a part of the works of the future locked canal
will be completed from the commencement, but with a comparatively
small outlay a sufficient regulation of the Libre will be effected to faci-
or ºm， w ……….na ar au--o 'quaedaenuwº w ºwº umını ot ºvaex*audņi tot mp sonowano sarı-♥oxoſ， t.i.
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73
litate the passage of this rapid for descending navigation, which at
present encounters serious difficulties. -
According to the decisions taken by the Technical Council of the
Minister of Ways of Communication it seems that this result may be
realised, if the entrance to the canal is widened and lengthened in an
up stream direction and the bottom is dug 0.8 sagène (1.71 m.) below
the conventional low water level.
The lengthening of the dikes will be effected with the help of the
stone taken from the excavation and this will only admit of giving to
the dikes a height of 1.16 m. above the conventional low water level.
In order to study the net cost of the removal of rock that it is neces.
sary to effect between the rapids and in a general way outside the dikes
it is proposed to deepen the channel below the Libre in such a manner
as to regulate the present passages as far as possible.
The trial works consist in the extraction of something like 20,000 cub. m.
of rock. -
§ 32. Conclusions.
Recapitulating the preceding considerations and confining ourselves
to general conclusions we think that it is proved that:
1. The establishment of a safe and economical navigation in the rapids
On the Dnieper, both with and against the current, is a necessity for the
country.
2. The regulation of the rapids on the Dnieper by means of works in
the riverbed itself is perfectly possible without the necessary outlay
being out of proportion to the sums expended on similar enterprises
elsewhere or to the advantages which will result with respect to the
industry and commerce of the country.
3. The system of regulation which seems most suitable to the rapids on
the Dnieper is a mixed system comprising the removal of rock from
the bottom, the creation of open canals and of locked passages, each of
these metods of regulation to be adopted by preference according to the
importance of the fall and the length of the rapid.
4. The establishment of a mechanical system of traction throughout the
Section of the rapids would not only facilitate the working of the section
but would also diminish the relative importance of the fall and the
length of the rapid and would allow of the width of the channel being
reduced.
5. The using of the fall for the traction of boats, working of lock gates,
lighting, etc., and the transmission power by electricity appears to be
desirable, whatever the system of regulation of the rapids may be.
74
It would hardly be possible to conclude this report without doing
hommage to the memory of the eminent Dutch engineer whose name is
placed on the first page.
Called upon to do service in Russia in 1787, FRANCIS DE Wolſ. ANT,
who had the rank of captain of engineers in the Dutch army, had in the
first instance a brilliant military career in Russia. He took part in the
wars with Sweden (1788) and Turkey (1789), built fortifications in the
south of Russia and in (1797) already had the rank of major general.
During this first period of his service in Russia, DE WOLLANT distinguished
himself as a very clever engineer, not only with regard to military oper-
ations, but also in works which were necessary for the development of
pacific communications. He took an active part in the works of some
towns in the South of Russia, the construction of the port of Odessa, the
study of the Dnieper and the Dnester. Becoming ill in 1797 he retired
from the army, but was almost immediately nominated a member of the
Department of Ways of Communication. It is thus that he became
specially attached to the development of ways and communications with
regard to which he rendered the greatest services and obtained the highest
honours.
During this second period of his service a part of the works which he
had devised for the Dnieper in 1796 were executed.
The scheme which DE WolDANT had conceived may still, after a century,
be of the greatest service to whoever is called upon to continue the
unfinished work for the regulation of the rapids on the Dnieper.
And we are extremely happy to take such useful lesson from the work
of an enginecr belonging to the noble Dutch nation, which formerly
offered its hospitality to one of the greatest monarchs, who studied in
Holland the art of building canals and ships, to the nation, which today
So graciously receives the representatives of the navigation of all countries.
Ilºrilliſ] lºš Pllſ HS.
****
FIG. 2. ET 3.
Navigation.
Amplitude maximum.
FIG. 4.
Courbe des débits.
Axe des niveaux du fleuve.
Le zéro de l'échelle d’Ekatērinos-
law est à 0,397 sagènes au-dessous
de l'axe des débits. -
FIG. 5–20.
Coupe longitudinale.
Wue latérale.
Coupe transversale.
Toitures transversale et longitu-
dinale. -
FIG. 21.
Nombre de bateaux, radeaux.
Totaux.
Moyennes annuelles.
FIG. 24. ET 25.
Pentes.
Cotes des H. E.
Cotes du fond.
Distances horizontales.
Niveau conventionnel.
Verstes comptés de . .
Echelle.
Longueur.
Hauteur.
Les profondeurs sont exprimées en
Sagènes.
FIG. 26.
Les chiffres — 2,90 indiquent les
profondeurs rapportées à un ni-
veau convention...el s'élevant à
+ 0,18 S.
IISElliſillºiſillºl
--~~~~~
FIG. 2 UND 3.
Schifffahrt.
Höchster Wasserstand.
FIG. 4.
Rurve der Wasserabfuhr.
Achse des Wasserspiegels.
Null am Pegel von Jekaterinoslaw
liegt 0,397 Saschene unter der
Achse der Wasserabfuhr.
FIG. 5–20.
Långendurchschnitt.
Seitenansicht.
Querschnitt.
Lången- und Quer-Ansichten des
Werdeckes.
FIG. 21.
Anzahl der Boote, Flösse.
Zusammen.
Jahresdurchschnitt.
FIG. 24 UND 25.
Gefälle.
Hochwässerstände.
Bodenerhebungen und Vertiefungen.
Wagerechte Entfernungen.
Den Berechnungen zu Grunde ge-
legter Wasserspiegel.
Werst von . . . .
Maasstab.
Länge.
Höhe.
Die Tiefen sind in Saschenen an-
gegeben.
FIG. 26.
Die Ziffern — 2,90 bezeichnen die
auf einen bestimmten Normal-
wasserspiegel (+ 0.18 Sasch.)
bezogenen Tiefen.
Dºriſm iſ tit Phú
~~~~~~
FIG. 2 AND 3.
Navigation.
Highest water.
|FIG. 4.
Curve of the variations in the
discharge.
Axis of the water level.
The zero of the Ekaterinoslaw scale
is 0.397 sagènes below the axis
of variations in the discharge.
FIG. 5–20.
Longitudinal section.
Side view.
Transverse section.
Longitudinal and side view of the
deck.
FIG. 21.
Number of boats, floats.
Total.
Average in the year.
FIG. 24 AND 25.
Incline.
High water-levels.
Bottom-levels.
Horizontal distances.
Standard water-level.
Verstes from . . . .
Scale.
Length.
Height.
The depth is calculated in Sagènes.
FIG. 26.
The figures — 2.90 indicate the
depth compared to a conven-
tional level of + 0.18 Sagènes.
76
Les chiffres — 27,140 indiquent
les cotes de la surface de l’eau.
Les chiffres | 1,025 | indiquent les
vitesses du courant par seconde.
FIG. 27.
Hautes eaux,
Profil en trav.
Etiage.
Basses eaux.
Nouveaux chenal.
Vieux chemial.
Chutes.
FIG. 28 ET 30–33.
Voir les traductions sous Fig. 26
et 27.
FIG. 34. ET 35.
Derochement projeté.
Chenal des hautes eaux.
Digue directrice.
Dernier projet.
FIG. 37–41.
Coupe.
Eaux moyennes.
FIG. 56.
Profil réel de la surface de l'eau
Suivant l'axe du canal.
Profildufleuve près deladigue gauche
droite.
77 7) }) 77 )) })
sº
Différence du miveau.
Pour le niveau des B. E.
Crête de la digue.
FIG. 57.
Digue.
Déversoir.
Ecluse.
Chenal d’accès.
Canal existant.
FIG. 58–62.
Coupe longitudinale.
Longueur utile.
Coupe transversale.
Die Ziffern — 27,140 beziehen
sich auf die Oberfläche des
Wassers.
Die Ziffern | 1,025 bezeichnen die
Strömungsgeschwindigkeit per Se-
kunde.
FIG. 27.
Hochwasser.
Querprofil.
Sommerwasser (Normal 0).
Niedrigwasser.
Neues Fahrwasser.
Altes Fahrwasser.
Absturz.
FIG. 28 U. 30–33.
Siehe Uebersetzungen zu Fig. 26
u. 27.
FIG. 34 U. 35.
Geplante Entfelsung.
Fahrrinne bei Hochwasser.
Leitdamm.
Letztes Project.
FIG. 37–41.
Durchschnitt.
Mittel wasser.
FIG. 56.
Wirkliches Profil der Oberfläche
des Wassers in der Achse des
Kamales.
Profil des Flusses am linken Damme.
}) }) 37 77 rechten
Unterschied des Wasserspiegels.
Für den N. W. Wasserspiegel.
Kamm des Deiches.
77
FIG. 57.
Damm.
Wehr.
Schleuse.
Ranal für die Einfahrt in die
Schleuse.
FIG. 58–62.
Långendurchschnitt.
Verwerthbare Länge.
Querschnitt.
The figures — 27,140 indicate the
comparative levels of the water's
surface.
The figures |TO25] indicate the
velocity of the current per
second.
FIG. 27.
High water.
Transverse section.
Conventional low water.
Low water.
New channel.
Old channel.
Falls.
FIG. 28 A. 30–33.
See the translation Fig. 26 and 27.
FIG. 34 A. 35.
Projected removal of rocks.
High water channel.
Leading dam.
Latest scheme.
FIG. 37–41.
Section.
Mean water level.
FIG. 56.
Real profil of the water's surface
in the axis of the canal.
Profil of the river near the left dam.
}) 77 7) 1) 7) 7) right 7)
Difference of the water level.
For the low water level.
Superior surface of the dam.
FIG. 57.
Dike.
Weir.
Lock.
Channel leading to the lock.
FIG. 58–62.
Longitudinal section.
Length available.
Transverse section.
77
PHOTOGRAWURES.
*…*-*…*&^_**
1. Auteur du premier projet
d'amélioration des cataractes
du Dniépr.
2, Le vieux Kodak.
(La Staro Kodakski).
Entrée amont du canal.
3. Dérochement à la dynamite
dans la passe du vieux Kodak.
4. La Lokhanski (
§ 77
Cuvette”).
5. L'Insatiable (LaNenassytetski).
Au premier plan le Canal à
écluses dugénéralde Wollant.
6. Entrée amont du canal in-
férieur.
7. Entrée aval du canal inférieur
etbateaux-toueur d'expérience.
8. La Volnighi (La Volnigski)
avec son canal et le rocher
,,Groza”,
9. La Libre (La Vilny) avec la
passe de Gueule de Loup”.
10. Le Défilé de Shkola en amont
de Kitchkas à la sortie de la
partie torrentielle.
10.
WOLLBILDER.
<-º-º-º-º-º:
Urheber des erstem Projectes zur
Regulirung der Dnjepr-Kata-
rakte.
Der alte Kodak.
(Der Staro Kodakski.)
Obere Einfahrt des Kanales.
Felssprengung mittels Dynamit
im Fahrwasser des alten Kodak.
Der Lokhanski (, Wanne”).
Der Umersattliche (Nenassy-
tetski.) Im Wordergrund der
Wollantsche Schleusenkanal.
Obere Einfahrt des unteren
Kamales.
Untere Einfahrt des unteren
Kamalesmit Versuchs-Schlepp-
dampfer.
Der Wolnighi (Der Wolnigski)
mit Seinem Kamale und dem
Felsen Groza.
Der Freie” (Der Wilny) mit
dem Wolfskehle” genannten
Fahrwasser.
Die Stromenge von Shkola
Oberhalb von Kitchkas am
Ende der Kataraktstrecke.
10,
. The
ILLUSTRATIONS.
*...*~~~~e”
. Author of the first project for
the amelioration of the cata-
racts of the Dnjepr.
The old Kodak.
(The Staro Kodakski.)
Upper entrance of the canal.
. Blowing up of rocks by mean
of dynamite in the channel
of the old Kodak.
. The Lokhanski (,Tub”).
. The Insatiable (Nenassytetski).
In the foreground the canal
with locks built by the gene-
ral de Woli,ANT.
. Upper entrance of the lower
canal.
Lower entrance of the lower
canal with the steam tug used
for the trials.
. The Wolnighi (The Wolnigski)
with its canal and the rock
Groza.
a Free Cataract” (The
Vilny) with the passage called
..The Wolf's Gorge”.
The narrow passage of Shkola
above Kitchkas passed the
Cataracts.
Sixième Congrès international de Navigation
interieure
L. A. H. A. Y. E. 1894.
Influence de la forme des bateaux et de I'état de
leur Surface Sur la résistance à la traction.
Mémoire, se rapportant à la tº Question
DE
J. V. MENDES GUERREIRO,
Ingénieur en chef de 1re Classe à Lisbonne.
Bateaux navigant sur le Tage pour le transport des voyageurs et des
marchandises à grande vitesse, aussi que pour la petite vitesse.
Depuis le congrès international de Francfort pour la navigation inté-
rieure, on a repris dans tous les congrès suivants l'étude de la question
de la meilleure organisation économique de la traction sur les voies
navigables.
On s'est préoccupé de la meilleure forme et les meilleures dimensions
ã donner aux bateaux et de l’installation des moyens de traction, qui
répondent le mieux aux trois conditons de régularité, de rapidité et
d'économie, surtout dans les canaux. e
Les mémes moyens Seront-ils également bons pour les rivières libres,
et dans les grandes vides et baies maritimes?
Pour les transports dans ces voies navigables on doit mettre tout-à-fait
de côté la propulsion du vent, qui est encore le moyen plus économique?
Certainement il n'est pas le plus régulier; on peut même dire qu'il ne
Se prète pas à cette condition, mais dans les endroits ou les vents sont
périodiques, alésés les uns, de mousson les autres il Semble qu'on ne doit
pas mettre tout-à-fait de coté l'étude de ce moyen de transport.
Dans la rade du Tage la variété des bateaux est assez grande, et ils
se divisent par classes de transport d’une façon assez nette, pourqu'on
2
puisse étudier l’influence de la forme de la coque et de l’état de leur
surface ainsi que de leur voilure pour la vitesse qu'on désire obtenir.
Les plus grandes dimensions qu'on pourrait faire tout d'abord, seraient
de bateaux de péche et de bateaux à transport fluviaux.
Mettant de côté ceux de pèche, qui Sont tout de même très intéressant
et de formes et vitesses très variées, les autres se sub-divisent en
grande et à petite vitesse. -
Ceux de grande vitesse ne se voient que dans la partie maritime ou ä
marées du grand fleuve; les bateaux de petite vitesse vont depuis l'em-
bouchure du Tage, jusqu’à la frontière espagnole. *
Décrire la coque de chacun de ces bateaux et donner une idée som-
maire de leurs agrès me semble de quelque utilité, car ces formes sont
reconnues par tous les marins les mieux étudiées et plus en rapport
avec les services qu'ils sont appelés à rendre et les conditions de naviga.
gation dans lesquelles ils doivent fonctionner.
C'est en effet très important de connaitre et de faire attention aux con-
ditions de courants et des vents qui existent dans la section du fleuve,
que les bateaux doivent parcourir, et une étude de ce genre aurait un
grand intérêt. Je me permis de présenter a peine quelques données pour
un travail d'ensemble, que des personnes plus competents que moi,
Sauront entreprendre. -
Les dessins et détails qui vont Suivre je les dois en grande partie à un
jeune officier de la marine royale portugaise Mr. A. F. PINTo BAST0, qui
a grand talent pour ce genre d’études.
Pour le tracé des lignes de flottaison, ainsi que des efforts de propul-
sion produits par les différentes voilures, il me semble, ne pas 6tre l'occa-
sion d’en faire l’étude, malgré l’intérêt qu’elle présenterait.
Bateaux fluviaux à grande vitesse.
Tous ces bateaux ont des formes très effilées dans le bec et une voilure
proportionnée à la vitesse, prédominant la voile triangulaire, latin ou
batard, avec ou sans foc. Sa coque a toujours une quille, et Son tirant
d'eau est grand pour sa capacité. -
Ils ne craignent pas la houle de la rade maritime, mais les rafales de
vent les font chavirer quelquefois si on manque de précautions et savoir
faire. Ils marchent très bien avec le vent de travers. Quelques uns Serrent
de très près le vent et sont grands marcheurs.
L'état de la surface de la carène sous eau est très soigné. On la
peint tous les six mois et quelquefois tous les trois mois, en y ajoutant
par dessus la couleur une 1égère couche de Suif. -
Quelquefois avant de les peindre on brule la coque avec des copeaux
ou des broussailles, pour la préserver du taret et la rendre plus étanche.
Très souvent le maitre timonier est le propriétaire du catražo ou du
3
cacilheiro mais les canóa et les felua's ont des propriétaires disposant
de grandes ressources et ayant plusieurs bateaux.
Catraio.
On l’appelle aussi bote de catrañar.
C'est une embarcation qui fait le Service du port presque exclusivement
pour le transport des voyageurs.
Très propre, a couleurs très voyants, il est après les embarcations de
Malte le bateau le plus soigné en service dans les ports européens.
Les hommes d'équipe, deux et très Souvent un Seul, ont des exigences
de prix extraordinaires et il faut débattre avec eux le prix d’avance. Les
conditions très dissemblables de vent, mer et de marées, ne permettent
pas d’établir un tarif (fare-table), qui existe dans d'autres ports.
Coque et appareil. — Planches de pin maritime unies forment la coque,
qui est élegante. La proue avec des lignes très effillées fait concordance
avec le plus grand bau, qui conserve la section maitresse jusqu’à l'arrière
ou poupe, qui est carrée. -
Un lest mobile en fonte aide à l'équilibre. La longueur est de 6 a 6,5
mêtres et la largeur de 1.2 a 1.5 métre. L'appareil c'est un mät mobile
auquel est liée une voile carrée, laquelle est mise en position par une
longue perche assez mince et retenue en arrière par une corde (écoute). A
cette voilure se joint pour les vents de brise une voile triangulaire en
avant (foc) et une carrée petite en arrière, qu'on nomme catilă (jolie).
Quand le vent est très fort on enlève la perche de la grande voile et on
attache l’extrémité de la voile alors libre au màt; de cette façon le
bateau marche avec moitié de sa voilure, qui devient triangulaire.
Un marin seul peut très bien manoeuvrer avec ces bateaux, qui Sont
très stirs et d’une bonne allure. -
Ces bateaux font le service pour ainsi dire privé et de famille entre
les quais et les steamers, qui viennent au port de Lisbonne. Tls peuvent
contenir de 15 a 25 personnes. -
Sur les bords existent des places pour 6 rames, mais rarement on
emploit plus de 4 et presque toujours deux.
Cacilheiro.
Ce bateau est plus grand que le Catraño et fait le service régulier des
voyageurs d’une rive à l'autre du Tage. C'est de la que vient son mom,
car le village plus près en face de Lisbonne s'appelle cacilhers.
Sa vitesse est si grande qu’il fait concurrence aux bateaux à vapeur,
Qui font cette traversée de 1.800 à 2.000 metres en 10 minutes; c'est-à-
dire il peut atteindre une vitesse de 5 a noeuds.
Le prix par personne est de 0.15 franc.
4
Coque et apparail. — La forme est la méme que celle du catraio; la
longueur est de 10 à 12 mêtres et plus, mais, la largeur n'augmentant
pas en proportion, le bateau devient en définitive plus effilé.
Ils ont un lest assez grand et permanent, car ils marchent presque tou-
jours à voile; ils peuvent cependant naviguer à 4 rames au moins.
La voilure se compose d’un batard, qui est une modification de la voile
triangulaire, ayant besoin d'être fixée par l’amure en avant et par l'écoute
en arrière.
Quand les raffales viennent on manoeuvre l’amure à peine, et de cette
façon le vent laisse facilement la voile. Celle-ci est liée avec des cor-
dages à une très longue vergue, qui dépasse d'un cóté et de l'autre le
bateau, et elle prend le vent sous un angle bien plus Serré que tout autre
genre de voilure.
Canôa.
On l’appelle aussi bote-canoa.
C'est un grand cacilheiro qu'on emploit d'ordinaire aux transports de
denrées et des personnes le matin et le soir, s'aidant toujours des marées
et des vents de l’est le matin et de l'ouest le Soir, qui Sont presque
périodiques dams la rade de Lisbonne.
Cocque et appareil. — Tls Sont semblables à ceux du cacilheiro, mais très
Souvent on y ajoute le foc et la catila pour aider la voile du centre, qui
est toujours un batard ou latin.
Ces bateaux marchent aussi très bien et traversent le Tage dans ses
plus grandes largeurs par tout temps. La coque est plus large que celle
des bateaux précèdents.
Talua.
Pour le transport de grandes quantités de denrées et de voyageurs à
des distances de 50 kilometres et plus on emploit ce bateau, qui devient
aussi un grand concurrent aux bateaux à vapeur.
Coque et appareil. – Sa coque a 16 metres et plus de longueur, très
effilée avec poupe carrée, couverte dans la moitié de Sa longueur d’avant
à peu près, et une autre partie en arrière, pour abriter les personnes dams
les longues traversées. -
Ces bateaux sont voilés avec deux latins très longs et étroits, attachés
à des vergues très hauts de façon à permettre serrer le vent de très près.
Ils mettent toujours une flamme à l’extrémité de la grande vergue
d’arrière.
Bateaux fluviaux a petite vitesse.
Tous les grands transports de marchandises Se font par ces bateaux.
Sa coque a des formes robustes, et tout autour elle a une ou deux
5
ceintures saillantes sur les bords, très résistantes, qui la défendent et lui
donnent une grande résistance.
Ceux destinés à naviguer dans les bas-fonds des bras Secondaires ou
la partie haute du Tage, ont des carènes plates, Sans quille.
La voile carrée est prédominante dans ces bateaux, aidée par un ou
deux latins ou focs.
Son tonnage est très variable depuis 10 à 100 tonnes de charge
effective. -
On a avec la surface de la coque les mémes soins qu’avec celles de
grande vitesse.
Culé Ou Bateau d’amont.
C'est destiné à naviguer d’ordinaire dans les sections du Tage oil il a
un régime presque torrentiel, allant jusqu’à la frontière espagnole et
rentrant dans les plus petits affluents et bras du fleuve, passant dans
des canaux très étroits, où ils vont chercher ses cargaisons de liège,
grains et denrées qu’ils viennent apporter a bord des navires mouillés
dans le port de Lisbonne.
Ils servent pour le transport des voyageurs dans quelques endroits du
Tage moyen, qui a des villages importants. Ils demandent très peu de
tirant d'eau.
Coque et appareil. — Sa forme est très élégante, ayant la poupe et
la proue semblables, effilées et de façon à pouvoir naviguer sans diffi-
culté en arrière, La longueur est grande par rapport à la Section maitresse.
Le gouvernail est très long, et il est mis en mouvement par un gros
baton en bois, qui traverse la tête dans une douille, où il n'est pas fixé,
de façon à permettre que les deux bras de levier puissent étre inégaux
et proportionnées aux efforts; ils sont tirés par des moufles.
La voilure se compose d’une voile triangulaire aidée d’un etais Ou
latin qui peut varier de position.
Pour les conserver dans une position assez droite ils emploient aux
cotés deux larges pelles en bois, très semblables à celles des goélettes
hollandaises, qu'ils rentrent en dedans, quand le vent est favorable.
Les voiles dams ces bateaux sont très souvent rougeatres; couleur qui
vient de les avoir enfoncées dans le sable, pour les preserver de la pour-
niture. *
Dans l'absence de vent on le pousse avec des longues perches ferrées
sur les bas-fonds.
Varino.
*N
C'est encore un bateau ä carène plate, Sans quille, pouvant transporter
les marchandises dans les endroits oil l’eau est peu profonde.
Son tonnage est plus grand qui ceux des culés car il arrive à 30 tonnes
anglaises.
6
Ils s'emploient aussi dams le transport de la faille en vrac, ce qui est
très pittoresque. Comme le dessin l’indique ils tendent un gros filet Sur
des batons en bois, qui sortent de leurs flancs, et la paille est mise par-
dessus. Pour que le bateau ne chavire pas avec le vent on met pardes-
Sous deux petites nacelles attachées à poupe et proue.
Coque et appareil. — La proue est très Semblable à celle du culé, mais
l'arrière ou poupe est carrée ; le gouvernail est plus court, ayant une
canne fixá á Sa tete. - -
La voilure se compose d’une voile carrée et d’une triangulaire en avant.
La manoeuvre est facile, mais exige 3 ou 4 marins.
Fragata.
C'est le plus fort bateau fluvial a transport de marchandises, qui existe
au port de Lisbonne.
De formes robustes et un peu lourdes, elles sont tout de méme bien
comprises pour résister aux grands efforts qui doivent Subir.
Tout le mouvement de charge et décharge des grands navires, qui ren-
trent au Tage, leguel monte à 6,5 millions de tonnes était fait par des
fragatas, dont le tonnage varie de 30 à 100 tonnes. Maintenant les navires
viennent à se mettre bord à quai.
Son équipe est d'un maitre, un compagnon et un mousse.
Coque et appareil. — La coque très forte a une grosse quille avec une
proue apte à supporter la mer et les secousses contre les quais et les
navires; la proue est carrée et le gouvernail très lourd a besoin d’être
suspendu par deux moufles.
Dans les bas-fonds on pousse ce bateau avec des grosses perches et
jamais on emploit les rames.
La voilure se compose d'une grande voile carrée et d'un latin. La
grande voile est à pique et par les grands vents on l'emploit dans la
forme triangulaire ou on l’abaisse pour se servir de la voile d’étais.
Bote-fragata.
C'est une fragata qui ne peut prendre plus de dix tonnes de charge,
laquelle, si c'est de marchandises qui craigment l’eau, on transporte Sous
couverte ou dans des bots fermés avec 60outille. La coque et voilure
correspondent à celle de la fragata. -
Cangueiro.
C'est le bateau qui transporte les matériaux de construction (pierre,
Sable, terre etc.) et aussi la gadoue etc.
Le dessin indique un bateau qui est en train de charger du Sable.
Son tonnage est de 20 à 30 tonnes.
7
SN
Coque et appareil. — La coque est semblable à celle de la fragata,
mais la poupe est ronde pour que la mer aie moins de prise quand illest
en charge contre la plage. La grande voile est moindre que celle de la
fragata, mais on l'aide de deux latins. -
A la rade de Lisbonne la variété des bateaux est très grande, ceux
décrits sont les types principaux.
Le matin et dans l'après-midi ils donnent un spectacle vraiment pitto-
resque se mettant par dizaines en mouvement avec ses voiles déployés,
sur lesquelles le soleil fait réhausser ses teintes étincelantes, et très sou-
vent coques et voiles se reflètent sur la nappe verte et mi-voilante de la
mer. On dirait des grands oiseaux qui s'envollent à leurs nids lointains.
Lisbonne, 20 juin 1894.
(Traduit par les soins de l'auteur.)
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CACILHEIRO CANôA C U L É CANGUE | RO
Photolithogr ºroeāāé Mr. R. J. Asser - -
- STEENIR tº KERIJ vſh. A MAND, Amst















































Sechster internationaler Binnenschifffahrts-
Congress,
In HAAG. — 1894.
Wasserverbrauch und Speisung, sowie Dich-
- tungsarbeiten am 06er-Spree-Kanal
WON
Sr. Fxcellenz, dem Wirklichen Geheimen Rath und Ministerialdirector im Königlich
Preussischen Ministerium der öffentlichen Arbeiten,
SCEIULTZ.
(Hierzu A Uebersichtskarte des Oder-Spree-Kamals).
Die Wasserstrassen der Mark Brandenburg, sind in Bezug auf ihre Spei-
sungsverhältnisse in Folge der durch die Bodengestaltung gegebenen, in
Zahlreichen Seen und Sumpfflächen bestehenden, natürlichen Sammel-
becken im Vergleich zu den meisten anderen Binnenschifffahrtswegen im
hohen Grade begünstigt. Auch die Scheitelhaltungen der mârkischen
Kanāle erhalten im Allgemeinen selbst in wasserarmen Jahren das erfor-
derliche Speisewasser durch Zahlreiche kleine Zuflüsse und aus dem
Grundwasser im ausreichenden Maasse, ohne besonders hergerichteter
Sammelbecken, besonderer Zubringer oder maschineller Anlagen Zu
bedürfen. -
Eine Ausnahme hiervon macht nur der im Jahre 1891 dem Verkehr
ūbergebene Oder-Spree-Kanal, die wichtige, den Ansprüchen des gestei-
gerten Verkehrs entsprechend in grossen Abmessungen herrgestellte Ver-
bindung der Oberspree bei Berlin mit der mittleren Oder, deren Speisung,
durch die natürlichen Verhältnisse an sich schon wenig beginstigt,
namentlich in den so ungewöhnlich trockenen Jahren 1892 und 1893
Gegenstand unausgesetzter Aufmerksamkeit und besonderer Maassnahmen
Seitens der Kanalverwaltung gewesen ist.
2
Im Nachstehenden sind die Wasserverhältnisse der Scheitelhaltung des
Oder-Spree-Kanals, deren Wasserverbrauch, die Speisung, sowie die zur
Herabminderung der Sickerungsverluste Vorgenommenen Dichtungsarbeiten
des Kanalbettes kurz behandelt.
I. WASSERVERBRAUGH.
a. Betriebswasser der Schleusen.
Die 36,1 Km. lange Scheitelhaltung des Oder-Spree-Kanals fällt auf
eine Länge von 11,3 Km, mit der Scheitelstrecke des alten Friedrich-
Wilhelms-Kanals Zusammen, dessen Bett hier entSprechend erweitert und
vertieft worden ist. Die Haltung wird begrenzt auf dem einen (westlichen)
Ende gegen die anstossende Strecke der kanalisirten Spree durch die
Schleuse bei Kersdorf, auf dem anderen Ende durch die ,Obere Fürsten-
berger Schleuse”, das erste Glied der aus 3 Schleusen bestehenden
Schleusentreppe bei Fürstenberg aſ O., welche mit Zwei je 1,2 Km. langen
Zwischenhaltungen den Abstieg zur Oder bildet. Da auch mach Vollendung
des Oder-Spree-Kanals der Friedrich-Wilhelms-Kanal nach wie vor für
kleinere Fahrzeuge erhalten geblieben ist, so kommen noch Zwei Weitere
Schleusen, diejenigen bei Neuhaus und bei Schlaubehammer hierzu, so
dass im Ganzen 4 Schleusen ihr Betriebswasser der Scheitelhaltung
entnehmen. Die letztgenannten beiden Schleusen haben bei je 470 qm.
Grundfläche im Sommer ein stārkstes Gefälle von 1.84 m. (bei Neuhaus)
und 2,86 m, (bei Schlaubehammer). Die neuen grossen Schleusen des
Oder-Spree-Kamals haben dagegen je 640 Km. Grundfläche. Das Gefälle
bei Kersdorf beträgt bei mittlerem Sommer-Wasser der Spree 2,93 m.,
Schwankt jedoch, je nach deren Wasserstande, Zwischen 0.46 m. und 3,08 m.
Die 3 Fürstenberger Schleusen haben folgendes Gefälle:
Obere Fürstenberger Schleuse . - º e e e = 4,16 m.
Mittlere n in º wº . . . º º = 4,17 m
TJntere ºn * - - • g º -
bei Mittel wasser der Oder . - e e * - = 4,13 m
n höchstem schiff baren Wasser der Oder . - = 1,14 m
n Niedrigwasser der Oder . . . . . . = 5,08 w
Da der in Folge dieser Gefällsverhältnisse Zeitweilig entstehende Mehr-
Verbrauch der Unteren Schleuse durch eine Grundwasserspeisung nicht
auSreichend gedeckt wird, und demgemäss bei der Oberen Schleuse zum
Ersatz Freiwasser gegeben werden muss, so ist bei einer Berechnung des
gröSSten Wasserverbrauches nicht das Gefälle der Oberen, Sondern der
Unteren Schleuse Zu berticksichtigen. Das zu einer einmaligen Füllung
der 4 Schleusen der Scheitelhaltung erforderliche Wasser ergiebt sich
mach folgender
TABELLE I.
i. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Geringster Wer. Mittlerer Wer- Stårkster Wer-
brauch brauch brauch
* (: giinstigster (: M. W. d. Oder (: Ungiinstigste
Schleuse Grund. Wässerstandº) und Spree:) wj. :)
bei fläche.
Gäſällº | FillmäSSB | Gºſállſ | FillmäSS} | {#ſillº | FillmäSSÉ
Qm. II] . cbm. Iſl. cbm. II] . cbm.
Neuhaus . . . . 470 O () 0.82 385 1,84 865
Schlaubehammer . 470 2.86 i844 2.86 1344 2,86 1344
Kersdorf . . . . 640 0.96 615 2.93 1875 3,08 1971
Fürstenberg . . . 640 4,16 2662 4,16 2662 5,08 3251
(2 Untere Schleusen)
BEMERKUNG.

Bei Neuhaus wird bei Wasserständen der Spree, welche die Höhe der
Scheitelhaltung übersteigen, die Schleuse durch Dammbalken gesperrt, die
Schifffahrt beginnt erst, wenn die Spree bis zur Höhe der Scheitelhaltung
abgefallen ist. Bei Schlaubehammer ist immer das gleiche Gefälle zu der
amstossenden Haltung des Friedrich-Wilhelms-Kanals worhamden. Bei
Fürstenberg war in Spalte 3 und 5 das Gefälle der Oberen, in Spalte 7
dasjenige der Unteren Schleuse einzusetzen.
Der Verkehr auf dem Oder-Spree-Kanal ist bedeutend und im Starken
Zunehmen begriffen. Während sich auf dem Friedrich-Wilhelms-Kanal
mach dem Durchschnitt der letzten 10 Jahre etwa 4600 Schiffe jährlich
bewegten, ergiebt sich der Verkehr auf dem Oder-Spree-Kanal nach fol-
gender Uebersicht :
TABELLE II.
Anzahl der durchgeschleusten Schiffe.
Jahr. Neuhaus. Schlaubehammer. |Kersdorf. Fürstenberg (U.)
1891 803 6 915 12 122 4. 553
1892 855 2 096 13370 9 946
1893 1027 2 337 15 568 11 184
Im Jahre 1893 waren demnach zufolge der bei Kersdorf beobachteten
Verkehrszahl bei einer stattgehabten Betriebszeit won 308 Tagen durch-
4
schnittlich 51 Schiffe tåglich auf der Fahrt begriffen. Von diesen fanden
je zwei kleinere oder je ein grösseres in den Schleusenkammern Platz.
Die Anzahl der Schleusungen ist in der folgenden Tabelle zusammen-
gestellt. .
- TABELLE III.
Anzahl der Schleusungen.

Jahr. Neuhaus. Schlaubehammer. Kersdorf. Fürstenberg (U). Im Ganzen.
1891 966 3.367 4. 931 3 105 12 369
1892 906 1 705 5 463 6 165 14, 239
1898 851 1847 6 281 6964. 15 943
Im Allgemeinen fiel der stårkste Verkehr an den Schleusen in die
Monate April und Mai. Im Besonderen für das Jahr 1893 lässt sich dem-
nach die durchschnittliche tâgliche Thätigkeit der Schleusen und deren
durchschnittlicher Wasserverbrauch nach Einsetzung der in Spalte 6 der
Tabelle I gefundenen mittleren Füllmasse in folgender Weise berechmen.
TABELLE IV.
Durchschnittliche Mith Füll Täglicher durchschnitt-
Schleuse bei Anzahl der I º, Ulli Iſla, SS6 licher Wasserverbrauch
Schleusungen 1893. Iſl. cbm.
Neuhaus. 3 385 1155
Schlaubehammer. 6 1344 8064
Kersdorf & 20 1875 37 500
Fürstenberg (; Unter:) 23 2 662 61 226
Gesammtverbrauch 107945

Als derjenige Tag, welcher seit Eröffnung der Kamals den lebhaftesten
Verkehr und entsprechend stārksten Wasserverbrauch aufweist, ist der
7. April 1894 zu betrachten. An diesem Tage fanden statt bei Neuhaus 7,
Schlaubehammer 3, Kersdorf 38 und bei Fürstenberg 45 Schleusungen.
Der Wasserverbrauch hat Sonach an diesem Tage wiederum unter Annahme
mittlerer Füllmassen die Grösse von rund 198000 chm. erreicht. Ein
derartig starker Verkehr pflegt jedoch nur vortibergehend im Frühjahr
beinn Beginn der Schifffahrt einzutreten.
b. Verdunstung.
Die Verdunstungshöhe war von Vornherein den üblichen Annahmen
entsprechend zu 4 Millimeter in 24 Stunden vorausgesetzt. Wiederholt
angestellte Versuche ergaben die Richtigkeit dieser Annahme. Da die
5
Scheitelstrecke eine Oberfläche von ungefähr 910800 qm. hat, beträgt die
verdunstete Wassermasse für den Tag etwa 3640 chm.
c. Versickerung im Kanalbett.
Die westliche Hälfte der Scheitelhaltung zieht sich zum Theil in niedrig
gelegenenn Sumpfland hin, Zum Theil ist sie in höheres Gelände tief ein-
geschmitten. Da ausserdem ihr Bett auf eine gewisse Länge mit dem des
Friedrich-Wilhelms-Kanals Zusammenfällt, Welch, letzterer früher allein
und in ausreichendem Maasse Seine Speisung aus dem Grundwasser erhielt,
so waren auf der ganzen bezeichneten Strecke nemmenswerthe Sickerungs-
verluste nicht zu befürchten, vielmehr ein mehr oder weniger reichliches
Hinzutreten von Grundwasser zu erwarten. Anders liegen die Verhältnisse
in dem ûbrigen Theil des Kanals, von dem Punkte der Abzweigung wom
Friedrich-Wilhelms-Kamal bis Fürstenberg. Erhebt sich hier auch der
Kanalspiegel, abgesehen von einigen Strecken im Allgemeinen nur Wenig
tiber das Gelände, so war doch auf eine Grundwasserspeisung überhaupt
nicht zu rechnen, vielmehr bei der grossen Durchlässigkeit des Sandigen
Bodens eine sehr starke Versickerung vorauszusehen. Dieser Verlust war
ungeachtet der von Vornherein beabsichtigten und weiter unten noch
mãher zu beschreibenden Dichtungsarbeiten geschätzt fur die Zeit des
Sommerhalbjahrs auf den vierfachen Inhalt der etwa 24 km. langen
Kanalstrecke, für Welche eine Grundwasserspeisung ausgeschlossen schien.
Es ergiebt dies eine Wassermenge von 20,400 chm. für 24 Stunden. Dem-
gegentiber ist durch fortgesetzte Beobachtungen festgestellt, dass die Ver-
sickerung im Kanalbett mit der Zeit erheblich geringer geworden ist und
gegenwärtig höchstens Zu etwa 12000 chm. für den Tag angenommen
Werden kann.
d. Werluste an den Schleusen.
Der thatsächlich eingetretene Wasserverbrauch der Scheitelhaltung
erreichte bisher eine derartige Grösse, dass sich diese aus den bisher
angeführten Verhältnissen allein nicht erklären làsst. Sorgfültige Beobach-
tungen und Untersuchungen haben ergeben, dass an und neben den
Schleusen noch sehr erhebliche Wasserverluste auftreten.
Wie an den meisten in neuerer Zeit erbauten Schleusen auf Betongrün-
dung sind auch an den Schleusen des Oder-Spree-Kanals besondere in
das Erdreich seitlich der Schleusen eingreifende Querspundwande nicht
angeordnet. Die Kammermauern sind mit dem an Ort und Stelle vorge-
fundenen Sandboden hinterfüllt.
Der bei dem bedeutenden Gefälle der Schleusen von 4 bis 5 m. auf-
tretende Wasserdruck erzeugte in diesem Boden eine Strömung des
Grundwassers neben den Långsmauern, welche sich Sowohl in Ziemlich
Starken Quellungen an den Unterhäuptern bemerkbar machte, als auch
mehrfache Versackungen des hinterfüllten Erdreiches herworrief. Besonders
SCHULTZ. 1%
6
Zeigte sich diese Seitenströmung an der Unteren Fürstenberger Schleuse.
Zur Untersuchung wurden hier neben den Kammerwänden an 3 Stellen
Röhren eingesenkt, in denen der Grundwasserstand långere Zeit beobachtet
wurde. Es ergab sich ein ziemlich regelmässiges Gefälle vom Oberhaupt
zum Unterhaupt etwa in einer Neigung von 1:20, so dass die vermuthete
Langsströmung unzweifelhaft machgewiesen war. Die Menge des auf diese
Weise verloren gehenden Wassers war nicht festzustellen. Zur Verringe-
rung dieses Verlustes sind wahrend des Winters 1893 bis 94 zu beiden
Seiten der Schleuse etwa in derem Mitte 2 Spundwande von je 11 bis
16 m. Länge eingeschlagen, meben welche, so tief dies ausführbar war,
eine Lehmfüllung eingebracht ist.
Ein fernerer und sehr bedeutender Wasserverlust trat in Folge mangel-
haften Schlusses der in den Umlāufen der Schleusen angebrachten
Schützen auf Dieselben sind grosse Klappschützen von 1,5 m. Höhe und
1,1 m. Breite mit in der Mitte befindlicher waagerechter Drehaxe. Dass
dieselben nicht gut Schlossen, bewies sowohl die an der unteren Mündung
der Umlāufe bemerkbare Strömung, wie auch das rasche Abfallen der
gefüllten Kammer bei geschlossemem Oberthor, an welchem, indem Seine
Einrichtung von der des Unterthores durchaus verschieden ist, Wasserver-
luste nicht eintreten. An der Unteren Schleuse bei Fürstenberg ist der
Verlust am Unterthor beinn Beginn des Abfallens, also bei voller Druck-
höhe zu 0.63 com. in der Sekunde berechnet worden. Derselbe Verlust
trat Selbstverständlich auch ein bei geóffnetem Oberthor und damn
dauernd. Wird letzteres auch im Allgemeinen geschlossen gehalten, so
muss es doch bei jeder Schleusung wahrend des Ein- und Ausfahrens
der Schiffe durch das Oberhaupt offen stehen. Nimmt jede dieser Bewe-
gungen 10 Minuten in Amspruch, so steht das Unterthor bei jeder Durch-
schleusung 20 Minuten lang unter vollem Wasserdruck, und es erwuchs
hieraus für die Schleusen bei Fürstenberg ein Verlust von rund 760 chm.
Für die Schleuse bei Kersdorf ist dieser Verlust entsprechend deren
geringerem Gefälle zu etwa 400 chm. berechnet. Bei den oben in Tabelle
IV angegebenen Durchschnitszahlen tåglicher Wasserverlust bei den
beiden Schleusen Zusammen ergeben von 20 × 400 × 23 × 760 =
25480 obm. -
Um diesen grossen Verlusten vorzubeugen, sind neuerdings die Klapp-
schützen durch besser schliessende Absperrungsvorrichtungen ersetzt worden.
Die folgende Zusammenstellung der worstehend in Einzelnen ermittelten
Antheile am Wasserverbrauch und Verlust liefert den durchschnittlichen
täglichen Gesammtverbrauch für das Jahr 1893:
1. Betriebswasser . tº e e º º © g e g g g 108000 com
2. Verdunstung. e º g º g * * & * g 3640
3. Versickerung, einschliesslich Verlust durch seitliche Strömung an
den Schleusen geschätzt auf . g * * 9 * * & * 15000 m
4. Verlust an den Umlaufschützen . * g e * e * * 25480 m
Zusammen rund e e g 152000 chm.
7
II. SPEISUNG.
Für die Speisung der Scheitelhaltung standen Zunichst folgende Bezugs-
quellen zur Verfügung.
a. Grundwasser.
Die Grösse dieses Zufiusses ist Sehr Wechselnd und nicht genau
bestimmbar, da die Grenzen des in Betracht kommenden Gebietes nicht
bekannt sind. Aus der Menge, welche die Scheitelstrecke des Friedrich-
Wilhelms-Kanals früher zum Betriebe der Schleusen bei Neuhaus und
Müllrose lieferte, ist für diese Strecke die Grundwasserspeisung zu 0,29 cbm.
in der Sekunde berechnet. Diese Zahl wird allerdings für Sehr trockene
Jahre wie 1892 und 1893 Zu hoch gegriffen sein.
b. Der Schlaubebach.
Dieser Bach, welcher bei Müllrose in die Scheitelhaltung mindet,
durchfliesst in Seinem etwa 23 Km. langen Laufe eine Reihe won kleinen
Seen, darunter vor Seinem Eintritt in den Kanal den 132 ha. umfassenden
,,Grossen Müllroser See”. Genaue Wassermessungen sind bei dem unregel-
mässigen, durch Zahlreiche Mühlenwehre gehemmten Abfluss und der oft
so geringen Geschwindigkeit, dass der hydrometische Flügel versagt, nicht
ausführbar. Aus der Grösse des Niederschlagsgebietes von 130 qkm. lässt
sich bei Annahme einer Sekundlich abgeführten Wassermenge von 0,002
cbm. für das qkm. die Leistung auf 0,26 cbm in der Sekunde berechnen.
Ohne weiteres stand jedoch Selbst diese geringe Wassermenge nicht zur
Verfügung. Die am Ausfluss der Schlaube aus dem Müllroser See belegene
Mühle besass das Recht, den See bis zu einer gewissen Höhe anzustauen
und deselben unter Umständen woohenlang abzusperren. Um die freie
Verfügung über das Wasser der Schlaube zu erhalten, musste demnach
die Mühle von der Kanalverwaltung angekauft werden. Man gewann
dadurch Zugleich in dem See ein wichtiges Sammelbecken, in welchem
durch Aufstau bis zur Zulässigen 1,54 m. liber den Spiegel der Scheitel-
haltung liegenden Höhe rund 1990000 chm. auſgespeichert werden können.
Da aus den bisher besprochenen Quellen-Grundwasser und Schlaube
mit einer Leistung von Zusammen 0,55 chm. in der Sekunde Oder 47500
cbm. für den Tag der Bedarf der Scheitelhaltung bei weitem nicht gedeckt
Werden konnte, blieb als einziges Auskunftsmittel nur tibrig,
c. Das Wasser der Spree
mit zur Speisung heran zu ziehen.
Die Scheitelhaltung des Kanals liegt auf der Höhe won 40,80 m. liber
N. N., der Niedrigwasserstand der Spree an der Schleuse bei Neuhaus
auf 38,96 und das Mittelwasser auf 39,98, während sich das Hochwasser
bis auf 41,74 m. liber N. N. erhebt. Da höhere Wässerstande nur im
Frühjahr, also gerade dann, wenn naturgemäss auch die übrigen Zuflüsse
8
am reichlichstem sind, eintreten, so ist eine Speisung durch das bei
Hochwasser allerdings mêgliche Einlassen des Spreewassers im Allgemei-
men werthlos. Man müsste daher besondere Maassnahmen ins Auge fassen.
Der ursprüngliche Plan, die Spree oberhalb Neuhaus bis zum Kanalspiegel
aufzustauen und dem Kanal mittelst eines Zubringers Wasser Zuzuführen,
musste in Rücksicht auf die zu erwartende Schädigung der Landwirth-
Schaft durch Versumpfung des ohnehin niedrig gelegenen Spreethales auf-
gegeben werden. Es blieb also nur die Anlage eines Schöpfwerkes tibrig.
Die Spree führt bei Neuhaus bei kleinstem Wasser sekundlich 7 chm.
Hiervon durfte, sowohl um nicht von Oben eine zu starke, Ufer und Sohle
angreifende Strömung Zu erzeugen, wie auch um auf der unterhalb
belegenen Strecke den Wasserstand nicht in einer Schifffart und Land-
wirthschaft nachtheiligen Weise Zu Senken, nur ein gewisser Theil ent-
nommen werden. Die Zulássige Leistung bei Niedrigwasser war daher auf
2,3 chm. in der Sekunde festgesetzt, was für 24 Stunden einer Wasser-
menge von 198720 cpm. entSpricht.
Das Schöpfwerk besteht aus einer dreicylindrigen Dampfmaschine von
120 effectiven Pferdekräften und Condensation mit Expansion, welche
einen Kreisel mit senkrechter Welle treibt. Die Hubhöhe Schwankt mit
dem gefälle der Schleuse bei Neuhaus und beträgt im Mittel 0.82 m.
Die Herstellungskosten des Schöpfwerkes belaufen sich auf 114630 Mark.
Die Kosten der Wasserförderung betrugen im Jahre 1892 bei einer
Gesammtleistung von 30 491 000 chm. in 2823 Stunden, welche auf 802
Betriebstage fielen, 14 363 Mark. Die Betriebsstudie stellte sich daher auf
5,09 M., und 1000 chm. Wasser zu haben, kostete 0.40 M. Im Jahre 1892
sind unter Annahme einer Betriebszeit von 300 Tagen durchschnittlich
täglich 100 000 chm. Wasser gehoben worden.
Gegentiber der bei jeder derartigen Maschinemanlage worliegenden
Gefahr, dass eine plátzliche Beschädigung wahrend des lebhaften Schiffs-
verkehrs für diesen leicht Verhängnissvoll werden kann, bietet das Sam-
melbecken des Müllroser Sees einen höchst werth vollen Schutz, indem
die daselbst aufgespeicherte Wassermasse ersatzweise Zur Speisung heran-
gezogen werden kann. Die Wassermenge des Sees wirde, um dem Kanal
dieselbe Wassermenge Zuzuführen, wie das Schöpfwerk, mach den obigen
1990 000
2.3 × 86400
Zu einer Ausbesserung der Maschine ausreichende Zeit gewähren. Für den
Schiffsverkehr ist jedenfalls durch den Ankauf des Müllroser Sees eine
erhöhte Sicherheit erzielt worden.
Nach den worstehenden Ausführungen lässt sich schon jetzt behaupten,
dass die Speisung des Oder-Spree-Kanals auch unter ungúnstigen Verhält-
missen und bei einer ferneren Steigerung des Verkehrs, nachdem durch
die erwähnten Verbesserungen die grossen Verluste an den Schleusen ver-
mindert sind, vollkommen ausreichen wird.
Angaben : = 10 Tage ausreichen, also unter Umständen
9
III. DIGHTUNGSARBEITEN IM KANALBETTE.
Nach den oben geschilderten Bodenverhältnissen war es vorzugsweise
die 18,3 km. lange Kanalstrecke vom Friedrich-Wilhelms-Kanal bis zur
Oberen Fürstenberger Schleuse, Welche gegen Sickerungsverluste gesichert
werden musste. Der Boden besteht fast durchweg bis zu grosser Tiefe aus
reinem Sand und liefert für die Landwirthschaft kaum mennenswerthe
Erträge. Ein grosser Theil des Tandes lag brach und war mit diarren
Halmen und trockenem grauen Moos bedeckt oder trug kūmmerlich
gedeihende niedrige Kiefern. Der angeschnittene Sand war meistens sehr
fein und mit Staub, in den tieferen Lagen auch mit Lehmbeimischungen
versetzt, daswischen wurde auch grober Scharfer Sand und Kies angetroffen.
Die Dichtung wurde allein mit Thon, dabei jedoch auf Zweierlei Art
bewirkt. &
1. Einbau eines Thonbettes.
Auf den Strecken welche im Kies oder groben Sand lagen, erhielt das
Kamalbett je nach. Befund entweder an der Sohle allein oder Zugleich
an den Böschungen bis zu der Höhe, wo jene Bodenarten erstanden, eine
regelrecht eingebaute Thonbekleidung von 30 cm. Stärke. In derselben
Weise wurde auch ein Theil der im Auftrage liegenden Strecken befestigt.
Der in der Nähe gewomnene Thon war ziemlich mager. Da er einige
Grubenfeuchtigkeit besass, war ein Anfeuchten zur Verarbeitung nicht
erforderlich. Mit der Thonbekleidung wurden versehen in Ganzen 6,7 km.
Die Herstellungskosten betrugen für 1 Km, etwa 32,050 Mk. Das Kubik-
meter verbauter Thon kostete 5,73 Mk.
2. Einschlämmen von Thon.
Die Dichtung der übrigen Strecken ist lediglich durch Einschlämmen
von Thon bewirkt worden. Nachdem in die Kanalhaltung streckenweise
Wasser eingelassen war, wurde in mit Thon beladene flachgehende
Prähme mit Schaufeln so viel Wasser eingeschöpft, bis der Thon zu einer
dickflüssigen Masse aufgelöst war. Die Prähme wurden langsam den
Kamal entlang gezogen und dabei der Thon in den Kamal geschaufelt.
Als das Wasser zum ersten Mal in die Haltung eingelassen war, durchlief
es Zwar die erste Theilstrecke in deren ganzen Länge, verschwand jedoch
bald. Ganz deutlich waren dann die besonders durchlässigen Stellen zu
erkennen, indem hier Laub, Halme und Kiefernnadeln durch was ver-
sickernde Wasser mit in den Boden himeingezogen waren. Solche Stellen
wurden zunachst noch mit einer schwachen Thondecke bekleidet. Als
sodann wiederum und jetzt in reichlicherer Menge Wasser eingelassen
und die Thonschlämmung eifriger fortgesetzt wurde, gelang es Schnell, die
Wandungen, besonders Zumächst die Sohle so weit zu dichten, dass die
Versickerung erheblich abnahm. Allmählich wurde immer mehr Wasser
10
eingelassen und anhaltend weiter geschlemmt. In derselben Weise wurde
bei dem streckenweisen Füllen der ganzen Haltung verfahren.
Die Arbeit bildete sich bald in folgender zweckmässiger Weise heraus :
Nachdem an verschiedenen Stellen des Ufers Thon angefahren war,
Wurden anstatt der Prähme Zahlreiche, aus den für die Schleusen
beschafften Dammbalken gebildete Flösse verwendet. Auf diese wurde so
viel Thon gekarrt, dass das Wasser die Oberfläche der Balken bespilte.
Während der Fortbewegung der Flösse Schaufelten auf denselben stehende
Arbeiter Wasser auf den Thon und bewirkten dadurch dessen Schnelles
Ablaufen durch die Zwischen dem Flossbalken absichtlich gelassenen
Lücken. Dieses Verfahren ermöglichte eine grosse Ausdehnung und ein
Schnelles Fortschreiten der Arbeit.
Die Dâmme der im Auftrage liegenden Strecken waren, wie erwähnt,
nur theilweise mit Thonbekleidung versehen. Dieselben wurden dafür'
beinn Einschlämmen besonders reichlich bedacht, ausserdem ihre Böschun-
gen vom Ufer aus mit Thon beworfen, dessen allmähliche Abspülung und
Vertheilung man dem Wellenschlage überliess. Die Dâmme Zeigten sich
bald nur noch an wenigen Stellen stark durchlässig.
Zu den Schlämmarbeiten wurden etwa 9070 chm. Thon verwendet. Die
Gesammtkosten betrugen rund 65200 m. Das Kilometer Kamal stellte
sich — nur für die Schlämmarbeiten, abgesehen van den worher mit
Thon ausgebauten Strecken – auf 5670 Mk.
Die Arbeiten beanspruchten allerdings eine geraume Zeit, indem sie
mit Unterbrechungen und nach Maassgabe des beobachteten Erfolges an
manchen Stellen mehrfach wiederholt, etwa 2 Jahre hindurch fortgesetzt
werden mussten, um die Schliesslich erreichte vollkommene Dichtigkeit
Zu erzielen. Während namentlich in den ersten Monaten mach erfolgtem
Einlassen des Wassers vielfach so starke Durchsickerungen auftraten, dass
grössere Flächen des anliegenden Geländes unter Wasser gesetzt wurden
und nicht unbedeutende Schädigungen eintraten, für Welche den Grund-
besitzern Vergütungen gewährt werden mussten, sind diesse Uebelstände
doch in verhältnissmässig kurzer Zeit beseitigt worden. Selbst an den
Stellen, an welchen sich der Kanalspiegel bis zu 3,5 m. liber das Gelände
erhebt, Weisen die Dâmme jetzt nur hier und da unbedeutende Quellungen
auf. Welche mehr und mehr verschwinden. Auch ergiebt sich aus wieder-
holten. Untersuchungen, welche an diesen Stellen mit Hülfe Seitlich vom
Kanal bis in grössere Entfernung von demselben eingesetzter Beobach-
tungsröhren angestellt Wurden, dass sich das Grundwasser Selbst unmit-
telbar am Fusse der Dämme unabhängig vom Kanalwasser eingestellt hat
und ein regelmässiges, natürliches, der Oberfläche des Landes entspre-
chendes Gefälle besitzt.
Der Erfolg der Dichtungsarbeiten kann im Allgemeinen als ein vorzüg-
licher bezeichnet werden.
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DU DEVELOPPEMENT DES VOES NAVIGABLES
de l'Empire de Russie.
Pär E. F. it Hersthalmann, -
ADJOINT DU CHEF DE LARRONDISSEMENT DE KIEF DES WOIES DE COMMUNICATION.
*RS ºr
FC LIEETH>.
1894.


zºº-ºº-e-Jº-º-º-º-º-
I08Boneho HeHaypolo. Riebb, 28 May 1894 roma.
*Jºv.º.º. Zºº.º.º.
arº.aº, alº-atº º,
ADBrºll historillſ
DU DEVELOPPEMENT DES VOIES NAVIGABLES
ſ
de l'Empire de Russie.
Par E. F. de Hoerschelmann,
Adjoint du Chef de l'Arrondissement de Kief des voies de communication.
Avant-propos.
Lors du IV Congrès International de Navigation Interieure, tenu
en 1890 a Manchester, aux membres de ce congrès a €té distribué
un bel ouvrage sur »les Voies de Navigation dams le Royaume des
Pays-Bas", redigé par M-rs l’Inspecteur Général et les Ingenieurs du
Waterstaat, sous les auspices du Gouvernement des Pays-Bas. Ce pré-
cieux volume, outre une description détaillée des voies navigables des
Pays-Bas, contient d'intéressantes données historiques Sur le dévelop-
pement graduel du réseau de navigation intérieure des dits pays.
Quoigue il me mous ait pas €té possible de rassembler des données
aussi complètes sur les voies fluviales de Russie, nous mous Sommes
pourtant inspiré, dans la mesure du possible, de l'exemple de nos
collègues hollandais et avons recueilli quelques données histo-
riques sur le développement de notre réseau de Voies navigables
pour lesquelles mous Sollicitons un accueil bienveillant auprès
des membres du VI Congrès International de Navigation Intérieure
qui va ètre tenu en Hollande. Il mous a semblé à propos de pré-
senter a ce congrès quelques données historiques sur nos Voies navi-
gables vu que la navigation interieure de notre pays et celle des
Pays-Bas me sont pas sans avoir quelques souvenirs historiques com-
g
— 4 –
mums. C'est en Hollande que motre Grand Empereur Pierre I est alle
s"inspirer des vastes projets sur la mavigation interieure dont la réali-
sation, après le retour dams son Empire, a €té l'un des Soins pré-
dominants de son regme. Sur la proposition de Pierre le Grand toute
une association d’Ouvriers hollandais en bâtiments se rendit en Russie
pour étre employee aux travaux des ouvrages d'art sur les voies
navigables. En 1702, le 24 mai, le marchand Adolphe Houtmann
d’Amsterdam, conformenent à une lettre de Monsieur André Arta-
monovitch Matveief, ministre plenipotentiaire de Russie, fit un contrat
avec les ouvriers: Arian Dieris Houter, charpentier de Kraelingen:
Jan Adrianssen Houter, fils du précèdent et également charpentier;
Tonjes Brauer, charpentier de Tismemokerken: Jam Janssen Pollmann,
charpentier de Doort: Dierk van Ammers, maçon et briquefier; Dierk
van Ammers, fils du précèdent et également maçon; Isaak Abraham,
tailleur de pierres; Ewert van de Woudem, macon (les quatre der-
miers d’Amsterdam); Cornelis Ahrens, macon de Schermerhorn. D'après
le contrat Susmentionné chacun des ouvriers avait droit à des ap-
pointements de 80 florins hollandais par mois et ils se réservaient le
droit de me pas être Séparés les uns des autres.—Ces ouvriers ont
travaillé à la construction des premières écluses sur nos voies ma-
vigables, notamment les ecluses sur le canal Wychenévolotski. Jusque
a mos jours sur ce canal Se Sont conservées des traces de l’hydrote-
chnique hollandaise qui a coopéré à la création de mos premières
voies navigables artificielles. Sur le dit canal, jusqu'à l'heure qu’il est
existent quelques portes d'écluse construites d'après un ancien mo-
dèle hollandais et les barrages y ont conservé leur ancienne dénomi-
mation hollandaise , Beyschlott".
Premières origines des voies de navigation intérieure
en Russie.
En Russie ce sont les grands fleuves, navigables pour la plu-
part dams leur état naturel, sans amélioration artificielle, qui ont le
plus d’importance parmi les voies de navigation interieure. Déjà dans
des époques très-reculées ils servaient au transport des marchandises
entre les différentes parties du pays. La plus ancienne des villes com-
merciales de Russie, Novgorod, a conquis Son importance excep-
Y
tionnelle surtout grâce à Sa situation sur un fleuve navigable, le Vol-
khoff, près de la ligne de partage des eaux se dirigeant d'un coté
au nord vers la mer Baltique et de l'autre au midi, vers la mer
Noire et la Caspienne. Les fleuves Volkhoffet Dnièpre servaient dams
l'antiquité au transport des marchandises de la mer Noire à la mer Balti-
que. Sur le Dniepre on naviguait à la remonte; entre lehaut-Dniepre et la
Lovate, un affluent du lac Ilmène (duquel prend origine le Volkhoff se
jetant dans le lac Ladoga), le transport des marchandises se faisait
par terre et après de nouveau par eau, Sur la Lovate, le lac Ilmene,
le Volkhoff, le lac Ladoga et la Néva, jusq'a son embouchure dans
la mer Baltique. Outre la voie précitée les commercants de Novgo-
rod Se Servaient pour le transport des marchandises également des
riviéres: Msta (qui tombe dans le lac Ilmene), Tsna, un affluent de
la Msta, et Tvertsa, qui se jette dans le Volga; cette voie, où il n”y
avait qu'un court transport par terre, de deux kilometres, entre la
Tsna et la Tvertsa, les conduisait au Volga, Sur leguel ils conti-
nuaient la navigation à la descente jusqu’à l'embouchure de la Kama,
où au dixième siècle se trouvait la ville Bolgary, la capitale du
peuple des Bolgares qui avait pris possession du Bas Volga deja au
sixième siècle. -
Dans l'époque à partir du quatorzième jusqu'au seizième siècle
il existait au confluent de la Mologa et du Volga une ville nommée
»Kholopi Gorodok“, où chaque année, en été, avait lieu une grande
foire à laquelle des commercants russes et étrangers apportaient de
très loin des marchandises, par voie fluviale.
Autant qu'on Sache, avant le Seizième siècle, il n'a €té execute
aucuns travaux pour l'amélioration ou la réunion entre eux des
fleuves russes, don't la plupart se prète très bien à la création d'un
réseau iminterrompu de Voies navigables au moyen de canaux ratta-
chant les parties supérieures des différents cours d'eau, les sources et
les affluents de plusieurs grands fleuves n'étant séparés entre eux
que par des élévations du Sol d’une étendue et d’une hauteur peu
considerables et qui en même temps abondent d'eau pouvant Servir
à l'alimentation des biefs de partage des canaux de réunion.
Le premier essai de l'établissement d'une voie navigable artifi-
cielle entre des rivières appartenant à l'heure qu'il est à la Russie,
a été exeóuté en la dernière moitie du seizième siècle par le Sultan
turque Sélime qui dans un but stratégique s'était proposé de Creuser
— 6 —
um canal navigable entre les rivières Ilovla, affluent du Don, et
Kamychennka qui tombe dans le Volga. Les travaux avaient été
imaugurés en 1568 dams une localité qui actuellement fait partie de
la province de Saratoff, mais ils m'ont pas €té termines. On avait
probablement espéré de pouvoir créer une voie de jonction entre
les fleuves Volga et Don en tranchant tout simplement le faite, sé-
parant leurs affluents respectifs, sans faire attention aux pentes très-
considerables du terrain. Et comme à cette époque la les construc-
teurs du Sultan n’avaient pas notion des écluses a sas, l'entreprise
dut forcément échouer.
Des souverains russes ce fut Pierre le Grand qui le premier
congut le plan d'un waste réseau de voies navigables artificielles, de-
vant réunir entre eux tous les principaux fleuves de la Russie, et qui
en même temps s”Occupa avec une rare énergie de l’éxécution de ce
plan. Vers la fin du dix-septième siècle il reprit l'idée du canal entre
le Volga et le Don, dont l'execution avait été commencée par le sul-
tan Sélime. Pierre le Grand confia la direction des travaux de ce
canal au colonel Broeckel, qui mon plus me sut pas vaincre les mul-
tiples difficultés s”opposant à l’exécution du projet et quitta les tra-
vaux bientôt après leur commencement. Ensuite l’Empereur nomma
directeur des travaux l’ingénieur anglais Perry qui fit creuser une
partie de la tranchée entre les rivières Ilovla et Kamychennka et
réussit a achever la construction de plusieurs écluses. Mais, en 1701,
par suite de la guerre qui éclata entre la Russie et la Suede, les
trouppes qui travaillaient à la construction du canal furent rappelees
et on abandonna les travaux qui depuis ce temps n'ont plus été re-
commencés. L'histoire de ce canal inachevé est consignee dams un
ouvrage hollandais, paru a Amsterdam Sans indication de date. Le
titre de ce curieux livre est rédigé en deux langues, en russe et en hol-
landais: il est conqu en ces termes: ,Description soigneuse du fleuve
Don ou Tanais, de la Mer d’Azoff ou Palus Méotide, du Pont–Euxin
ou de la Mer Noire, ci joint un aperçu du fossé ayant do servir à
diriger les eaux de la rivière Ilovla, par la Kamychennka, dans le.
Volga, dit fleuve d’Astrakhan, pour qu'on puisse, à l'aide de l'eau de
l’Ilovla, faire passer des navires et d'autres bâtiments de navigation
du Don par l'Ilovla et la Kamychennka dans le grand Volga. Composé,
toutes choses, par Monsieur Cornelis Cruys, Vice-Amiral des forces
navales de Sa Très-Puissanfe Majesté Czarienne". Ile texte hollandais.
— 7 —
des plans, joint à cet ouvrage est en partie complété par la tradu-
ction russe. Un exemplaire de ce rare livre se trouve dams la biblio-
thèque de l’Institut des ingénieurs des voies de communication a
St.-Pétersbourg. Depuis le rêgne de Pierre le Grand la question d’ume
voie navigable artificielle entre le Volga et le Don a été relevé mainte
fois; on a fait des études sur les lieux et rédigé des avant-projets.
Outre l'étude de la question par l'administration des voies de com-
munication, dans les derniers temps, en 1885–86, une compagnie
privée franco-russe a fait des études détaillées pour un projet de ca-
mal du Volga au Don. Jusqu'à ce jour la compagnie n'a pas encore
soumis son projet à l’examen du Ministère, mais l'um des fondateurs
de la compagnie, Monsieur Léon Dru, a fait paraître à Paris en 1886
un livre Sous le titre ,Projet de canal entre le Don et le Volga.
Mémoire à l'appui du projet. —Société civile franco-russe d’études du
canal du Don au Volga". Dans ce mémoire sont exposés les princi-
paux éléments du projet. Le canal est destiné au passage de bateaux
d’une longueur de 30 sagènes (64 metres). d’une largeur de 6 sagè-
mes (12", 80) et d’un tirant d'eau d'une sagène () (2", 13): il prend
origine à la rive droite du Volga, à 15 verstes (16 kilomètres) en
aval de la ville de Tsaritsyne, suit la vallée du ruisseau Proudovaïa,
un affluent du Volga, traverse la ligne de faite et rejoint le ruisseau
Yagodnaia qui se jette dans la Karpofka, un affluent du Don. La
longueur totale du canal, a partir du Volga jusqu'au Don, est de 80
verstes (85 “”, 34). Le bief de partage a une étendue d'à peu près
10 verstes (10 *, 66); son Élévation au dessus-du miveau du Volga
est de 40 sagènes (85*, 34). La branche Volgienne, d'une longueur
de 7 verstes (7", 47), a 21 ecluses dont la chute moyenne est d'à.
peu près 2 sagènes (4", 27); sur la branche domienne, qui a une
étendue de 63 verstes (67*. 20), avec une chute générale de
20 sagènes (42", 67), il y a 12 €cluses. Les plus importants déblais
à la ligne de partage des eaux atteignent une hauteur de 15 a 20
Sagènes (32 a. 42 "... 67), sur une longueur d'à peu près 4 verstes
(4*, 27). L'alimentation du canal est projetée au moyen de ré-
servoirs: emmagasinant les eaux de pluie et de la fonte de neige; en
même temps on se propose de faire monter l’eau du Volga au bief
(*) Douze quarts d'archine, comme disent les mariniers russes, qui Comptent le
tirant d'eau par quarts d'archine. 3 archines=1 Sagène=2 m, 13.
— 8 —
de partage à l'aide de plusieurs grandes pompes à la vapeur. La dé-
pense totale nésessaire pour la réalisation du projet est évaluee a 28
millions de roubles (70 millions de francs).
Une seconde voie navigable artificielle, devant réunir le Volga
au Don, dont soccupa. Pierre le Grand, fut le canal Ivanofsky, entre
le petit lac Ivanofskoié et la rivière Chate, un affluent de l'Oupa,
qui se jette dans l’Oka, l’un des principaux tributaires du Volga. On
n’est pas complètement fixe sur le moment du commencement des
travaux de ce canal. En 1707 existaient déjà, plus de Vingt €cluses
en magonnerie. Or, en 1711, a cause de la cession de la ville d’Asoff
aux turques, les travaux furent abandonnés. Dans la Suite la question
du renouvellement du canal Ivanofsky a €té Soulevée mainte fois,
mais comme les dépenses auraient été exessivement considerables et
surtout a cause de l'insuffisance du débit d'eau des lacs, rivières et
ruisseaux devant alimenter le canal, en 1839 l'administration des
voies de communication se décida pour la fermeture définitive du ca-
nal et ordonna la vente de tous les matériaux restes des travaux.
Le canal Wychenévolotski.
Après avoir réuni à la Russie le littoral de la mer Baltique
Pierre le Grand décida, dans le but de l'animation des relations com-
mercielles avec l’Europe occidentale, de percer tout d'abord le moins
large des faites Séparant le bassin du Volga de celui des affluents
des lacs Ladoga et Onega, c'est à dire l’isthme situé entre le cours
supérieur des rivières Tsna et Tvertsa. Cet isthme se nommait chez
les bateliers la , voie de terre supérieure" (en russe Wychemi-Volo-
tehok), parce que plus loin Sur la Msta il y a de très dangereux ra-
pides oil souvent les marchandises étaient également débarquées et
transportées par terre ferme, jusq'au bout d’aval des rapides et ce che-
min-ci s'appelait la voie de terre inférieure". En 1703 furent com.
mencés les travaux de creusement du canal entre la Tsna et la Tver-
tsa. Ce canal, avec une petite partie de la rivière Tsna formait le
bief de partage, fermé aux deux bouts par des écluses. La direction
des travaux fut confiée à deux frères, les princes Gagarine, qui réus-
sirent a terminer le canal en 1708 et en l'honneur desquels le canal
fut nommé canal Gagarinnski. Le chiffre exacte des dépenses faites
— 9 —
pour le creusement du canal n'est pas connu; mais des livres de
comptabilité, tenus par les frères Gagarine, il resulte, que jusqu’en
1704 on avait dépensé la Somme de 2960 roubles 85 copecs (7402
francs), dams ce nombre les appointements des hollandais-constructeurs
d'écluses entraient pour 1.636 roubles 24 copecs (4090 francs). Aux
ouvriers on payait 3 copecs (7 centimes */2) les 8 jours de travail.
Le premier temps après l'achevement du canal la navigation sur la
nouvelle voie de réunion entre le Volga et la mer Baitique, qu" on
nommait ovoie navigable Wychenevolotskaia“, ou, comme on dit en
russe, ,système (d’eaux) Wychenevolotskaia“, remcontrait beaucoup
de difficultés. D'un rapport au Sénat du capitaine du génie Mavrine
Sur le transport par la nouvelle voie navigable, sous sa direction, des
barques chargées de bois, destine à la construction des navires,
il résulte que, parti au printemps (1709) du Bas-Wolga, ce n'est
Qu'à. grand-peine qu'il a pu atteindre Wychemi-Volotchok en automne
avant le chömage d'hiver, pour ne continuer le Voyage que le prin-
temps suivant. En 1711 un convoi de petits bateaux-caboteurs venant
de Kazan, qu'on nommait d'un nom hollandais des tialques, après S'être
engage dans la nouvelle voie navigable, se vit forcé Également d'hiver-
ner dans la Msta et arriva a Pétersbourg Seulement l’année Suivante,
en 1712. Simultanement avec le creusement du canal à Wycheni-Vo-
lotchok on executa des travaux de dérochement dans les rapides de
Borovitchi Sur la Msta. Ces travaux n'eurent cependant pas un grand
succès et ne suffirent pas pour rendre sans danger la navigation dans
les rapides. Pierre le Grand donna done ordre de faire de nouvelles
études entre les rivières Mologa, un affluent du Volga, et la Msta ou
la Siasse, tombant dans le lac Ladoga et aussi entre la Cheksna,
également un affluent du Volga, et la Vytégra, se jetant dans le lac
Onejski, reuni au lac Ladoga par la grande rivière navigable Svir.
Ces études devaient montrer s'il n'était pas possible d'installer encore
une autre voie navigable entre le Volga et St.-Pétersbourg, qui pré-
senterait moins de danger a la navigation que le système Vyche-
névolotski". Mais les résultats de ces études me furent pas reconnus
suffisamment favorables et on se décida a continuer les travaux
d'amélioration dans les rapides de la Msta oil, pour mieux assurer le
passage des bateaux, on créa un Service régulier de pilotes. Mais peu
a peu le canal Gagarinnski commengait a se dégrader, les écluses
s”usaient et avaient besoin d'être reconstruites. Pierre le Grand confia
— 10 —
les travaux de réparation et d'amélioration du canal au citoyen de
Novgorod Serdioukoff, originaire de la Kalmoukie. Serdioukoff recon-
struisit les ouvrages d'art vetustes et installa des réservoirs très-Éfen-
dus pour l'alimentation artificielle du canal: le plus grand d'eux, le
réservoir Zavodski, se trouve près de Wycheni–Volotchok. Par des
travaux continuels d'amélioration peu a peu la voie navigable de
Wycheni-Volotschok avait été mise en état de servir comme une des
principales artères d'approvisionnement de St.-Pétersbourg. En 1757
le trafic des marchandises atteignait deja 12 millions de pouds (200000
tonnes). Afin de donner a l'administrateur du canal, Serdioukoff, les
moyens mécessaires pour un bon entretien du canal et pour l'exe-
cution des ameliorations exigees par le développement du trafic il
avait été autorisé par le Gouvernement de prélever un certain droit
de mavigation; les bateaux payaient dix copecs (25 centimes) par
sagène (2", 13) de longueur. Serdioukoff et ses fils restaient à la tête
de l'entreprise jusqu’en 1765; ensuite le canal fut racheté par le
Gouvernement. A la fin du dernier et au commencement de ce siècle
toutes les écluses et les barrages fermant les réservoirs d'alimentation,
furent reconstruits en maçonnerie au lieu du bois, dont on les avait
construits de prime abord. On executa en même temps encore
d'autres améliorations; entre autres on creusa le canal Siversoff qui
réunit l'embouchure de la Msta, un affluent, comme on Sait, du lac
Ilmene, au haut—Volchoff, qui prend origine du mème lac. Avec
l'achevement de ces travaux le canal Wychenévolotski acquit l'im-
portance d'une voie de communication de premier ordre. Plus de
4500 bateaux d'une capacité d'à peu près 5000 pouds (82 tonnes)
passaient chaque année par le canal. Dans la première moitie du
siècle actuel une amólioration essentielle a €té réalisée sur la voie
navigable de Wychemi-Volotchok. Le danger pour les bateaux au
passage des rapides de Borovitchi a €té sensilbement atténué par la
construction, d'après le système de l’ingénieur Koritski, des appuis
élastiques flottants qui empèchemt le choc des bateaux contre les
berges et les roches dams les rapides. Ces appuis élastiques se compo-
sent de poutres flottant à la surface de l’eau réunis entre eux par
des charnières en fer et formant des parallélogrammes flexibles; on
en limite le chemal dans les rapides sinueux; les bateaux, après s”étre
appuyé du flanc contre les poutres flottants recoivent par suite de
l'élasticité des appuis un contre coup qui les repousse vers le milieu
— 11 —
du chenal. — Mais malgré toutes les améliorations réalisées, en 1827.
par ume sécheresse prolongée, plus de 1500 bateaux avec des mar-
chandises d'une valeur d'a peu près 19 millions de roubles se virent
obliges d'hiverner dams la Msta en amont des rapides de Borovitchi:
cet événement prouva que dans l'état oil se trouvait alors la voie
mavigable de Vycheni-Volotchok elle ne pouvait pas assurer le mou-
vement complètement régulier de la navigation. Par cette raison, sur
la proposition de Koritski, on augmenta considerablement la capa-
cité des réservoirs d'alimentation, en rehaussant les barrages qui
ferment les réservoirs. Alors les convois de bateaux qui avant ce
temps se composaient de 500–600 bateaux atteignirent le chiffre de
1000 à 1500 bateaux. Dans l’époque de 1830 à 1850 furent executés en-
core plusieurs travaux d'amélioration: on fit des réparations aux écluses,
aux barrages, aux chemins de halage et aux quais d'am arrage, on exé-
cuta des dérochements sur les Seuils rocheux etc.; par suite de ces
travaux la navigabilité du ,systeme Wychenévolotski" gagna sensi-
blement; les bateaux qui jusqu'alors me portaient que 5000 pouds
(82 tonnes), commencërent dorénavant à augmenter leur chargement
jusq'u a 7000 pouds (115 tonnes). Vers la moitié du siècle actuel la
navigation du canal Wychenévolotski atteignit son point culminant.
Après la construction des chemins de fer: Nicolas (St.-Pétersbourg-
Moscou), Novotorjski et Rybinsk-Bologoié, qui font concurrence au
canal, et au fur et à mesure de l'amélioration de la voie navigable Ma-
rie, reunissant également le Volga, à la mer Baltique, le nombre des
bateaux navigant sur le système Vichenévolotski commengait a di-
minuer sensiblement. Une amelioration essentielle de cette voie navi-
gable en Vue d’une navigation iminterrompue, facile et régulière sur
de grands bateaux me pourrait avoir lieu qu'au moyen de la cana-
lisation des rapides de la Tvertsa, de la Msta el du Volkhoff, ce
qui exigerait des dépenses énormes. Or, sans ces travaux le système
Wychenévolotski, par suite de la concurrence des chemins de fer et
des autres systèmes fluviaux qui se trouvent dams dos conditions na-
turelles plms avantageuses, n'avait pas la possibilité de garder Son
importance prépondérante dans le transport des marchandises du Vol-
ga a St.-Pétersbourg, leguel, dans le dernier temps, a même complè-
tement cessé sur cette voie navigable, ainsi qu" a l'heure qu'il est
elle me Sert qu'au trafic local, Sans transit entre les bassins du Volga
et de la Néva.
— 12 —
Le premier temps après l'achèvement, au commencement du
18-e siéele, de la voie navigable de Wycheni-Volotchok (,système flu-
vial Wychenévolotski"), la navigation entre le Volga et St.-Pétersbourg
subisSait de grandes difficultés et dangers non seulement par suite
de l'imperfection de la partie artificielle de la voie, mais aussi à
cause de la difficulté pour les bateaux fluviaux de naviguer sur le
lac Ladoga. Quelquefois dans l'embouchure du Volkhoff dans le lac
jl se formaient des attroupements de 500 et même plus de bateaux,
Qui attendaient un temps favorable pour pouvoir traverser le lac.
En 1718 Pierre le Grand résolu de faire creuser un canal latéral au
lac Ladoga entre l'embouchure du Volkhoff et l’issue, du lac, de la
Néva. Dans le décret (en russe zoukaze") promulgué à ce sujet sont
énumerées les pertes énormes que subissait la nouvelle capitale St.-Pé-
tersbourg par Suite du caractère precaire de la navigation sur le lac
Ladoga; en même temps est mise en lumière la nécessité absolue, pour
la prospérité de St.-Pétersbourg, de réunir par un canal les fleuves
Volkhoff et Néva. Ce n'était pas une chose facile de réaliser ce plan.
Il fallait, dans une contrée absolument déserte réunir un très grand
nombre d'ouvriers, les approvisionner et découvrir des moyens pécuniaires
suffisants pour faire face à toutes les dépenses énormes qu’exigeait la
construction du canal. Dans ce but of établit un droit spécial s'éle-
vant à 70 copecs (1 franc 75) pour chaque ferme de paysan et a 5
pour cent du capital des marchands. Les travaux s”executaient en
entreprise mais outre les ouvriers salariés par l'entrepreneur, quelque-
fois, pour leur aider, on expédiait aux travaux d'entiers régiments
de Soldats. Jusqu’en 1723 les travaux na’vancaient que très lentement.
Alors la direction supérieure en fut confiee au comte Munnikh, qui
s'occupa très-Énergiquement des travaux et acheva le canal en 1731.
D'abord on s'était proposé à creuser un canal a niveau, communicant
librement avec les eaux du lac Ladoga, mais, plus tard, afin de dimi-
nuer le volume des terres , a deblayer on se décida pour un canal
éclusé don't le miveau est surélevé au dessus du niveau ordinaire du
lac dune sagène (2 "... 13) environ. Il y a une écluse a chacume des
extrémités du canal qui forme ainsi un bief ininterrompu d'une lon-
gueur de 104 verstes (111 kilomètres).
Durant tout le 18-e siècle la voie navigable de Wycheni-Volot-
chok (le Système Vychenévolotski) formait la Seule jonction entre le
waste bassin du Volga et St.-Pétersbourg. Les multiples défectuosités
— 13 —
de cette voie, surtout le danger que présente le passage des rapides
de Borovitschi sur la Msta, faisaient que cette voie me pouvait pas
complètement suffir aux besoins de la navigation Volgo-baltique. Par
cette raison, comme il a €té dit plus haut, Pierre le Grand déjà
avait eu l'intention de réunir St.-Pétersbourg au Volga encore par
une autre voie navigable et à cette fin il avait fait faire des études
dans des directions qui plus tard ont été choisies comme traces des
systèmes fluviaux (voies navigables) Marie et Tikhvinnski. I'empereur
a lui même visité les endroits ou se trouvent maintenant les biefs de
partage de ces canaux, lesquels, cependant, ont été construits seule-
ment de longues années après, au commencement du siècle actuel.
Origines de la voie navigable Marie.
La construction du système fluvial Marie fut commencée en
1799; il fut composé des rivières, lacs et canaux suivants: la Cheksna,
affluent du Volga d’une longueur de 406 verstes (433 kilometres) qui
sort du lac Biélo-Ozéro et se jette dans le Volga près de la ville de
Rybinnsk; le lac Biélo-Ozéro; la rivière Kovja, affluent du même lac,
avec deux écluses; le canal éclusé de jonction entre les rivières
Kovja et Vytégra, dont la dernière tombe dans le lac Onega; la Vy-
tégra qui a €té éclusée presque sur tout son parcours; le lac Onega;
la rivière Svir, reunissant les lacs Oméga et Ladoga; le canal Swirski,
contournant ume partie du lac Lagoda entre les embouchures des
rivières Svir et Siasse; le canal Siasski, dont le creusement avait été
commencé deja dans la Seconde moitie du siècle passé, reunissant les
embouchures de la Siasse et du Volkhoff—ces deux canaux commu-
nicant a niveau avec le lac—; le canal éclusé Pierre le Grand, rat-
tachant le Volkhoff a la Néva et, comme dernier échelon de la voie, la
Néva, Sortant du lac Lagoda et tombant dans a mer Baltique. Les écluses
avaient une longueur utile de 12 a 13 sagènes (25*,60–27”,74), une lar-
geur de 4 sagènes (8*,53) et donnaient passage à des bateaux qui portaient
environ 10 mille pouds (164 tonnes). Les travaux de construction furent
terminés en 1810. Dans le premier temps la nouvelle voie fluviale présen-
tait des difficultés considérables à la navigation; Surtout €tait dange-
reux le passage des lacs Biélo-Ozéro et Omega. Sur la Cheksna, depuis
son embouchure dans le Volga jusqu'au lac Biélo-Ozéro, naviguaient
– 14 —
des bateaux d'une structure faible; ensuite, pour traverser le lac,
les marchandises étaient transbordees dans des bateaux plus solides.
Quelquefois, avant de pouvoir sortir de la rivière dans le lac, on
était oblige d’attendre pendant plusieurs semaines, jusqu'à ce qu'il se
fisse un temps favorable et encore, quand le niveau d'eau dans l'origine
de la Cheksna se trouvaif etre très bas le transbordage des marchan-
dises me pouvait avoir lieu qu'au moyen d'alléges ce qui causait des
dépenses improductives et des pertes de temps. Dans la Kovja, le
canal de jonction et la Vytégra il se formaient des attroupements de
bateaux devant les écluses dont le passage, surtout des écluses à
plusieurs sas Superposés, qui alors Étaient nombreuses sur le système
Marie, exigeait beaucoup de temps. Ensuite, au passage du lac Onega
Sa répétaient les mémes difficultés qu'on prouvait sur le lac Biélo-
Ozéro; enſin la navigation sur les canaux Svirski et Siasski n'était
pas non plus sans difficulté; les digues destinées à protéger ces ca-
naux contre l'envahissement par les vagues du lac n'ayant pas les
dimensions mécessaires elles me remplissaient qu'incomplètement leur
tăche: c’est pourquoi dans les berges des canaux, dans un terrain peu
consistant, et exposées au choc des vagues, se produisaient souvent des
dégats et des éboulements qui obstruaient la cuvette du canal et
entravaient la navigation. Pour écarter le danger que couraient les
bateaux à leur passage sur les lacs Biélo-Ozéro et Omega on Creusa
deux canaux qui contournent ces lacs; ces travaux ont été executés
peu a peu par parties et ont duré en tout de 1818 & 1852. D'abord
on construisit la partie d' Est du canal Onejski entre les embouchures
des rivièrs Vytegra et Mégra, tombant toutes les deux dans le lac
Onega. Ces travaux ont été executes en 1818–1820. Puis, pendant
plus de Vingt ans encore, la navigation Se faisait Sur le lac Bielo-
OZéro et ume partie du lac Omēga entre l'embouchure de la Mégra
et l'issue. du lac. de la Svire. En 1843–1846 fut creusé le canal
Biélozerski, contournant le lac Biélo-Ozéro et réunissant l'origine de
la Cheksna a J'embouchure de la Kovja. Du coté de la Cheksna le
canal est fermé par deux écluses comprenant entre elles un court
bief intermediaire. A l'autre bout, du coté de la Kovia, il n’y a
qu'une seule écluse. Afin de diminuer le volume des terrassements,
le niveau du canal a €te surélevé au dessus du niveau ordinaire du
lac d'une sagene (2", 13) environ. La partie du canal Onejski,
comprise entre la Mégra et la Svire, a €té creusée de 1845 a.
— 15 —
1852. Le canal Onejski est tout entier au niveau du lac, sans
écluses. C'est Seulement avec l’achèvement des canaux Biélozer.
ski et Onejski qu'on put regarder le système fluvial Marie comme
véritablement terminé, car jusqu'alors les lacs, sur lesquels la naviga-
tion présente pour les bateaux fluviaux des dangers très considerables,
formaient comme des lacunes dans la ligne de la voie navigable.
Le Système fluvial Tikhvinnski (la voie navigable
de Tikhvine). -
Comme il a €té mentionné plus haut, la question de la constru-
ction du système Tikhvinnski a €té soulevée deja par Pierre le Grand
et ensuite on l’a mainte fois reprise durant le 18-e siècle mais les
travaux de ce canal n'ont été commencés que dans les peremières
années du 19-e siècle, lorsque des Sécheresses extraordinaires avaient
cause de forts retards dans le transport des marchandises sur le
système Vychenevolotski. La voie navigable de Tikhvine comprend:
la revière Mologa, qui se jette dans le Volga: Son affluent la Tchago-
dostcha; une suite de petits lacs et ruisseaux reunis entre eux par
des canaux de jonction; la Tikhvinnka, un affluent de la Siasse, et
enfin la Siasse qui tombe dans le lac Ladoga. Le Système Tikhvinnski,
ayant égard au faible débit d'eau des petites rivières faisant partie
de lui, fut destiné à la navigation de petits bateaux d'une longueur
de 9 sagène (19", 20), d'une largeur de 2 sagènes (4", 27) et d’une
capacité d'environ 2000 pouds (32 tonnes). Au commencement on ne
construisit sur toute l’étendue de la voie que 7 ecluses a sas et 50
demi-ácluses. En 1811 la voie fuf ouverte à la navigation bien que
plusieurs ouvrages d'art me fussent pas encore complètement termines.
En 1812 on ajouta encore 15 demi-ecluses sur les rivières Tikhvinnka
et Waltchina. Wu l'incommodite du passage des bateaux par les demi-
écluses, on commenga em 1819 a les remplacer successivement par des
écluses a sas, lesquelles actuellement Sont au nombre de 61; ces travaux
de reconstruction duraient plus de Vingt ans. Pour faciliter la navigation
dans les rapides Rojdestvennski sur la Siasse, on y construisit entre
1830 et 1840 une écluse a sas, laquelle fut cependant détruite par
les hautes eaux en 1853. Le système Tikhvinnski présente des déſauts
considerables dont le plus important est celui, que les travaux n'ont
pas €té complètement achevés. La Siasse, la Basse-Tikhvinnka et la
Tchagodostcha n'ont pas €té Éclusées, malgré les rapides et les maigres
— 16 —
dont elles abondent. C'est pourquoi jusqu'à ce jour les bateaux, pour
passer les trongons de la voie avec une profondeur insuffisante, Sont
obligés à plusieurs reprises de transborder une partie de leur charge-
ment. Avant la construction du chemin de fer Nicolas (St.-Pétersbourg–
Moscou), malgré toutes les difficultés, le nombre des bateaux passant
par le système Tikhvinnski atteignait 6000 par am; a l'heure qu'il
est il me dépasse pas les 2000. Pour utiliser cette voie navigable d’une
manière efficace, il Serait mécessaire de construire des écluses supplé-
mentaires en plusieurs endroits et d’exécuter de différentes autres amé-
liorations. Le projet détaillé de ces travaux a €té élaboré par les
soins de l'administration des Voies de communication; son execution
exigerait une dépense d'environ 3 millions de roubles (7 millions et
demi de francs), lesquels, jusqu'a l'heure qu'il est m'ont pas encore
pu ètre alloués.
Les Systèmes fluviaux Oguinnski et Dniéprovsko-
Bougski.
Outre les canaux Marie et Tikhvinnski, au commencement et
dams la première moitie du siècle actuel, ont été construites ou re-
nouvelees encore quelques autres voies navigables artificielles.
Déjà avant la réunion définitive à la Russie des provinces occi-
dentales du bassin de la Vistule, on avait commencé, dans la seconde
moitié et vers la fin du siècle passé, les travaux des canaux Oguinnski
et Dnieprofsko-Bougski, reunissant les eaux du Dniepre a celles du
Niémane et de la Vistule. -
Le creusement du canal Oguinnski fut commencé en 1768 par
le voievoda polonais (commendant en chef des troupes) de Vilna a
ses propres frais, mais les travaux he furent pas termines et commen-
cèrent peu a peu a tomber en ruine, de Sorte que vers la fin du 18-e
siècle ils se trouvaient déjà dans un 6tat de complète destruction.
En 1799 les travaux furent repris par le gouvernement russe et en
1804 le canal fut acheve. La voie navigable se compose des parties
suivantes: la Yasselda, un affluent de la Pripète, qui tombe dams le
Dmièpre; le canal de jonctiou Oguinnski, traversant le lac Vygonofs-
koié, et la Stehara qui se jette dans le Niémane. Les Ouvrages d'art
du système Oguinnski Sont en bois. Sur la branche de remonte, de-
puis la Yasselda jusq’au bief de partage, qui comprend le lac Vygo-
– 17 —
nofskoié, il y a 2 barrages Système Poirée et 9 6cluses a sas d’une
longueur utile de 20 Sagèmes (42*. 67) et d'une largeur de 2 sagè-
mes et / (5*, 33). Du coté de la Stehara le bief de partage est
fermé par une écluse et ensuite il y a sur cette rivière 10 barrages
système Poiré, lesquelles sont démontés chaque fois qu’il faut faire passer
les trains de bois à la descente. Sur le système fluvial Oguinnski le
transport des marchandises se fait pour la plupart du temps sur des ra-
deaux qui se dirigent du Dniepre et de la Pripête à l'étranger. Le nombre
des bateaux navigant sur cette voie est insignifiant. Le mouvement vers
la Stehara prédomine de beaucoup; vers la Pripète me reviemment d'or-
dimaire que des bateaux vides. Dams la première ammée après l'ouver-
ture du canal passerent par le canal Oguinnski 17 bateaux et 69
mille et "2 arbres en radeaux, chargés de differentes marchandises.
Vers l'année 1860, avant la construction des chemins de fer traver-
sant les contrées adjacentes, le nombre des bateaux atteingnait 200 et
celui des trains de bois 500 par an. A l'heure qu'il est le trafic des
bois atteint le chiffre de 4 et même 5 mille radeaux; le nombre des
bateaux me dépasse pas, pour la plupart du temps, la cinquantaine
par an. *.
C'est le gouvernement polonais qui a primitivement fait creuser
le canal Dmiéprofsko-Bougski, Sous le regme du dernier des rois polo-
mais Stanislas-Auguste; a cette époque le canal m'avait pas d’écluses
et n'était pas alimente par des eaux de réservoir. Vers le commen-
cement du siècle actuel le vieux canal, faute d'un entretien efficace,
était devenu impraticable. Alors il fut reconnu mécessaire d’entre-
prendre une réorganisation fondementale du canal et, d'après un
projet redigé à cette fin, on se proposa de construire 13 Écluses à Sas
et de déblayer toutes les parties de la cuvette qui étaient obstruées
par des éboulements des berges. Ce projet me fut cependant pas mis
à exécution. Après la guerre de 1812 la question de la reconstruc-
tion du canal Dmièprofsko-Bougski fut de mouveau Soulevée, mais,
probablement a cause du manque de moyens pécuniaires, on reculait
toujours l'execution des travaux, malgré les instances du ministère
de la guerre qui attribuait a ce canal une certaine importance Stra-
tégique. Enfim, en 1837 on commenca les travaux et vers 1843 ils
furent finis. Wu l'abondance d'eau alimentant le bief de partage, On
me trouva pas mécessaire de construire des écluses à Saset on Se borna
à la construction de barrages en bois avec des fermettes en fer, sy-
2
— 18 —
stème Poirée: ces barrages forment des retenues d'une hauteur peu
importante (de 1" a 1", 50) et sont démontés chaque fois qu'on veut
faire passer des trains de bois ou des convois de bateaux. Le système
Dnieprofsko-Bougski se compose des parties suivantes: Le Haut-Boug;
la Pina, un affluent du Boug: le canal de rattachement entre la Pima
et le Moukhovets et, enſin, cette dernière rivière (Moukhovets) qui
se jette dans la Pripete, un affluent du Dniepre. Le nombre des bar-
rages est de 22, dont 7 sur la Pina et la branche adjacente du ca-
mal Susmentionné, deux barrages aux deux bouts du bief de partage, 12
Sur la branche du canal descendant vers le Moukhovets et Sur cette
revière même et, enfin, un barrage sur le Boug, près de la ville de
Brest-Litofsk. Ce dernier barrage est le seul a deux passes; tous les
autres barrages du canal Dnieprofsko-Bougski m'ent ont qu'une Seule.
Wu que. pour faire passer les bateaux et les trains de bois, il est né-
ceSSaire de démonter les barrages, le mouvement de la mavigation me
peut Se faire que periodiquement, et alons un nombre considérable
de bateaux et de radeaux, formant des convois ininterrompus d’une
certaine longueur, executent à la fois le voyage par les differents
biefs supperposés qui Sont Séparés les uns des autres par les dits bar-
rages (Système Poirée) dont deux ensemble, avec le bief compris entre
eux, forment comme une écluse a sas d’une très grande longueur.
Malheureusement la hauteur des retenues formees par les barrages
me suffit pas pour racheter complètement la pente de la voie, c'est
pourquoi, après le démontage d’un barrage, il subsiste pourtant une
différence de niveau assez considerable entre deux biefs Voisins, ce
Qui rend très-pénible la traction à la remonte des bateaux et des ra-
deaux. Depuis l'achèvement des lignes de chemin de fer réunissant
le bassin fluvial du Dnièpre a celui de la Vistule la circulation des
bateaux sur le système fluvial Dnieproſsko-Bougski a presque cessé
tandis que le flottage de bois augmente continuellement. Dans les
dernières vingt années le nombre annuel des trains de bois (dont
chacun se compose de 4 a 8 radeaux) s'est accru de 1200 a 2400.
Le canal Bérézinnski.
La réunion des bassins fluviaux du Dniepre et de la Dvina
Occidentale a €té executee aussi au commencement du siècle actuel
au moyen de la construction du canal (système fluvial) Bérézinnski
— 19 —
Déjà au siècle passé on avait proposé différents tracés pour la réuni-
on des deux fleuves Susmentionnés; les projets de canaux portaient
sur plusieurs affluents du Dniepre et de la Dvina. Occidentale qui se
rapprochent beaucoup les uns des autres et qui auraient pu ètre
réunis par des canaux de jonctions, notamment la Katynnka et la
Wydra, près de la ville de Smolensk, l'Orschitsa et la Loutschossa
et enfin la Bérézina et l'Oulla. On préféra la réunion des deux der-
nières rivières aux autres directions proposées. Les travaux furent
commencés en 1797. En 1801 &taient déjà achevees 14 Écluses, 4
barrages et plusieurs maisons de gardiens avec leurs dependances.
Le flottage de bois sur la nouvelle voie fut inauguré en 1805. Quelques
bateaux qui s'étaient également mis en chemin du coté de la
Bérézina durent S'arrêter a la rivière éclusée Sergoutsch où la pro-
fondeur d'eau se trouva ètre insuffisante. C'est aimsi que le canal Béré.
Zinnski ne put dommer passage qu'aux trains de bois et à des cha-
loupes de petites dimensions, En 1805 le trafic du canal se chiffra à
5667 pièces de bois de mâture, plus de 32 mille pièces de bois de
charpente et 11 mille pièces de bois de chème equarri. L'insuffisance
des credits alloués pour les travaux d” entretien du canal Bérézin-
mski avait pour effet que plus d’une fois cette voie navigable se
dégradait a un tel point que la navigation et le flottage devenaient
très difficiles et qu'il était même question de leur complète suspension.
En 1878 a €té commencée la reconstruction systematique de tous
les ouvrages d'art du canal; ces travaux se continuent encore a
l'heure qu'il est et vont bientôt etre finis; grace a eux la navigabilité
de la voie sest sensiblement améliorée et le trafic augmente con-
tinuellement. Dans ces dermières années le nombre des trains de
bois passant par le canal atteignait 16 mille.
Les plus récentes de nos voies navigables artificielles établies
aux frais de l'état, ce sont le Canal du Duc Alexandre de Wurtem-
berg et la Voie Navigable de la Vistule au Niémane (qui se mom-
mait autrefois le système fluvial d’Avgoustoff, d'après la ville du
même nom, située sur ce canal). La première de ces voies navi-
gables réunit les bassins fluviaux du Volga et de la Dvina Septentrio-
male; la dernière rattache la Vistule au Niémame.
— 20 —
Le canal Duc Alexandre de Wurtemberg,
Les travaux de ce canal ont été executes de 1825 a 1828. On a
profité pour la création de cette voie navigable d’une suite de lacs
et de petites rivières situées entre la Cheksna, affluent du Volga, et
la Porozovitsa, qui tombe dans le lac Koubennskoié, dont prend
origine la Soukhoma, affluent de la Dvina Septentrionale. Les écluses
sont de bois; il y en a 13. Primitivement elles avaient une longueur
utile de 18 sagènes (38", 40) et une largeur dams le sas de 4 sag.
(8”, 53). Au fur et à mesure que les écluses s”usaient elles ont été
reconstruites en augmentant en même temps quelque peu leur lon-
gueur utile, ainsi qu’à présent elles donment passage à des bateaux
d’une longueur de 20 sagènes (42". 67). En 1884–1885 le canal a
subi une amélioration essentielle; par des travaux considérables de
déblaiement executés dams le bief de partage on a baissé le niveau
de celui-ci jusqu'au miveau des biefs voisins avec lesquelles il me for-
me a present qu'un seul et même bieſ; de cette manière les deux
écluses aux bouts de l’ancien bief de partage ont pu ètre supprimées.
Par Suite de ces améliorations le mouvement de navigation Sur ce
canal augmente continuellement. Il y a 20 ans le nombre annuel
des bateaux navigant sur le canal était d'à peu près 300 et celui
des trains de bois de 150; actuellement ces chiffres ont presque double.
Le Canal de la Vistule au Niémane.
Cette voie navigable a €té creee en 1824–1829. Elle s”étend du
Niémane jusqu'au Bobre, affluent du Naref tombant dans la Vistule,
et comprend une rangee de lacs entre lesquels on a creusé des ca-
naux. Il y a 18 €cluses en macommerie (murailles de brique) dont
l”une à deux sas Superposés et une autre à trois sas; cette dernière
Se trouve à l’embouchure du canal dans le Niémane. La longueur
utile des écluses est de 22 sagènes (46", 94) et leur largeur de 3 sa-
gènes (6*, 40). Au début les barrages avaient été construits entière-
ment en bois. Dans ces derniers temps, au fur et à mesure
Que les vieux barrages s”usent et ont besoin d'être renouvelés, on
remplace les vieux murs de bois par de nouveaux en magonnerie.
Avant le construction des chemins de fer, reliant les bassins fluviaux
du Niémane et de la Vistule le nombre des bateaux navigant sur le
– 21 —
canal atteignait 400 par an: a l'heure qu'il est le mouvement des
bateaux est tout à fait insignifiant et leur nombre atteint à peine la
cinquantaine; le flottage, au contraire, augmente. Sur le canal de la
Vistule au Niémane a €te introduit dès le commencement un droit
de navigation, qu'on prelève au passage des bateaux et radeaux par
les écluses. Le rendement de ce droit a presque triple pendant la
dermière dixaine d’années en augmentant graduellement, tandis qu’
antérieurement il n”y avait que des oscillations fortuites dans le ren:
dement de ce droit, sans accroissement progressif.
Les canaux Catherine du Nord, Winndafski et du Volga
à la Moskva.
Dans la période depuis 1760 jusqu’à la moitie du siècle actuel,
pendant laquelle ont été executés les travaux de presque tous nos ca-
naux de réunion entre les differents bassins fluviaux, on s'est occupé
encore de la création de trois Voies navigables artificielles qui, dans
la suite, ont été abandonnées toutes les trois; ce sont les canaux:
Catherine du Nord, Winndafski et du Volga a la Moskva. Les travaux
du premier de ces camaux, réunissant la Keltma Méridionale, qui
est un affluent de la Kama, à la Keltma Septentrionale, affluent de
la Wytschegda, qui tombe dans la Dvina du Nord, furent commen-
cés en 1786; la guerre avec la Turquie fut la cause de leur interrup-
tion en 1788. En 1803 on les reprit et en 1822 le canal fut entière-
ment achevê. Mais on avait neglige de régulariser les rivières faisant
partie de la nouvelle voie navigable, par suite de quoi la navigation
était extrèmement pénible. Vers 1835 la plupart des ouvrages d'art
€taient devenus tellement caducs que leur reconstruction complète
s"imposait; en même temps le canal s'ensablait graduellement. Comme
une amélioration fondamentale du canal aurait exige de très fortes
depenses, Sans lesquelles on ne pouvait pas compter sur un développe-
ment quelque peu considérable de la navigation, qui jusqu'alors
n'avait été que tout à fait insignifiante, il fut décidé, en 1837 de ne
plus renouveler les ouvrages d'art tombés en ruine et de cette façon
le canal a €té complètement abandonné.
Le méme sort atteignit la voie navigable de Winndava qui était
destinée à réunir les rivières Winndava et Niémane au moyen d'un
canal creuse entre la Winndava et la Doubissa, un affluent du Nié-
mane. Les travaux de ce canal furent commencés en 1824. En 1830
on fut oblige de les interrompre par suite de l'insurrection polonaise,
pendant laquelle les travaux d'art déjà exécutés Souffrirent beaucoup.
Quand le calme se rétablit dams la contrée on Se proposa de conti-
nuer les travaux, mais alors il se trouva que l'achevement de cette
voie navigable aurait exige une dépense de 32 millions de roubles
(80 millions de francs), ce qui dépassait de beaucoup les prévisions
primitives. En même temps surgirent des doutes sur la productivité
d’une si forte dépense et en fin de compte, en 1839, il fut résolu
d’abandonner les travaux et de supprimer entièrement le canal Winn-
dafski.
Les travaux du canal du Volga a la Moskva furent executes
dans la période de 1825 a 1850. Cette voie navigable compremait: la
rivière Doubma qui tombe dans le Volga a 115 verstes en aval de
l"embouchure de la Tvertsa; la Sestra, un affluent de la Doubna;
l’Istra, tributaire de la Moskva, et un canal rattachant la Sestra a
l’Istra. Sur ces deux rivières ily avait 33 Écluses en macommerie. Dans
le bief de partage entrait le lac Goustschino qui servait de réservoir
d'alimentation. Les travaux n'étaient pas encore complètement ache-
ves quand, vers 1850, on essaya d’inaugurer la navigation Sur cette
voie. Or, dans la Suite, après la construction du chemiu de fer Ni-
colas, réunissant les deux capitales St.-Pétersbourg et MOScou, Sur-
girent des doutes sur la mécessité d’une voie navigable entre le Haut-
Volga et la Moskva et finalement, en 1860, il fut décide de Suppri-
mier ce canal.
Canalisation de la Téza et du Séime.
Outre la construction de plusieurs canaux reunissant les diffe-
rents bassins fluviaux, dans la première moitie du siècle actuel furent
executés les travaux de canalisation de la rivière Téza. Vers 1830
on construisit Sur cette riviere cinq Écluses de bois avec autant de
barrages également en bois. Ces ouvrages sont situés Sur une distance
de 84 verstes (89 kilom. 61), entre la ville de Chouia et l'embouchure
de la Téza dans la Kliazma, un affluent de l’Oka.
A peu près à la même époque on a exécute quelques travaux
dans le but de canaliser le Seime, un affluent de la Desma, qui tombe
— 23 —
dams le Dmièpre. Des essais d'amélioration du Séime avaient été faits
déjà au siècle passé, peu après la création de la province de Koursk,
en 1788 et 1789, mais ils n'avaient pas Été couronnes, de succès. Sans
rehaussement artificiel du miveau d'eau dams la rivière la navigation
“tait trop penible. Bientôt après 1820 l'administration des voies de
commuuication fit faire des études détaillees sur le Séime qui Servirent
de base à la rédaction d' un projet de canalisation d'après leguel
on se proposa de creuser des canaux de dérivation éclusés auprês de
tous les barrages des moulins hydrauliques, dont il y avait un grand
nombre sur le Séime. Quelquesuns des travaux projétés furent executés,
en partie aux frais du gouvernement, en partie au moyen de Crédits
alloués 'volontairement par la noblesse de la province de Koursk. Mais
ces travaux me suffirent pas pour installer une communication com-
mode par voie fluviale de la ville de Koursk avec le Dniepre et
comme il me se frouvèrent pas des moyens pour l'execution de tous
les travaux projetés, la canalisation du Séime resta inachevée et les
ouvrages d'art qui avaient été construits, tombèrent peu a peu en
ruines. A l'heure qu'il est me se sont conservées que quelques faibles
traces des camaux de dérivation ainsi que quelques débris des écluses
et demi–écluses qui avaient été construites dans ces canaux.
Comme mous l'avons vu plus haut, dans le siècle passé et la
première moitie du siècle actuel, ont été construites des voies navi-
gables artificielles réunissant entre eux presque tous les principaux
bassins fluviaux de la Russie d’ Europe. Le Volga et la Néva ont été
réunis par les canaux Vychenevolotski, Marie et Tikhvinnski; entre
le Volga et la Dvina Septentrionale a €té créé le canal Duc Alexandre
de Wurtemberg; entre le Dniepre et la Vistule le canal Dnieprof.
sko-Bougski; entre le Dmièpre et le Niémane—le canal Oguinnski et
entre la Vistule et le Niémane—le canal Avgoustofski.
Sur les voies navigables maturelles il n'a €té execute pendant
la méme période que peu de travaux, En 1841–43 a €té construit
le réservoir Verkhnevoljski, pour l'alimentation du haut-Volga; dans
les rapides du Dniepre ont été creusés des camaux lateraux pour
faciliter le flottage et la navigation à la descente et en outre dams
quelques points isolés des rivières a courant libre, sur des maigres et
des hauts-fonds présentant des difficultés exceptionnelles à la mavi-
gation, on a fait des essais de travaux de régularisation. Mais il
m’était pas encore question de la régularisation systematique de toute
— 24 —
une rivière ou d’une partie de rivière quelque peu considérable. Par
consequent, le réseau des voies navigables interieures qui venait d'être
créé, était encore bien imparfait Sous beaucoup de rapports. Les ca-
naux réunissant les différents bassins fluviaux avaienf €fé construits
a différentes époques sans un plan uniforme. Souvent les moyens al-
loués pour l’exécution des travaux avaient été insuffisants et par
suite de cela on n’avait pas eu la possibilité de donner aux nouvelles
voies les dimensions et l’extension woulues. Mais, vu le peu de déve-
loppement de la vie économique de l’époque, même un tel réseau
bien incomplet de voies navigables intérieures pouvait pour quelque
temps suffir aux besoins les plus urgents du commerce et de la navi-
gation. Sans doute, des que le trafic commenca a prendre quelque
essor les défauts des voies navigables se faisaient Sentir de plus en
plus et on était obligé de chercher des remèdes contre eux. Mais
avant qu'on eut pu prendre quelques mesures dans ce sens les con-
ditions du transport des marchandises subirent um changement essen-
tiel par suite de la construction de plusieurs chemins de fer a traction
à la vapeur. Ce nouveau mode de communication se trouva ètre Sous
beaucoup de rapports bien supérieur à la navigation interieure. C'est
pourquoi vers 1850 tous les efforts du gouvernement et des classes in-
téressées de la Société se dirigèrent sur le développement du réseau
des chemins de fer. tandis que les travaux d'amélioration des Voies
navigables s'arretërent. Ce n'est qu'après l'achevement des principales
lignes de chemin de fer qu'on s'apercut de la mécessité de continuer
le développement du réseau de navigation intréieure malgré l'essor
toujours croissant du trafic des chemins de fer. On faisait l'expérience
que les voies ferrées me pouvaient pas sous tous les rapports rem-
placer les voies navigables qui présentent surtout des grands avan-
tages pour le transport des marchandises encombrantes et de bas prix.
En premier lieu il faut nommer le système fluvial Marie dont le
trafic augmentait continuellement malgré la construction de plusieurs
lignes de chemin de fer reliant les contrées fertiles du bassin Wol-
gien aux ports de la mer Baltique. Malgré les nombreuses défectuosités
de cette voie navigable on la préferait, pour le transport des grains,
aux chemins de fer dont les prix de transport étaient plus élevés
que ceux de la voie fluviale.
— 25 —
Amélioration graduelle du système Marie.
A l’époque don't nous parlons la partie la plus incommode de
la voie navigable entre le Volga et St.-Pétersbourg, c’était le canal
éclusé Pierre le Grand leguel data.it de plus d'un siècle et quart
et qui pendant cette longue époque de son existence s”était fortement
dégradé et endommage ainsi qu’il devemait absolument impossible de
faire passer par ce canal tous les bateaux qui venaiet des trois
canaux. Marie, Tikhvinnski et Wychenévolotski. Pour éviter des en-
combres considerables il fallait executer de grands travaux d'améraliora-
tion dans le canal. Ces travaux auraient presente de très grandes
difficultés parcequ'il aurait fallu les executer exclusivement
pendant la période du chómage hivermal, car il était inadmissible
de priver, la ville de St.-Pétersbourg même pour une seule période
de navigation, du transport des blés par voie fluviale. Par consequent
on recconnut préférable, au lieu d'une amélioration fondementale du
vieux canal, de creuser un Second canal, parallèlement au vieux; ce
nouveau canal on se décida a faire an nivean din laſt, sans écluses.
Les travaux furent commencés en 1861 et se prolongèrent jusqu’en
1866. Le nouveau canal fut nommé ,Canal Empereur Alexandre II."
Pour augmenter la capacité de trafic des rivières et canaux éclusés
faisant partie de la voie navigable Marie, simultanement avec les
travaux du nouveau canal Ladoga ont été executés d'importants travaux
ayant pour but l’agrandissement des écluses, l'execution de nombreuses
coupures dans les sinuosités trop raides des cours d'eau, ainsi que
l'élargissement du chenal dans les rapides et les parties rocheuses de
la voie. Par Suite de ces travaux il devint, possible de faire naviguer
sur le système Marie des bateaux d'une longueur de 18 sagènes
(38", 40) et de porter leur capacité à. 18 mille pouds (295 tonnes),
tandis qu'antérieurement les bateaux n'avaient qu'une longueur de
10 sagènes (21", 33) et me porfaient que 10 mille pouds (164 tonnes).
Afin de restreindre la perte de temps qu'éprouvaient les bateaux en
passant à la remonte par les rapides de la Cheksna, Ou y installa
en 1863 le touage sur chaine submergée. Depuis 1870 se fit remarquer
une grande diffuculté pour le mouvement toujours augmentant des
bateaux dans les canaux Svirski et Siasski par suite des courbures
raides dans le trace de ces canaux et des forts ensablements qui s'etaient
formes en plusieurs endroits ce qui retardait et troublait considérable-
26
* *
ment le développement de la navigation. Pour remedier a cet in-
convenient il fut décidé de doubler également la ligne de ces canaux
à l'instar du canal Pierre le Grand. Les travaux des nouveaux canaux
Svirski et Siasski commencërent en 1878 et furent terminés en 1883:
ces canaux ont été nommés en l'honneur de Leurs Majestés l’Empereur
et l'Impératrice: canal Empereur Atexandre III et canal Impératrice
Marie Féodorovna. En 1882–1886 a €té executée une considerable
amélioration du bief de partage et des parties voisines de la voie
navigable Marie. La partie culminante de la voie comprenait le lac
Matko-Ozéro et l’ancien canal Marie dont les deux branches éclusées
réunissaient le lac avec les rivières Kovja et Vytegra, faisant partie
respectivement des bassins fluviaux du Volga et de la Néva. L'ancien
bief de partage recevait l'eau d'alimentation du lac Kovjskoié-Ozéro
au moyen d’une rigole (dite rigole Constantin) de 10 verstes et demie
(11 * : 20) de longueur, qui en partie était creusée dans le sol, en
partie se composait d'aqueducs en charpente. L'ancien canal Marie et
le lac Matko-Ozéro ont été contournés par le nouveau canal dont le
niveau est de plus de 4 sagènes (8", 53) moins élevé que celui de
l'ancien bief de partage. I a construction du nouveau canal a donné
la possibilité de supprimer 9 ecluses et d'alimenter le nouveau bief
de partage avec de l’eau de la haute-KOVja laguelle, premant origine
du lac Kovjskoié-Ozéro, se rapproche beaucoup du dit bief de partage
Les travaux du Nouveau Canal Marie et des trois nouveaux canaux
contournant le lac Ladoga, parallèlement aux anciens, ont ensemble
exige une dépense de 14 millions de roubles (35 millions de francs).
Par suite de toutes les améliorations Susmentionnées de la voie navi-
gable Marie, la durée du voyage de Rybinnsk a St.-Pétersbourg la-
quelle, vers l'année 1850, €tait de 60 a 120 jours fut réduite en moy-
emme à 55 jours et, quelquefios, elle ne depassait pas même 30 jours.
RéOrganisation générale de la Voie navigable Marie.
Malgré toutes les améliorations enumérées précèdemment l'afflu-
ence toujours croissante des marchandises à la Voie navigable Marie
exigeait impérieusement de nouvelles améliorations qui Seraient a même
d'augmenter encore la capacité de trafic de la voie. Dams ce but a €té entre-
prise la réorganisation générale de la voie, actuellement en cours
– 27 —
d"execution. Les anciennes écluses à deux sas Superposés, dont il y
avait plusieurs, les dimensions insuffisantes des écluses et l'état défec-
tueux de la cuvette des canaux et des rivières canalisées, faisant
partie du Système Marie, me permettaient plus d’augmenter sensible-
ment le trafic. Pour atteindre ce but il a €té reconnu mécessaire de
transformer l'entier système fluvial avec tous ces ouvrages d'art,
en vue d'une navigation sur bateaux à dimensions beaucoup supéri-
eures aux actuelles. Les dimensions des bateaux du nouveau modèle
sont: longueur 30 sagèmes (64"), au lieu de 20 (42", 67); largeur 4
sagèmes et demie (9", 60), au lieu de 4 sagèmes (8", 53) et tirant
d'eau 10 quarts d'archine () (1*, 78) au lieu de 8 (1", 42); le
chargement est de 40000 pouds (655 tonnes) au lieu de 20000 pouds
(328 tonnes). Pour permettre la circulation libre de si grands bateaux
toutes les écluses doivent étre reconstruiſes; le tragé des rivières et des
canaux faisant partie de la voie doit étre rectifié et leur chenal a
besoin d’être approfondi et élargi; dans les rapides de la Cheksna il y
a lieu de construire des barrages mobiles éclusés. Quand ces travaux
Seront finis une quantité considerable de grands bateaux du Volga
dont la longueur, pour la plupart du temps, ne dépasse pas 30 sa-
gènes (64") pourra venir à St. –Pétersbourg et le trafic du système
Marie qui à l'heure qu'il est me dépasse pas de beaucoup les 60 mil-
lions de pouds (1 million de tonnes) par an, pourra se développer
librement jusqu' à concurrence de 120 millions de pouds (2 millions
de tonnes), c'est à dire le double du trafic maximum actuel. Le
projet détaillé d'une telle réorganisation de la voie a €té elaboré par
les Soins du Ministère des voies de communication: il a €té approuvé en été
1890 et vers la fin de la méme année on a inauguré l'excecution des travaux
projetés. Les dépeuses générales de la réalisation du projet ont été
évaluees à la Somme de 12 millions et demie de roubles (30 millions
de francs) et l'allocation des crédits necessaires, aprés avoir €te approu-
vée par le Conseil de l'Empire, a regu la sanction Suprême; la durée
des travaux Sera de 5 ans. En 1896 on so propose d'inaugurer la
circulation des bateaux nouveau modèle sur toute l’étendue du la
voje navigable. Le Système Marie, après l'accomplissement de Sa rē-
Organisation, Sera la première voie navigable en Russie qui répondra
Vraiement aux besoins de la navigation fluviale moderne, ces besoins
(*) En Russie le tirant d'eau de la batellerie fluviale se mesure généralement
par quarts d'archine (1 archine=|s de sagène=0m, 7112).
— 28 —
ayant éminemment augmente depuis la création d' un réseau de
chemins de fer qui a premièrement donné la possibilité de transpor-
ter de grandes quantités de marchandises avec une vitesse considérable
et de les faire arriver a destimation pour un terme convenu d’avance.
On peut Se faire une idée de l'importance d’une voie navigable réalisée
sur les bases adoptées pour la réorganisation du Système Marie quand
on considere qu'un Seul bateau du mouveau modèle peut porter autant
de marchandises que deux grands convois de chemin de fer composés
chacun de 33 wagons.
Les principaux travaux projetés Sont:
Déblaiements et dérochements 700939 sagènes cubes (6807990 m 8.)
Remblais . . . . . . . . . 27000 sagènes cubes (262243 m *.)
Construction de 34 ecluses et 6 barrages en bois et de 4 ecluses
et autant de barrages en magonnerie. Les écluses en maçonnerie se
trouvent dams des camaux lateraux contournant les principaux rapides
de la Cheksna et sont destinées à donner passages à la fois a des
convois entiers composés d'un remorqueur et de quatre bateaux.
La longueur utile de ces écluses est de 150 sagènes (320 metres) et
leur largeur de 6 sagènes (12", 80).
Vers la fin de l'année passée à peu près trois quart des travaux
Susmentionnés etaient déjà finis, notamment: 24 ecluses et 2 barrages
en bois, 3 &cluses et 1 barrage en maconnerie éfaient complètement
achevés; le volume des déblaiements avait atteint 52000 sagènes cubes
(5.050.604 m *) et celnides remblais 25.562 sagènes cubes (248.276 m *).
Les autres ouvrages sont en cours d'execution.
Excepte la réorganisation du système Marie, dont les travaux,
comme mous l'avons vu, toucheront bientôt a leur fin il m”y a que
deux entreprises quelque peu importantes d'établissement de nouvelles
voies navigables artifielles qui ont été réalisées chez mous depuis
l'époque du développement rapide du réseau des voies ferrees, notam-
ment: la canalisation de la Moskva et la création du canal de l'Obi
au Yenissei.
Canal is a tion de la Moskva.
La Section éclusée de la Moskva est la Seule voie navigable en
Russie, dont le premier établissement a €té executé par une compagnie
— 29 —
privée à laquelle Sont confiés également l'entretien et l'exploitation de
cette voie. La compagnie fut fondée en 1873 avec le concours de ca-
pitalistes français et elle obtint la concession des travaux de cana-
lisation et de l'exploitation comme voie navigable de la Moskva sur
ume longneur de 165 verstes, a partir de la ville de Moscou jusqu’à.
l'embouchure de la Moskva dans l’Oka, l’un des principaux affluents
du Volga, près de la ville de Kolomna; en même temps la compagnie
fut autorisée pour la durée d'un demi-siècle de prélever une taxe
de navigation dont le taux était fixe par le gouvernement. Les travaux
de canalisation de la Moskva furent commencés en 1874 et terminés
en 1877. En fait d'ouvrages d’art ont été construits 6 barrages système
Poirée, dont les radiers et les piles Sont en boit, et autant d'écluses en
maçonnerie: la longueur utile de ces écluses est de 35 sagènes (74", 6)
et leur largeur de 7 sagènes (14". .9). Pour les travaux ont été dépensés
a peu prés trois millions de roubles (7 millions et demie de francs).
Ces dermières années le trafic de la Moskva cºest chiffré par 200000
tonnes de marchandises. transportées sur des bateaux, et vers les
100000 poutres de bois flottés en radeaux. Depuis 1883 le trafic a
commencé à augmenter graduellement. .
C an al L at s ch é-Kou be n n ski.
A la même époque que la canalisation de la Moskva ont encore
été commencés les travaux d'une autre voie navigable artificielle,
le canal entre les lacs Latsche et Koubennski, ce dernier faisant partie
du canal du Duc de Wurtemburg tandis que du lac Latsché prend
origine le fleuve Onega, tombant dans la Mer Blanche. De tous les
travaux projétés pour ce canal a €té réalisé Seulement un barrage
de bois Sur la rivière Swide, réunissant log Jaco Vojć et Latgché.
L'administration du district de Kargopol avait fait des démarches
assidues auprês du gouvernement en faveur de la construction de ce
barrage et elle avait même de son coté contribué par une Somme de
6 mille roubles à l'amortissement des dépenses causées parles travaux,
dont le chiffre total seleva a 43 mille roubles; faute de moyens
pécuniaires les travaux du canal Latsche–Koubennski n'ont pas pu
être continues. - !
Can a 1 de l'0 bi a u Yé n is s 6 i.
Le plan de la création d'une voie de jonction entre les bassins
fluviaux de l'Obi et du Yénissei, deux des principaux fleuves de la
– 30 —
Sibérie, avait surgi premièrement deja au commencement du siècle
actuel. A cette époque la il existait en Siberie une direction d'arron-
dissement des Voies de communication, comme dans les autres parties
de l'Empire. Cette direction a été supprimee dans la suite et vient
d'être renouvelée l'année passée. La réalisation de la voie susmentionnée
n"a eu lieu que dans ces derniers temps. Après plusieurs reconnaissances
Sommaires qui avaient été faites dans la région de la ligne de
partage des eaux desdeux fleuves Obi et Yenisseſ.-en 1878 et 1879
furent executées des études détaillées suivant le cours des rivières:
Kéte, un affluent de l'Obi; Ozernaia, tombant dans la Kéte; Lomova-
taia, affluent de l'OZernaïa, et Yaziovaía, qui prend origine du lac
Bolschoié (le Grand) et se jefte dams la Lomovataia. Du lac Bolschoié
on traversait une élévation du Sol d’une largeur de 7 verstes
(7 * : 47) jusqu ‘à la rivière Petit—Kass, qui fait partie déjà du
bassin fluvial du Yénisséſ et Se jette dams le Grand-Kass, um affluent
du Yénissé. Les études susmentionnées ont servi de base pour la ré-
daction d’un projet de canal de l'Obi au Yénissé destiné à donner
passage aux bateaux le plus en usage sur l'Obi qui ont ume longueur
de 20 sagènes (42", 67). Les dépenses nécessaires pour la réalisation
de ce projet étaient estimées à la Somme d'apeu près 10 millions de
roubles. Une si forte depense me fut pas reconnue possible: c’est pour-
Quoi on s'abstint de la réalisation du projet précité et il fut décide
de Se borner pour le moment à la création d’une voie navigable pour
de petits bateaux, d'une longueur de 10 sagèns (21", 34) et portant
de 500 a 5000 pouds (8, 19 a 81, 9 tonnes) de marchandises, selon
le tirant d'eau. Les travaux ont été commencés en 1883. Sur la Lomo-
Vataia on a construit 4 barrages, sur la Yaziovaſa. 3, Sur le canal de
jonction entre le lac Bolschoié (le Grand) et le Petit-Kass-une écluse
et Sur le Petit-Kass quatre barrages éclusés. Ila dernière des écluses
est à deux sas superposés. Par le canal de l'Obi an Yénissé qui réu-
nit les bassins de ces deux grands fleuves est crée une voie navigable
ininterrom pue de Tumene à Jrkoutsk, d'une étendue d'à peu près
5000 verstes (5300 kil.). L’exécution des travaux susmentionnés a
exigé une dépense d'à peu près trois millions de roubles (7 millions
et demie de francs).
Les Voies navigables de la Finlande.
Parmi les voies navigables artificielles de Finlande cºestle canal
Saima qui a le plus d’importance. J1 réunit le grand lac Saima,
– 31 —
dont la Superficie est d’a peu près 40 milles verstes carrées et qui a
d'innombrables ramifications d'une é"tendue considérable, au golfe
de Finlande. I'idée de la réunion du dit lac avec la mer
surgit premièrement au seizième siècle lorsque la Finlande appartenait
encore à la Suede. Le lientenant du roi de Suede se mit a creuser
un canal a l’Est de la ville de Willmannstrand, a une distance
de 7 verstes (7 * , 5) de cette ville; mais bientôt il abandonna
les travaux Sans les avoir finis; les traces de ces travaux se sont
conservées jusqu'à nos jours. Au commencement du 17" siècle
le grand-capitaine suédois De-la-Gardie fit galement l'essai
de creuser un canal suivant une direction un peu différente
de l’ancienne; mais les travaux de déblaiement des rochers
présentaient de telles difficultés qu'on Se Vit obligé de les abandonner.
Emfin, en 1840 et dans les annees suivantes fut €laboré un projet
détaillé du canal dont les travaux commercèrent en 1846 et se pour-
suivirent pendant une période de 11 années, de Sorte que l'inauguration
de la navigation Sur la nouvelle Voie eut lieu en 1857. D'après le
projet les dépenses avaient été Évaluees à la Somme de 3 millions de
roubles (7 millions et demie de francs), mais en réalité elles restèrent
au dessous de ce chiffre. La longueur totale de la voie, de la ville
de Willmannstrand qui est située sur le bord du lac Saima jusqu’à
la ville de Vibourg oil se trouve l’issue du canal dans la mer. —est
de 54 verstes et demie (58", 14). Sur le canal se trouvent 15
écluses dont 5 Sont à trois sas superposés et 3 ecluses à deux sas.
Le type predominant des embarcations navigant Sur le canal Saïma
c'est une espèce de barque qu'on nomme ladia; Sa longueur est de
15 sagènes (32"), sa largeur de 3 sagènes 2 pieds (7") et sa capa-
cité maxima de 16 mille pouds (262 tonnes) avec un tirant d'eau
de 8 pieds et demie (2”, 59). En outre le canal est fréquenté par
beaucoup de bateaux à vapeur. Le nombre total des bateaux navigant
Sur le canal atteint 3 mille et demie par an. Il y a une Vingtaine
d’années la voie navigable artificielle a €té continuée encore vers le
Nord au delà du lac Saima. On a creusé un canal réunissant ce lac à
celui de Piéliss et pour prolonger encore la voie on s'est Servi de la
rivière du mème nom qui tombe pans le lac et laquelle a €té Éclusée.
Amélioration des rivières navigables.
Passant aux travaux d'amélioration Sur les rivières qui étaient
déjà navigables dans leur état maturel il convient de dire que les
— 32 —
travaux de cette espèce dans des dimensions tant soit peu corsiderables
et avec observation d'un certain Système m'ont été commencés chez
mous qu'au cours de la Seconde moitie du siècle actuel. Avant
ce temps ont été executés seulement des travaux d'amélioration isolés
en de fels en droits oil l'état naturel du lit des rivières présentait
des difficultés exeptionelles à la navigation. Ces travaux membrassaient
que des parties d’une étendue tout à fait insignifiante des cours
d'eau et étaient executes sans système general et Sans s'appuyer Sur
des principes diment étudiès et élucidés.
Amélioration du Haut-Volga.
Des travaux de régularisation embrassant une section consi-
dérable du fleuve ont été executes sur le Volga seulement dans Son
cours supérieur entre les villes de Tver et de Rybinnsk, Sur une
étendue de 350 verstes (373 kil.). Les premières origines de ces
travaux datent du siècle passé; vers l'an 1770 ont été executés en
quelques endroits dans le lit du fleuve des déblaiements au moyen
d’un appareil construit spécialement dams ce but et ressemblant à un
râteau en bois de dimensions très grandes. On appelait cette machine
ovolakouscha", ce qui veut dire oune chose qu'on traine“. Dans les
premières années du siècle actuel on commenga a se servir de grandes
planches, d'épis et de digues longuitudinales, en fascinage ou en
empierrement, ainsi que de digues composées de vieux bateaux plon-
ges dans l'eau pour resserer le lit du fleuve aux endroits trop larges
et pour obtenir par ume telle concentration des eaux le Creusement
du fond sablonneux et l'augmentation de la profondeur d'eau Sur les
haut-fonds. Toutes les espèces susmentionnées de travaux de régu-
larisation ont été essayées en differents endroits sur le Volga entre
les villes de Tver et de Rybinnsk. En 1838 la longueur totale des
épis et digues construits dans le lit du fleuve rour concentrer ses eaux
atteignit 7000 sagèmes courantes (14935"), c'est à dire elle me
dépassait pas les deux pour cent du développement entier des bords
du fleuve entre les deux villes susmentionnées; de Sorfe que les tra-
vaux executes me formaient que des groupes isolés d'ouvrages dissémés
en différents endroits du cours du fleuve sans continuité. Naturellement
l”utilité de tels travaux pour la navigation me pouvait étre que très
peu corsiderable. Bientôt après l'an 1840, comme mous l'avons dit plus
— 33 —
haut, a 6té Établi Sur le haut-Volga, à 320 verstes (341 kilom.) en
amont de la ville de Tver, le réservoir d'alimentation Verkhnevoljski
dont les eaux de réserve, en augmentant le tirant d'eau du fleuve
pendant les secheresses, sont d'une grande utilité pour la navigation.
En 1850 et les années suivantes ont été executees des études détaillées
sur toute la section du fleuve entre Tver et Rybinnsk et les données
recueillies au moyen de ces études ont servi de base a des travaux
de dérochement et de déblaiement dans le lit du fleuve. Ces travaux,
continues jusqu’en 1865, ont été d’une grande utilité pour la navigation.
En 1860 le Ministère des voies de communication approuva un projet
qui avait été Élaboré par ces Soins et qui avait pour objet la régula-
risation systematique de toute la partie du fleuve entre Tver et
Rybinnsk au moyen de digues longuiſtidimales, et immediatement
après les travaux furent commencés. Les dépenses mécessaires pour
la réalisation de ce projet étaient évaluees à la Somme d’a peu près
1.100000 roubles (2.750000 fr.). En 1870 le cout des travaux avait
déjà atteint le chiffre de 900000 roubles (2.250000 fr.). A cette époque
se constitua ume compagnie de touage Sous la raison Sociale ,Compagnie
de navigation à touage Volgo-Tverienne" a laquelle fut confiee la
continuation des travaux de régularisation du fleuve. Peu de temps
après, cette compagnie se mit a requérir de l’ Administration des
voies de communication le changement du projet approuvé par le
Ministère en prétendant que l'execution des travaux prévus dams le
projet me suffirait pas pour créer une voie navigable qui sur tout son
parcours présenterait des conditions favorables au touage. D'après les
calculs de la Compaguie ce but n'aurait pu ètre atteint qu'au moyen
d’un remaniement essentiel du projet qui aurait exige une dépense
supplementaire d’a peu près 750,000 roubles (1.875000 fr.). Or,
l'allocation de cette Somme n'eut pas lieu et depuis cette époque n'ont
été execute sur le Volga entre Tver et Rybinnsk que des travaux de
réparation pour l'entretien des ouvrages de régularisation déjà exitants.
Travaux d'amélioration des haut-fonds du Volga dans
les parties moyenne et basse de ce fleuve.
Sur le cours moyen du Volga ainsi que sur le Bas-Volga, à.
partir de Rybinnsk jusqu’à la mer Caspienne Sur une étendue de plus
3
— 34 —
de 2700 verstes (2880 kilometres), n'ont été executés jusqu’à l'heure
q’uil est que des travaux de régularisation isolés dans des parties du
fleuve présentant à la navigation des difficultés exceptionnelles.
Quelquefois ces travaux n'avaient qu'un caractère temporaire; d'autres
consistent en Ouvrages de régularisation fixes et permanents. En outre
ont été executés des travaux ayant pour but la création de ports
interieures et de bassins d'hivermage destinés au station mement des ba-
teaux pendant leur chargement et déchargement ou pouvant leur
servir de refuge pendant les chomages de gelée. La partie du fleuve
entre la ville de Rybinnsk et l'embouchure de la Kama, d'une éten-
due d'à peu près 900 verstes (960 kilometres) abonde en haut-fonds et
Seuils graveleux. Déjà en 1820–1830 on avait redigé différents projets
d'après lesquels on se proposait d'améliorer les haut-fonds du cours
moyen du Volga avec des barrages mobiles flottants qui devaient Se
composer de radeaux ou de Vieilles barques allignees avec des Vannes
verticales; mais par suite du mamque de fonds disponibles ces projets
n°ont pas €té réalisés. En 1829 fut forme le ...,demi-bataillon des garde-
cotes" avec 18 embarcations a rames: il était destiné à surveiller et
protéger la navigation du Volga, laquelle, à cette époque lä, avait
beaucoup a Souffrir d'attagues de bandits a main armée, et il devait préter
son concours pour le passage des bateaux, en basses eaux, Sur les
haut-fonds et les seuils. En 1839 ont été exécutés des travaux de
régularisation sur le haut-fond Kriouchimnski qui est situé à peu
près a mi-chemin entre les villes de Kostroma et de Kineschma. L'un
des bras du fleuve fut fermé d'une digue composée de pilotis et de
fascimages, mais l'année suivante tout l'ouvrage a €té emporté parles
hautes eaux des grandes crues. En 1847, par ordre du comte Klein-
michel, qui à cette époque était directeur général des voies de commu-
nication, ont été faites des études détaillées sur les haut-fonds et les
maigres du cours moyen du Volga et l'année Suivante on créa Sur
quelques haut-fonds un service de balisage pour la démarcation du
chemal. En même temps la Direction générale des voies de commu
nication entreprit l'édition d'un ...Itinéraire des voies de navigation
intérieure", contenant, outre une description générale, un itinéraire
détaillé des principales voies navigables. L'itinéraire se compose d'un
plan aligné des cours d'eau avec indication pour chaque verste de
la voie: des villes et villages, des ponts et autres ouvrages d'art, des
iles, embouchures des affluents etc. situés le long de la rivière Ou
— 35 —
du canal respectifs. Les premiers tomes de l', Itinnéraire" (comprenamt
le Volga et les systèmes des camaux Vychenevolotski, Marie et Tikh-
winnski) ont part, en 1851 et les années suivantes. L'édition des autres
tomes qui devait contenir la description et l'itinéraire: a) des prin-
cipaux affluents du Volga, du canal Duc Alexandre de Wurtemberg
ef des fleuves du bassin de la Mer Blanche, b) du canal Bérézinnski
et de la Dvina Occidentale avec ses affluents, c) du Dniepre avec Ses
affluents et des camaux Oguinnski et Dnieprofsko-Bougski et d) du
Dniestre et du Don avec leurs affluents, n'a pas eu lieu, probablement.
par suite de la difficulté du recueillement et de la systèmatisation de
toutes les données statistiques et autres dont on avait besoin pour
l'édition d'un ouvrage aussi étendu. A la méme époque Ont été ré-
digés plusieurs projets d'amélioration des principaux haul-fonds du
Volga au moyen d’endiguements resserrant le lit du fleuve (€pis et
digues longintudinales) mais, faute de fonds disponibles, ces projets
n°ont pas pu ètre mis à execution. Pour atteindre une amelioration,
quand même temporaire, des haut-fonds et des maigres on eut recours
aux travaux de dragage. En 1861, par Suite d'une Sécheresse exeption-
nelle, il fut décide, par ordre Suprême, d'allouer chaque annee un
crédit de 50000 roubles (125 mille francs) pour l'amélioration du
chemal sur les haut-fonds du fleuve au moyen de dragages. En 1868
le haut-fond Khartschevinnski, situé à 20 verstes (21 * : 33) en
amont de la ville de Kostroma, présentait à la navigation des difficultés
considerables. Pour Son amélioration on construisit une digue tempo-
raire de Sacs en grosse toile remplis de sable, pour la Somme de
4500 roubles (11250 fr.). En 1870 et les années suivantes on augmenta
considerablement l'outillage des travaux de dragage et on appliqua des
améliorations essentielles au service de balisage. En outre on employait
pour l'approfondissement des maigres des barrages flottants composés
de rangées de radaeux de bois avec des vannes verticales plongées
dams l’eau. Cette espèce de barrages est l'invention de l’ingénieur des
Voies de Communication Yannkovski. En 1884 et 1885 des travaux
de déblaiement Sur les haut-fonds du Volga ont été executés au moyen
d’un autre appareil, notamment des rateaux (ou plutót herses), sy-
stème de l’ingénieur Bykof. Ces rateaux consistent en des triangles
horizontaux composés de barres de fer de dimensions considérables
auquels Sont attachées en bas de grandes dents de herse en acier. Un
tel rateau (ou herse) est suspendu dans l'eau ä une profondeur dé-
terminée dans l’intervalle entre deux barques auxquelles il est attaché.
par des chaines. Au moyen d'un remorqueur on traine le rateau avec
les barques sur les haut-fonds Sablonneux dont les sables sont labourés
par les dents du rateau et emportés par le courant. Peu a peu on
augmentait les crédits alloués annuellement pour les travaux ayant
pour but l'augmentation de la profondeur d'eau sur les haut-fonds
du Volga. En 1886 il fut décide, par ordre Suprême, d’assigner
chaque année un credit special de 300 mille roubles pour les travaux
de dragage et de déblaiement dans le lit du Volga entre les villes
de Rybinnsk et d’Astrakhan. Dans ce but on organisa plusieurs ,
cadres mobiles“ composées de dragues, avec des chalands et des remor-
queurs, et d'autres appareils servant a creuser un chemal navigable
€S-
sur les haut-fonds présentant le plus de difficulté au passage des
bateaux.
Régularisation des embouchures du Volga.
f
Dans les embouchures du Volga ont été executes de vastes travaux
de dragage de 1870 a 1882. Depuis 1845 on s'était mainte fois occupé
de la question de l'amélioration des embouchures du Volga et On
avait redigé plusieurs projets ayant pour objet d'y créer un chemal
qui pourrait servir avec commodite au passage des bateaux du Volga-
Martime à la Mer Caspienne et vice-versa. En 1859 on entreprit des
travaux de dragage dans l'un des innombrables bras du delta Volgien,
motamment dans le soi-disant, Tizane" et dans le , Kamyziak", un cours
d'eau servant de prolongation au bras Susmentionné. En même temps
on construisit des digues parallèles s'avançant dams la mer. Ces
travaux dont la direction était confiee à l’ingénieur des voies de
communication colonel Liamine (dans la Suite general major) n'ont
pas pu ètre acheves a cause de l'insuffisance des crédits alloués. A
partir de l'année 1875 on soccupa de l'amélioration du bras Bakhté-
mirofski, c'est à dire celle des grandes branches du delta Volgjen qui
est située le plus à l'Ouest; en même temps ont été commencés des.
travaux de dragage pour creuser un chenal navigable dans les grands
bancs de Sable et de gravier ,Chadinnski", , Rakouchinnski" et
,7iouzinnski" qui s'étendent devant l'embouchure du bras Susmen-
tionné. On a creusé une tranchée qui a une largeur de 60 Sagèmes.
(128 metres) au plafond et ume profondeur d'eau de 8 pieds (2", 44).
— 37 —
Ces travaux ont été terminés en 1882 et ont couté 650 mille roubles
(1.625000 francs), y compris le cott de la drague; leur utilité pour
la mavigation est trés-considérable: la tranchée Sous-marine se conserve
parfaitement bieu et il ne se forment que des ensablements assez in-
signifiants quoigue, sans doute, de temps en temps on est oblige d'exécuter
des dragages supplémentaires au moyen desquels on se propose en
même temps d'augmenter graduellement la profondeur d'eau jusqu’à.
9 pieds (2", 75); on a même l’intention de créer, dams la Suite, une
profondeur de 12 pieds (3*, 64) pour que les bateaux-caboteurs ayant
un tirant d'eau de 9 pieds (2”, 75) eussent en tout temps la possibilité
d’entrer sans difficulté dans les embouchures du Volga, même aux
périodes des plus forts vents soufflant de la côte et qui produisent
ume baisse du niveau d'eau de 3 pieds (0", 91).
Comme mous l'avons pu voir, les travaux de dragage dans les
embouchures du Volga, où la pente et la vitesse du courant Sont tout à
fait insignifiantes, ont donné des résultats au plus haut degré satisfaisants
et grâce à eux le chema] a subit une amélioration notable; tandis que
les dragages sur les haut-fonds du cours moyen du Volga, tout comme
les travaux executes avec d'autres appareils servant au Creusement
du lit du fleuve [barrages flottants système Yannkofski, rateaux (herses)
système Bykof, dragues Système Bazaine] n'ont pas Été à même de
procurer à la navigation l'augmentation de profondeur d'eau dont elle
a besoin aux époques des basses eaux et Sans doute, un tel résultat,
faisant abstraction des améliorations purement passagères et accidentelles,
me peut étre atteint, qu'au moyen d’ouvrages de régularisation permanents
Ou des travaux de canalisation avec rehaussement artificiel du niveau
d'eau par des barrages. • *
Travaux de régularisation du Volga prés de la ville
de Nijni-Novgorod.
Or, deja avant qu'on ait pu entreprendre l'amélioration de
quelques hauts-fonds du cours moyen du Volga par des travaux
permanents de régularisation, il se présenta la mécessité impérieuse
de Soccuper de la consolidation des berges, de la régularisation du
lit du fleuve et de l'installation d'un port interieur à Nijmi-Novgorod,
aimsi que de l'amélioration du chenal dans le bras du Volga au bord
duquel est située la ville de Saratof.
— 38 —
En 1879 l'affouillement, par les eaux du Volga, de la berge du
Soit disant ,0uai de Sibérie“ a Nijmi-Novgorod (la partie du rivage,
en amont de l’embouchure de l'Oka servant de débarcadère aux
marchandises qui arrivent à la foire par voie fluviale, et dans ce
nombre plusieurs provenant de la Sibérie) commença a s'aggraver dans
des proportions extraordinaires. La chambre de commerce de Nijmi-
Novgorod qui est chargée de l'administration de la foire adressa
plusieurs requêtes au ministère des Voies de communication au sujet de
la consolidation des berges du Volga et de l'installation d’un port fluvial
auprês de l'emplacement de la foire. En 1880 fut rédigé un projet
comprenant la régularisation du lit du fleuve en amont de l'embouchure
de l'Oka, la consolidation de la berge du ,0uai de Sibérie" sur une
longueur de 4 verstes et demie (4800 metres) et l'installation d'un
port fluvial. Les dépenses étaient évaluees à 3 millions et demie de
roubles (8.750000 francs). Par suite de l'insuffisance des fonds disponibles
on dut se borner a la consolidation des berges sur une longueur de
440 sagènes (939 metres) pour une Somme de 500 mille roubles
(1.250000 fr.). Ces travaux ont été termines en 1882. Ils ont eu pour
effet que maintenant la partie consolidée des berges n'est plus sujette
aux affouillements. Dams la Suite les travaux ont regu un développement
plus ample. La consolidation des berges a €té continuee vers l’amont;
dans le lit du fleuve ont été executes les travaux de régularisation
les plus indispensables et pour le stationnement des bateaux on se
propose d'installer trois bassins protégés par des digues. Ces travaux
Sont encore en cours d'execution. Les dépenses faites à ce sujet depuis
1884 se déchiffrent à 1 million et demie de roubles (3.750000 fr.), a peu prés.
Travaux d'amélioration du Volga près de Saratof.
Déjà en 1870 et les années suivantes se fit sentir un besoin
impérieux d'améliorer la navigabilité du bras du Volga au bord du-
quel est située la ville de Saratof. Ce bras se détache du lit principal
du fleuve du cote droit et il est Séparé de celui là, par une rangee
d’iles et de bancs de Sable. Jadis c'etait dans ce bras que coulait le
courant principal du fleuve et encore à une époque peu reculée Son
débit d'eau Čtait très considerable. Il y a une wingtaine d’années il
commenca a diminuer sensiblement tandis que la quantité d'eau dans
le lit principal du fleuve augmentait graduellement. Cet état de choses
— 39 —
présentait de très-grands inconvenients pour la ville, distante de plusieurs
kilometres du bras principal du fleuve et exposée, de cette manière,
au danger d'être complètement privée de ses communications par
eau. On eut recours d'abord aux travaux de dragage et aux barrages
flottants système Yamnkofski dont il a €té question plus haut; mais
ces moyens n'étaient pas en état de remedier a l'ensablement du
bras de Saratof. Alors on concut le plan d’entreprendre l'amélioration
du lit du fleuve Sur une étendue de plusieurs kilomètres au moyen
d’ouvrages permanents de régularisation. On fit des études détaillées
et comformenment aux données recueillies on élabora un projet général,
dams leguel pour l'execution des travaux les plus indispensables
était prevue une dépense d'à peu prés un million et trois quarts de
roubles (4 millions et demie de francs); or, d'après les prévisions du
Ministère des voies de communication, la dépense générale pouvait
facilement monter a 5 millions de roubles (12 millions et demie de
francs) et même a plus. En émettant une telle opinion le Ministère
rappela l'exemple de travaux semblables executes à l'étranger et qui
avaient exige des depenses colossales (comme par exemple les travaux
d'amélioration du Danube près de Vienne qui avaient coià tê environ 20
millions de florins). Wu l'impossibilité d’entreprendre des travaux
tellement conteux on dut se borner a la continuation des travaux de
dragage, encore pendant une dixaine d’années. En 1884 et 1885 on
essaya de Creuser le fond du chenal au moyen des rateaux (herses)
Système de l’ingénieur Bykof, en outre on construisit un epis noye
composé de Vieux bateaux remplis de pierres et de Sable et devant
décliner le courant du fleuve vers le bras de Saratof. En même temps
on Creusa, pendant les basses eaux, une tranchée dans le banc de
sable Sºetendant devant l'entrée de ce bras. Mais tous ces travaux étaient
insuffisants pour produire une augmentation quelque peu sensible et
durable dans le bras de Saratof. Par consequent, en 1890, on se
résolut d’entreprendre I'amélioration du fleuve près de Saratof au
moyen d’ouvrages permanents de régularisation, c'est a dire des digues
longuitudinales et des épis qui serviraient à diriger une quantité plus
importante d'eau dans le bras de Saratof. Sur ces bases a €té elaboré
un projet detataillé. Les depenses mécessaires pour l'execution des
travaux qui (lureront plusieurs anées Sont évaluees à deux millions
et demie de roubles (6.250000 francs.).
— 40 —
Outre le haut Volga oil, comme nous l’avons vu, ont été executés
des travaux de régularisation sur une longueur de quelques centaines
de kilometres il m”y a que le cours Supérieur de la Vistule et le
cours moyen du Dniestre qui Sont améliorés egalement Sur une
étendue considerable au moyen d'ouvrages permanents de régularisation
executés d'après un projet général. Les travaux Sur la haute-Vistule
embrassent toute la partie limitrophe du fleuve lequel Sur une
longueur de 175 verstes (187 kil.) coincide avec la frontière entre
la Russie et l’Autriche-Hongrie. Sur le Dniestre les travaux s'efendent
de la ville de Moguileſ-Podolski jusqu'au bourg de Wykhvatinntsy
sur une longueur de 207 verstes (220 kilom.).
Régularisation de la Section de la Vistule formant la
frontière entre la Russie et l'Autriche-Hongrie.
Les travaux de régularisation de la partie limitrophe de la Vis-
tule ont pour but non seulement l'amélioration de la navigabilité du
fleuve, mais egalement la protection des berges contre l'affouillement
par le courant et la fixation définitive du trace de la frontière qui,
d'après les conventions internationales en Vigueur, est consideree comme
coincidant avec le chenal du fleuve. Or, comme le chenal d'un
fleuve coulant dans un terrain peu résistant et dont les berges ne
Sont pas fixões par des travaux de régularisation, change de direction
Sams cesse, la ligne de la frontière russe-autrichienne, comme coincidant
avec le chenal de la Vistule, était également sujtte à des fréquents
déplacements partiels, par suite de l'affouillement, en plusieurs en-
droits, du lit et des berges du fleuve et par la formation de bancs de
sable en d'autres endroits. En 1864 fut nommée une commission
internationale de délégués des deux empires limitrophes qui élabora
une convention mutuelle contenant un plan général de régularisation
du cours du fleuve dans sa partie limitrophe. Conformerment à
ce plan les travaux de régularisation consistent en digues longuitu-
dinales, épis, protections des berges et en plantations d'oseraies sur
les bancs de Sable et Sur les nouvelles rives alluviales qui Se forment à
l'abri des digues. En outre ont été opérées des coupures dans quelques
sinuosités extrèmement brusques du fleuve et encore on extrait du lit du
fleuve les arbres échoués et les pierres qui encombrent en plusieurs
endroits le chenal. Les digues Sont en fascinages et empierrement.
— 41 —
Du Coté autrichien les travaux ont été inaugurés immédiatement après
la conclusion de la convention internationale. Au ministère russe des
voies de communication l'allocation des premiers crédits pour l'exe-
cution de ces travaux n'a eu lieu qu’en 1869 et cºest alors seulement
qu'ils ont été commencés. Déjà a des époques anterieurs ont été con-
Struits en quelques endroits sur la haute Vistule des grouppes isolsés
de petites digues en fascinages et pilotis, destinees cependant plutót à
protéger les berges qu’à améliorer la mavigabilité du fleuve sur la-
quelle ces ouvrages, faute de Système et de continuité, ne pouvaient
pas avoir d'influence quelque peu decisive. L'amélioration systéma-
tique du fleuve m'a eté inauguré, comme mous l'avons vu plus haut,
qu'après la conclusion de la convention russe-autrichienne. D'après
l'avami projef Élaboré en 1864 les travaux devaient durer 20 ans; la
protection des berges, on se proposait pour la plupart du temps de
la pouvoir réaliser au moyen de plantations de roseraies et ce n'était
que par exeption qu’en quelques endroits avaient été právues des digues
en fascinages de peu d'étendue. Encore on avait admis que pour les
fascimes on pourrait exploiter gratuitement les Oseraies qu'on se pro-
posait de cultiver sur les bancs de Sable et sur les alluvions. Or,
Quand après quelques années On revisa le projet et on recapitula les
effets des travaux executes jusqu'alors, il se manifesta la mécessité de
décupler la quantité des digues de fascinages premièrement prévue
dans le projet. Quant à la Supposition de pouvoir se procurer gra-
tuitement des fascines, elle ne se réalisa que partiellement du cote
autrichien oil l'administration des voies fluviales possède des oseraies
tres etendues qui fournissent aux travaux de grandes quantités de fas-
cines; en Outre, d'après les lois autrichiennes les riverains sont tenus
de cultiver des OSeraies sur les rives alluviennes et les barics de Sable
et toutes les nouvelles alluvions qui prement naissance grâce à la
protection des digues et autres ouvrages de régularisation appartien-
ment igSO facto a l'administration, ce qui facilite beaucoup la fourni-
ture des fascines, Mais, pourtant, même sur le cote autrichien les
fascimes que fourmissent les oseraies de l’Etat ne suffisent pas à tous
les travaux de régularisation et on se voit souvent oblige d’avoir re-
cours aux fourmisseurs particuliers de fascines. En Russie il n'éxiste
pas de loi semblable aux Susmentionnées: c’est pourquoi il y est très-
difficile de se procurer les fascines nécessaires pour la construction
des ouvrages de régularisation et les prix en Sont très eleves. Par
— 42 —
suite des suppositions susmentionnées, qui avaient été admises dans le
projet primitif, les dépenses de Sa réalisation avaient été evaluees a
un chiffre plus que modique, notamment: pour le coté russe—a 400000
roubles (1 million de francs) et pour l'Autriche—a 600000 florims
(1.200000 francs). L'insuffisance complète de ces sommes devint évi-
dente déjà pendant les premières années de l'execution des travaux
sur le coté russe (de 1869 a 1873), quand l'allocation annuelle des
crédits ne dépassait pas 20000 roubles (50 mille francs): le Minis-
tère russe des Voies de communication se vit oblige d'insister Sur une
augmentation des crédits, ce qui était autant plus necessaire que les
Sommes allouées par le gouvernement autrichien Étaient plus conside-
rables et que par consequent les travaux autrichiens avancaient plus
vite que les notres. Depuis 1874 jusqu’en 1883 le chiffre des alloca-
tions annuelles était de 70 mille roubles (175 mille francs); plus tard
les crédits ont encore 6té augmentes ainsi que jusqu’à l'année 1891
la totalité des Sommes dépensées, depuis l’Origine des travaux, at-
teignit 1.700000 roubles (plus de 4.200000 francs). Or ce n'est pas
encore tout à fait un tiers de tous les travaux projetés Sur le cote
russe, d'après un plan des travaux nouvellement revise, qui a €té
execute pour cette Somme, de sorte que, même avec les allocations
annuelles de 150 à 200 mille roubles, comme elles ont eu lieu ces
dernières années, il faudra encore beaucoup de temps pour achever
complètement la régularisation de la haute Vistule, conformenment
à la convention conclue entre les deux pays riverains. -
Régularisation de la Vistule prs de Warsovie.
Outre l'amélioration de la partie limitrophe de la Vistule on
fait encore des travaux assez considerables pour la régularisation de
ce même fleuve près de Varsovie, Sur une longueur de 11 kilo-
metres a peu près. Ces travaux ont été commencés en 1885. A cette
époque la les travaux d'installation des conduites d'eau a Varsovie
étaient en cours d'exécution. Pour assurer le puisage ininterrompu
de l'eau dans le fleuve il était urgent de fixer la direction du cou-
rant de la partie du fleuve oil l’on se proposait d'installer le puisage;
si mom, on aurait été continuellement exposé au danger de voir le
courant S'éloigner des installations de puisage ce qui devait entrainer
l'interruption du fonctionnement de la distribution d'eau. Du nombre
— 43 —
des travaux de régularisation reconnus mécessaires pour assurer Pali-
mentation d'eau de la ville, la plus grande partie, les deux tiers à
peu près, Sont déjà termines. Ils ont exigé une dépense d'environ
1 million de roubles (2 millions et demie de francs); on se propose
d'achever les travaux restants en deux ans. L’ensemble des travaux
aura pour effet de fixer la direction du courant sur ume longueur de
11 verstes (11 kil. et */4) et de protéger les berges contre l'affouillement
et l'érosion.
Sur tout le reste du cours moyen de la Vistule, à partir de la
ville de Zavikhost jusqu’à la frontière prussienne, sur une longueur
de 400 verstes (427 kilometres), n'ont été executes, jusqu’à l'heure
qu'il est, que des travaux de régularisation et de protection des berges
tout à fait insignifiants, dans des points isolés, où les berges Sont
particulièrement exposées à des affouillements. Il va Sans dire que
de tels travaux isoles me peuvent pas avoir une influence tant soit
peu sensible sur la mavigabilité du fleuve qui est très peu satisfaisante,
surtout dams toute la partie du fleuve en amont de Varsovie. C'est
pourquoi également les travaux de régularisation de la haute Vistule,
à la frontière autrichienne, ne peuvent pas beaucoup contribuer au
développement de la navigation, cette partie du fleuve 6tant Séparée
de la basse Vistule par le cours moyen, qui, comme mous l'avons
Vu, reste dans son 6tat primitif. Or, quant à un développement inde-
pendant de la navigation Sur la haute Vistule, les conditions locales
y Sont peu favorables. Cet état de choses pourrait etre change Seule-
ment au moyen d’une régularisation de toute la partie russe du fleuve;
un projet général dans ce sens a €te élaboré déjà en 1880, mais
comme Sa rēalisation exigerait une très-forte dépense, environ 30
millions de roubles (75 millions de francs)—jusqu’à l'heure qu'il est on
n’a pas cru pouvoir entreprendre des travaux si vastes et si cotiteux.
Amélioration du Dniestre.
Les travaux d'amélioration de la navigabilité du Dniestre ont
été commencés en 1884. Depuis des temps immemorables ce fleuve
servait de voie d'exportation aux produits d'agriculture de toute la
contrée adjacente qui est extrèmement fertile. Mais le developpement
de la navigation €tait fortement entrave par les nombreux obstacles
—Seuils, haut-fonds, rapides etc.—se trouvant dans le lit du fleuve.
— 44 —
Depuis 1840 ont été faites plusieurs tentatives d'établir sur le Dniestre
la navigation a vapeur; mais ces essais n'ont pas été couronnes de
succès. Dès l'année 1880 les autorités provinciales de la Bessarabie
commencërent à faire des démarches énergiques auprès du gouverne-
ment relativement à l'amélioration de la navigabilité du Dniestre.
On proposa d’établir un droit spécial de navigation (1"/o de la Va-
leur des marchandises transportees, en sus du droit général de ma-
vigation d'un quart pour cent de la méme valeur) afin de Couvrir
les dépenses qui devraient étre faites pour les travaux de régulari-
sation. En 1884 fut alloué le premier crédit de 200000 roubles (500
mille francs) pour l'amélioration du Dniestre et dans la même année
on se mit aux travaux, qui comprennent: 1, l'extraction du lit du
fleuve des arbres échoués et des pierres dans toute la partie russe
du fleuve, a partir de la frontière autrichienne jusqu’à l’embouchure,
sur une longueur d'à peu près 800 verstes (853 kilometres) et 2, la
régularisation des haut-fonds, Seuils et rapides et l'installation des
ports de réfuge et d'hivernage dams le cours moyen du fleuve, entre
la ville de Moguilef et le village Wykhvatinnsty, Sur une longueur
de 210 verstes (224 kilom.). Avant tout il était urgent d'éloigner
les arbres échoués et les récifs dont le chemal était encombré et qui
presentaient un grand danger pour la navigation. Jusqu’à l'heure
qu'il est on a extrait du fleuve plus de 400 récifs et grandes pierres
submergées et environ deux mille et demie d'arbres échoués. Simulta-
nément avec les travaux Susmentionnés on construisait des ouvrages
de régularisation Sur les Seuils et rapides. Les credits employes jusqu’à
présent à l’exécution des travaux selëvent a 800000 roubles (2 mil-
lions de francs). Pour cette Somme, outre les dérochements et l'extrac-
tion du Jit des arbres échoués, ont été executés des travaux d'amé-
lioration Sur 25 Seuils et haut-fonds. Bien que jusqu’à l'heure qu'il
est n'aient pu ètre améliorés que des endroits isoles présentant le plus
de difficulté à la navigation et qu'un grand nombre de Seuils et
haut-fonds, aimsi que la partie basse du fleuve, en aval de Vykhva-
tinnstsy jusqu’à l’embouchure dans la mer, restent encore pour la plu-
part dans leur état primitif, pourtant les travaux executés ont déjà.
manifesté une influence très salutaire sur le développement de la
navigation. La quantité des marchandises transportees par eau a
preSque quadruple (avant les travaux elle était de 4 millions et un
tiers de pouds—71 mille tonnes—par an: actuellement elle atteint 16
— 45 —-
millions de pouds-262 mille tonnes). En même temps le rendement
des droits de navigation a progressé de 28 mille roubles (70 mille
francs)—en 1884—a 104 mille roubles (260 mille francs)—en 1890–
et le prix du fret pour le parcours à partir de la partie moyenne
du Dniestre jusqu’à Odessa a baissé de 40 copecs par poud a 30
copees ce qui, pour un trafic de 15 millions de poud (245 mille
tonnes), Se traduit par un bénéfice annuel de 1 million et demie de
roubles (3 millions et “ſ, de francs).
Comme mous l’avons déjà dif, il m”y a que le haut-Volga, la haute
Vistule et le cours moyen du Dniestre qui aient été régularisés d'après
des projets d'ensemble embrassant quelques centaines de kilomètres du
cours du fleuve. Sur le reste des fleuves navigables n'ont été executes
jusqu'à présent que des travaux isolés de régularisation ayant pour
but d'améliorer des endroits présentant à la navigation des difficultés
exceptionnelles. Parmi ces travaux il faut mommer en premier lieu
ceux qui ont été executés en différentes parties du Dniepre, sur son
affluent la Pripete et dans la région basse de la Dvina Occidentale.
Travaux de régularisation Sur le Dnièpre.
Depuis les temps les plus réculés le Dnièpre servait de voie de
Communication entre le mord et le midi de la Russie. Or, la naviga-
tion Sur ce fleuve est particulièrement entravee par les cataractes
qui présentent de grandes difficultés pour la navigation à la descente
et empèchent complètement celle à la remonte. Dès l'époque de la
réunion de la Nouvelle-Russie à l'Empire le gouvernement soccupa
du problème de l'amélioration de la navigabilité des cataractes du
Dniepre. Dans la Seconde moitie du siècle passé (1770 et les années
Suivantes) ont été executés quelques travaux de dérochement au
moyen des Sautages à la poudre et en même temps on a commencé
le Creusement de canaux de dérivation dans les cataractes Nénassy-
tetski et Kaidatski. En 1787, lors du voyage de l'Impératrice Cathe-
rine II dans le midi de la Russie, on établit la corporation des , pilotes
du Dnièpre", qui ont la tâche spéciale de diriger les bateaux et trains
de bois à leur passage par les cataractes. Dans les premières années
du siècle actuel, d'après un projet élaboré par l’ingénieur Devolant,
ont été executes quelques travaux de dérochement dans les trois cata-
—— 46 —
ractes les plus rapprochés de la ville de Yékatérinoslaf, en même
temps on y construisit des camaux découverts (non Éclusés) Séparés
du fleuve par des digues insubmersibles et dans la cataracte Nénassy-
tetski, qui est la plus importante de toutes, on commença la construc-
tion d'un canal éclusé de dérivation. Mais par Suite du manque de
crédits dispomibles ces travaux n'ont pas €te continues et la plupart
d'eux a €té plus tard détruite par les hautes eaux et les chocs des
glaçoms.
Vers 1830 on élabora un plan de travaux d'amélioration des
cataractes du Dniepre dams le but de les rendre praticables aux ba-
teaux navigant à la remonte; or, ces travaux auraient exige des dé-
penses démésurées: c’est pourquoi on se décida de se borner a l'amé-
lioration de la navigation à la descente, en installant auprès de la
rive gauche, dans le lit même du fleuve, des canalix découverts li-
mités du coté droit par des digues d'empierrement. On commenca les
travaux en 1833 par la construction d'un canal dans la cataracte
Vieux-Kaïdatski; il fut termine en 1841. Dans les annees suivantes,
jusqu’en 1854, furent construits les canaux dans les autres huit cata-
ractes. La dépense pour tous ces travaux, y compris les réparations
et reconstructions partielles des Ouvrages executees dans la suite, jusqu’en
1872, se montent à la Somme d'à peu près 2 millions de roubles
(5 millions de francs). Or, les dits camaux sont à l'étiage d’une cer-
taine utilité pour la navigation à la descente mais ils sont insuffisants
pour produire une amélioration essentielle de la navigabilité des cata-
ractes. En 1880 et les années suivantes on fit plusieurs tentatives
d'inaugurer le touage dans les cataractes, mais sans succès. Il était
impossible, même pour le toueur Seul, Sans bateau remorqué. d’avan-
cer contre le courant qui le lancait de coté sur les récifs par suite
de quoi le toueur se troua complètement et coula a fond. Dans ces
dermiers temps il n'a €té execute dans les cataractes du Dniepre que
des travaux de peu d'importance: des dérochements et des réparations
des digues limitant les canaux decouverts. Or, le problème de l'amé-
lioration fondementale de la navigabilité des cataractes, n'a pas, jus-
qu’à l'heure qu'il est, trouvé de solution définitive. Des études appro-
fondies ont été faites Sur ce Sujet, et actuellement, on est occupé à l'ad-
ministration des voies de communication de l'élaboration d'un projet
détaillé d'après leguel on se propose de construire dans quelques
— 47 —
cataractes des canaux éclusés de Sorte que la navigation pourra Se
faire sans difficulté à la remonte comme à la descente; l'amélioration
des autres cataractes qui ont des pentes moins considerables On Se
propose d'atteindre au moyen des travaux de dérochement.
Des travaux isoles de régularisation ont été executes sur le Dnièpre
encore en plusieurs endroits; les plus importanis parmi eux Sont
ceux de l'amélioration du fleuve près de la ville de Kief, oil, vers
l'année 1850, le courant avait commencé à manifester la tendence de
s'éloigner de la ville en se dirigeant dans un bras secondaire le Soit-
disant Tchertoroi (Fossé du Diable) qui se detache du coté gauche
du fleuve et fait un grand détour à une distance de plusieurs kilo-
mêtres de la ville, laquelle, comme elle est située Sur la rive droite,
risquait de cette manière d’être privée de Ses communications par eau.
En outre la déviation Susmentionnée des eaux présentait un grand
danger au pont Suspendu de Kief (pont Nicolas) qui pouvait facile-
ment étre contourné par le fleuve dont le courant, en sortant du bras
Tchertoroi, donnait avec une grande force contre la culée gauche du
pont et sur les parties voisines des berges. Pour remédier a ces in-
convémients on entreprit en 1855 et les années suivantes des travaux
de régularisation qui avaient pour but de fermer le bras Tchertoroi
et de protéger les piles et les culées du pont Suspendu. Grâce à ces
travaux le courant principal du fleuve reprit Son ancienne direction
et se rapprocha derechef de la ville. La digue par laquelle On avait
fermé le bras Tchertoroi a son point de Séparation du Dniepre Sup-
porta avec succès le choc des eaux jusqu’en 1881, quand, par Suite
d’une forte crue, il sºy forma ume brèche qui a €té refermée en 1882.
Ce fait démontra d’une façon évidente la mécessité d'une régularisation
plus radicale du Dnièpre près de Kief. L'embouchure de la Desma
qui se trouve à une distance de quelques kilometres en amont de la
ville, ainsi que le grand nombre des bras Secondaires qui s'y déta-
chent du lit principal du fleuve contribuent aux changements conti-
nuels de la direction du chenal, ce qui cause beaucoup de difficulté à
la navigation et présente un danger Sérieux pour le pont Nicolas.
Par cette raison, dès 1884, On a entrepris des travaux systematiques
de régularisation dams la Section du fleuve en aval de l'embouchure
de la Desna, jusqu'au pont de chemin de ſer, sur une longueur de 18
verstes (19 kilom... 2). Ces travaux, pour lesquels on a depensé Vers
— 48 —
les 900 mille roubles (2 millions et quart de francs) touchent déjà
a leur fin. Tous les faux bras ont été fermés; le courant principal a
été dirigé d'une manière défémitive du coté de la ville, ce qui assure
une profondeur suffisante auprês du débarcadère; le fond du fleuve
Sous le pont Suspendu a €té protégé par des empierrements et des
fascinages et en général les travaux de régularisation et de protection
des berges dans la partie du fleuve adjacente à la ville ont eu pour
consequence qu’à l'heure qu'il est il me s'y produit plus de tournants
d'eau dans le fleuve et de si forts et fréquents affouillements dams les
berges et le fond du lit comme c'ètait le cas aturefois.
Depuis 1888 ont été entrepris encore d'autres travaux de régula-
risation sur le Dniepre auprés des villes de Krémemntchoug, Yékaféri-
moslaf et Alexanmdrofsk, ayant pour but d'établir un chemal suffisam-
ment large et profond, menant du large au débarcadère de la ville.
Dans les deux dernières villes on se propose en outre d’établir des
ports de réfuge et d'hivermage. Les crédits qui ont été alloués jusqu’à.
present pour ces travaux me sont que pen considerables et le déve-
loppement ultérieur des travaux dépendra naturellemeut du chiffre
des Sommes qu’il Sera reconnu possible de mettre à la disposition de
l'administration des Voies de communication.
De 1876 a 1882 ont été executes des travaux de dragage dans
l"un des bras (Bélogroudofski) du delta du Dmièpre pour créer un
chenal navigable à travers les bancs de Sable situés dans les embou-
chures du fleuve. Ces travaux n'ont pas donné de résultat satisfaisant.
Leur direction avait été confiée à la ville de Khersonn qui recevait
à cet effet des subsides d'argent de l'état. En tout il a €té dépensé pour
ces travaux (par l'état et la ville ensemble) environ 350 mille roubles
(87.5 mille francs). .
En outre, pendant les dernières 10 années on a executé sur le
Dniepre en plusieurs endroits des fraranx isolés de régularisation
ayant pour but l'amélioration de la navigabilité du fleuve sur cer-
tains Seuils, haut-fonds et maigres. Pour la plupart ces travaux Ont
donné des résultats satisfaisant, quant à l'amélioration locale des
trongons respectifs du fleuve; mais vu le peu de développement, le
petit nombre et l'isolement de ces travaux ils n'ont pas pu avoir une
influence tant Soit peu visible sur les conditions générales de la ma-
vigabilité du fleuve. -
— 49 —
Parmi les travaux de régularisation qui ont été executes sur
d'autres rivières navigables pour ameliorer la navigabilité de quelques
parties isolées de ces rivières, ceux qui meritent avant tout d'être
mentionnés, pour le nombre considerable des ouvrages d'art et pour
1"imprortance des Sommes dépensées, ce sont: les travaux de corre-
ction des haut-fonds de Tchernobyle sur la Pripète, à 30 verstes de
son embouchure dams le Dmièpre, et l'amélioration de la navigabilité
de la Dvina Occidentale dams les limites du port de Riga.
Travaux de régularisation sur la Pripète.
Les travaux d'amélioration des haut-fonds de Tchernobyle ont été
commencés en 1878. Ces haut-fonds présentaient le plus de difficulté à
la navigation de la Pripète. Sur une étendue de plusieurs kilometres,
pendant les Sécheresses, la profondeur d'eau Čtait souvent tellement
insuffisante qu'om Se Voyait oblige de suspendre la navigation pour
quelque temps. Au moyen d’ouvrages de régularisation, –digues longuitu-
dinales, épis transversaux etc., -le courant du fleuve qui autrefois, sur
une longueur d'à peu près 10 verstes (10 kilom, 67), se dispersait
dams plusieurs faux bras a €te concentré dans le lit principal dont
les berges ont été protégées par des fascinages et par la plantation
d’oseraies. Depuis 1878 pour les travaux d'amélioration des haut-fonds
de Tchernobyle on a dépensé environ un demi-million de roubles
(1.250.000 fr.); les résultats de ces travaux sont complètement satis-
faisants; la profondeur d'eau sur toute l'étemdue des haut-fonds est
devenue plus que suffisante. Depuis l'achèvement des travaux de
régularisation de Tchernobyle le plus de difficulté à la navigation
présentent les haut-fonds qui se trouvent à l’embouchure de la Pripete
dans le Dniepre. En 1890 ont été commencés des travaux devant
améliorer la navigabilité de cette partie du fleuve.
Travaux de régularisation Sur la Dvina Occidentale
près la ville de Riga.
Quelques travaux d'amélioration de la navigabilité de la Dvina
Occidentale près de la ville de Riga ont été executes déjà au 17* et
18” siècles; en 1764–1775, par exemple, le lit du fleuve, a partir
4
— 50 —
de la ville jusqu’à son embouchure dans la mer, a €té limité de
deux grandes digues insubmersibles en terre, lesquelles, cependant,
n’ont pas contribué, d'une manière quelque peu efficace, à l'améliora-
tion de la navigabilité du fleuve; elles ont été détruites bien vite par
les hautes eaux et les glagons. En 1782–1789 on construisit une
digue du coté gauche de l'embouchure du fleuve et en même temps
on ferma un faux bras (l'ancienne embouchure); ces travaux avaient
pour résultat de faciliter considerablement l'entrée des navires du
large dans l'embouchure du fleuve. En 1847 l'augmentation conti-
nuelle de la barre de Sable s'etendant devant l'embouchure crea de
nouvelles difficultés aux bateaux arrivant à Riga. Alors le corps des
marchands de Riga, avec l'autorisation du gouvernement, contracta
un emprunt de 2 millions et demie de roubles (6.250.000 fr.) pour
la correction définitive de l'embouchure de la Dvina; ces travaux ont
duré de 1850 à 1860. Ensuite se fit sentir la mécessité d'améliorer
le lit du fleuve entre son embouchure et la ville de Riga sur une
longueur de 15 verstes (16 kilometres); la direction du chenal y Était
extrêmement sinueuse et il y avait beaucoup de haut-fonds et de faux
bras. En 1869 et 1870 le gouvernement alloua 226 mille roubles (565
mille francs) pour les travaux les plus necessaires dans cette partie du
fleuve; en outre ont été executés aux frais de la ville des travaux
de protection des berges. En 1875 ont été commencés des travaux
systematiques de régularisation d'après un projet detaillé, dams leguel
les dépenses sont évaluees à la Somme de 4 millions de roubles (10
millions de francs). La plupart de ces travaux est déjà terminee. Sur
toute l’étendue du port de Riga et dans la partie du fleuve entre la
ville et la mer on a cree un chenal avec une profondeur d'eau qui
suffit entièrement à la circulation des bateaux et des mavires avec un
tirant d'eau de 20 pieds (6". 10).
*
Outre les travaux de régularisation dont il a €té question plus
haut, dans ces derniers temps on a exécuté encore des améliorations
isolées et des protections de berges en plusieurs endroits sur beaucoup
d'autres rivières, par exemple sur: le Don, le Niémane, l'Oka, la Ka-
ma, la Desna, le Soge etc. Pour la plupart ces travaux sont destinés
à améliorer quelques parties isolées des rivières présentant des dif-
— 51 —
ficultés extraordinaires à la navigation ou ils servent a prévenir et à
faire cesser des affouillements des berges particulièrement dangereux.
Sur l'état général de navigabilité des rivieres respectives ces travaux,
par suite de leur faible étendue, he peuvent pas avoir une influence
Quelque peu sensible.
De tout ce qu'il a €té dit des Voies navigables de Russie il res-
sort que, malgré tous les efforts faits dans ces derniers temps, jusqu’à.
l'heure qu'il est leur développement n'a pas encore été entièrement
Satisfaisant. Les Voies artificielles, a la Seule exception du système
Marie dont la réorganisation fondementale est actuellement en cours
d'execution, Sont restees pendant un demi-siècle Sans amélioration pro-
fonde et dans leur état actuel elles ne peuvent pas suffir aux besoins
de la navigation moderne qui exige des conditions de navigabilité
appropriées au mouvement régulier de bateaux de grandes dimensions;
ce n'est qu'ainsi qu'on peut réaliser le bon-marché voulu dans ‘les
transports des marchandises encombrantes et de peu de Valeur des-
quelles se compose par excellence le trafic des voies de navigation in-
terieure. -
Des voies navigables naturelles la plupart reste jusqu’à l'heure
qu'il est dans son état primitif sans améliorations systèmatiques em-
brassant des fleuves entiers ou des Sections d'une étendue considerable
et pouvant seuls améliorer d’une manière décisive les conditions de
navigabilité et contribuer à une diminution tant Soit pell considerable
des frais de transport par eau. Du petit nombre des travaux de
cette espèce qui, jusqu’à présent, Ont été entrepris, les travaux
de régularisation sur le haut Volga ont été, comme nous l'avons vu,
complètement abandonnés, cette partie du fleuve n'ayant plus l'impor-
tance prépondérante pour la navigation interieure, qui lui appartenait
avant la création et l'amélioration graduelle du système Marie, lots-
que la presque totalité du trafic du Volga gravitait encore vers le
système Wychenevolotski. Les travaux de régularisation de la Haute
Vistule et du cours moyen du Dniestre me sont pas encore acheves
et comme les autres parties de ces fleuves restent dans leur état pri.
mitif les dits travaux n'ont pas encore pu, dans la mesure woulue,
contribuer au developpement de la navigation sur ces fleuves. Mais,
all moins, dans la dernière quinzaine d’années a €té creee une base
Solide pour l'élaboration d’un plan général d'amélioration systematique
de nos Voies navigables et on a recueilli des données et des matériaux
— 52 —
abondants, nécessaires pour la solution correcte des multiples et variés
problèmes techniques qui ne manqueront pas de se présenter a cette
Occasion.
Vers 1870 la construction des principales lignes magistrales du
réseau des chemins des fer russes touchait a sa fin. On s'aperçut alors
de la mécessité de reprendre, simultanement avec le développement
du réseau des chemins de fer. les travaux de construction et d'amé-
lioration des voies navigables interieures, qui avaient été négliges de-
puis bien longtemps. Pour entreprendre une telle tâche on avait
besoin de données exactes sur l'état contemporain et les conditions
de mavigabilité de nos voies fluviales. Or, ces données, pour la
plupart, faisaient complètement defaut et même s'il y en avait, elles
se trouvaient étre ou Surannées ou inexactes. L'administration des
voies de communication se décida done en 1875 d’entreprendre des
études détaillées qui peu a peu s”étendraient sur toutes les princi-
pales lignes du réseau des voies de navigation interieure. A cette fin
fut créée une commission spéciale qu'on momma ,Commission d'ex-
ploration et de description des voies navigables"; elle détacha chaque
année un certain nombre d'expéditions sur les principales voies fluvi-
ales pour y faire des études approfondies. Ces expeditions se compo-
saient d'ingénieurs des voies de communication, d'officiers de la ma-
rine, d'employes Secondaires et d’Ouvriers. C'est sur les principales
voies navigables qu'on dirigea les premières expeditions, notamment
sur le Volga, le Dnièpre, le Don, la Vistule, la Dvina Septentrionale,
l'Oka et la Pripète. Les études compremaient toutes les données dont
On avait besoin pour élucider l'état de navigabilité et les conditions
naturelles des fleuves; on levait des plans détaillés du lit des fleuves,
des bras secondaires, des rivages et du bassin fluvial dans les limites
des grandes crues; on faisait des nivellements des berges, du miveau
d'eau du fleuve et du relief du bassin fluvial suivant des profils tran-
Sversaux qu'om prolongeait également jusqu'aux limites du déborde.
ment des eaux des grandes crues; on executait des Sondages; on me-
Surait la vitesse du courant, on établissait des services réguliers d'é-
tiage etc. Pendant le Sémestre d’été les expeditions travaillaient sur
le terrain et en hiver elles sºoccupaient pour la plupart dans les.
bureaux: On Systèmatisait les matériaux recueillis, on élaborait des
memoires, on dessinait des cartes, plans et profils et on exécutait en
général toutes les écritures et dessins dont on avait besoin pour ex-
poser les données recueillies sous une forme intelligible et claire.
Quelquefois certains travaux sur le terrain se faisajent en hiver, par
exemple les Sondages Sur les lacs et les grands fleuves dont l'execu-
tion était plus facile Sur la glace. Les études sur les rivières secon-
daires Se faisaient d'après un programme moins étendu et sur les
petites rivières de troisième ordre on me faisait que des reconnaissan.
ces générales. Jusqu’à l'heure qu'il est sur les principales voies fluvia-
les ont été achevêes des études sur une longueur générale d'environ
30 mille verstes (32 mille kilomètres); dans ce nombre ont été explo-
rés: le Volga–sur une étendue de 2600 verstes (2774 kilom.), le
Dniepre–sur plus de 2000 verstes (2134 kilom.), le Don avec son
affluent le Donets—Sur 1100 verstes (1174 kilom.), la Vistule—sur
420 verstes (448 kilom.), la Dvina Septentrionale—sur 680 verstes
(725 kilom.), l'Oka—sur 1030 verstes (1099 kilom.), la Pripète sur
510 verstes (544 kilom.) etc. En outre ont été explorées des contrées
de partage des eaux de différents fleuves et en général des terrains
ayant de l'importance pour l'établissement de nouvelles communica-
tions par eau et pour l'amélioration des voies fluviales déjà existantes.
Sous les auspices de la Commission des explorations et descriptions
ont été crees 370 postes d'étiage sur toutes les principales voies fluvi-
ales. Les résultats des observations de ces postes Sont systematisés,
'classifies et exposés dans des mémoires avec dessins. Toutes ces don-
nées sont publiés par le Ministère des voies de communication; elles
sont d'une grande utilité pour l’examen, la discussion et la résolution
de differents projets et questions ayant trait aux travaux d'établisse-
ment et d'amélioration des voies navigables. En outre les nouvelles
périodiques sur ia hauteur du niveau dans les différentes parties du
réseau des voies fluviales, qui Sont envoyées aux institutions et person-
nes interessées par les postes d'étiage, servent de base aux manoeuv-
res des barrages des réservoires d'alimentation; elles sont communi-
quées aux bateliers pour les mettre au courant de la hauteur d'eau
dans les differentes rivières et canaux faisant partie de leur itinéraire,
ce qui est Surtout d'une grande importance quand il S'agit des cou-
rants d'eau qui Sont alimentes par les eaux des réservoires et dams
lesquels les oscillations du niveau Sont très-considerables; enfin les
nouvelles susmentionnées servent a signaler aux fonctionnaires de l'ad-
ministration des voies de communication ainsi qu'au public l'approche
des crues et des inondations.
— 54 —
Sur l’initiative de la commission d'exploration et de description
des voies navigables, ont été créées des stations météorologiques dans
différentes contrées présentant un interèt particulier par rapport à.
l'alimentation des cours d'eau. Les résultats de leurs observations
servent a signaler a la batellerie l'aproche d'orages et en outre on en
profite pour calculer la quantité des eaux de pluie alimentant les.
cours d'eau. -
Encore on établissait des stations hydrométriques sur plusieurs
fleuves (le Volga, le Dniepre, la Dvina Septentrionale, la Dvina
Occidentale, l'Oka et la Kama). Pendant plusieurs années on y a
executé des observations exactes sur la Vitesse du courant, le débit
d'eau, les pentes de la mappe d'eau et en general sur tous les élé-
ments desguels dépendent les conditions maturelles d’um cours d'eau
et qui déterminent l'influence que les phénomènes atmosphériques
exercent sur les dites conditions maturelles des rivières.
Les principaux resultats de toutes ces observations Sont succes-
sivement systematisés et exposés dans des mémoires qui Se publient.
par les soins du Ministère des Voies de Communication.
Vers 1884 les études Sur la plupart des grands fleuves etaient
achevêes; la Commission d’Exploration et de Description des voies navi-
gables avait terminé l'élaboration et la mise en vigueur d'un réglement
de police de navigation intérieure ainsi que l'organisation d'un service
d’Inspection sur les principales voies navigables; elle avait en outre
fait construire à differents chantiers, en Russie et à l'étranger, des
bateaux à vapeur et les avait fournis all service d'inspection. C'est.
alors qu’il fut décide d'abolir la commission susdite. La continuation
de ses travaux fut confiee à la Section Technique du Département
des Routes et des Voies Navigables. A cette Section furent transmis.
tous les matériaux, données et documents recueillis par la commis-
sion et les mémoires rédigés par elle et au fur et a mesure de l'allo-
cation des crédits mécessaires la Sestion Technique fait paraitre des.
publications contenant les principaux résultats des études et observa-
tions ſaites sur les voies navigables avec des cartes, des plans détail-
lés, des profils en long et en travers et autres dessins servant à élu-
cider les conditions maturelles et l'état de navigabilité de ces Voies.
Toutes ces données sont d'une grande utilité pour l'élaboration
soignée des projets des multiples travaux d'amélioration et de régula-
risation des différentes parties de notre réseau fluvial. Les avantages,
I'utiliié, la mécéssité et l’urgence d’un très grand nombre de ces tra-
vaux se manifestent, dans ces derniers temps, de plus en plus. Nous
croyons ne pas trop dire en affirmant que daus aucun des autres
états européens la prodictivité des travaux de correction des voies
fluviales m'est tellement évidente que chez mous en Russie. Pour don-
ner a peu près la mesure des qualités et de l'importance des voies
navigables de Russie il nous semble me pas etre dénué d’intérêt de
les comparer, à grands traits, aux voies fluviales des principaux
autres états de l’Europe dont aucun ne possède un réseau de voies
fluviales aussi étendu que la Russie. Presque tous les grands fleuves
russes se pretent a merveille a leur réunion en un réseau ininterrompu
au moyen de l'établissement de canaux rattachant entre elles les
sections supérieures des différents cours d'eau. Souvent les sources des
fleuves ne sont Séparées entre elles que par des élévalions du Sol d’une
hauteur et d'une étendue peu considérables. Ces conditions maturelles
favorisent particulièrement le developpement de la navigation interieure.
Quand on juxtapose les voies navigables de la France et de l’Allemagne
a celles de la Russie on voit qu'en France, relativement parlant, les
rivières ne sont pas grandes; elles ont, pour la plupart du temps, des
pentes asses fortes et, a l'étiage, leur débit d'eau est peu considerable.
C'est pourquoi, a quelques exeptions près, les rivières de France ont
eu besoin d’être éclusées et canalisées pour pouvoir Servir avec avan-
tage de voies de navigation interieure. Surtout dans les derniers
temps, depuis le développement si considérable des chemins de fer,
les rivières françaises qui, dans leur état naturel, ne pouvaient servir
qu’à la circulation de fort petits bateaux n'auraient pas pu suppor-
ter la concurrence des voies ferrées sans l'execution des grands et
merveilleux ouvrages d'art au moyen desguelles on a réussi a créer
dans ces rivières un chenal suffisamment large et profond pour la cir-
culation facile de grands bateaux qui Seuls Sont en état de transpor-
ter a bas prix les marchandises lourdes et emcombrantes. Naturel-
lement, dans de telles conditions, la création du réseau des voies ma-
vigables en France a dil exiger de très fortes dépenses.
Em Allemagne les rivières navigables Sont plus grandes et leur
amélioration a pu ètre effectuée comparativement avec des dépenses
moins fortes que celles qui ont été faites dans le même but en France.
Les rivières allemandes ont des pentes moins raides et, pour la plu.
part, un débit d'eau plus abondant. Le plus souvent on n’a pas eu
— 56 —
besoin de les canaliser pour leur donner une profondeur d'eau con-
Venable; on a pu Se borner a des travaux de régularisation qui Sont
moins cotiteux que les ouvrages d'art servant à la canalisation des
cours d'eau. Ainsi les qualités des rivières d’Allemagne Sont plus
favorables à l'amélioration de leur navigabilité qui peut étre réalisée
avec des dépenses comparativement modiques. De ce que nous venoms
de dire il résulte qu'une certaine Somme employee pour l'amélioration
des voies navigables Sera d’une plus grande productivité en Allemagne
qu’elle me pourrait 1'être en France.
En Russie les conditions naturelles des fleuves navigables Sont
encore plus avantageuses. La plupart des grands cours d'eau m'a
qu'une pente comparativement insignifiante avec un débit d'eau très
considerable, ce qui facilite particulièrement la navigation à la re-
monte. Sur les grands, fleuves les rapides et cataractes Sont peu nom-
breux. Il n”y en a que très peu de tels qui Sont tout à fait imprati-
cables ou présentent de grandes difficultés à la navigation. Sur notre
plus grand fleuve, le Volga, à partir de la ville de Tver jusqu’à la
mer Caspienne, Sur une étendue de plus de 3000 kilomètres, il n”y
a pas une Seule cataracte. D'autres rivières importanfes, comme la
Dvina Septentrionale, la Néva, la Vistule, le Don etc., m'en ont non
plus. Parmi les grands fleuves ce n'est que le Dnièpre qui, dans son
cours inférieur, a des rapides très considerables présentant de grands
dangers pour la navigation à la descente et empêchant absolument la
navigation à la remonte, de sorte que le Dniepre se présente comme
découpé en deux parties separées; l'une en aval des rapides qui a
une étendue de 350 kilomètres et l'autre en amont d'eux ayant une
longueur de plus de 1500 kilomètres. Pour dommer a la batellerie um
passage commode par les rapides du Dmièpre il faudrait en écluser
Quelquesuns, les plus dangereux, et régulariser les autres, comme cºest
l'intention du Ministère des voies de communication. Mais, pour les
fleuves de la Russie, ce n'est ga qu'un cas isolé et la plupart des
rapides qui se trouvent sur les autres grandes rivières n'ont que peu
d'importance et Sont praticables à la remonte dans leur état naturel,
sans ouvrages d’art; ce n'est même que très-rarement qu’en pareil cas
on a du avoir recours all touage. En général on peut dire que sur
les rivières de la Russie les bateaux parcourent, pour la plupart du
temps, des milliers de kilomètres sans rencontrer des cataractes tant
Soit peu Sérieux. Toutes les conditions susmentionnées ont contribué,
— 57 —
comme mous l'avons Vu, au développement de la navigation interieure
en Russie, a une époque oil la population était encore très peu mom-
breuse et les moyens financiers du pays m'atteignaient que des chif.
fres tout à fait insignifiants.
Au quatrième congrès iuternational de mavigation interieure, tenu
en 1890 a Manchester, ont été présentees, par plusieurs rapporteurs,
des données sur le développement dans les différents €tats de l’Europe
du réseau des voies navigables et la quantité des marchandises trans-
portees Sur ces voies.
Quelques chiffres que mous empruntons aux données Susmention-
nées mous offrent le tableau Suivant:

O' T : Q || |* Danist amuel timsattie à.
Longueui Poids des Trafic en Parcours | *
des VOleS marchandises pouds verstiques In OYell el] | 10am &lioration . . "
Ar navigables l'amélioration l'entretien des
E t at 3. º transportees eſ en versies et des voies navi- || | | | ||
el) Wei'S{es ls - , , y ſº gables en I'Ou- voies navigab-
el (en kilo- (2)] wome eſ. (one kilomé- -. en (kilo- ºries et. en les en roubles
metres). (en tonnes). triques). metres). (francs). et en (francs).
Russie . . . . 80000 2000.000000 2.000000.000000 1000 2.061000 3.31.2000
- (85000) (32.762000) (34966.000000) (1067) (5.152500) (8.280000)
France. . . . 11976 1423,686000 180000.000000 127 19.200000 6.120000
(12776) (23.320000) (3179.676000) (136) (48.000000) (15.300000)
Allemagne. 9374 838.000000 275000.000000 328 3.450000 1.800000
(10000) (13.700000) (4800 000000) (350) (8.625000) (4.500000)
Autriche- 5624 160.000000 * *m. 4.583000
Hongrie . . (6000) (2,620800) 13.750000
Belgique. . . 1509 () * 34000.000000 --- 3.000000 1.200000
(1610) (594.000000 (7.500000) ( 3.000000)
Angleterre. . 3987 22:50.000000 126000.000000 56 &=º *
(4250) (36.855000) (2203,000000) (60) |
(*) 1509 verstes, c'est la longueur des voies navigables administrées par l'état; l'étendue totale des Voies navigables de Belgique
est, de 2067 Verstes,
— 59 —
On voit que l'étendue des voies navigables de la Russie est supé-
rieure à la longueur de celles: de France—de 6 fois et “ſ,. d’Alle-
magne—de 8 fois et '/2; d’Autriche-Hongrie—de 14 ſois; de Belgique—
de 40 fois et d’ Angleterre—de 20 fois.
Quant au poids des marchandises et le trafic, exprimé en tonnes ki-
lométrigues, mous me possédons sur la Russie que les chiffres appro-
ximatives, mentionnés dans le tableau ci-dessus, qui suffisent cepen-
dant pour se faire une idée de ce que le trafic de la navigation
interieure de Russie, à lui Seul, l'emporte de beaucoup sur celui des
antres états de l’Europe ensemble. En effet, en admettant même, que
dams les états sur lesquels les donnees nous manquent (l'Autriche-
Hongrie, la Scandinavie, la Hollande, l'Italie et l'Espagne) le trafic
de la navigation interieure ne soit pas inférieur à celui de la France,
de l’Allemagne, de la Belgique et de l’Angleterre ensemble, mous trou-
verions pourtant pour tous les états Susmentionnés un total de trafic
(en tonnes kilometriques) beaucoup inférieur à celui de la Russie,
ce qui s'explique aisément par la longueur considérable de la plupart
des voies fluviales de Russie et leurs conditions maturelles qui Sont
beaucoup plus favorables à la navigation que ce n'est le cas pour les
cours d'eau des autres états de l’Europe.
Et de tels resultats sont obtenus en Russie avec des moyens
pécuniaires très-modiques ce qui devient évident quand on les com-
pare aux Sommes qu'on dépense à l'étranger pour l'amélioration et
l'entretien du réseau de navigation intérieure.
Comme il résulte du tableau ci-dessus la tonne kilométrique des
transports par voie fluviale revient à l'état: en Russie–à 0.04 cen-
times, en Allemagne—a 0.27 cent., en Belgique—a 1 cent., 77 et en
France—a 1 cent., 99.
Tout ce qui précède est bien fait pour faire comprendre les Soins
exceptionnels que l'administration des voies de communication apporte
à l'amélioration et au développement du réseau de nos Voies de na-
vigation interieures.
Bibliographie.
1) Description du canal Avgoustofski, par l’Ingénieur Kraft.
Journal du Ministère des voies de communication, 1838.
2) Description de tous les canaux flottables et navigables creusés
ou projetés en l'Empire de Russie, par J. Ch. Stuckenberg. St.-Péters-
bourg 1841.
3) Le canal Avgoustofski. Aperçu hydrographique. Leipsic 1849.
4) Itinéraire de navigation interieure de la Russie d’Europe.
St.-Pétersbourg 1854.
5) De l'amélioration de la voie navigable de Wycheni-Volotchok.
Journal de la Direction Générale des voies de communication et des
batiments publics, 1858.
6) Aperçu historique sur les canaux de Ladoga, par l’Ingénieur
V. Kaznakoff. St.-Pétersbourg 1873.
7) Description historique et statistique du système fluvial Wyche-
nevolotski. Journal du Ministère des voies de communication, 1875.
8) Statistique comparative de la Russie et des états de l’Europe
Occidentale, par J. Janson. St.-Pétersbourg 1877. -
9. Règlement de la Compagnie de navigation à la Vapeur Sur la
Moskva. Moscou 1882.
10. Notice explicative sur les travaux de canalisation de la
Moskva. Moskou 1882.
11. Notice Sur les travaux des nouvaux canaux de Ladoga entre
les rivières Volkhof et Svir, par l’Ingénieur T. T. Eidriguevitch.
12. Les Voies navigables de la Russie, par l’Ingénieur Zavadski.
St.-Pétersbourg 1884, 1885 et 1888.
13. Consolidation des berges du Quai Sibérien a Nijmi-Novgorod,
par l’Ingénieur I. I. Avgoustovski. St.-Pétersbourg 1885.
14) Le port de Riga, par I’Ingénieur A. B. Naguel. St.-Pé-
tersbourg 1885. -
15) Le fleuve Dniestre, par l’Ingénieur W. M. Lokhtine. Odessa
1886. -
— 61 —
16) Les travaux du mouveau canal Marie, par l’Ingénieur A.
Zviaginntsef. Annales du Cercle des ingénieurs des voies de communi-
cation 1887. *
17) Aperçu succint de l'activité du Ministère des voies de com-
munication, de 1874 a 1886. St.-Pétersbourg 1887.
18) Travaux de régularisation sur la Vistule, par l’Ingénieur M.
A. Chistofski. St-Pétersbourg 1887.
19) Le Volga, son importance comme voie navigable; par le Pro-
fesseur N. A. Bogouslavski. Recueil de l’Institut des Ingénieurs des
voies de communication. St.-Pétersbourg 1887.
20) Notices de voyage et techniques sur le canal de Saima en
Finlande, par L. Ch. Boutchatski. Annales du Cercle des Ingénieurs
des voies de communication 1887.
21) Le canal Tikhvinnski, par l’Ingénieur L. Ch. Boutchatski.
Annales du Cercle des Ingénieurs des voies de communication 1887.
22) Notice sur le problème de l'amélioration de la navigabilité
des cataractes du Dniepre, par l’Ingénieur K. L. Penntkovski. Annales
du Cercle des Ingénieurs des voies de communication 1887.
23) Etat actuel en Russie du problème sur la régularisation des
fleuves, par l’Ingénieur Zbrogek. Journal du Ministère des Voies de
communication 1888.
24. Aperçu de l'activité de la compagnie de navigation à la
vapeur sur la Moskva 1888. -
25. Des moyens pour l'entretien d'un chenal navigable dans le
lit du Don, par l’Ingénieur Réevski. Annales du Cercle des Ingénieurs
des voies de communication 1888.
26. Les besoins actuels du fleuve Dniestre, par l’Ingénieur V.
Lokhtine. Annales du Cercle des Ingénieurs des voies de communica-
tion 1891. tº
E. F. de Hoersche/mann.
- Kief,
le 24 Avril 1893.
Sechster internationaler Binnenschifffahrts-
Congress.
In HAAG. — 1894.
Ausführung Von Unterhaltungsarbeiten an Wasser-
strassen, insbesondere Maurer- und Zimmer-
Arbeiten während des Winters,
WON
Sr. Excellenz, dem Wirklichen Geheimen Rath und Ministerialdirector im Königlich
Preussischen Ministerium der öffentlichen Arbeiten,
S C H U L T Z.
Da zeitweilige Schifffahrtssperren, wenn sie zur Ausführung gewisser
grösserer Unterhaltungsarbeiten mothwendig werden, immer eine ein-
Schneidende Benachtheiligung des Handels und aller mit der Schifffahrt
in Verbindung stehenden Erwerbszweige herbeiführen, so sind dieselben
Sowohl mach Möglichkeit abzukürzen, als auch, wenn angängig, in eine
Zeit zu legen, in der die Natur bezw. die Witterungsverhältnisse ohnehin
einen lebhafteren Betrieb der Schifffahrt hindern.
Als die geeignetste Zeit zur Vornahme von Unterhaltungsarbeiten,
welche eine Absperrung der Wasserstrassen bedingen, sind daher die
Monate der strengsten Kälte, also die Zeit von Mitte Dezember bis Mitte
Mārz an/usehen. Werden die Arbeiten auch im Winter, wie Selbstver-
ständlich, erheblich schwieriger und kostspieliger, als in der günstigen
Jahreszeit, so wird doch an dem erwähnten Grundsatze in Preussen im
Allgemeinen festgehalten. Bei der folgenden Besprechung winterlicher
Unterhaltungsarbeiten an Wasserstrassen sind vorzugsweize die an der
Hohensaaten-Spandauer Schifffahrtsstrasse der Wasserverbindung der Havel
mit der unteren Oder, gemachten Erfahrungen benutzt worden. Zunichst,
ist im Allgemeinen zu bemerken dass nur Solche Arbeiten im Winter
vorgenommen werden, welche in der besseren Jahreszeit ohne Störung
des Schiffsverkehrs durchaus nicht ausgeführt werden können. Aus diesem
Grunde werden Unterhaltungsarbeiten am Flusse- oder Kanalbett, welche
in Erd- und Faschinenarbeiten bestehen, im Winter nicht vorgenommen,
2
Abgesehen davon, dass die gefrocene Erde mihsam Zu lösen, das Ein-
schlagen von Pfählen schwierig, wenn nicht unmöglich ist, dass ferner
durch die Arbeiten ein wiederholtes Aufeisen längerer Strecken der Ufer
nothwendig werden wirde, können die bezeichneten Arbeiten bequenner
besser und billiger, ohne Störung des Verkehrs auch in den wärmeren
Monaten bewirkt Werden.
Es wird sich daher im Folgenden nur um die wahrend der Schifffahrts-
sperren im Winter aus Zuführenden Unterhaltungs- und Ausbesserungs-
arbeiten an den eigentlichen Bauwerken handelm. An Solchen Bauwerken
kommen an der Hohensaaten-Spandauer Schifffahrtsstrasse ausser 121
kleineren und grösseren Durchlässen und 73 meist hölzernen Treidel-
brücken vorzugsweise 36 Kammerschleusen, von denen je zwei neben
eimander in derselben Staustufe liegen, 14 Freiarchen und 36 Strassen-
in Frage. Die drei letztgenannten Arten von Bauwerken sind grössten-
theils massiv aus hartgebrannten Ziegeln mit Klinkerverblendung her-
gestellt. Holz dagegen ist nur Zu den Schleusenthoren, theilweise auch bei
den Freiarchen und zu dem Oberbau der Brücken verwendet.
I. MAURERARBEITEN.
Die Arbeiten bestehen besonders in Ausbesserungsarbeiten der ausseren
Ansichtsflächen. An den Pfeilern und Widerlagern der Brücken und
Freiarchen sowie an den Häuptern der Schleusen sind es im Allgemeinen
nur einzelne Stellen, an denen die in Folge der Einflüsse der Witterung,
namentlich des Frostes Zerstörten Steine ausgestemmt und ersetzt werden
müssen. Bedeutendere Beschädigungen als die erwähnten pflegen an den
Kammermauern der Schleusen in dem zwischen Ober- und Unterwasser-
linie liegenden Theile aufzutreten. Es bilden sich hier bei den älteren,
in der Mitte dieses Jahrhunderts erbauten Schleusen him und wieder auf
20 bis 30 m. Länge Schadhafte Stellen, welche 60 bis 75 cm. in das
Mauerwerk eingreifen, und sich durch eine zwischen beiden Wasserständen
bemerkbare mehr Oder weniger starke Ausbauchung zu erkennen geben
— ein Zeichen, dass in Folge des Frostes die Verblendung mit einem
Theile der Hintermauerung herausgedrängt ist. Ein weiteres Zeichen sind
die Menge kleiner springbrunnemartiger Quellen, welche beinn Leeren der
Kammer aus den Mauern hervorsprudeln. In der Regel zeigen sich dabei
Zwei Långsrisse in der Höhe der beiden äussersten Wasserstände und in
den dazwischen liegenden Schichten viele ausgefrocene Steine, Wo die
Verblendungssteine nicht bereits zu sehr ausgewittert sind, wird die Aus-
besserung erst vorgenommen, Sobald die erwähnte Ausbauchung etwa
15 cm. Pfeilhöhe erreicht hat. Zeigt die Mauer dagegen auch bei
nicht so starkem Vortreten sehr viel Schlechte Steine, wird schon
früher vorgegangen. Was die Ausführung dieser Arbeit betrifft, so gebietet
es die Vorsicht bei dem starken, Zum Theil bis zu 4 m. gehenden
3
Gefälle der Schleusen nicht Sogleich grössere Längen des Mauerwerkes
auszustemmen, Sondern stückweise, zur méglichsten Beschleunigung aber
an verschiedenen Stellen, Längen von etwa 2% m. herauszunehmen und
zu erneuern. Diese Arbeiten werden am bequensten von Prähmen aus
bewerkstelligt. Sind die untersten Schichten ausgebessert, so wird das
Wasser entsprechend höher gestaut, wobei unter Umständen ein tägliches
Loseisen der Prähme erforderlich wird.
Sind Ausbesserungen in den Umlāufen, an den Drempeln und den
Schleusenböden vorzunehmen, so muss selbstverständlich die Schleusen-
kammer nach Einlegen der Dammbalken ausgepumpt werden, was durch
eine Centrifugalpumpe mit Lokomobile bewirkt wird.
Da es vor Allen darauf ankommt, die Arbeiten in der offt knapp bemes-
senen Zeit bis zum Wiederbeginnn der Schifffahrt fertig zu stellen, so werden
sämmtliche Vorbereitungen rechtseitig getroffen und Materialien wie
Geräthschaften bereits worher und in bester Beschaffenheit zur Stelle
geschafft. Die Mauersteine werden gegen Hinzutritt des Frostes gesichert und
erforderlichen Falls durch in der Nähe unterhaltene Feuer warm gehalten.
Fernerhin werden Koockskörbe sowie wenn Nachtarbeit nothwendig wird,
Beleuchtungsvorrichtungen, Fackelm u.S.W. bereit gehalten. Namentlich
wird darauf gesehen, dass nur besonders geschickte und Zuverlässige
Arbeiter Zur Hand sind und die Leitung und Beaufsichtigung in gewissen-
haften Händen liegt. Da bei den Arbeiten eine bis in das Kleinste
gehende Sorgfalt obwalten muss, so wird unbedingt an dem Grundsatze
festgehalten, dass dieselben nicht einem Unternehmer tibergeben, wielmehr
ohne Rücksicht auf den Kostenpunkt nur im Selbstbetriebe ausgeführt
werden.
Am meisten Zeit nehmen die Ausstemmungsarbeiten in Anspruch. Die-
selben können zwar ohne Nachtheil auch bei Frostwetter vorgenommen
werden, doch schreiten sie, da Selbst Schadhaftes Mauerwerk durch den
Frost eine grosse Härte erlangt, nur langsam Vorwärts und nutzen die
Werkzeuge sehr ab. Sprengungen können nur in gewissen Fällen ange-
wendet werden, um nicht auch gleichzeitig gesundes Mauerwerk Zu
Zerstören.
Das Wiederaufmauern erfordert ganz besondere Worsicht. Die Erwār-
mung der Steine wird in heissem Wasser bewirkt, zu dessen Beschaffung
unter Umständen der Dampf aus der Lokomobile benutzt wird. Der zu
verwendende Sand wird, wenn nôthig, auf erhitzen Eisenplatten gewärmt
und der Mörtel mit warmen Wasser Zubereitet. Da es besonders auf
schnelles Abbinden des Mörtels ankommt, wird nur reiner Cementmörtel
im Mischungsverhältniss von 1 Theil Cement zu 3 Theilen Sand ver-
wendet. Bei der nôthigen Vorsicht können die Maurerarbeiten, wenn es
erforderlich ist, bis zu 2 auch 3 Grad Réaumür unter dem Gefrierpunkte
vorgenommen werden. Frforderlich ist dabei, dass Sowohl das ausgestemmte
wie auch das frisch aufgeführte Mauerwerk durch Koockskörbe, die auf
4 -
den Arbeitsprähmen aufgestellt sind, warm gehalten wird. Zeigt sich
dessen ungeachtet beinn Wiederbeginn der Arbeit am Morgen, dass der
Frost in die oberen Schichten eingedrungen ist, so werden dieselben besei-
tigt. Wird es trotz aller erwähnten Worsichtsmassregeln bei Eintritt stren-
ger anhaltender Kälte unmöglich ein frostfreies Mauerwerk herzustellen,
so wird das allerdings sehr kostspielige Auskunftsmittel angewandt, die
Baustelle mit einem Holzschuppen Zu überbauen und diesen mit Hülfe
eingesetzter Koockskörbe und eiserner Oefen Zu heizen, ein Verfahren,
wobei natürlich eine tadellose Ausführung gewährleistet wird.
Sind die kurzen Tage schon dem Schnellen Fortschreiten der Arbeit
hinderlich, so ist es ferner die beschränkte Bewegungsfreiheit der Arbeiter
sowohl in Folge der Erstarrung der Glieder, der ungewohnten Schweren
Kleidung, als auch der Glåtte der Rüstungen, Karrbahnen u.S.w. Welche
die Leistung herabdrückt. Insbesondere wird auch das Heranschaffen der
Materialien, sowie die Bewegung aller Schweren Gegenstände beschwerlich
und gefährlich, erfordert grosse Vorsicht und wird Zeitraubend. Dazu
kommt, das in Folge ungúnstiger Witterung oder Schneefall, die Arbeiten
häufig unterbrochen und Zeitweilig ganz eingestellt werden müssen, und
dass auch bei Verhältnissmässig giinstigem Wetter die eigentliche Arbeit
im Allgemeinen nicht vor 9 oder 10 Uhr des Morgens in den Gang
kommt. -
Alle diese Ursachen tragen dazu bei, diese winterlichen Maurerarbeiten
im Ganzen Sehr theuer Zu gestalten. WennSchon sich bestimmte Einheits-
preise bei der Veránderlichkeit der Zahlreichen dabei maassgebenden Um-
stände nicht festSetzen lassen, So kann man doch im Allgemeinen annehmen,
dass das Aufmauern den doppelten, das Austemmen den dreifachen Betrag
des für die gute Jahreszeit geltenden Preissatzes erfordert.
2. ZIMMERARBEITEN.
Weit weniger Schwierig als die Ausbesserung des Mauerwerks ist die
Ausführung der Zimmerarbeiten im Winter, weshalb diese, insbesondere
so weit es sich um hálzerne Schleusenthore handelt, ausschliesslich in
dieser Zeit vorgenommen werden.
Die Herstellung neuer Schleusenthore wird bereits worher mach Zeich-
nung und Ausschlag vorbereitet. Im Gegensatz zu den Maurerarbeiten
werden die Thorneubauten nicht im Selbstbetriebe, wielmehr im Wege
der Verdingung durch mit solohen Arbeiten vertraute und vor allen
Dingen zuverlässige Unternehmer ausgeführt. Bei rechtzeitiger Bestellung
können sich die Unternehmer die geeigneten Hölzer Zeitig beschaffen und
auf ibren Werkplatzen Zurichten. Sie werden verpflichtet, sich von der
Richtigkeit der anschlagsmässigen AbmeSSungen durch eigenes Nachmessen
an Ort und Stelle Zu überzeugen und dirfen demnach nur genau pas-
sende Arbeit liefern. Die vorbereiteten Hölzer werden an die Schleuse ge-
5
schafft und hier fertig verbunden, mit dem Eisenbeschlag versehen und
bei Eintritt der Wintersperre nach Herausnahme der alten Thore einge-
hängt. Ein Entleeren der Kammer ist dazu im Allgemeinen nicht erfor-
derlich, es muss jedoch die etwa Vorhandene Eisdecke beseitigt werden.
Die Beschaffung der neuen Thore wird im Winter nicht erheblich
theurer, als dies im Sommer der Fall sein wārde.
Ausbesserungsarbeiten an den Thorflügeln werden vorzugsweise in deren
oberen Theilen : Wendesäule, Schlagsäule, Oberriegeln und der Beklei-
dung erforderlich. Bei einiger Aufmerksamkeit lassen sich hier Schadhafte
Thore durch Austücken der einzelnen Theile und Befestigung mit kräfti-
gen Bolzen noch 3 bis 4 Jahre, oft noch länger erhalten.
Ein etwaiges Herausnehmen der Thorflügel wiirde im Sommer ebenso
nöthig sein wie im Winter, kann jedoch unter Umständen unterbleiben.
Die Beschaffung der neuen Holztheile erfordert keine grösseren Kosten
als im Sommer. Mit Rücksicht auf die durch starken Frost und Neben-
arbeiten wie Aufeisen, Beseitigen des Schnees u. S. W. hervorgerufenen
Störungen kann man annehmen, dass die eigentliche Arbeit auf der
Baustelle um die Hälfte theurer wird als im Sommer. -
VI* International Inland Navigation Congress.
T H E H A G U E, 1894.
II NW WAIRWW II UTHM
PAPER BY
W. GUSTAV TRIEST,
New York City, U. S. A., May, 1894.
INTRODUCTION.
The majority of the great ports of the world are situated on large
rivers, either some distance inland or at their mouths. The advent of
steam navigation and the subsequent revolution in the size of sea-going
vessels have imparted an ever-increasing importance to the improvement
of the river outlets and of the rivers up to the centres of commerce, as
the natural waterways are rarely sufficient any longer to accommodate
modern vessels. Each lengthening of the waterway, and the resulting
reduction of the transit by rail, diminishes essentially the freight charges
and consequently the price of goods. In the struggle for superiority in the
maritime trade all ports are bound to succumb which do not allow the
deepest draft ships to go up to their docks. Vast sums have been
expended during the last few decades to deepen and enlarge the natural
waterways, but only recently the building of artificial ways of access has
been begun. One of the earliest undertakings of this class which can con-
sequently be best judged as to its success is the so-called, new waterway”
to Rotterdam. This work, together with harbor improvements, will
doubtless raise Rotterdam to that prominent place among the European
ports to which it is entitled from its favorable location at the mouth of
the Rhine as an entrepôt of the commerce of a large part of Holland
and central and southern Germany. .
NATURAL COMMUNICATION WITH THE SEA.
Rotterdam is built on the banks of the ,Nieuwe Maas", or New Maas,
one of a remarkable system of outlets by which the waters of the Rhine,
the Meuse and the Scheldt, unite and discharge into the North Sea. The
2
ancient arm of the Rhine which alone, through the Netherlands, bears the
name of the Rhine, has long since ceased to be an outlet of the river
waters, being closed by guard locks. The main body of the Rhine flows
by Rotterdam under the name of the New or .Nieuwe.” Maas. The
natural mouth of the Maas, entering the sea at Brielle, had a sufficient
depth until the beginning of this century, so that even the deepest
vessels of that time could ascend it as far as Rotterdam. There appears
to have been at that time a greater depth on its bar than now. It still
accommodates ships drawing not more than 10 to 111/2 feet (3 to 3.5 m),
but with strong Westerly winds the sea runs so heavy upon the entrance
bar that the passage becomes impracticable. Access for vessels of larger
draft had to be sought by way of the distant harbors of Brouwershaven
or Goeree and through intricate shoal-beset channels. Owing to the unsatis-
factory character of the natural routes of navigation, from 1827 to 1829 a
canal was dug through the island of Voorne from Hellevoetsluis to
Nieuwesluis. This canal is about 8 miles (13 km.) long, has locks at
each end and affords passage at any tide to vessels of 230 feet (71 m.)
length, 45 feet (14 m.) width and 17 feet (5.15 m.) draft. The ordinary
surface level corresponds to low water at Hellevoetsluis, but it can be
raised 6 feet (1.8 m.) above that level. With the increase in the size of
ships the depth of water on the bar and shoals of the Goeree Pass and
the restricted length of the canal locks soon became insufficient. Large
vessels of great draft entered the Brouwershaven Pass, discharged part of
their cargoes into lighters, sometimes outside by the Goeree Pass, but
oftener by the interior passage, to Hellevoetsluis and through the Voorne
Canal to Rotterdam. -
It may here be mentioned that the national hydraulic works of
Holland with the supervision over the river and ocean dikes is in charge of
a permanent board, the Waterstaat”. As organized in 1848 this board
consists of two inspectors, five engineers-in-chief of the first class, and
four of the second, fifteen engineers of the first class and fifteen of the
second. After the completion of the Voorne Canal the engineers devised
various projects for removing the defects of that route. Mr. GREVE, a
former chief-engineer of the Waterstaat, proposed a jetty starting from
the island of Voorne in a North-westerly direction, then, making an
elbow, running parallel to the Goeree Shore and terminating in the Sea
at the line of 16/2 ft. (5 m.) depth below low water. This jetty would
have been nearly 9 miles (14.5 km.) long and would have cost
$ 30,000,000. Mr. GREVE and Mr. CoNRAD, engineer of the Waterstaat, recom-
mended also the construction of a new canal through the Western point
of the island of Goedereede, connecting the Springers-deep with the
Haringvliet. The locks of the Voorne canal were to be lengthened and
the river navigation bettered in various ways.
The question of improving the waterway became so urgent that, in
3
1857, the Government appointed a committee of engineers of the Water-
Staat to consider the projects of improvement. By order of the Govern-
ment Mr. GREVE made a report in the same year in which he advised
improving the entrance of the Nieuwe Maas by a pair of dikes of fascine
work, at a cost of $3,600,000. The dikes were to start from either shore,
paralleling each other for the greater part of their length and termina-
ting at a depth of 18 feet (51/2 m.) below low water. They were to reach .
to a height of 9 feet (23/4 m.) above low water and their combined
length was to be about 11°/4 miles (18.9 km.) A very similar plan, but
contemplating lower and shorter dikes, was proposed about the same
time by Mr. P. CALAND who was then engineer of the Waterstaat. A year
later Mr. CALAND submitted a project which differed considerably from
the two above mentioned. Instead of attempting to obtain an outlet
through the old mouth, the Northern arm of the Nieuwe Maas and the
Scheur, were to be followed and then extended by a channel cut through
the Hoek van Holland, with a dam across the old outlet of the Scheur
just above the proposed cut. The plan also contemplated improving
the whole river from Krimpen to the new cut by means of lateral dikes
which would modify the directions of the currents and correct the channel
widths. A cut was to be made through the Easterly point of the island of
Rozenburg so as to throw the waters of the Old Maas into the Scheur. A
uniform depth of 21.3 feet (6.5 m.) at low water was to be obtained from
Rotterdam to the sea. The great advantage of this last project was mainly
that a depth of 18 feet (5.5 m.) below low water could be obtained with
jetties of a total length of 8530 feet (2600 m.) Furthermore, the Scheur
branch of the Nieuwe Maas is more regular and better adapted for a
great navigable channel than the Southerly branch which passes by Brielle.
The Waterstaat made the following criticisms on the above proposi-
tions. Mr. GREVE's plan for the improvement of the Goeree Pass involved
a very great expense, while the desired result could not be regarded as
certain. To the Goedereede canal the objection was made that in addi-
tion to the admitted inferiority of canal to open river navigation, there
existed in the Haringvliet directly in the route of vessels, a shoal which
was doubtful of removal. The objections to the GREVE plan for the im-
provement of the Brielle Pass were as follows: It does not provide for
the free admission of the tidal flow which is mainly influential in main-
taining depth in the outlets of rivers; further, the jetties are given the
height of storm-tides, thus increasing the expense and needlessly exposing
the work to injury. The construction of the excessively long jetties would
be difficult as they would be built upon the existing shoal on which the
breakers are violent during moderately strong Westerly winds. The last
remarks apply also to the first plan of Mr. CALAND with the qualification
that the lesser height diminishes the expense and affords less exposure
to injury from wave force. The commissioners adopted Mr. CALAND’s Se-
4
cond plan with some slight modifications, and a law passed in January
1863 provided for its execution. Thus was to be realized the project of
the Dutch engineer CRUQUIUs who, in 1739, had proposed to open a
shorter outlet to the waters of the New Maas by cutting through the Hoek
van Holland. In endorsing the plan the commission presented some ,ge-
neral considerations” on the improvement of navigation into the mouths
of tidal rivers. A short abstract of the same follows:
Theory and experience have taught that the most powerful agent in
maintaining the depths of the Dutch tidal outlets is to be found in the
velocity with which the water moves through the section of the navigable
channel. If the velocity and volume of water required cannot be obtained,
resort must be had to dredging or to artificial canals.
,The incessant action of the tides and waves keeps the Sands in con-
stant motion along the Dutch coasts, establishing Such a slope that a
depth of 18 feet (51/2 m.) below low water cannot be found nearer than
2600 to 4300 feet (800 to 1300 m.) from the shore line. The drainage
water of the rivers is quite inadequate to maintain, through this slope, a
channel of a depth sufficient for large vessels, owing to the great width
of the river mouths. But the tide enters the mouths and, during ebb, is
discharged with the accumulated drainage water, than which, however,
its volume is many times greater. Hence the maintenance of depth in
the Dutch river outlets is principally due to the action of the tides.
This action increases with the tidal range. To increase the latter is not
within the power of man, but the direction and form of the entrance
may be regulated. The outlets of the Dutch rivers in the North Sea all
have a curve to the Southward whereby they better guide the tidal
current which flows from out the channel. The shortest line to the
required depth is nearly North-west because the coast trends North-east
but as the tide-stream comes from the South-west, the direction should
lie, at least, East and West. . .
,The volume of rivers grows as they approach the sea. To maintain
an equal depth, the width must hence be the greatest at the outlet,
diminishing funnel-wise in ascending.
..For the protection of the outlets externally, jetties must be used.
l Inland, the width of the rivers is often regulated by jetties of Cribwork.
For the lower rivers this method is undesirable, as between the cribs
there remain basins which the tide must fill, thus diminishing its upward
flow. The further the tide reaches the more powerful will be the ebb,
and preference is therefore given to lateral dikes.”
The law of 1863 established the width of the tidal stream at 740 feet
(225 m.) at Krimpen, gradually increasing to 1480 feet (450 m.) at
Vlaardingen and to 2960 feet (900 m.) at the sea end of the jetties.
These widths were fixed on the assumption that, owing to the removal
of the existing contractions, particularly those at Rotterdam and Char-
5
lois, the tide would ascend higher and need larger cross sections. Such
are required also between Rotterdam and Krimpen to relieve the flow
of the Lek. For the heights of the lateral dikes the mean between high
and low water was taken ; a greater height would diminish the quantity
of tide-water while a less height would decrease the effects of the ebb.
currents. The following sections of the dikes from Krimpen to the Hoek
were determined upon, as far as they are not a part of the shores them-
selves. The top width is 10 feet (3 m.) with slopes on the river side 1 to
1, on the land side ||, to 1. The landward berms are 6!/2 feet (2 m.)
wide, while the berms on the river side are 16 feet (5 m.) at Krimpen
increased to 48 feet (15 m.) at the outlet. Along the cut through the
Hoek and connecting with the ,downs” high dikes on each side were
planned with the double object of making suitable connections with
the sea jetties and providing areas of land protected from overflow,
where men and goods would be in security during storm-tides. The
two sea jetties were to consist of fascine work with stone. The new
cut was calculated at a width of 164 feet (50 m.) and a depth of 10
feet (3 m.) at low water in the expectancy that the river, after the
damming of its old outlet, would Scour a bed of sufficient depth and
width. The cost of the whole improvement was estimated at only
2|, million dollars, the work to be completed in 6 years. The con-
struction of the North jetty was begun in 1863 and finished in 1874,
while the South jetty was started in 1864 and completed in 1876.
Construction of the Jetties.
The length of the Northern jetty is 6560 feet (2000 m.), while the
South jetty is 7550 feet (2300 m.) long. The jetties begin at the high
dikes on the shore above mentioned, at an elevation of 3 feet 3inches (1 m.)
above mean high water at the high water shore line. They are well connected
with these dikes so that the water cannot scour behind them and tear them
off. From the shore their top descends in an easy curve to a height of
about 3 feet 3 inches (1 m.) above low water. The ordinary tidal range
is 5 feet 7 inches (1.7 m.) more or less.
The jetties consist of mattresses of fascine work covered with stone, of
the dimensions as given by the drawings. Their top is curved 20 inches
(0.5 m.) and paved with large blocks. They were constructed on the sea-
beach between high and low water so that after completion they could
be floated off at high tide. They were towed to their location and
anchored with sinking lines, loaded with stone and sunk to the bot-
\ tom. The mattresses were loaded wiih at least half a ton (ºls ton) of
| stone per cubic yard (cu. m.) of fascine work. The mattresses consisted,
in the first place, of a grillage of fascines, the bottom layer of which
lies crosswise at distances of 36 to 40 inches (0.9 to 1 m.) between cen-
6
tres. The fascines were 4 to 6 inches (100 to 150 mm.) in diameter and
were composed of small branches of willow trees. The upper layer of
fascines crosses the first one at right angles; they are laid not more than
36 inches (0.9 m.) centre to centre, and are made as long as possible, as
longitudinal strength is needed. Where jointed they are spliced by short
fascines bound to them, or they are united by cutting open the end
binding-withes and interlocking and binding the ends together for a
length of 5 to 6% feet (1% to 2 m.). The two layers are connected at
the intersections with flexible withes, while along the circumference and
at alternate inside joints they are bound together with tarred ropes.
These ropes are cast around stakes so that they can, after the filling up
of the mattresses, be made fast to the upper grillage. On and perpendi-
cular to the bottom layer are then placed loose layers or bundles of osier
willow, in which the longitudinal fascines are thus embedded. A second
layer, called the filling layer, is put crosswise. Over this filling layer are
placed the longitudinal fascines of the upper grillage, between which is
put down a second filling layer. A final cross layer of fascines is then
so laid that their intersections with the longitudinal fascines coincide
with those of the lower grillage, which are marked by the above mentioned
stakes. These intersections are bound with the same cords, so that
the Osier filling is compressed as tightly as possible between the two
grillages. The other intersections are stiffly bound with withes. The stakes
are then withdrawn. The three layers make a mattress 16 to 24 inches
(40 to 60 cm.) thick. The upper surface of the mattresses is provided
with enclosures of hurdle work in order to keep the ballast in place
should the bottom be sloping. The size of the mattresses depends on the
convenience of transportation and of sinking; they should contain not less
than 480 sqare yards (400 sq. ft.). The largest mattresses sunk have a breadth
of about 50 feet (15 m.) and a length of from 490 to 590 feet (150 to 180 m.).
Above low water the fascine work is laid in separate fascines by hand.
These, like the mattresses, are loaded with stone. -
The jetties are consolidated by oak piles, 30 to 38 feet (9 to 11% m.)
long, which are driven through all the layers into the bottom. The tops
of these are framed together, thus forming the supports of a platform on
which a track was laid during construction. The foreshore berms and
slopes surrounding the pier head are further secured by three rows of
oak piles framed together as shown on the drawing, Fig. 5.
As soon as a portion of the jetty was completed to above low tide,
ballast Stone was thrown in upon the base berms and sides to an amount
of 56 to 64 tons per running yard of jetty (60 to 70 tons per running
metre). No Stone of less than 110 lbs. (50 kg.) weight was used, and
above low water they were carefully laid and their joints packed with
Smaller stones, spawls and quarry refuse. Between the piles around the
fore-shore berm of the pier head, stones were placed weighing at least half
7
a ton (500 kg.), and on the outside of the outer row of piles of that
berm at least one row of Stones was deposited of a minimum weight of
one ton (1000 kg.) - ;"
| No artificial stone has ever been used on these jetties. The largest |
natural stone weighed only about one ton and a half (1500 kg.). The ſ
secret of the success in maintenance has been that the jetties have been ſ
kept low enough to allow the storm waves of high tides to go over them,
and the protection of the most exposed slopes by flat stone of good
dimensions placed over each other like shingles on the roof of a building;
the lines of shingling being laid at right angles to the direction of the
sea as it strikes the slopes of the jetties. A railroad track extends the
entire length of the jetties, the rails being laid on longitudinal timbers
embedded in the stonework, and above this stonework rising above the tops
of the rails on either side between the tracks so as to protect it from the waves.
The annual cost of keeping the jetties in order is but $ 7200, a proof
that it is feasible to maintain such works in an exposed situation.
Construction of the New Waterway.
Simultaneously with the construction of the jetties the damming of
the Scheur was begun and carried up to high water in 1872. The pro-
file of the dam, as designed, had to be greatly altered during construc-
tion. The total width of the Scheur at the location of the dam was
about 1000 feet (300 m.). This outlet could not be stopped before the
new channel was cut through the Hoek. While this latter work was
going on, jetties were built out from the embankments of either shore
contracting the channel to 420 feet (128 m.) and confining it to the deep-
est existing portion. Between the ends of these jetties a bottom revet-
ment of fascine work and pallast stone was sunk to prevent the accelera-
ted tidal currents from Scouring the bottom of this opening. Later it
was found that the bottom along the edges of the revetment had greatly
deepened, undermining them and letting it extend across the river like
a ridge. The subsequent construction of the dam was thereby rendered
more difficult as the regular process of sinking mattresses could be applied
only after the great inequalities of the bottom had been levelled up by
laying Successive small mattresses. -
The contracts for the construction of the channel through the Hoek
were awarded in March 1863, but as acquiring the right of way occupied
much time, actual work on the excavation was not begun until 1866. In
the years to 1868 a canal of a bottom width of 33 feet (10 m.) and of
a depth of 6% feet (2 m.) below low water was excavated through the
Hoek. Thus a new outlet of the Scheur into the sea was created. The
canal was enlarged to a width of 164 feet (50 m.) in 1870, and after the
old mouth had been closed the river began to actively scour out its new
8
bed. The current is said to have carried away not less than 6"/2 million
cubic yards (5 million cu. m.) of material within one year.
The new waterway was opened to navigation in 1871, though the re-
quired width and depth had not yet been attained. On July 10" of that
year two fishing boats passed through the cut as the first vessels; they
were followed in March 1872 by a steamer of 10 feet (3 m.) draft.
A few years were now spent in seeing how the new cut would develope,
but it soon became evident that, under the existing conditions, the scour-
ing force of the current alone would not create a channel of sufficient
dimensions. A great part of the scoured material had settled between the
jetties. This is explained by the fact that the narrow sections of the cut
of a width of about 820 feet (250 m.) suddenly changed there to 2950
feet (900 m.). Over 5 million dollars had been expended on the cut, the
jetties and the regulation of the river, without attaining the desired end.
A careful survey, made in April 1877, showed the situation as follows.
In the new cut there had formed a narrow channel of more than 23
feet (7 m.) depth to within about 4000 feet (1200 m.) from the jetty
heads; but through the bar between the latter there was a channel,
near the North jetty, of only 15% feet (4.7 m.) at high water, thus pro-
hibiting large vessels from entering.
The project of the commission of 1858 had counted on the action of
the sea currents to widen and deepen the waterway between and in front
of the jetties as well as inside of the cut, but it now became apparent
that it would be necessary to assist nature or the whole enterprise would
collapse. Consequently in May 1877 a law was enacted which required
the bar between the jetty heads to be removed by dredging. The govern-
ment did not rest contented with this measure, as experience taught
that an artificial channel through the bar shoaled again very rapidly. It
appointed a committee which should examine the original project and
report on the necessary changes so as to insure the success of the under-
taking. The committee made a preliminary report in 1878 and submitted
a definite project two years later. The essential features of the plan were
retained, but some changes were recommended, especially with regard to
the standard widths, the improvements at the Eastern point of Rozen-
burg and the jetties. The commissioners further proposed a different
method of execution, abandoning the principle that a channel could be
developed by the natural force of the current and advising to place reliance
solely on artificial means. The following standard widths were recom-
mended: 820 feet (250 m.) at Krimpen, 1110 feet (340 m.) at Rotterdam,
1470 feet (450 m.) at Vlaardingen, 1740 feet (530 m.) at Maassluis, 2060
and 2160 feet (630 and 660 m.) at the beginning and end of the cut
respectively. The width was to be 2250 feet (685 m.) at the existing sea
end and 50 feet (15 m.) more at the proposed sea end of the North jetty,
which was to be lengthened. The above widths exceed the previous ones
9
above Vlaardingen and are less below it. The old Maas and Scheur were
to be separated by a dam which should reach from the dikes of the Eastern
point of Rozenburg across to those of the island of Ysselmonde, communi-
cation between the two rivers to be had by means of a lock in the dam.
The commission finally proposed to extend the existing jetties to a
depth of 29% feet (9 m.) at low water and to raise them to 13 feet
(4 m.) above low water by means of concrete blocks on a foundation of
basalt rocks. In order to reduce the width between the existing jetties
from 2950 feet (900 m.) to 2290 feet (700 m.), the construction of a pair
of low dams of fascine work about parallel and between the old jetties
was suggested. The crown of these dams should be at the elevation of
low water. A lengthening of the jetty was considered necessary as it was
the opinion of the commission that between and in front of the existing
jetties the required depth at low water for ships of 21 feet (6.5 m.) draft
could not be obtained; the sea currents landwards of the 28 feet (8.5 m.)
depth line would not be powerful enough to remove the sand which
was carried out by the tidal stream.
The cost of execution of the new plan, including the regulation of the
Maas up to Krimpen, was estinated at 12 million dollars. The city of
Rotterdam promised to contribute 10 percent of this sum, up to a maxi-
mum amount of $ 1,200,000. The report of the commission was submitted
by the Government to the ,,Generalstaaten”, the legislative body, but it
never came up for discussion. The excessive cost formed a great obstacle,
especially as nearly 4 million dollars had already been spent up to the
end of 1880. Moreover, the succes of the improvement was greatly
doubted. The Government declared it indispensable that the dredging of
the cut be energetically pushed, and in 1881 the appropriations were
made for dredging the cut and building the inner South jetty. The
method of annually appropriating sums for executing single parts of the
project of the commission without the plan having been adopted and
without the Government pledging itself to carry it out, was vigorously
opposed in the Upper Chamber. The Government then decided to com-
plete the work for a maximum sum of 6 million dollars, omitting the
lengthening or raising of the jetties and not bringing the river between
Rotterdam and Krimpen to a continuous channel depth of 21 feet
(6.5 m.) at low water. The Upper Chamber appropriated this sum under
condition that each year not more than $ 600,000 should be expended ;
and the last of the appropriations was expended in 1893.
In the meantine the conditions at the mouth had changed considera-
bly. In 1877 a contract was made for excavating 6.760.000 cubic yards
(5.170,000 cu. m.) in the cut and 915.000 cubic yards (700,000 cu. m.)
on the bar between the jetty heads. This work was pushed vigorously.
In dredging the bar it was the intention to divert the ebb current from
the right hand shore and bring it to bear against the bar midway
TRIEST. 1 +
10
between the jetties. The result was that a deep channel, the so-called
, West Channel”, formed near the South jetty. Where in 1877 there was
only a depth of 6% feet (2 m.) at low water, in 1880 it was 10% feet
(3.2 m.) deep, so that the new channel could be opened to navigation.
The contraction of the width between the jetty heads to 2300 feet
(700 m.) by the inside South jetty and extensive dredging operations
succeeded, by the fall of 1883, in creating a channel between the jetties
with depths varying from 15 to 20 feet (4.5 to 6 m.). In the spring of
the following year a continuous depth of 18 feet (5.5 m.) at low water was
attained. This depth has since increased steadily. In 1887 the least depth
between Maassluis and the Hoek was 25% feet (7.8 m.) at high water,
while the 18 foot (5.5 m.) channel was nowhere less than 430 feet
(130 m.) in width. The soundings of October 1889 give 27 feet 7 inches
(8.4 m.) as the least depth between the North Sea and Maassluis and 26 feet
11 inches (8.2 m.) between the latter place and Rotterdam. Since March
1890 navigation finds a minimum depth of 281/4 feet (8.6 m.) at high
water with a width of 430 feet (130 m.) at that depth. The map of
Soundings of June 1891 gives in the line of the orange lights” a least
depth of 31% feet (9.6 m.), and that of August 1893 gives even a little
more. This result has been accomplished without lengthening or raising
the jetties, showing that the fears of the commission that otherwise a
bar would form in front of the jetties were groundless. There is no trace
of a bar in the sea at present. Nearly all vessels of deep draft enter at
flood tide and ascending the river with it, reach Rotterdam within two
hours. Deducting from the available channel depth at high water 20
inches (0.5 m.) in summer and 32 inches (0.8 m.) in winter for keel water
and for sea-swells, leaves a safe entrance in summer for vessels of 30 feet
(9.1 m.) draft and in winter for 29 feet (8.8 m.)
The principal measures which, since 1877, have contributed to the
rapid and lasting improvement of the waterway are:
1*. The dredging of the cut. According to the map of 1889 the cut had
been dredged to its full normal width, as urgently recommended by the
commission in order to carry the flood tide inward as rapidly and as
far as possible. The great influence of this work is seen from the fact
that in 1882 there existed at the upper end of the cut a least depth of
only 16 feet (4.9 m.) at low water which had increased to 231}, feet
(7.1 m.) in 1889.
2nd. The marrowing of the ,, Noordgeul”, as the river arm is called
which branches off at the Eastern point of Rozenburg, below Vlaar-
dingen. The interests of navigation compelled the modification of the
plan to dam this branch entirely and to have a lock through it only.
Instead of that the Noordgeul was very much reduced in width
between 1885 and 1887. It is now only 230 feet (70 m.) wide against
an original width of 1060 feet (325 m.). As a result the movement of
11
the tidal stream has become much more regular and nearly all the
water of the New Maas and its ebb tide volume flows along the Scheur
and out to the sea through the new cut. The favorable effects of this
show themselves in the Scheur down to the outlet. 3%
3rd. The removal of the shoal in the Scheur between Vlaardingen and
Maassluis. A little below the Noordgeul there existed a very persistent
shoal which had acquired motoriety in the history of the waterway. The
map of 1882 shows the channel interrupted there and giving a depth of
only 18 feet (5.5 m.) at low water. This depth had increased by about
3/2 feet (1.1 m.) in 1889; periodical dredging is still necessary.
4th. The dredging of the bar ,het Zuiden”. About 3.7 miles (6 km.) below
Maassluis where the channel changes from the right to the left shore, a
bar has always existed which has been deepened by the general improve-
ment of the waterway. Where there was a depth of 163/4 feet (5.1 m.)
at low water in 1882, it had increased to 191/2 feet (6 m.) in 1889, and
varies now between 19 and 20 feet (5.8 and 6.1 m.) at low water or
24!/2 and 25/2 feet (7.5 and 7.7 m.) at high water. Since the amelioration
of the outlet this bar has become the limiting factor in the capacity of
the waterway. A sufficient depth over it can only be maintained by con-
tinuous dredging. The channel here persistently maintains its former
direction towards the old outlet of the Scheur, though this has been
closed for a number of years. -
Besides the above principal measures two important works may be
mentioned. These are restricting the width of the Scheur above and below
Maassluis. This work formed part of the original project and was endorsed
by the commission with some alterations. It was nearly completed in
in 1887 at a cost of about $700,000. Further the dredging of ,het
Beneden-Scheur”. As this had a less width above the dam across the
Scheur than the closed mouth, it has been enlarged up to the point below
Maassluis. Both shores are revetted and, where necessary, built out to
the standard width. The dredging material was dumped into the New
Maas and for its transportation a canal with locks was built through the
lower end of Rozenburg. This canal also forms a navigation channel be-
tween the new waterway and the Brielle New Maas.
Cost. From the beginning of the improvement in 1863 to the close of
1893 there was expended in construction, exclusive of maintenance,
$14,765,300. The exact amounts from 1889 to 1893 have not been
available in writing this paper, and the maximum annual proportions
are used. The yearly cost of maintenance of the outlet by dredging was,
according to official reports of October, 1893, $16,000 between the jetties
and $32,000 in the sea beyond the North jetty.
Résumé. This very important work has been successfully completed.
The good results have been attained by extensive dredging operations
and a skilful utilization of the scouring force of the ebb tide. A very
12
interesting problem has thus found a solution. The problem is, on what
principles must the improvement of the outlets of tidal streams be
carried out, where the tidal range is small and the outlets are exposed to
the depositing action of the sea, and where the tidal current becomes the
principal agent and dredging Operations are of secondary importance.
Under such natural conditions a fan-shaped enlargement has been generally
recommended in order to freely admit the flood tide. This principle
was followed here at first, but was abandoned later when it was found that
the force of the current, weakened by the wide sections, could neither
create nor maintain the required depth.
The Maas belongs to that class of tidal streams which drain a consi-
derable area, but have a small tidal range so that the formation of bars
at the mouth can only be removed and afterwards prevented by increas-
ing the matural current at ebb tide. Now, if on the one hand a wide
mouth cannot be dispensed with, and if on the other hand the ensuing
disadvantage of weakening the ebb current must be avoided by narrowing
the Outlet, both requirements can be satisfied only by a double profile.
The larger high water section will serve the former and the low water
section the latter purpose. The necessity for reinforcing the ebb current
becomes more urgent as the shoaling at the mouth is caused not only
by the sand which is carried down the river, but also by the sand which
in stormy weather is carried in with the flood tide. The latter sand will
settle after the storm has subsided and will create shoals. To remove
these dredging operations would, as experiences teaches, not only be
insufficient, but would be impracticable in heavy wather.
The uniform waterway, gradually widening towards the Sea, has exerted
a most beneficial influence in carrying off the ice. Throughout the Severe
winter of 1890–91 Rotterdam remained accessible to steamers and sailing
vessels, while most ports of North-western Europe were closed by ice.
The dredges and their performances.
The dredging operations before 1882 deserve slight mention as
the difficulties until that time were not as great as later on. The
North channel was dredged under the protection of the North jetty,
so that oven ordinary bucket dredges had a sufficient number
of working days. In dredging this channel the principal object was
to render navigation possible, reserving until later the deepening
of the main channel. The conditions changed in 1882. The , West
Channel” from its location midway between the jetty heads, was exposed
to heavy seas and to all winds from West-southwest to North-east, and it
was further desirable to attain the proposed depth in the shortest time
possible. Within 18 months from April 1882, 522,000 cubic yards
(400,000 cub. m.) were to be dredged, making a monthly average of 29,000
13.
cubic yards (22,000 cu. m.); while according to previous experience
only a very limited number of working days could be counted on. The
former suction dredges could work in a maximum wave height of
26 inches (65 cm.), while it was now necessary to operate them in a
wave height of 32 inches (80 cm.). Among the existing types of dredges
could be considered only a self-loading bucket dredge, PRIESTMAN's grapple
dredge, the hydraulic dredge by BRUCE and BATHo, and the centrifugal
pump dredges. gº
The ordinary bucket dredge could only be used in a wave height of
12 inches (30 cm.). It occupied much room in the channel with its
dumping barges, and it must retreat to a place of Safety in bad weather.
To arrange a bucket dredge self-loading would be very expensive on
account of the large amount of machinery required. Trials with the
PRIESTMAN dredge in 1881 showed it was not adapted to the material to
be dredged. Experiments with other dredges were not made, as centri-
fugal pump dredges had already proved themselves satisfactory, and it
was expected that their efficiency could be still further increased. The
principle of the centrifugal pump dredges is that the mouth of a tube
which is suspended from a ship, is placed near the bottom of the Sea
or river. Through this tube a centrifugal pump on the vessel lifts the
sand with the water and discharges it into the hold of the vessel which
transports it to deep water at sea and dumps it there, or separate barges
are used for taking away the dredged material. The first pump dredge
for this work, Adam I, was designed by the English engineer, DORTON
HUTTON, and built at Dordrecht. It had two suction tubes which operated
in two wells in the longitudinal axis of the ship; it was not self-loading.
A Second larger self-loading dredge, Adam II, of the same type, was
built soon afterwards. It was 110 feet (33.3 m.) by 26 feet (8 m.) and
10% feet (3.2 m.) feet from keel to deck. The single suction pipe worked
through a longitudinal well. On deck the pipe splits into two branches
which lead into the two loading chambers, one of which is placed on
either side of the well. The two chambers have a joint capacity of 180
cubic yards (139 cu. m.). Adam II made four double trips daily,
removing on an average about 720 cubic yards (550 cu. m.) per day.
In 1880 another dredge, Adam III, was built on the same plan, but
of larger dimensions, at a total cost of $ 18,000. With a draft of 11% feet
(3.5 m.) when loaded it could carry 276 cubic yards (212 cu. m.). It
made three trips daily, carrying away a total of 830 cubic yards (636
cu. m.). Several more dredges were then built of this class, but with
some improvements. The suction pipe for instance was placed outside of
the vessel thus giving one continuous loading chamber. Two of this kind
of dredges were built with a capacity of 320 and of 208 cubic yards
(244 and of 160 cu. m.) respectively. Recently dredges of 680 cubic yards
(518 cu. m.) capacity have been used. A combination dredge is also in
14
use, the Suction pipe working on the side of the vessel and an ordinary
endless chain bucket dredge working in an opening in the centre of the
vessel. This is especially adapted to varying kinds of material, but it
requires complicated and expensive machinery to thus unite the two
methods.
The Port of Rotterdam.
It may be stated for information at the outset that the city of Rotter-
dam including Delftshaven, which was taken into the city in 1886, has
a population of about 200,000. The development, enlargement and
maintenance of its port is in charge of the city, which has in this work,
including all bridges, dikes, wharves &c. expended about $ 5,000,000
between 1874–1888. The State also has expended a somewhat larger
sum in developing railroad facilities.
The port of Rotterdam comprises the waters of the New Maas inside
of the city limits, the basins below the city on the right bank, and the
new basins on the left bank. All basins, excepting those of Delftshaven,
are open freely to the river. The average tidal range at the city is 461),
inches (1.18 m.). The Delftshaven basins are closed by a lock, the gates
of which remain open at ordinary tides. Among the various recent
works of improvement in the harbor are levees along the left bank on
lines laid out by the Commission, and a basin on the left bank called
the Rhine Harbor Basin. The construction of this basin became neces-
sary for the protection of the Rhine boats which winter at Rotterdam.
All the levees are built in deep water, and with a steep slope on the
river side so that even deep draft vessels can come close to the shore.
Sea-walls may be built later to occupy the place of the present levees.
In 1847 Rotterdam had about 65 acres (26.5 hectares) of basin area,
and a wharf frontage of 6 miles (9.6 km.). In 1887 it had 172 acres
(69.6 hectares) of basin area, and 12"ſ, miles (19.8 km.) of wharf front-
age. The city is a free port for merchandise in transit. On the left
bank below the city there are docks for petroleum.
Influence of the New Waterway on the Commerce of Rotterdam.
The beneficial effects of the new waterway can be readily seen from
the changing methods of navigation, and the reduction in transportation
charges which ensued. The distances from the sea to Rotterdam and
intermediate points are as follows:
From sea to Maassluis © g & g e 9.3 miles (15 km.)
r) * - Vlaardingen e t & e e 14.3 n (23 m )
º n m Schiedam e wº e g e 16.8 n (27 m
* n n Rotterdam g º e & g 21.1 (34 m
By the old waterways the distances were:
JFrom Brouwershaven to ROtterdam via Hellevoetsluis. g g & g 63 miles (101.4 km.)
n Zieriksee n º r) * e g e t e 65 m (104.6 m )
15
The voyage from Rotterdam to the sea or vice versa, can be made by the
new waterway in from 2 to 3 hours, while it formerly required from 2
to 5 days. For vessels of about 23 ft. (7 m.) draft or more, that cannot
make the trip in one tide, a mooring place has been provided near the
Eastern point of Rozenburg. Provision has also been made there for ships
to take on more cargo in going to Sea. The change in methods and
transportation may be seen from the fact that the tolls on the Voorne
Canal, which amounted to $ 42,000 in 1873, dropped to $ 43 in 1886;
and in addition the larger vessels had to discharge part of their cargo
at Brouwershaven or Hellevoetsluis. The following abstract from the
tariff of the tug company of L. SMIT & Co., October 1889, gives the
prices for towage by the new and old waterways:
By the old waterways:
300 tons per
& less ton
$ cts.
From Brouwershaven, innerway, to Rotterdam . e 88.66 14.5
* º outerway, m * * e 97.52 16.1
* Hellevoetsluis r; Y) * & 34.66 6.4
By the new waterway :
Summer. Winter.
100 tons & less. per ton. 100 tons & less. per ton.
$ cts. $ cts.
From Rotterdan) to the sea, in one tide e 24.18 4.8 31.43 6.4
From the sea to Rotterdam. & º & & 30.22 7.2 39.49 9.7
Note: The ntons” are register tons of 3.7 cubic yards (2.83 cu. m.) each.
The number of vessels which use the new waterway and their draft
has been growing with the increase in depth in the channel, which is
shown by the following table.
sº

Number of vessels in the new
waterway, in both directions,
excluding fishing boats.
D R A F T O F \/ E S S E L S.
19' 9"
28' 8"
:
:
| Tonnage in cu. | Less 16' 5"| 17' 1" | 17' 9" | 18' 5"| 19' 1" 20' 4" | 21 21' 7" 22' 4"|23. 24' 3"
Years. | No. metres. than to to to to to to to to to to to to to 24' 11"
- 1 cu.m.–1308 cu. yds. 16' 5" | 17' 1" | 17' 9" | 18' 5" | 19' 1" | 19' 9" | 20' 4"| 21' . 21' 7"|22'4"|23' 28' 8" | 24' 3" |24' 11"
1879 | 6946 8,314,000 6821 30 33 38 14 5 5 125
1880 || 7008 8,383,000 6919 || 37 | 84 15 6 92
1881 || 7026 8,350,000 7016 10 10
1882 7677 9,943,000 74.10 69 96 72 27 8 - 267
1883 7788 10,829,000 7033 | 186 232 118 111 88 17 * 6 755
1884 8.177 12,401,000 7212 96 216 166 216 | 124 80 44 22 1 965
1885 7915 12,366,000 6990 | 137 171 154 129 82 | 103 | St 47 9 6 925
1886 || 7992 || 12,777,000 6958 | 73 162 196 || 142 10s 128 113 | 67 | 29 10 3 3 1034
1887 88.19 14,529,000 7739 90 83 181 181 113 | 1.51 85 98 54 26 12 6 1080
1888 9488 15,716,000 8538 7 211 146 102 110 | 91 | 107 | 89 35 30 7 4 1. 950
1889 9543 16,284,000 8461 4 14 198 151 | 132 142 | 123 127 81 71 28 14 1 1 1082
17
The construction of the new waterway has materially developed the
import commerce from the sea to Rotterdam. During the few years
preceding the construction of the works the number of sea-going vessels
which entered the port averaged 28 °io, and their tonnage 40 °ſo to 46 9ſo
of the total imports by sea into the Netherlands. After the new water-
way came partly into use the share of Rotterdam rose gradually up to
1870 to 35 °ſo in number and 58 0io in tonnage. After 1882 only about
60 "lo of the sea-going vessels arriving had used the new waterway, but
this percentage grew rapidly with the improvement of the latter. The
following table gives some interesting details.
Rotterdam. The Netherlands. Percent of Rotter.
YEARS. No. of Reg. tons of 3.7 No. of Register tons of -
Vessels. ... ." yds. each. Wessels. 3.7 cu. yds. each. Vessels. | Tonnage.
(2.88 cu. m. each.) (2.88 cu. m. each.)
1850 1970 393,000 6961 968,000 28.3 40.6
1860 2449 674,000 | 87.14 1,459,000 28.1 46.2
1870 2987 1,190,000 8351 2,037,000 85.8 58.3
1871 3618 1,408,000 10047 2,470,000 35. 57.
1875 3485 1,655,000 7921 2,625,000 43. 63.
1880 3456 1,682,000 8164. 3,438,000 42.3 48.9
1881 3673 1,742,000 8402 3,562,000 42.5 48.9
1882 3859 2,004,000 8776 4,010,000 44. 50.
1883 3634 1,640,000 8307 || 3,953,000 43.8 49.1
1884 3768 2,143,000 8431 4,184,000 44.8 51.2
1885 3724 2,120,000 8021 4,137,000 46.5 51.
1886 3763 2,203,000 7695 4,109,000 49.5 53.6
1887 4153 2,488,000 8089 4,601,000 51.9 54.1
1888 4528 2,721,000 8848 4,902,000 54.6 55.5
1889 4547 2,809,000 91.82 5,221,000 49.5 53.8
The development of traffic is further shown by the following table,
which gives the number and tonnage of all vessels which entered Rot-
terdam and sailed from it during the years from 1880–1889.
18

S t e a m ers. Sailing vessels. Fish in g boats.
Years. Net tonnage in Net tonnage in Net tonnage in
No. No. - No. cubic metres.
cubic meters. cubic metres. •
In 1000 tons.
1880 || 5163 7,264,000 1845 1,119,000 1883 300
1881 5336 7,342,000 1670 1,009,000 1790 313
1882 6150 9,035,000 1527 908,000 2321 397
1883 || 6265 9,812,000 1523 1,017,000 2374 403
1884 6617 11,219,000 1560 1,182,000 3054 502
1885 6507 11,160,000 .1408 1,207,000 2802 491
1886 || 6524. 11,385,000 1468 1,392,000 3175 545
1887 | 7272 13,045,000 1547 1,484,000 3640 617
1888 || 8135 14,478,000 1353 1,237,000 3383 587
1889 | 8403 15,186,000 1140 1,098,000 34.66 596
Rotterdam does not owe its prosperity entirely to its location as a
sea-port; its situation in relation to the inland waterways secures for it
a large part of the Dutch trade. Rotterdam is also the principal city for
the interchange of commerce with the Rhine provinces of Germany. It
handles about one-half of the total traffic between Germany and the
Netherlands.
The above paper has been compiled from notes and observations of
Mr. E. L. CoRTHELL on a visit to the works in 1891, from several art-
icles of the Dutch periodical ,Tijdschrift van het Koninklijk Instituut
van Ingenieurs”, from the ,Report on the improvement of navigation
from Rotterdam to the sea” by Gen. J. G. BARNARD, U. S. Army, 1872,
from an article by W. PAUL in the , Zeitschrift für Bauwesen”, 1892,
from a paper by A. VON HoRN, ,Der neue Wasserweg von Rotterdam
mach See” in the , Zeitschrift des Oesterreichischen Ingenieur- und Archi-
tekten Vereines”, 1894, from two papers by J. W. WELCKER on the
,, New Waterway”, and from the book , Le port de Rotterdam” by
J. H. NEISZEN.
The illustrations have been prepared from the maps of the engineers
of the work.
The writer takes this opportunity to express his thanks to Mr. E. L.
CoRTHELI, for the revision of the article.
W. GUSTAV TRIEST.
New York, June 14th, 1894.
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