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of Tutuila
The first Flag Day in American Samoa, April 17, 1900. It was on this date that the High Chiefs
voluntarily ceded the islands of Tutuila and Aunu'u to the Government of the United States.
HISTORICAL SKETCH
of the
Naval Administration
of the
||||WER\|\| || ||||||I|\ \|M||
APRIL 17, 1900–JULY 1, 1951
Capt. T. F. Darden, USN (Ret.)
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office
Washington 25, D. C. — Price 35 cents
(22.2%
JD22.
º
CA – 10 — 5?–
F O R. E. W. O. R D
The responsibility for the administration of American Samoa passed from the Department of the
Navy to the Department of the Interior on July 1, 1951. That date marked the end of a 51-year task
which the United States Navy was pleased to perform. This story of the naval administration of American
Somao has been recorded by Capt. T. F. Darden, U.S.N. (Ret.), the last Naval Governor, and by Lt.
A. M. MacQuarrie, U.S.N.R. They were greatly assisted by the heads of departments of the Naval Gov-
ernment of American Somoa on duty at the time of the transfer of administration, by the Island Govern-
ments Division of the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, and by Mrs. C. D. Stearns, who contributed
generously of her knowledge of Samoa and its peoples. Credit should be given, also, to Lt. Comdr. H. J.
Gimpel, U.S.N., of the Division of Naval Records and History, office of the Chief of Naval Operations,
who read the manuscript and prepared it for publication.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Introduction * * * * e º ºs & s tº º e º 'º e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix
The Setting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . X
Political Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Maintenance of Law and Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Authority for Government . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Problems of Administration • * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * = a s e º e s = e e s is e º ºs e > * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * 4
Executive Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Executive Departments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
The Legislature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
The Judiciary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Medicine and Public Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
- Economic Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 17
Ownership of Land . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Commerce and Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Bank of American Samoa . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * e o e s a s e e 22
Public Finance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , 22
Communciation and Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Educational Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Historical Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Mission, Aims, and Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ‘. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ~ 30
School Buildings and Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Curriculum and Language Instruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ** s is a e º 31
Vocational Education . . . . . . . . . * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 32
Scholarship Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . as
The Training of Teachers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . + 33
Missions—Private Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . … 33
Education in the Future ................................. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * > . . . . . . . 35
Temporary Duty Completed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Appendix I–List of Naval Governors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
I N T R O D U C T I O N
The United States Navy has been interested in
Samoa ever since 1838, when Lt. Charles Wilkes,
U.S.N., made a survey of the islands during his fa-
mous exploring expedition. It was not until March
2, 1872, however, that Commander Richard W.
Meade, Jr., U.S.N., commanding the U.S.S. Narra-
gansett, concluded an agreement with the Samoan
chiefs of the island of Tutuila, giving the United
States Navy exclusive rights to the harbor of Pago
Pago. This agreement, while never ratified by the
President of the United States nor by the Congress,
actually formed the beginning of the Navy's interest
in what was to become American Samoa and, more
specifically, in the harbor of Pago Pago on the Is-
land of Tutuila.
This occurred during the era of active colonial
expansion by the great powers, among which the
United States was not included. The European na-
tions, through their local naval representatives, were
maneuvering for position and attempting by every
means possible to obtain property rights and trade
advantages with the native people in the South
Pacific. -
Our naval representatives on the spot, by center-
ing their attention on Pago Pago Harbor in their
negotiations with the Samoans and representatives
of other interested countries, displayed shrewdness,
a high order of forensic qualities, and commendable
prescience. Anyone requiring proof of the important
position of Pago Pago Harbor in the South Pacific
can read it in a glance at today's strategic charts of
the Pacific Ocean. They show lines of communica-
tion radiating from Pago Pago Harbor in greater
density than from any other port in the Pacific ex-
cept Honolulu. With singleness of purpose our
naval representatives concentrated their negotia-
tions on Pago Pago Harbor, recognizing it as the
“pearl” of the South Pacific and a strategic naval
base for the United States, which it proved to be
in the half century to follow.
On their part, the Samoans at this period were
acutely conscious of the unhappy fate of other
branches of the Polynesian race in the Pacific is-
lands. They could observe these neighboring races
vanish as they lost title to their lands and as they
were forced into competition with the white man
and his highly developed individualism and his sur-
vival-of-the-fittest way of life. The Samoans were
therefore anxiously and actively seeking the aid of
some trustworthy power willing to help in their
struggle to prevent a similar fate befalling them.
It was against this background that Commander
Benjamin F. Tilley, U.S.N., commanding the U.S.S.
Abarenda, concluded a treaty with the leading
chiefs of Tutuila on April 17, 1900, at Pago Pago.
By this treaty the islands of Tutuila and Aunuu
were ceded voluntarily to the United States along
with the necessary authority to obtain land for, and
to exercise control over, all necessary facilities for
a naval base and coaling station for American ships.
In return, the United States agreed to establish a
good government and to protect the traditional
rights of the Samoan people. Thus was marked the
beginning of United States administration over
Americanſ Samoa, exercised by the Secretary of
the Navy under Executive Order.
º: º: 3& +& $
On June 18, 1947, a document of momentous im-
port to the inhabitants of American Samoa was
signed in Washington wherein the four Secretaries
of State, War, Navy, and Interior recommended to
the President that responsibility for the administra-
tion of American Samoa, as well as for Guam and
the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands, be trans-
ferred from the Navy Department to the Depart-
ment of the Interior at the earliest practicable date.
On February 11, 1948, the President declared his
intention to designate the Department of the In-
terior as the civilian agency with general super-
vision over civil administration of those islands,
upon approval of organic legislation for the islands,
subject, however to the proviso that designation of
the Department of the Interior “will be without
prejudice to study and determination, based upon
further study or long-range plans for administration
of United States territories and possessions.”
Subsequently, by letter of May 14, 1949, the
President directed the Secretary of the Interior and
the Secretary of the Navy to develop plans for the
transfer. On August 31, 1949, the two Secretaries
submitted a memorandum of understanding, recom-
ix
mending that the transfer take place on or about
July 1, 1951. The President, by letter of September
23, 1949, approved the memorandum and fixed
July 1, 1951, as the date for transfer, which was
completed according to schedule.
After the fashion of individuals terminating a
long period of service, it is inevitable that the
Navy should survey the 51 years of its uninter-
rupted administration from 1900 to 1951. The pur-
pose of this brief history is to high light the conduct
of the naval administration of the tropical isles of
American Samoa. No attempt is made to set forth
a history of American Samoa except insofar as it.
affects the techniques and methods of administra-
tion used by the Navy. An attempt has been made
to present some of the past and present problems
of the island administration and to tell how the
problems were met as objectively and factually as
possible.
The Setting
When Commander Tilley, commanding the U.S.S.
Abarenda, received orders to additional duty com-
manding the Naval Station Tutuila, it must have
been with feelings of misgiving. It is doubtful that
his training at the Naval Academy or his experience
as a naval officer had ever given him the idea that
he would have supreme authority for administering
the affairs of a remote Pacific Island people. He
inherited the leadership of islands which had a dis-
couraging history of local wars, bloodshed, and dis-
sension, not only among the Samoans themselves
but also involving the three powers with interests
in the area, the United States, Great Britain, and
Germany.
Chief interest of the United States was the main-
tenance of the naval Station in Pago Pago Harbor,
rights to which had been secured in 1872. The
United States Navy was not a stranger in American
Samoa; therefore, when the Treaty of Berlin + was
signed between the United States, Germany, and
Great Britain December 2, 1899, with ratifications
exchanged February 16, 1900, it was logical for
President McKinley to place the administration Of
the islands in the hands of the Navy.
Presumably reasons of expediency and prudence
1. By the terms of this treaty, among other stipulations, Germany
Great Britain renounced in favor of the United States all rights
s to the Island of Tutuila and the islands of the Manua
procally the United States renounced, in favor of Germany,
all rights and claims to the islands of Upolu and Savai'i. The Sov-
ereignty of the islands of Upolu and Savai'i, known as Western Samoa,
thus passed to Germany and later, as a result of world War I, to
New Zealand under a League of Nations mandate.
and Grea
and claim
group. Reci
also entered into the President's decision. The Sa-
moan Islands were in a remote area and had a
troublesome history. For the time being, therefore,
it was deemed wisest to leave the government in the
hands of well-trained military men of proven loy-
alty to the interests of the United States and
equipped with a disciplined organization already.
in being and on the spot.
The United States Congress had previously ap-
propriated $100,000 “for the purpose of perma-
nently establishing a station for coal and other
supplies for the naval and commercial marine of the
United States.” Surveys were immediately made of
Pago Pago Harbor under the supervision of Rear
Admiral Kimberly who recommended, as the most
suitable site for the proposed station, a tract of land
on Pago Pago Bay containing about 121 acres.
Commander Tilley had arrived at Pago Pago on
August 13, 1899, with buoys for moorings and other
requisite material and stores aboard his ship. On
December 6, 1899, he wrote to High Chief Mauga
of Tutuila announcing the partition of the Samoan
Islands between Germany and the United States
and Great Britain. He asked, as senior naval officer
of the United States in Samoan waters, that this
news be disseminated, that the native chiefs con-
tinue to maintain good order, and that the popula-
tion in general settle down to peaceful pursuits in
order that prosperity and peace might be brought
to Tutuila. There was no longer danger of war. The
United States would suppress any disorder and
would uphold the dignity and authority of the
chiefs. -
Commander Tilley happily wrote to the Navy
Department that “so far as I can learn, every in-
habitant of Tutuila is delighted at the prospect of
the United States assuming the governing of the
islands. I am also informed that the prospect is
also pleasing to the inhabitants of Manu'a.”
However, he appeared to show concern for his
status in the eyes of the Samoans, when he wrote
to the Navy Department on February 23, 1900, that
it would be better “if the officer charged with this
responsibility has the explicit authority of this gov-
ernment and knows its wishes.”
In those days of slow communications, Com-
mander Tilley had not yet learned that 4 days
before, on February 19, 1900, the President had
already signed an Executive Order supplimented by
an order of the Secretary of the Navy, in which
would be all the specific authority he would recive.
The rest was up to him.
The Presidential Order read:
The island of Tutuila, of the Samoan group, and all other
islands of the group east of longitude 171° west of Green-
wich, are hereby placed under the control of the Depart-
ment of the Navy for a naval station. The Secretary of
the Navy shall take such steps as are neccessary to estab-
lish the authority of the United States and to give to the
islands the necessary protections.
The Secretary of the Navy on the same day is-
sued an order that, “The island of Tutuila, of the
Samoan group, and all other islands of the group
east of longitude 171° west of Greenwich, are
hereby established into a naval Station, to be known
as the Naval Station, Tutuila, and to be under the
command of a Commandant.” On February 17,
1900, Commander Tilley was assigned additional
duty to command the Naval Station, Tutuila; he
received his orders with a copy of the President's
Executive Order on April 4, 1900, at Apia, Western
Samoa. This lack of specific authority was to trou-
ble all successive governors.
On April 1, 1900, twenty of the highest chiefs
of Tutuila wrote to Commander Tilley, “Acting
Governor for the United States of America at Tu-
tuila,”:
We rejoice with our whole hearts on account of the
tidings we have received, the conventions of the great
powers are ended, their declarations are thus: “Only the
Government of the United States of America shall rule in
Tutuila and Manu'a, other foreign governments shall not
again have authority there.”
. . . we now, rightly appointed according to the customs
of Samoa to be the representatives of the different districts
in Tutuila, we confirm all things done by the great powers
for Tutuila, and we also cede and transfer to the Govern-
ment of the United States of America the island of Tutuila
and all things there to rule and protect it. We will obey
all laws and statutes made by the Government or by those
appointed by the Government to legislate and to govern.
. . . Let good and useful laws be made, let the foundation
of the Government stand firm forever.
On April 17, 1900, the High Chiefs of Tutuila
voluntarily ceded the islands of Tutuila and Aunuu
to the Government of the United States. With ap-
propriate ceremonies the American flag was hoisted
at Pago Pago on the same day and, ever since, April
17 has been proclaimed and celebrated on Tutuila
as Flag Day.
The more conservative Manu'a Islands consisting
of the three smaller islands of Tau, Ofu, and
Olosega, lying 60 miles to the eastward of the main
island of Tutuila (and traditionally the highest
ranking islands in the Samoan group, including
Western Samoa), were less eager to act. When com-
mander Tilley proceeded to Manu'a with all the
High Chiefs of Tutuila to extend to the people a
cordial invitation to join, he found the Manu'ans
hesitant and not eager to change their government.
Commander Tilley wrote of his visit with Tui-
manu'a the “king” of Manu'a:
Tuimanu'a addressed me very courteously, giving me a
very hearty welcome to Manu'a, but at the same time
giving me plainly to understand that he did not wish any
interference with his “kingdom” by any outside power.
Not before July 16, 1904, was the deed of cession
signed at Tau, Manu'a. July 4 is now traditionally
celebrated as Manu'a Flag Day. And not until Feb-
ruary 20, 1929, did the United States Congress ac-
cept the cession under a joint resolution which
provided that all civil, judicial, and military powers
be exercised under the direction of the President
until the Congress should provide for the govern-
ment. In 1930 full information had been furnished
to Congress but no legislation has been passed to
date providing for a government.
By a joint resolution of Congress approved
March 4, 1925, the sovereignty of the United States
was extended to Swains Island, which lies 210 miles
to the northward of Tutuila, and the island was
made a part of American Samoa.
* + : : +
Taking stock of the area under his jurisdiction,
Commander Tilley found the Samoa group of is-
lands to be of volcanic formation and mountainous.
The total land area of all islands was only 73.1
square miles. Because of the rugged terrain, except
at the foot of the mountains along the coast and a
broad fertile plain in the southwestern part of the
island of Tutuila, there was very little level land.
He had Pago Pago Harbor at his disposal, the best
in the South Pacific. The climate was tropical but
mild and the rainfall heavy. The southeast trade
winds, strongest from May to November, helped
reduce the debilitating effects of high humidity and
heat. Nights were cool. All in all, it was beautiful
in Samoa, abounding in flowers and heavy vegeta-
tion. -
Looking over the people, he found a pôpulation
of approximately 5,700.” The Samoans are a Poly-
nesian race closely akin to the people of Hawaii,
the Tongans, the Tahitians and the Moaris: Im-
mediately he discovered that they were a friendly,
* The census of 1950 indicated a total population of 18,602; an in-
crease well over 300 percent in 50 years.
xi
generous people, a handsome race of splendid
physique.
However, it did not take him long to observe
that their life, their language, culture and customs
were far removed from anything American. He
must have correctly reasoned that their socio-
politico organization had developed over a period
of a thousand years or more, in complete isolation
and lacking the background of the Greek and Ro-
man civilizations and the Magna Carta, upon which
our representative form of government is based;
that our concept of private ownership of property
was therefore somewhat strange to them; that the
Samoan way of life was ideally suited to an en-
vironment in which a bountiful nature amply pro-
vided for everyone's daily needs, but would break
down when exposed to the individualistic, competi-
tive, society of the western world.
Commander Tilley also observed that Samoans
might be termed lazy by western standards but,
when the occasion demanded, they were capable of
performing physical feats and possessed a physical
endurance our western civilization could envy. Since
nature provided for the needs of each day with a
minimum expenditure of effort, he observed that
there was neither need nor incentive for the Sa-
moans to provide for the needs of tomorrow. These
observations revealed to him the reasons underlying
their apparent lack of incentive, and the many
other fundamental differences between the Samoan
way of life and ours which he had to take into ac-
count in forming a government.
In the Samoan society, the village, composed of
30 to 40 households, represented the basic social po-
litical unit. There was no apparent central govern-
mental machinery, no written law, no predominant
political figure exercising leadership over the whole
of the area defined as American Samoa. Character-
istic of each village community was its political,
economic, and social independence from its neigh-
bors. There were no larger political units among
the Samoans. It was apparent to the Commandant
that he would have to start from the beginning in
developing a political sense among the leaders. In
1900, and to a large extent in 1951, government, in-
stead of being concentrated mainly in the hands of
political specialists, was the concern of family and
community leaders—the hereditary chiefs, acting
individually and in group councils. º
The leadership among the Samoans was in the
hands of chiefs, known as Matais. Within each
family unit a system of collective economy pre-
vailed. Members of related families lived together
under the Matai leadership, rendering service to
him and supplying him with food and materials
which he in turn administered for the benefit of
all those belonging to the family group.
Since 1900 the original powers of the Matai have
been somewhat reduced, largely due to the intro-
duction of economic individualism and to the spread
of education and ideas of equality before the law;
however, he still remains the basic integrative force
in society. The Commandant observed that there
were many grades and ranks of Matais, within indi-
vidual families, groups of families, communities,
and villages. Precedence, etiquette, and ceremonial
observance dominated their life. The observance of
a traditional custom was often more important than
good deeds. Jealousies among the leaders as to pre-
cedence, land disputes, feuds, gossip, and lack of
unity were prevalent. Yet withal, the Samoans were
gracious and hospitable, and enjoyed games, feast-
ing, dancing and singing. -
Samoans were also intensely religious. The mis-
sionaries had found them fertile ground for con-
version. The majority of the Samoans were literate
in their own language, thanks to the missionaries.
They were great church-goers and the church was
closely woven into their daily life.
These were the people, beset at this particular
period with vague fears and a feeling of helplessness
against the encroachment of the white man, whom
Commander Tilley was to administer. He had no
established government, no written body of laws,
and little precedent to help him. He realized that
adjustments would have to be made in order to
provide a government that the Samoans would un-
derstand and support. He was conscious of the per-
sistency of Samoan custom and culture and must
have also realized that too sudden or drastic a
change would only doom his regime to failure.
The new Commandant of the Naval Station, Tu-
tuila, must have looked in vain for a clear-cut state-
ment of policy, in lieu of expediency, as a guide for
his new administration. In the year of 1900 it was
difficult to find anywhere a sound philosophy of
colonial administration.
As we have seen, the presidential executive order
of February 19, 1900, and the order of the Secretary
of the Navy on the same date were couched only
in general terms. The only general guide in matters
of policy was the following clause in Commander
Tilley's orders:
xii
While your position as commandant will invest you with
authority over the islands in the group embraced within
the limits of the station, you will at all times exercise care
to conciliate and cultivate friendly relations with the na-
tives. -
This clause has occured in the orders of every
naval governor of American Samoa. Furthermore,
Tilley was informed that “a simple, straightforward
method of administration, such as to win and hold
the confidence of the people, is expected of you by
the Department.”
In actual fact, the Instrument of Cession of the
Chiefs of Tutuila to the United States Government
on April 17, 1900, presented the naval administra-
tion with a practical set of objectives for the Gov-
ernment of American Samoa, when they ceded their
land to the United States, for:
(a) The promotion of the peace and welfare of
the people of Tutuila. -
(b) The establishment of a good and sound gov-
ernment.
(c) The preservation of the rights and property
of these inhabitants. w
The instrument of cession of Manu'a contains simi-
lar provisos.
Twenty of the leading chiefs of Tutuila on April
1, 1900, also stated to Commander Tilley their ideas
of the objectives and functions of the naval gov-
ernment:
“Our whole desire is to obey the laws that honor
and dwelling in peace may come to pass in this
country. We depend on the government and we
hope that we indeed and the government will be
prosperous, that the government will correctly
guide and advise us in order that we may be able
to care for and guard well and uprightly our dif-
ferent villages and also our districts.”
The above statement might well be kept before
all administrators as an ideal goal for the admini-
stration and the people alike in the conduct of
government affairs in an island administration.
As a result of the desire of the naval administra-
tion to meet the desires of the Samoan people as
expressed in these instruments, the following basic
policies evolved:
(a) Nonalienation of Samoan lands.
(b) Preservation of Samoan customs.
(c) Nonexploitation of the people and their re-
SOUII°CéS.
(d) Promotion of public health and education.
(e) Samoa for the Samoans.
The following clear and concise statement of the
mission and objectives under which the last two
naval governors and the present civilian governor
have conducted their administrations since early
1948, follows the pattern set out above in the in-
struments of cession.
(a) The early establishment of self-governing
communities.
(b) The institution and maintenance of an ade-
quate program for public health and sani-
tation.
The establishment of a general system of
elementary education adapted to local en-
vironments and designed to assist in the
early achievement of the objectives enumer-
ated herein and the facilitation of vocational
and higher education, including training on
the professional levels.
(c)
The protection of the local inhabitants
against the loss of their lands and resources
and the institution of a sound program of
economic development of trade, industry and
agriculture along lines which will ensure that
the profits and benefits thereof accrue to the
inhabitants.
(d)
xiii
P O L IT I C A L D E V E L O PM E N T
Maintenance of Law and Order
One of Commander Tilley's problems in organ-
izing a government after the cession of the Island
of Tutuila on April 17, 1900, was to establish a
means of enforcing law and order. To accomplish
this he conceived the idea of forming a law enforce-
ment group from among the Samoans themselves.
One of his first acts was to ask the Navy Depart-
ment for a force of 50 men to serve as an organized
guard, “fit for use in the bush.” He recommended
that this guard of Samoans be enlisted in the Navy
as Landsmen to serve in American Samoa. As an
alternative plan, he suggested that the Samoans
might be enlisted as Marines.
He planned that enlisting Samoans in such a
guard would aid in the organization of the govern-
ment of the islands, and that the training of the
men would be valuable to them. He also felt that
the employment of such a force would do away
with the necessity of having a similar American
force, and would help win loyalty and allegiance
to the United States. Furthermore, in the event of
war, our government could rely upon them to de-
defend the shores and passes of the islands against
the enemy. -
Accordingly, on July 6, 1900, the Commandant
was authorized to enlist 58 Samoans as “Landsmen”
in the Navy. They soon came to be known as the
“Fita Fita Guard and Band.” The idea of enlisting
Samoans as a security force was farsighted, for
throughout their history they have been a dependa-
ble body of men who have helped develop a strong
tie between the Navy and the people. For over 50
years, Samoans serving in the Fita Fita Guard and
Band have performed their duties loyally and
faithfully, and have gained the respect and admira-
tion not only of their own people, but of all our
Armed Forces serving with them in American
Samoa.
Appointments to the Fitas were eagerly sought
since the Navy gave them practically the same
status as enlisted men in the Navy. Their colorful,
skirted uniform, their excellent band, and their per-
fection in marching and drilling were well known
in the naval service. Given proper incentive, it fol-
lowed naturally that the Fita Fita Guard and Band
should attract the very best young men, including
the young chiefs.
While Commander Tilley was awaiting a reply
from the Navy Department, he gathered together
on Tutuila and Manu'a a force of 36 Samoans to
form a guard, for he considered it necessary to have
a small organized force on shore to enforce the law.
The group was thoroughly drilled by noncommis-
sioned officers from the U.S.S. Abarenda and served
without pay or promise of pay and with very little
food from the government. The Samoans were much
pleased with the idea of enlisting as landsmen in the
Navy and soon after the Navy Department had ap-
proved the organizations of the Native Guard, 19
were enlisted and others came in from various parts
of the islands. The original group was selected with
care and this policy of selecting applicants for en-
listment in the Fita Fita Guard and Band was sub-
sequently followed. -
It remained a privilege and distinction in Ameri-
can Samoa to be a member of the Fita Fita Guard
and Band. Two of the Samoans in the Guard held
a chief's title in their own right and among those
who have retired from the Fitas are a district gov-
ernor, a county chief, and a village chief.
Because of his background, daily association with
naval members of the Government of American
Samoa, and relatively large income, the Fita was
respected in his community and other residents of
his village often sought his advice. In accordance
with the Samoan custom of communal living, Fitas
contributed to the support of many members of
their families, and their total income, approximately
$266,000 annually, has been an important factor in
the economy of American Samoa.
Soon after receipt of authorization for a Native
Guard, enlistments of landsmen and musicians were
completed, and a barracks was constructed with the
help of members of the Guard. Ordnance material
was requisitioned, including revolvers and cutlasses
for petty officers and musicians, and drills and train-
ing were begun. That the organization was de-
veloped successfully is evidenced by impressions
made upon the Commander in Chief Pacific Squad-
ron who visited the islands in the fall of 1901. He
expressed surprise at the soldierly appearance and
proficiency of the Native Guard at the station and
thought that their marching, manual of arms, and
bayonet drills, the latter conducted by a native ser-
geant, would have done credit to any infantry or—
ganization.
The uniform selected, which had undergone only
a few minor changes, was unique and colorful and
recognized by the Samoans as a symbol of law and
order. Since 1923 the Fita uniform has consisted
of a head turban of naval issue red muslin, a waist
sash of red muslin folded to a width of 4 inches,
naval issue white undershirt, and lavalavas (loin-
cloths) of white and blue. The lavalavas are worn
wrapped around the waist from right to left, with
the lower edge 15 inches from the ground, and are
held in place by the waist sash. Rating designations
are the same as for the U. S. Navy and are worn on
the lower left corner of the lavalava just above the
top stripe. The work uniform for Fitas was naval
dungarees. Shoes were worn with the dungaree uni-
form, and sandals were authorized for guard duty.
However, no shoes or sandals were worn for drills,
parades, or ceremonies.
The first Fita Fita barracks was a one-story
structure near the harbor beach. A later barracks,
dedicated on Flag Day, April 17, 1910, was a large
two-story structure with wide, pillared porches
around the entire building. The first deck was of
concrete, it was kept spotlessly clean and painted
white. The second deck was made of wood with
screened porches on all sides. This was one of the
strongest and most beautiful buildings on the naval
station and was situated on the southeast side of
the malae or parade ground. Due to the strong con-
crete construction of the lower deck, this part of
the building is still designated as a refuge for all
hospital patients during hurricanes.
The original allowance for four landsmen to act
as musicians was soon considered inadequate and
in August, 1902, Captain Sebree, U.S.N., then Gov-
ernor and Commandant of the Naval Station, asked
for an additional allowance of musicians and band
instruments. The Commandant realized that Sa-
moans are very fond of music, that many of them
are musically inclined, and that an organized band
would be helpful in governing the people. The
Navy Department approved his request and author-
ized the formation of a band consisting of 1 Navy
bandmaster, 1 Navy musician first-class, and 14 na-
tive musicians.
In December 1902 the first two Navy musicians
arrived in American Samoa to select and train Sa-
moans for duty with the band. Since that time, the
Fita Fita Band has been a popular institution in
Samoa and has been an important factor in the mu-
sical life of these islands. Under the direction of a
Navy chief bandmaster, the band performed at º
ceremonies and parades, presented concerts several
times a week and attended morning colors with the .
Guard.
The most colorful ceremony of the Fita Fita
Guard and Band was their Sunset Parade which
Was staged in the malae. Normally the parade was
reviewed by the Governor, with all off-duty naval
personnel attending in white uniform. When naval
officers were under orders for detachment from the
station, the Sunset Parade was given in honor of
the departing officer as a Tofa or Farewell Parade.
The parade was reviewed by the departing officer,
after which the band and guard formed in front of
the reviewing stand and “Tofa Mai Feleni” (Good-
bye, My Friend), was played and sung by the band
and guard. This song was composed by Fa'atui of
Salagi, with the help of his brother, as the result
of the cordial relations which had sprung up be-
tween the sailors and the Western Samoans after the
hurricane of 1889 had wrecked so many American,
British, and German ships in the harbor of Apia.
This song was gradually adopted by the people of
American Samoa with a few variations and event-
ually was rearranged by a former Navy chief band-
master and became the official song for the Farewell
Sunset Parade.
During the years, the duties of the Fita Fita
Guard and Band have been many and varied, but
the principal duty at all times has been the security
of the naval installations. In 1902, Fitas were serv-
ing as members of the crew of the station ship,
assisting in handling freight on incoming vessels,
manning the Governor's gig, and doing their own
housekeeping in barracks and mess. In addition,
they performed guard duty and furnished details
for official parties visiting outlying localities to take
one or two boat crews of Fitas to do the boating
and landing through surf. On these trips the Fitas
took their own rations and usually slept ashore in
the village during overnight stops.
Fitas were also assigned special duty in the power
plant, telephone booth, and on the steam launch.
Several were serving with the Medical and Public
Health Department as Medical Fitas, acting as in-
terpreters for doctors treating or examining Samoan
patients. During the war years, they served with
the regular Armed Forces on lookout and gun sta-
tions located on Tutuila and were employed as
guides, messengers, and interpreters.
Later, Fitas were employed on guard duty, as
prisoner guards, radio operators, yeomen, hospital-
pmen, commissary men including cooks, bakers,
butchers, and mess cooks, fire fighters, chauffers,
truck drivers, stewards, orderlies, enginemen, boat
crews, and various other duties. In most of these
tasks, they performed “duties” which otherwise
would require regular naval personnel or civil po-
lice. The Fire Department, consisting of three fire
trucks and auxiliary equipment, was manned by
Fitas and provided fire protection for naval instal-
lations as well as for the civilian communities.
Fita personnel were subsisted in the Navy general
mess and served the same food as regular naval
personnel. However, they enjoyed their own kinds
of food and often ate at home when off duty. There
they had bananas, taros, breadfruit, coconuts, and
fish, which, along with salt beef from New Zealand,
formed the principal and favorite components of
the Samoan diet. t w
Fitas were given access to purchasing and recrea-
tional facilities provided by the U. S. Navy. They
were members of the Enlisted Men's Club which
was operated for Navy personnel on duty in Ameri-
can Samoa. Most of the Fitas were good in some
sport. For several years they represented the South
Pacific Command in the All-Navy Softball Tourna-
ment, participating in the playoffs in Hawaii.
Cricket and rugby were two of their favorite sports.
Religion is a major factor in Samoan life, and
Fitas attended church regularly. Services were con-
ducted on Sunday mornings in the Fita barracks
and the men off duty attended services in their own
villages. Many of the Fitas raised large families
and early in life their children were taught obedi-
ence, religion, Samoan customs, and the necessity
for work.
Members of the Guard and Band ranged in age
from 22 to 50, and their length of service ranged
from slightly less than 4 years up to 21 years. Since
the Guard and Band was first organized, only three
Fitas remained to complete a full 30 years for re-
tirement, as most of them had transferred to the
Fleet Reserve after 16 or 20 years' service. The
last group of Samoans was accepted for enlistment
in the Fita Fita Guard and Band in January 1947.
The majority enlisted for 6 years; however, they
were permitted to reenlist and extend the enlist-
ments for the same periods as provided for the
regular Navy.
Many events of historical interest have occurred
during the past 50 years in which the Fita Fita
Guard and Band have participated. Few of these
have been placed on record but those events, as well
as the Fita Fita Guard and Band, will be long re-
membered by the people of American Samoa. But
as the memories of the Fita Fita Guard faded into
the past, its remaining members were welcomed by
the United States Navy to continue their Fita ca-
reers as members of the regular Navy. Those of the
Guard and Band who have not completed 20 years'
service for transfer to the Fleet Reserve prior to
July 1, 1951, have volunteered 100 percent for en-
listment and their aplications were accepted for
enlistment some time prior to the withdrawal of
the Navy from American Samoa.
As the men of the Fita Fita Guard and Band
marched on into history, with the withdrawal of the
Navy from American Samoa in June 1951, there
was again occasion, as in 1889 in Apia, for a fond
Tofa or farewell, for service well and faithfully
done.
Authority for the Government
It became quite evident that the Navy Depart-
ment was leaving the formation of a government up
to the discretion of the Commandant. When ap-
proval of the Navy Department was asked for sta-
tion regulations already promulgated, the Com-
mandant was informed on June 12, 1900, that
certain of the regulations had been the subject of
consideration, but that the Department was not
then disposed to make formal approval. For the
time being, owing to the novelty of the situation
and the distance from Washington, it was consid—
ered prudent to permit matters to continue as they
Were.
In 1902, the Navy Department further informed
the Commandant, on September 15, that:
The Department does not consider it necessary to give
formal approval to the station regulations that have been
issued from time to time, preferring to indicate such as need
amendment. This will be necessary until such time as Con-
gress shall see fit to legislate for the islands.
The Navy Department, to the final day of its
administration, did not give its approval of procla-
mations, executive orders, or amendments to the
Code issued by the Governor.
This apparent lack of legal authority for acts of
the Commandant continued to trouble succeeding
Governors. In 1902, the Commandant, Capt. Uriel
Sebree, USN, recommended that the Navy Depart-
ment take steps toward establishing some form of
government with a legal standing. He felt that he
could not be certain as to what authority he had
outside of the land owned by the United States
Government at Pago Pago. As commandant, he
was performing the duties of Governor without any
direct orders, appointment, or commission as Gov-
ernor. He concluded his recommendation by urging
that the Assistant Secretary of the Navy visit Sa-
, moa to look into the question of our duty as a Na-
(tion toward the islands.
Pursuing the same line of thought, Governor
Graham stated in the annual report to the Secretary
of the Navy in 1928, that inasmuch as Congress had
As will be noted later, several of the Commandant's
first orders deal with this subject primarily, their
very language appearing occasionally in the Code
of American Samoa in effect today.
Commander Tilley was at once faced with the
same basic conflict which have since plagued suc-
cessive Governors, in diminishing degree for half a
century. On one hand there was the obligation to
form a “Good Government.” Good government to
any American means one thing — representative
government as developed by our western civiliza-
tion over the centuries. On the other hand, there
was the conflicting obligation to protect the rights
of the Matai over the communal lands and to protect
never legislated an organic act for the establishment
of a government in American Samoa, it was difficult
for successive administrations to follow a continuity
of purpose.
island government should be assigned a mission
from which he might derive his policies.
Although the United States Congress considered
organic legislation in 1926, 1931, and 1948–50, no
legislation passed. Therefore, the basic authority
for the Government of American Samoa throughout
the period of naval administration was the Execu-
tive Order of February 19, 1900, and the original
Consequently, he felt that the local
… Samoan customs and culture which contain many
elements not in accord with the governmental prin-
ciples which long since had come to be taken for
granted as the heritage of every American.
In its approach to this fundamental problem, the
Navy, throughout its administration of American
Samoa, has applied a full measure of realism. The
policy has been one of guiding the people, primarily
by means of education and personal example, to a
gradual familiarity with and adoption of many of
our institutions. This process has been slow, and
many aspects of the old Samoan way of life persist
today. - -
As a good naval officer, Commander Tilley knew
that he would have to do the best he could with
the tools of government he could improvise from
the means at hand. He planned to stabilize and pro-
tect the existing local political, social and economic
system until a more positive form of government
could be established in response to increased knowl-
edge and familiarity with American forms of self
government. He therefore set up protective meas-
ures to help guard the Samoans against certain
elements of western civilization to which they were
unaccustomed such as regulation of land transac-
tions and the sale of liquor. The first five regulations
issued by the Commandant were as follows:
No. 1, April 24, 1900: Regulation for promulga-
tion of laws for Tutuila and Manu'a.
No. 2, April 24, 1900: Notice concerning tempo-
instruments as ratified by Congress in 1929.
Problems of Administration
It would be well at this point to orient ourselves
to the turn of the twentieth century. The U.S.S.
Abarenda, which Commander Tilley commanded in
Samoan waters, was a converted collier displacing
about 5,000 tons, mounting 4 three-pounders and
having a complement of only 9 officers and 60 men.
In the wardroom there were the executive officer,
the chief engineer, the first lieutenant, the boats-
wain, the gunner, the carpenter, the paymaster, the
surgeon, and not more than one or two additional
watch officers. Commander Tilley did not have as
many assistants as were needed and did not have
qualified specialists in law and other fields. Radio
communication was not available at that time. Yet
his first orders, issued immediately upon assuming
his new additional duties and setting up the gov- rary customs regulations. - -
ernment of American Samoa, reflect his ability to No. 3, April 28, 1900: An ordinance to prohibit '.
cope with the situation. - - - the supply of intoxicating liquors to natives. .
Between the lines of these first Orders One can No. 4, April 30, 1900: Regulation to prºhibit the
faintly discern the bargaining processes which pre- alienation of native land in T utuila and Manu a.
ceded the cession and the heavy stress placed by No. 5, April 30, 1900: A declaration concerning
the Samoans on the protection of their communal the form of government for the United States Naval
or Matai lands, their customs, and their culture. Station, Tutuila.
As Commander Tilley wrote on May 1, 1900:
The Government which I propose to establish for these
islands is a government of the chiefs, who are to receive
additional appointments to their positions from the Com-
mandant of the Station.
Under the form of government established by
Commander Tilley in 1900, all purely local matters
were left in the hands of the traditional chiefs
(Regulation No. 5). Basically under this method
of administration known as “indirect rule,” the
central government was rarely called upon to inter-
fere in village, county, or district affairs. In the
event of disagreements, the Governor stepped in.
and made decisions when necessary. The Samoans
thus, to a large extent, governed themselves. In gen-
eral, the naval government to the end carried on its
administration with this principle in mind in ac-
cordance with the provisions of the instruments of
cession.
By these instruments of cession, this method of
administration was presented to the United States,
namely, that the chiefs of the village should retain
their individual control of the separate towns, if
that control should be in accordance with the laws
of the United States applicable in Tutuila, “and if
not obstructive to the peace of the people and the
advancement of civilization of the people, subject
also to the supervision and instruction of the said
government.” However, “the enactment of legisla-
tion and the general control shall remain firm with
the United States of America.”
The local government was divided into three ad-
ministrative districts, the Eastern and Western Dis-
tricts of Tutuila, and the Manu'a District, each of
which was administered by a Samoan District Gov-
ernor appointed by the Governor. These districts
corresponded to Samoan political districts which
had existed from early days. The districts were di-
vided into a total of 14 counties, each administered
by a Samoan County Chief appointed by the Gov-
ernor. The counties were also ancient political di-
visions. Each of the 52 villages had a village chief
or pulenu'u (mayor), selected annually by the Vil-
lage council and appointed by the Governor if ap-
proved. The pulenu'u and the village council had
general charge of loſéal affairs in the village. The
village councils were composed of the Matais
(heads of families) in each village, and were pre-
sided over by the village chief, except on occasions
of the selection of the village chief when the village
magistrate presided. This structure of the local
government remained with little change to the end
of the naval administration of American Samoa.
Under the form of government set up by Com-
mander Tilley, measures were taken to further in-
sure the traditional authority of the chiefs by
making them local leaders of the administration, by,
making them members of a central advisory coun-
cil, and by making them village chiefs (pulenu'u),
county chiefs and judges. This policy was continued
under the naval administration. In some instances,
chiefs of the highest ranks, according to Samoan
custom, were not appointed to the highest political
government positions. Difficulties often ensued un-
der these conditions.
It did not take the Navy long to discover that the
highest ranking chiefs by Samoan custom were not
always the most capable men for a political ap-
pointment. This, however, is a constantly recurring
problem in most non-self-governing areas. Where-
ever possible, the naval administration tried to
make appointive positions in accordance with the
relative rank of the chief fad Samoa (by Samoan
custom). With the spread of education, young peo-
ple became eligible and trained for important ap-
pointive government positions even though they had
no chiefly rank. Although this created additional
problems for the administration, it was a part of
the education of the Samoan people in the conduct
of their political life. -
In the 1920's there occurred a strong movement
for autonomy among the Samoans called a “Mau,”
literally translated “opinion.” As might be ex-
pected because of the close relationship between
Western and American Samoa, the movement arose
in both areas during the same approximate period.
The Mau, which supported the idea of transfer to
a civil form of government, arose in April 1920, and
continued until the early 1930's. Initially, two naval
officers and a civilian were involved by engaging in
strenuous efforts to create a feeling of opposition
among the Samoan leaders to the Governor and the
administration. The Mau had a disastrous effect
on the life of the islands in that a committee of
chiefs met in interminable sessions, resulting in an
almost complete cessation of economic activities
such as copra cutting and tending plantations.
The Navy Department ordered a court of inquiry
(Capt. Waldo Evans, U. S. Navy, President) which
arrived in Pago Pago Harbor on November 5, 1920,
aboard U.S.S. Kansas, only to find that the Gov-
ernor, Commander W. J. Terhune, had committed
suicide at his home at noon 2 days before. Governor
Terhune had tried to compromise with the leaders
of the Mau which they took to be weakness. De-
spite this handicap, the court made a thorough in-
Vestigation into the legal, political, and financial
condition of American Samoa and found that Gov-
ernor Terhune's administration “since April 1920,
While financially honest, lacked tact and firmness,
due to his mental and physical condition, as indi-
cated by his failure to correct the feeling of unrest
and discontent by immediate and effective action.”
As a result of the inquiry, one naval officer was
court martialed and dismissed, another relieved
from duty at the station, and an American civilian
deported. The Samoan leaders were exonerated as
having been misled.
Captain Evans became Commandant and Gov-
ernor on November 11, 1920. He took firm action
and disbanded the Samoan committee. On July 1,
1921, he was able to report to the Navy Department
that conditions were normal and the Samoans sat-
isfied.
The trouble had started when charges were lev-
eled against the Governor and his officials regarding
the finances of administration. Governor Evans and
succeeding Governors met this situation by con-
structive and sympathetic measures to meet the
grievances. For example, an auditing board was
established with Samoan representation to supervise
the government finances, and set up a more up-to-
date school system.
Additional trouble occurred when a Mr. Sam S.
Ripley, a part Samoan, arrived at Tutuila in Au-
gust 1921 but was not permitted to land. Shortly
after this, 17 chiefs were seized and found guilty of
a conspiracy to kill the high chiefs who had signi-
fied their loyalty to the Governor, and of conspiring
to start an uprising. They were imprisoned, sen-
tenced to hard labor and deprived of their matai
titles. They were paroled in 1924.
These and other troubles continued. The Mau,
however, once it discovered that there was no oppo-
sition from the government, came out in the open
and the Governor even attended some of the meet-
ings in the later 1920's. “Citizenship and civil gov-
ernment for the Samoans” took on esoteric values
and became the slogan of the day in Samoa as well
as among certain elements in the United States.
The increasing interest in American Samoa Was
reflected in the acceptance by Congress of the ces-
sions of Tutuila and Manu'a on February 20, 1929,
and at the same time authorizing a Congressional
Commission on which Samoan leaders Were to be
represented. In 1930 the Commission held hearings
for 11 days in Honolulu and American Samoa and
listened to a great deal of testimony. The recom-
mendations of the Commission were embodied in
the draft of an Organic Act, providing American
citizenship for American Samoans, setting up inde-
pendent executive and judicial branches of the gov-
ernment, and providing for an elected legislative
body. However, the bill failed of passage in the
House of Representatives in February 1933.
- With the imminently expected passage of the Or-
ganic Act in the early 1930's, the Mau movement
died a natural death when succeeding Governors
adopted many of the recommendations contained in
the report of the congressional hearings and in the
proposed organic legislation.
Executive Control
The Naval Governor, the head of the Government
of American Samoa, derived his authority not only
from his commission as Governor of American Sa-
moa but also from his orders as Commandant of
the Naval Station. The legislative power of Ameri-
can Samoa was vested in him with the proviso as
stated in the Code that the Annual Fono (legislative
meeting) may make recommendations to the Gov-
ernor. The Governor's authority was supreme, sub-
ject to orders from the Navy Department, and in
comparable form, this will probably continue until
organic legislation providing a constitution and form
of government under which the Governor will oper-
ate is passed by the United States Congress.
This concentration of power in the hands of one
man caused sincere anxiety to many Governors suc-
ceeding Commander Tilley. Governor Graham in
his annual report to the Secretary of the Navy in
1928 commented:
The Governor is clothed with too great discretionary
power. Insofar as any restriction placed upon the Governor
is concerned, he may change every law in the codification,
even that which changes the form of government. It is
true that any act of the Governor may be nullified by the
Secretary of the Navy, but in the meantime great mischief
may have been done. The Governor exercises the sole
legislative functions unguided and unrestricted by a con-
stitutional instrument, presents an unusual principle of
government.
It is true that the Governor has had the authority
to amend the Code. He could also issue executive
orders, although the Code provided that the number
of such orders should be kept to a minimum. Even
as early as 1903, Capt. Uriel Sebree, Commandant,
in his annual report urged that the next session of
Congress enact laws for these islands. “The Gov-
ernment is not on a firm basis. The Commandant
can undo or alter proclamations and regulations at
his own discretion.”
In practice, however, every Naval Governor has
leaned heavily on the Samoan people in the exercise
of his powers. Most decisions were referred to his
Samoan advisors. Wherever possible, the intent has
been to execute the Governor's responsibilities in a
manner consistent with the Samoan viewpoint.
There were also certain unwritten restraints on the
Governor: public opinion in the United States, the
authority of the Secretary of the Navy, and demo-
cratic traditions of the United States under which
the Governor and his staff were brought up. A fur-
ther restraint on the Governor today is the in-
creased experience and education of the people of
Samoa in political ideas. They can now quickly de-
tect an autocratic administration.
By Executive Order No. 4125 of January 12,
1925, under authority of Section 28 (e) of the Im-
migration Act of 1924, the Governor of American
Samoa and the Governor of Guam were vested with
consular powers. This power remained with the Na-
val Governors throughout the naval administration.
It was not until 1905 that the title of Comman-
dant was changed to Governor. As early as 1902,
Captain Sebree pointed out to the Navy Depart-
ment that his orders designated him as Comman-
dant of the Naval Station, Tutuila; by Executive
Order this comprised all the islands of the Samoan
group under United States sovereignity. Thus, as
Commandant, he performed all the duties of a
Governor but had no order, appointment, or com-
mission, as Governor. He requested specific orders
so as to publish it to the Samoans and to inform his
German counterpart in Western Samoa, Governor
Solf. The Commandant, Commander E. B. Under-
wood, U.S.N., made the same recommendation in
1904. This was a matter of prestige in the eyes of
the Samoans as well. When the Commandant went
to German Samoa, for example, or received visiting
ships, he was not due the number of gun salutes
which he would receive if he had a commission as
Governor.
Accordingly, beginning with 1905, each Comman-
dant, upon nomination by the Secretary of the
Navy, was given a commission as Governor by the
President of the United States. Until 1912, the com-
mission was made out to the “Governor of Tutuila,”
Manu'a being ignored. On June 6, 1905, the Secre-
tary of the Navy informed the Governor that the
commission appointing him Governor of the island
of Tutuila gave him jurisdiction over all possessions
of the United States in Samoa.
The Executive Departments
At the time of its termination, the operation of
the executive branch of the Naval Government Was
departmentalized to carry on the specialized tasks
of finance, public works, police, education, public
health, agriculture, and local Samoan administra-
tion. In addition to the executive branch, the ad-
ministration of the Naval Government was divided
into the judicial and legislative branches.
In 1900, Commander Tilley had a simple organi-
zation consisting of a customs officer, and a health
officer of the port of Pago Pago. The former, Mr.
E. W. Gurr of Apia, was a local barrister familiar
with the Samoan language, who acted also as judge
and legal advisor. The latter was Assistant Surgeon
E. M. Blackwell, U. S. Navy, surgeon of the station
ship.
In 1903, Captain Sebree pointed out to the Navy
Department the shortage of officers on his staff. Not
only was he Commandant of the naval station and
commanding officer of the station ship, but he was
also the head of the local government. A ship's
officer was on duty ashore as customs officer and
captain of the yard, in charge of the Fitas Fitas,
building operations and laborers. As previously
mentioned, the ship's surgeon was also the public
health officer. This left fewer officers for full-time
shipboard duty.
It was quite obvious, therefore, that the bulk of
the work and relationship with the Samoans had to
be left in the hands of the Secretary of Native Af-
fairs, Mr. E. W. Gurr, a British subject. It was
fortunate that a man of his experience was available
at the time. Mr. Gurr was a barrister practicing
before the Supreme Court of Western Samoa and
was familiar with the Samoan language. His wife
was a daughter of Seumanutafa, the High Chief who
rendered such valuable assistance to our sailors at
the time of the hurricane at Apia in 1889. He had
been Samoans' Advocate before the Land Commis-
sion when the government was under the Berlin
General Act, between 1890 and 1899. Mr. Gurr's
abilities, experience, and knowledge of the Samoan
language and customs enabled him to handle the
Samoan affairs in a commendable fashion, and were
largely responsible for building up the prestige of
the office. His connection with the island govern-
ment was severed in 1908 under a cloud, because of
a shortage in his accounts.
In 1903 Commander Underwood, the Comman- (3) Supervise the work of the native officials.
dant, recommended to the Navy Department that (4) Act as custodian of the archives.
the position of “Secretary of Native Affairs” be es- (5) Attend the annual fono and record its pro-
tablished at $2,500 per year. The incumbent would, ceedings. -
&S interpreter, have charge of supervision and in- (6) Collect taxes.
spection of the work of all Samoan government (7) Record births and deaths.
officials, make reports, accompany the Commandant (8) Register, titles.
on inspection trips and act as district judge. In (9) Issue passports.
1904 the Commandant recommended that the job In the same manner as in the old office of Secre-
of interpreter be made into a separate position at tary of Native Affairs, a considerable concentration
$1,200 per year. of power came to be lodged in the office of the At-
- By 1930 the position of Secretary of Native Af- torney General. His prestige and authority as law
*s (SNA) had grown until it included these ad- enforcement agent made it easier for him to perform
ditional offices and duties: Secretary to the Gover- these duties. In 1951 for example, we note that in
nor, distr ict judge, registrar of titles; supervision addition to the above duties the Attorney General
and inspection of all work of the district governors managed the Copra Fund and the ship O. S. Manu'aº
and chiefs, judges and magistrates, and the prepara- Tele chartered by the Island Government, was re-
tion of regular reports thereon to the Governor. In sponsible for law enforcement and penal adminis-
other words, he was the intermediary between the tration (police and the prison), was chairman of the
Governor and the officials and people of American board of directors in the Department of Samoan
- Samoa. The SNA also administered the copra in- Industry, was legal officer of the naval station per-
dustry of the island, collected the taxes, signed all forming such legal duties as drafting deeds, con-
passports and travel passes, and visaed foreign tracts, and leases, and handling veterans' affairs; and
passports, supervised the Samoan police department in addition was a member of numerous boards and
and acted as sheriff, was in charge of vital statistics, commissions.
and was a member of many boards and commis- An effort to lessen the burden on the office of
sions. Attorney General was made in 1951 with the advent
So many duties were concentrated in this office of the first civilian governor when the copra fund,
and so many were connected with legal matters as management of the ship Manu'a Tele and chair-
the administration of the government became more manship of the Department of Samoan Industry
complex, that on September 18, 1931, the position were turned over to the newly created Department
was split up. The Office of Attorney General was of Administrative Services.
created absorbing the duties of the Secretary Of Na- In 1948 the Department of Agriculture was recog-
tive Affairs and a Chief Justice was appointed to nized by inclusion in the Code of American Samoa
conduct the Judicial Department. for the first time.
The first departmentalization of the government The organization of the executive board of the
was attempted by Governor Stearns on September government in March 1951 consisted of the follow-
6, 1913, when, by Executive order, he reorganized ing departments:
the administrative set up and established the fol-
lowing departments: (1) Judicial, (2) Treasury, Attorney General,
(3) Interior (Customs), (4) Agriculture, and (5) Treasurer,
Public Health. The Public Works Department was º Works,
added on November 15, 1919. i. |t)
The first Attorney General was a naval officer, 8. eaſtn,
Lt. Comdr. F. L. Lowe. Until the spring of 1951, ustoms,
Agriculture,
naval officers filled this position with the exception
of a brief period during World War II, when the po- Samoan Industry.
sition was held by a Marine Corps colonel. The In addition to the departmental type of organiza-
duties of the Attorney General were as follows: tion, each governor established a system of advisory
(1) Prosecute felonies. boards and commissions in which Samoans were
(2) Represent the government at law where the members. On April 15, 1914, Governor Stearns es-
government has an interest. tablished the following series of committees in order
to work closer with the Samoan people for mutual
cooperation in the administration of the govern-
ment:
Committee “A”—Executive Committee (consist-
ing of District Governors).
Committee “B”—Committee of the Samoan Hos-
pital (3 members from each district).
Committee “C”—Auditing Committee (to give
fullest publicity to the statement of government ac-
counts).
Succeeding Governors continued to add boards
and commissions until by 1951 the following major
commissions included:
Board of Education,
Public Improvement and Planning Commission,
Board of Directors, Samoan Industry,
Alcoholic Liquor Control Board,
. Auditing Boards,
Land Commission,
Supplemental Land and Claims Commission,
Budget Board, -
Prison Board.
3.
In its 51 years of administration the Navy has
primarily used naval personnel for the top govern-
mental positions. Increasingly, however, as the job
of administration became more complex, especially
in the years following World War II, civilians were
employed for billets in the government where spe-
cialized training was desirable, particularly in edu-
cation, banking, public finance and public works.
In some instances, it was possible to utilize the
services of Naval Reserve officers on active duty
who had such specialized training.
The Legislature
Under a form of government in which the power
of the Governor was absolute, the establishment of
a legislative body which would reflect the wishes
and needs of the Samoans was a difficult one. The
Governor enacted the basic proclamations and regu-
lations which became, in effect, the local constitu-
tion or code. Enactment by direct promulgation
was the easiest way to make laws.
A legislative council was suggested by the Secre-
tary of Native Affairs as early as 1903, inasmuch
as “the Commandant finds in many cases that it is
difficult to draw up laws that shall be just, and at
the same time shall meet the varying and sometimes
conflicting needs of the entire community of Ameri-
can Samoa.”
With this thought in mind, and consistent with
the principles of representative government, the
Governor, Commander C. B. T. Moore, U.S.N.,
made an attempt to institute elections by having a
representative assembly elected by secret ballot for
a meeting on October 20, 1905. A delegate from each
village was to have been elected in addition to the
village chief who was to have been a delegate ex-
officio. However, elections were conducted by Sa-
moan custom (faa Samoa) and confined to heads of
families only (matai). The delegates were all men
who by Samoan rank and custom rule the people.
In other words, the attempt ended exactly as if no
election had been held. Little if any difference would
be found in 1951.
The leading chiefs thus demonstrated that they
had no desire that any power be taken away from
them and there seemed to have been no move among
the local population to change the current political
conditions. In fact, in 1908, eighteen of the highest
ranking chiefs of the islands, including the three
district governors, representing the Samoan people
by Samoan custom, petitioned the President of the
United States:
That the system of administration of the islands which
was introduced upon the annexation of the United States
of America be continued until such time as a majority of
the Samoan people can understand and realize the system
in vogue in the United States of America.
Although this theme has been a frequently recur-
ring one, the Samoans gradually began to show an
increasing interest in having a voice in the affairs
of government. The Governors' presentation of
many official matters to an advisory legislative
council was an effective method of obtaining popu-
lar opinion and gaining support for new administra-
tive measures.
Thus grew up the Annual Fomo (general meeting)
to which all communities of the islands send dele-
gates. It became customary for the Governor to
issue a proclamation calling the Fomo. Each district
then had preliminary meetings in which matters to
be presented at the Annual Fono were discussed, and
in which petitions were prepared. At the Fomo, mat-
ters of general interest were debated, new laws or
changes in existing laws recommended, and infor-
mation asked and given regarding all matters con-
nected with the administration of the government.
The Annual Fono was presided over by the Gov-
ernor and it served in an advisory capacity to the
Governor on matters affecting the welfare and de-
velopment of American Samoa and its inhabitants.
In general, the unicameral form of the Fono con-
tinued until 1948.
On the recommendation of the Fono, approved by
the Governor, Capt. Vernon Huber, U.S.N., the
Code of American Samoa was amended on February
24, 1948 to provide a bicameral organization, the
House of Alii and the House of Representatives, to
be known as the Legislature of American Samoa
instead of the Annual Fono, and which continued
for the remaining period of naval administration.
This body consisted of 54 members of the House of
Representatives selected biennially by the perma-
nent residents of American Samoa. Of these, 52
members represented the Samoan people living un-
der the Matai system and were selected in open
meetings held in accordance with Samoan custom,
on the basis of 1 member for each of the 52 Samoan
villages. However, these members did not have to
be Matais, although in practice they have been. The
remaining two members represented the permanent
residents of American Samoa who did not live under
the Matai system and have been elected at large by
the registered adult population in that category
voting by secret ballot. The House of Alii (chiefs)
was composed of 12 chiefs holding certain ranking
titles in American Samoa. The presiding officer of
the House of Alii was known as the chairman, and
in the House of Representatives he was known as
the speaker.
In November of each year, the members of both
Houses were convened as a Committee of the Whole
to consider resolutions to be taken up by the legis-
lature at its next regular session. Such resolutions
were submitted to the Governor for such comment
as he might wish to make. The Governor's com-
ments were then forwarded to the Speaker of the
House of Representatives for transmission by him
to each member of the legislature.
The regular session of the legislature was con
vened annually in January. At that time, the Gov-
ernor's comments on the resolutions adopted by the
Committee of the Whole were considered, as well as
any other resolutions or resolutions which the Gov-
ernor might wish to submit on behalf of the Gov-
ernment.
The need for a legislative body functioning con-
tinuously during the year Was considered in 1924
by the Governor, Capt. E. S. Kellogg, U.S.N. He
contemplated having the representatives of the An-
nual Fono organized into a permanent body, sepa-
rate and apart from the appointed Samoan govern-
ment officials. However, the Secretary of Native
Affairs advised against it and recommended instead
an organization of the district governors and county
chiefs as a vehicle by which the government could
obtain the support of the Samoan population. Such
a body functions at the present time on a monthly
basis. It is, however, an organization of the execu-
tive rather than the legislative branch.
- Along these lines, during the 1924 Annual Fono,
a chief of the Manu'a District introduced a proposal
to establish a body of two Faipules (representa-
tives) from each county to serve for 2 years, to at-
tend to all district matters, and also to attend the
Annual Fono. However, the proposal was voted
down by the other two District Governors.
Again in 1935 High Talking Chief Tuiasosopo of
the Eastern District proposed Resolution Number
VI “To form and to establish a legislative body and
to be known as the Fomo.” He felt that it would be
a good plan if the Fono as constituted at the time
should remain in being between the dates of the
Annual Fonos, and that in the event of legislative
questions of policy the Governor should call a spe-
cial session, each member to receive no pay, but to
be furnished transportation.
Chief Justice H. P. Wood pointed out to the Gov-
ernor the delay and disadvantages of a large con-
Sultative body and suggested a small consultative
body, a legislative council, to consist of two mem-
bers to be selected from each district and one mem-
ber at large, for a total of seven members. The
term would be for 1 year and the council members
would speak for and represent their districts during
the year. This was the beginning of the effort to
establish a representative legislative body which
culminated in the establishment of the new body
in 1948.
Between sessions the Speaker of the House of
Representatives and the Chairman of the House
of Alii may call an executive committee consisting
of seven members from the lower House, and three
members from the upper House to consider matters
brought up by the Governor, but not of such impor-
tance that would require the calling of a special
session.
Thus, the legislature, although advisory, is or-
ganized somewhat along modern lines and, with the
passage of organic legislation, should be prepared
in time to assume additional legislative responsi-
bilities.
As an example of the capabilities of the legisla-
tive body in American Samoa, the following general
subjects considered by the Annual Fono in 1946.
upon which resolutions were passed will indicate
10
that the Samoan leaders have been capable of think-
ing in terms of broad matters of policy:
Handling of copra.
Public schools.
Hurricane funds.
Limitations upon sales of land.
Alcoholic liquor.
Status of American Samoa as a possession of
the Government of the United States and
American citizenship.
Enlistment status of Fita Fita Guard and
Band.
Electric power.
Public roads.
Samoan Hospital, presence of aigas (relatives).
Poll tax.
Term of office of department heads.
Department of Samoan Industry.
Monthly meetings of district governors and
county chiefs.
Increase in salary of pulenw’us.
Increase in salary of Samoan nurses.
Price controls.
Reduction in water transportation fares.
Amendments to the Code.
Rotation of district judges as members of the
High Court.
Legislative power and form of government.
New Fomo Building.
Attendance of public upon fono sessions.
Cigarette and other additional taxes to be
levied.
It will be noted, however, that some of the sub-
jects considered above were functions of the execu-
tive rather than the legislative branch. This is char-
acteristic of the Samoan legislature, brought about
by the function of the Matais in local government
politics who by Samoan custom made executive,
legislative, and judicial decisions.
The Judiciary
As in the case of most small islands in formative
days of their government, one individual held the
office of “judge” as well as many other positions
simultaneously.
Mr. E. W. Gurr, already mentioned as the Sec-
retary of Native Affairs, was the first judge in
American Samoa. He was also legal advisor to the
Governor. This meant that he performed adminis-
trative and executive as well as judicial duties.
Most significant of all, it meant that he was both
~ *
prosecutor and judge. Furthermore, as Secretary of
l
-*
-
Native Affairs, he also acted as sheriff controlling
the civil police force. This situation continued until
1931 when in response to criticism both from out-
side sources as well as from incumbents of the office
and as recommended by the Bingham Congressional
Commission of 1930, the Governor, Capt. G. S. Lin-
coln, U.S.N., on September 18, 1931, separated the
functions of the two officers. A civilian was ap-
pointed Chief Justice by the Secretary of the Navy
to administer the judiciary and a naval officer was
appointed Attorney General. -
As early as 1903 the Commandant recommended
the creation of the office of Chief Justice at $3,500
per year, the occupant to be head of the judiciary,
registrar, and legal advisor to the Commandant.
One clerk-typist was also recommended for the ju-
dicial organization at $1,200 per year.
Regulation No. 5 of 1900, establishing the form
of government, provided that the judicial power be
vested in a high court, district courts, and village
courts, and defined the jurisdiction of each. As first
constituted, the Governor was a part of the mem-
bership of the high court and he or someone desig-
nated by him presided over its deliberations. With
the appointment of the first Chief Justice in 1931,
the judicial organization was established as an in-
dependent branch of the government, with the Chief
Justice responsible to the Secretary of the Navy.
Since 1931 the Chief Justice has been appointed by
the Secretary of the Navy, at the direction of the
President, except from early 1942 to February 1946
when, during the period of military government, the
Chief Justice was a naval officer.
In 1951 the jurisdiction of the system extended to
naval personnel with respect to civil matters. In
many criminal matters in which naval personnel
were involved, the Navy Department permitted
such personnel to be tried in the civil courts in
American Samoa.
Initially, regulations were enacted regarding the
registration of births, marriages, and deaths, play-
ing cricket, traveling on organized journeys, health,
sending children to school, bestowal of titles, cutting
copra, paying taxes, searching for beetles, and other
phases of Samoan life. With the spread of educa-
tion and increase in population, the form of govern-
ment became more complex. As the material benefits
of western civilization came to American Samoa in
the form of such innovations as automobiles, elec-
tricity, and roads, the body of laws also became
more complex.
11
It finally became necessary to codify the laws.
The first condification of the Laws and Regulations
of the Government of American Samoa was com-
pleted on April 17, 1917, primarily due to the efforts
of Judge Stromach. The next codification was made
in 1921 by Judge A. M. Noble and printed for the
first time in bound separate volumes in both Sa-
moan and English. A revision of the code was made
in 1937 and was the last published until the revised
Code in 1948. -
The High Court has dealt mostly with land and
Matai title disputes. It was partly the pressure of
the number of land title cases (38) that influenced
Governor Parker in 1909 and succeeding Governors
to recommend that a Chief Justice be appointed.
Offenses within the jurisdiction of the village and
district courts have always been along the same
pattern and chiefly comprise acts of physical vio-
lence, burglary, larceny, sex offenses, desertion, fail-
ure to pay debts, taxes, traffic offenses, trespass,
nonsupport of wife, disorderly conduct, and like
offenses.
In this brief sketch the curious anomaly existing
in the administration of the law can only be touched
upon. In reality there existed from the beginning of
the naval administration what often amounted to
a conflict of laws, namely, the unwritten Samoan
laws derived from custom, and the statue law, or
law imposed by the American concept of how a so-
ciety ought to behave. Dr. Felix M. Keesing, in
his splendid book Modern Samoa (London; George
Allen & Urwin Ltd., 1934) points this out clearly
in the following paragraph.
The native Samoans can be pictured as in a considerable
state of bewilderment and disturbance as the shadow of
western law loomed over their lives. The old judicial ideas
and institutions had to be modified so as to allow for the
new codes and courts, for the impersonal machine of white
justice with its traditional mummery and fixed precedents
often requiring esoteric exposition by the bench and by
lawyers. Two kinds of delinquency emerged, the one com-
prising deviations from the correct patterns of Samoan
behavior, the accepted standards of the native community,
the other deviations from the alien and superimposed rules
of conduct.
- For example, laws were made under naval ad-
ministration which tended to strike at the roots of
old Samoan authority and custom, removing from
the Matai all power of coercion. One such law reads
as follows:
If any person, or persons, shall impose on any other per-
Son any Fa'a Samoan (Samoan custom) fine, whereby any-
thing whatsoever of value is obtained from said person on
whom said fine is imposed, the person or persons, so im–
posing said fine shall be fined not more than $50.00 or im-
prisoned not more than six months, or both.
The purpose of such a regulation, of course, was
to prohibit the exercise of judicial powers in the
native community outside of the officially consti-
tuted courts. It is interesting to note that a resolu-
tion to repeal this regulation was introduced in the
1951 session of the legislature and received consid
erable support in that body. --
There are numerous Samoan customs for breach.
of which the formal law has provided no redress.
It was the policy of the naval administration to let
as many as possible of these matters rest with the
local authorities by relying on the common sense
and experience of village leaders. For example,
when a land dispute arose, every effort was made
by the Secretary of Native Affairs to settle the
matter out of court between the parties involved.
Chief Justice Arthur A. Morrow, who in 1951 had
more than 9 years' experience in American Samoa as
Chief Justice, gave litigents every opportunity to
settle their disputes among themselves, even after
they had come to court. In other words, he felt that
a settlement by the Samoan parties themselves
would be more readily acceptable in Samoan society
than one imposed by American-made law. The so-
lution, then, lay in striking a balance between pro-
tecting the old power of the matais and enforcement
of the new codes so as to bring Samoan behavior
increasingly in line with that of western society.
The tendency of the naval administration since
World War II has been to return some of the old
powers to the Matais by permitting them greater
latitude in the conduct of village affairs, with
greater concentration on the more essential matters
by the central government, such as public health
measures, and registration of Matai titles. It has
been felt that this method of administration had the
advantage of giving a greater degree of self-govern-
ment to the leaders and permitted them to set their
own pace in adapting their local government to
modern times. In this fashion, the naval adminis-
tration fully recognized that it was neither desira-
ble nor possible to supplant Samoan culture with
American culture too abruptly.
12
MEDICINE AND PUBLIC HEALTH
On April 17, 1900, E. M. Blackwell, Passed As-
sistant Surgeon, U. S. N., Ship's surgeon of the
U. S. S. Abarenda, stepped ashore at Pago Pago
with black bag in hand and set up shop under the
nearest coconut tree. Thus began the Public Health
Department of American Samoa, and the long but
eminently successful war against disease and the
practice of “bush” medicine in those islands.
Dr. Blackwell observed a healthy, rugged, people,
used to an outdoor life, living in a comfortable cli-
mate and environment and eating plenty of simple
food. At the same time, however, he noted many
extreme cases of filariasis, skin diseases, especially
yaws, sores and ulcers, conjunctivitis and a preva-
lency of bronchial troubles during the rainy season.
He also noted an abnormally high rate of infant
mortality but an equally high fertility among the
parents, thus preserving a balance of population.
Dr. Blackwell was faced with the problem of
revolutionizing Samoan thought and custom con-
cerning health and disease. The practice of “bush”
medicine was prevalent. The scourges of filariasis,
yaws and a high infant mortality rate had come to
be accepted as natural and unavoidable factors in
their daily life, because physical well being and ill-
ness had a deep traditional interpretation of life to
the Samoan, bound up with religion and super-
stition.
These conditions prevailed in spite of the excel-
lent work done by the missionaries who, some 50
years earlier, had just begun to introduce the latest
techniques and methods of administering to the
sick. Great credit is due them for their constructive
work carried on against such heavy odds. -
On June 13, 1900, Commander Tilley forwarded
to the Navy Department two letters from Dr.
Blackwell together with requisitions for medical
stores for a dispensary for the free medical treat-
ment of the Samoans. The Commandant heartily
approved his recommendations for the establish-
ment of a dispensary at Pago Pago and commended
Dr. Blackwell “for his offer to give his services to
the treatment of the suffering natives.” There was
not a single practicing physician or surgeon in the
islands and the death rate was high.
Unfortunately, due to lack of funds, the request
for a dispensary was disapproved. However, within
a year of his arrival, Dr. Blackwell set up a three-
bed dispensary in a building formerly occupied by
an island trader. In 1904 a Samoan fale (house)
was added, bought with island government funds
and erected as an adjunct to the naval dispensary,
for he found that “the natives throve best in a house
of their own style.” In the same year, 1904, the
Commandant requested the Navy Department for
an appropriation of $5,000 for a suitable naval hos-
pital but this was not granted. On May 9, 1906,
the Surgeon General of the Navy authorized the
medical officer to continue to expend Navy medical
supplies, for the Samoans.
A matter of considerable importance to the Sa-
moans at the time was the discovery of hookworm
in American Samoa by Surgeon P. S. Rossiter,
U.S.N., in November 1909. Investigation indicated
that 85 percent of the Samoans were victims, in-
cluding 72 members of the Fita Fita Guard and
Band. In an effort to obtain the cooperation of Sa-
moan leaders in matters of health and sanitation.
a special general Fomo was held January 25, 1910,
to consider this health problem. A humorous twist
was lent to the occasion by the statement of one of
the District Governors:
What we are here for is to talk business; in the years
past many of our people have died, and when we have
inquired as to the cause, we have been told “pains in the
stomach,” “pains in the head”; but we did not know any-
thing about hookworms. The effect of this sickness is to
make us lazy and sleepy, and we all know now why we
have been so sleepy and why we have been so lazy. It will
be in order for us to decide upon something to give us
good health, and to have this sickness removed from our
colony altogether.
The Governor, Commander W. M. Crose, U.S.N.,
established a Board of Health on December 31,
1909, and a code of regulations was set up in regard
to public health and sanitation; a textbook on hy-
giene was produced for use in the schools in English
and Samoan, and the government gazette O Le Faa-
tonu was used to further the spread of health edu-
cation. The board showed signs of great activity
in 1910 and 1911, especially with regard to the
building of latrines and general sanitation.
13
It should be noted that free medical care was not
always available for the Samoans. Early in the
Course of naval medicine in American Samoa, there
arose a controversy over fees for medical services
to civilians. Under naval regulations of the day, a
naval medical officer was entitled to charge for con-
Sultations which were not in line of duty and which
Were not demanded on humanitarian grounds. This
matter was finally settled in 1921 when the Gov-
ernor directed that thereafter all medical care was
to be free to American Samoans. This policy pre-
Vailed during the remainder of the naval adminis-
tration.
In response to requests from the various Gover-
nors, the Navy Department, on April 4, 1911,
granted permission for the construction of a Samoan
hospital on U. S. Government land, without expense
to the United States. Accordingly, a Samoan hos-
pital fund was created May 25, 1911, for the con-
struction and support of the hospital. Its sources
were a small charge for medical care and drugs. The
first Samoan hospital, completed September 1, 1912,
consisted of a wooden central administration build-
ing paid for by the island government, costing
$2,284.94, and containing an examining room, dis- .
pensary, lavatory, and dressing room, with an out-
building for kitchen, baths, latrines, and storeroom.
To provide flushing water, a windmill was built to
pump harbor water up the hill. Later, small fales
were added as accomodation for high chiefs who
might enter as patients with their entourages.
Samoan custom regarding the care of the sick
_was observed. Each patient was accompanied to the
hospital by aigas (relatives or fellow clansmen)
who undertook to supply food and nursing care. A
further aspect of this custom required that a mem-
ber of the family keep in close touch with a sick
member, and that at least one member of the family
be present at the death bed of the aged so that any
family secrets which the dying member wished to
impart could be passed along. This plan was so
deeply rooted in Samoan culture that it was not
eliminated until 1943. Writing in 1943, Commander
C. S. Stephenson, M.C., U.S.N., stated:
It is indeed unfortunate that the present System of hos-
pitilization was ever started in Samoa or anywhere else.
for that matter. . . . With all these supernumeraries in the
hospital, bedlam breaks loose. . . . A careful study has been
made of the costs to the individual family in the Samoan
hospital. In addition to the necessary cost of rations, 1s
the necessity for providing a feast for the patients who are
able to partake of this feast, as well as of the other aigas
present. These feasts may cost as little as five dollars, but
known instances have occurred when the cost was as much
as Seventy-five dollars. . . .
The most successful step taken to combat this cus-
tom was the erection in 1948 of the Aiga Fale (rela-
tives' house) in which nursing mothers of infant
patients and relatives of patients on the serious list
were privileged to reside. However, the custom of
the feast persists.
Built on a steep hillside and constructed of wood,
the expenses of maintenance and upkeep of the first
hospital increased year by year until in 1938, 10
percent of the departmental plant upkeep budget
was spent on the hospital alone. Annual reports of
the Governors to the Secretary of the Navy con-
tained strong statements to the effect that the hos-
pital was outmoded and inadequate.
The end of World War II brought a welcome so-
lution of the problem of an adequate and well-
equipped hospital. Rennovations were made on four
two-storied buildings formerly used by the Marines
as barracks. The buildings were joined by connect-
ing passageways and a central building housing ad-
ministrative, clinical, and commissary facilities was
constructed. Work began on the new hospital in
April 1945. It was completed and opened for service
on March 18, 1946. Allocations of $131,158 were
made for its construction, of which $71,158 was ap-
propriated by the Navy.
The present hospital is a modern 224-bed general
hospital including delivery suite, nursery, and air-
conditioned operating room, and is even equipped
with an elevator. The eight wards include one com-
partmented contagious ward and a ward for tuberc-
ulosis patients. The hospital also contains class-
rooms, offices for the Nurses’ Training School, clinic
rooms, and an X-ray suite and laboratory. . It has
become the outstanding institution of its kind in the
South Pacific area.
w
+ + + 3%. +
From the earliest days of naval medical activity
in American Samoa, the need for a central hospital
was apparent. However, prior to World War II,
transportation in Tutuila was limited and the in-
habitants of the Manu'a Islands, 60 miles from
Tutuila, presented a special problem in getting them
to Tutuila for hospitalization. To meet the problem,
branch dispensaries were built in Ta'u, Manu'a, and
Leone, Tutuila in 1915. Other dispensaries were
added at Ofu Island and Amouli, Tutuila in 1923.
Whereas district health officers who operated the
14
Outlying dispensaries used to be chief hospital
corpsmen or senior hospital corpsmen of the Navy,
beginning with the year 1950 they were replaced
by Samoan medical practitioners. g
In 1933 the first young Samoan was sent to the
Central Medical School at Suva, Fiji, for training
as a medical practitioner. In the following year,
1934, Paul Godinet began his medical training. This
training was one of several projects sponsored by
the Frederic D. Barstow Foundation of Honolulu
which paid all the expenses of educating the stu-
dents. Subsequently, a number of other youths were
sent to that school or to the U. S. Naval Medical
School for Medical and Dental Assistants, Guam.
Paul Godinet was the first SMIP from Suva to re-
turn and was employed in the Samoan Hospital in
1939. He is now the senior practicioner in the hos-
pital. At present, 13 Samoan medical and dental
practitioners are employed by the island govern-
ment in the hospital and the branch dispensaries.
Five more are in training at Suva and one more will
probably return to school after having missed 1
year because of illness. The practitioners themselves
are being given increasing responsibilities.
*. ºf- * * **.
º: ** •r * *
Since 1914 the training of Samoan nurses has
been a strong factor in the public health system
in American Samoa. In 1913 Governor Stearns in-
formed the Navy Department that he planned to
establish the Samoan Nurses’ Training School for
both young men and women. The Surgeon General
of the Navy, with the approval of the Secretary of
the Navy, issued this order on August 26, 1913:
A school is hereby directed to be established in American
Samoa for the purpose of training native Samoan women
in the principles of nursing with a view to their making
use of this teaching in their own country, and among their
own people. For this purpose two members of the Nurse
Corps, United States Navy, will be ordered to Samoa, who,
together with the medical officer of the Navy attached to
the station will give the necessary instruction.
Two Navy nurses arrived in October 1913, and
on February 14, 1914, the training school for Sa-
moan nurses was opened with three Samoan girls,
well known to the Samoans as Pepe (now Mrs. Max
Haleck), Initia (now in New Guinea), and Feilo-
aiga, popularly known as Winnie (now chief Sa-
moan nurse). The first class was graduated Febru-
ary 22, 1916. In the fiscal year 1923–24, the 2-year
course of training was increased to 3 and in 1930
to 4 years.
The Department of Public Health has depended
greatly upon these trained Samoan nurses, using
them not only in the hospital but as visiting work-
ers in the villages. In 1951 the school had 236 grad-
uates with 52 student nurses enrolled.
The use of Samoan medical practitioners and
trained Samoan nurses has been a great factor in
the long-term program of educating the Samoans
in health and sanitation matters. They appear to
have gained steadily the confidence of the people.
Among the nurses, the quick turnover of personnel
due to marriage raised a replacement problem but,
their influence continued inasmuch as a retired
nurse exercises her training and her knowledge in
the villages among her friends and relatives.
Sanitation in American Samoa chiefly revolves
around efforts to improve the water supply, methods
of sewage and garbage disposal, and rat and insect
control. Survey teams including trained research
teams in filariasis, rodent control and techniques of
preventive medicine, have been sent to American
Samoa by the Navy Department. Throughout the
naval administration, the latest techniques and
methods in sanitation were applied and taught. In
May, June, and July of 1951 a tuberculosis research
team, appointed by the South Pacific Commission,
conducted a survey in American Samoa, an out-
growth of the Navy's administrative policy of
Working in close cooperation with regional organi-
Zations.
In the matter of popular education, however, it
must be pointed out that for 51 years, although the
Department of Public Health has preached the
“clean village,” the concept in 1951 was not fully
understood nor accepted by the Samoans. It was
the opinion of the Public Health Officer in his an-
nual report of 1950 that this was due to the gener-
ally low level of Samoan education: “The unedu-
cated mind grasps with difficulty, if at all, the role
of insects and rats and the concept of micro-organ-
isms as vectors of disease.”
Although the problems of mass education in
sanitation and health matters have not been fully
solved, there is no doubt that sanitary conditions
have considerably improved in the past 51 years,
although not to the degree desired. After all, in
1915, on the subject of rats, insects, and garbage,
the Public Health Officer stated that unless some-
thing was done the islands would be overrun and
15
health conditions would become appalling. Sub-
stantially the same statement can be made in 1951.
Yet the birth rate is constant at about 40 per 1,000
and the death rate is decreasing. Visitors returning
after absences of a number of years report that flies
and mosquitoes are substantially less than formerly.
It takes time to reach the point of optimum sani-
tation. --
16
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
General
It is difficult to conceive of any nation gaining
economic or financial benefit from American Samoa.
Its only export, aside from handicraft, is copra, the
maximum production of which is 2,000 tons an-
nually, an insignificent quantity in world produc-
tion. The island resources have no potential. Due
to the terrain, the geographic isolation of the area
and its sparse population, opportunities for commer-
cial development are limited. In fact, the limited
resources of American Samoa provoked such a lack
of interest at home that it took the United States
Congress 29 years to acknowledge the cession of
Tutuila and resulted in practically no direct Fed-
eral appropriations specifically for the naval ad-
ministration. - -
Although Tutuila had the “finest harbor in the
Pacific,” it was not especially attractive to traders
or planters. In the early days before 1900, Apia in
Western Samoa was of economic and commercial
importance, and it was only when the naval station
was developed in Pago Pago that Tutuila became
worthy of note. The naval station dominated the
whole bay area increasingly with the years and to
the end of Naval administration by far the major
part of the island income stemmed from the opera-
tion of the naval facilities. -
With this in mind, the basic economic policy of
the Navy Department for the administration of the
Pacific Islands under its jurisdiction was promul-
gated on January 15, 1948. The directive was a
crystallization of policies developed in 48 years of
administration and 'provided in part as follows:
Indiscriminate exploitation of the meager natural re-
sources of the area is to be avoided. Trade and industry
should be encouraged along lines which directly benefit the
local inhabitants by providing for their physical needs and
material well-being and which are of a nature and on a
scale such that ultimate ownership and management can
be transferred to their hands. The establishment for the
profit of aliens, of enterprises which tend to maintain the
native economy at the level of cheap labor and those which
do not permit the local inhabitants to enjoy the full bene-
fits of their own labor and enterprises shall not be tolerated.
No rights . . . shall be granted to non-local private indi-
viduals, companies, or associations without prior approval
of the Secretary of the Navy.
7
The life and customs of the Samoans have a bear-
-ing upon the economic development of the area. As
w
in all areas throughout the world, the Samoan ad-
justed his life over a period of hundreds of years to
his surroundings, i.e., a tropical climate, plentiful
food supply from the sea and the soil with minimum
physical effort, and isolation in a small land area.
As Dr. Keesing expresses it in Modern Samoa, “The
economic system has a central ideal a minimum of
effort, in contrast to white ideals, such as maximum
production and efficiency.” There is little desire as
yet for the Samoan to accumulate wealth. His pres-
tige among his fellow men depends upon the extent
to which he distributes his wealth. Under the com-
munal system it was practically impossible for a
Samoan to save money since goods and possessions
passed from person to person. Members of the Fita
Fita Guard and Band earned large sums of money
under the local economy, yet almost to a man they
were out of funds within a short time after each pay
day. Only firm refusals on the part of naval authori-
ties prevented wholesale withdrawals of “special
pay” in advance. Under this system, if a Samoan
earned $1 or $500 a month, he would have no more
at the end of the month. Where these conditions
exist, there is little incentive to work except for
what is needed to meet the daily needs.
Agriculture
The basic agricultural policy, although substan-
tially followed in practice in American Samoa from
the beginning, was not enunciated by the Navy De-
partment until January 15, 1948. It contained the
following statement concerning agricultural devel-
opment:
In those areas in which the inhabitants are agriculturally
minded, they should be encouraged and assisted in bettering
their methods of agriculture and in increasing the yield.
In other areas where the people are not agriculturally in-
clined, consideration shall be given to the importation of
trees and plants which, while requiring little cultivation,
will effect an augmentation of the food supply or will pro-
vide materials for local construction and handicraft. The
establishment of “industrial” agriculture by outside owner-
management which offers only employment or farmer-ten-
ancy to the local inhabitant will not be permitted. Every
encouragement will be given to agricultural development
17
along lines which will assist the area toward Self-subsistence
and which will assure the individual the maximum returns
from his efforts.
The carrying out of this policy has been difficult
due to the factors of culture and tradition and to
the limited natural resources at hand. However,
the Naval Government made continuous efforts to
try to develop agriculture, although little outside
help was received.
On March 18, 1902, the Commandant, Captain
Sebree, requested the Navy Department to interest
itself in the agriculture of the islands, and asked for
seeds. He also pointed out that the government
owned 4% acres of land on the north side of the
harbor and suggested it as an ideal place for the
Department of Agriculture to establish an experi-
mental station. The Commandant was advised by
the Navy Department that the Department of Agri-
culture had stated that it had no funds for this
purpose. Help was offered in the form of a small
supply of Orange and lemon seeds for trial. Captain
Sebree, however, received more than this, and was
* able to forward to Tuimanu'a District Governor of
. Manu'a on June 3, 1902, 27 different varieties of
vegetable seeds, 19 kinds of flower seeds, and 3.
brands of tobacco seeds. As might be expected,
with no chance for supervision, Captain Sebree had
- to report little success with the vegetable seeds.
The tobacco, however, must have interested the
Manu'ans as the results were somewhat more prom-
ising. The Commandant made efforts to obtain
other types of seeds such as rubber, ginseng, nut-
meg, and coffee, but little success resulted. Gov-
culture. On September 6, 1913, the first Department
of Agriculture was established by Govern Stearns'
order and a plot of ground to the rear of the Fita
Fita barracks was set aside for a local experimental
station. Seeds were obtained from the United States
and planted. -
Requests for an experimental station and for an
agricultural expert to be assigned to American Sa-
moa recurred frequently in official correspondence.
In 1927, in response to an urgent request by Gov-
ernor Bryan, the Chief of Naval Operations by wire. .
stated that the Department of Agriculture had ad-
vised that the Bureau of the Budget had authorized
the submission of legislation for an appropriation of
$10,000 to establish an agricultural station; to sub-
mit such legislation the Department of Agriculture
needed technical supporting information. Governor
Bryan pointed out that that was exactly what was
needed, a technician who could supply such infor-
mation. Thereupon he suggested that the Hawaiian
Experiment Station send an expert down to make
a scientific estimate.
More emphasis was given to the Department of
Agriculture in October 1932, when a naval officer
was appointed as “Aide for Agriculture.” This title
persisted until after World War II. Considerable
emphasis continued to be placed on agriculture
during the remainder of the thirties and up to the
beginning of the war. Governor Landenberger in
1933 repeated in a report to the Navy Department
what his predecessors had stressed, “The develop-
ment of agriculture is probably the most vitally
essential need of American Samoa today.” A pro-
ernor C. B. T. Moore received a supply of vanilla
cuttings in 1904 and in 1905 the Governor reported = .
the cooperation of the Hawaiian Agricultural Ex-
periment Station in endeavoring to obtain suitable
highland bamboos for planting in Tutuila.
In 1914 Governor Stearns recommended estab-
gram was developed and seeds and plants of prac-
tically every kind which would grow locally were
obtained. An experimental farm of 25,000 square
feet was established in 1932 in the same spot as
Taputimu where the present Government Farm is
lishment of a United States Experimental Station.
The Department of Agriculture made an earnest
effort to obtain an appropriation of $5,000 from the
United States Congress in 1913, to begin an experi-
mental station, with the understanding that a larger
sum would be needed. No action was taken by the
Congress; however, the Governor was able to re-
port to the Navy Department that much experi-
mental work had been done with seeds and plants
imported through the U. S. Department of Agricul-
ture and from the Philippines and Hawaii. A con-
siderable correspondence was carried on at this time
between the Governor and the Department of Agri-
located. The agriculture program was then linked
up with the education program. This was regarded
as a forward step, since improved agricultural
methods are primarily dependent upon a long-term
program of education.
The rew department was organized for the pur-
pose of introducing new tree and field crops, ad-
ditional root crops, and useful hardwood trees. It
was also intended to improve the quality of local
fruits and increase the copra output by introducing
better methods of handling and improving the con-
ditions of the plantations. The basic plan included
the establishment of school plantations to teach
agriculture to the children and form a definite
18 :
planting program for the various villages.
The program was slow in getting started. No
expert was available and there was no inclination
on the part of the Federal Government to subsidize
an agriculture program. Thus, with limited funds,
it became necessary for the Island Government
officials to undertake the task with the personnel
and materials available.
In 1936, somewhat discouraged, Governor Milne
wrote the Navy Department that “Outwardly the
Samoans display little interest in intelligent culti-
vation of plantations and to them the expenditure
of funds on a government experimental farm is a
waste of money.” Nevertheless, work continued to
be done at the Experimental Farm with local and
garden-type vegetables including experiments in
pest control.
By 1938–39 the Department of Agriculture had
made a good start and was able to define its aims
and objectives as follows:
(a) Develop Samoan agriculture.
(b) Encourage the Samoans to develop their
lands for agricultural purposes.
(c) Aid each village in apportioning its land to
crops that will be of the maximum benefit,
as best benefits the Samoan customs, tastes,
and diet.
To promote these aims, the Department carried
out its policy of rendering assistance to villages
through the medium of instructional pamphlets
and close liaison with the Department of Education
regarding the curriculum for elementary agriculture
subjects. New crops were tried, including Chinese
bananas, a short, stocky, hurricane-resistant va-
riety, and tree seedlings from Honolulu for mixed
hardwood trees.
After the hurricane of 1936, from which a serious
food shortage resulted, the Department of Agricul-
ture was anxious to find a hurricane-resistant crop.
It tried the edible canna with some success. How-
ever, the Samoans never took to this crop and the
effort was dropped during the war. In fact, recur-
rent food shortages had been the cause of some con-
cern of the administration. The causes differed from
year to year but were usually due to severe wind
storms and floods. The Samoans usually will not
anticipate the shortages by prudent planting during
a season of plentiful supply.
During the year 1939, Mr. Paul Guest, an agri-
culturalist from the University of Hawaii, made a
complete agricultural survey of American Samoa.
His report also included a survey of useful plants
and trees of American Samoa.
In 1940 further experiments were made with
papaya, cocoa, and tobacco. The administration
also worked with the Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ As-
sociation on sugar cane. The local variety was in-
fested with the Fiji Disease, a potential menace to
sugar cane in Hawaii. In August 1940 two ento-
mologists came down from Honolulu to visit the
Experimental Farm and make observations in order
to estimate the degree of resistance of four Ha-
waiian varieties to the Fiji Disease. On conclusion
of the study, recommendations were to be made to
the Governor proposing a definite program.
On November 29, 1940, the Government of
American Samoa took over the Mormon plantation
in accordance with the terms of an agreement be-
tween the Mormon Mission and the Island Govern-
ment. The plantation was rich in grass and coconut
trees. The agreement also included transfer of 14
horses, 1 jackass, and 200 head of cattle.
In 1941 Governor Wild decided to alter the em-
phasis of the agricultural policy to include the
growth of more western type vegetables on the farm
because of the extensive defense program which
had just begun. The advent of the war put almost
a complete stoppage to agricultural development.
The defense projects drained most of the available
labor. Copra cutting came to a standstill and the
work of the Department of Agriculture was merged
with that of the Department of Education.
In late 1945 efforts were begun again on the farm
to make it as self-sufficient as possible. In Decem-
ber 1945, with the arrival of 25 milk cows and 2
bulls from Christmas Island, a new dairy was
placed into operation on the Mormon valley prop-
erty at a cost of $5,000. Because of lack of trained
personnel, however, results were not successful in
1946 and 1947 and little headway was made.
To remedy this situation, the department was
finally organized into its present form in August
1948 after the arrival of a trained agricultural ex-
pert, experienced in work in the Pacific Islands. The
Department was given the dignity of being recog-
nized by the Samoan Legislature and, at its recom-
mendation, now occupies a place in the Code of
American Samoa.
The duties of the Director require him to form
long range plans and to organize projects to improve
the agricultural economy of American Samoa. In
addition, the Director manages the Island Govern-
ment Dairy and Experimental Farm. Much of the
*
19
Work of the present Director is in coordination with
the Director of Education, especially with relation
to the vocational agricultural school and the high-
school farm project. One of his biggest problems is
building up the respect and confidence of the Sa-
moans in the activities of the department and over-
coming the natural apathy and disinterest in agri-
cultural development.
Recently a forestry survey was made and the
possibilities of making American Samoa self-suf-
ficient in its lumber requirements is being investi-
gated. A survey has also been made to explore the
possibilities of a frozen papaya industry but, so far,
transportation difficulties and reefer space are major
obstacles.
Ownership of Land
The subject of ownership of land can be touched
upon only briefly in this survey, and the problem
merely set forth. In the years before 1900, especially
in Western Samoa, it became apparent that unless
some definite action were taken concerning land
owned by the Samoans, the best land would be
bought up by the non-Samoans. Because of ill-
feeling between the two groups, a Land Commission
was established in Western Samoa and started work
in 1893. The important decisions of the Land Com-
mission set the policy followed by the naval ad-
ministration. -
Thus, in 1900, any alienation of land in Tutuila
and Manu'a other than to the government and the
missions was prohibited although provisions were
made for leases up to 40 years. In 1901 another
regulation required all non-Samoan land owners in
the area to file claims for registration of their prop-
erties in the land records of American Samoa. The
regulation also gave the new high court the au-
thority to adjudicate conflicting claims, disputes
about which arose as a result of the findings of the
Land Commission. A great deal of the time of the
high court was taken up in settling these claims.
The Commandant felt that problems of land owner-
ship were “most vexatious.” Misunderstandings,
controversy, ill-feeling, and long-drawn-out litiga-
tion had resulted.
These original, land measures, although amended
to some degree, continued to form the basis for the
policy of the naval administration. By these meas-
ures concerning land, the naval administration pro-
vided legal security to the Samoan landowners for
the utilization of their land for the Welfare of the
Samoan people.
One of the main problems facing the government
has been the ownership of land by the mixed bloods.
For many years prior to 1948, it was forbidden to
alienate any lands (except freehold lands) to any
person who had less than three-quarters Samoan
blood. In 1948, after years of repeated pressure,
this provision was relaxed to include those of one-
half blood. However, even these poeple must be
born in American Samoa, must be descendants of
a Samoan family, live with Samoans as a Samoan,
have lived in American Samoa for more than 5
years, and have officially declared their intention
of making American Samoa their home for life.
As might be expected, these measures had the
popular support of the Samoans. This subject was
being thoroughly discussed both by the Samoans
and by authorities in Washington in connectiion
with organic legislation for the Samoans. There is
some feeling in the United States that the above
restrictive policies concerning land violate pro-
visions of the Constitution relative to discrimina-
tion against persons due to race, creed or color. The
Samoans feel strongly that protective provisions
should be provided in any organic legislation. This
viewpoint had support of President Truman who,
in a letter of February 19, 1951, to Governor Phelps
on the occasion of the latter's inauguration on Feb-
ruary 23, 1951, stated: “In particular, I want the
people of Samoa to have my personal assurance that
their traditional rights and lands will be protected
while, with their help, the civilian administration
finds ways to promote their political, economic, and
educational advancement.” This personal assurance
of the President signified a continuation of the
Navy policy against alienation of lands to non-
Samoans.
Commerce and Industry
The production of copra and handicraft are the
only two industries in American Samoa that pro-
duce for the people. Studies have been made look-
ing toward the production of coffee, pineapples,
frozen papaya, vanilla, papain, cocoa and others,
but unsuitable terrain, the isolation of the islands
and lack of interest on the part of the Samoans
have always thwarted such projects. Perhaps with
the closing of the naval station and the withdrawal
of the Navy on July 1, 1951 and the consequent
reduction in some of the sources of income of the
island, the Samoans will become more interested
in other income-producing activities.
Since 1903 the naval administration has handled
20
the copra on a cooperative basis. Each year the
Fono traditionally requests the government to mar-
ket the whole copra crop. This consolidation of
effort, making possible more efficient output and
marketing, is also utilized in the selling and mar-
keting of Samoan handicraft. Before 1934 the chief
sales of handicraft were made locally to visitors,
tourists, and the naval station personnel. Having
observed the benefits of the government-sponsored
copra cooperative, the Naval Governor on October
2, 1934, by Executive Order No. 5, 1934, established
a Department of Native Industry for the purpose
of providing the Samoans with a means of selling
and marketing their products at a fair return. Con-
sequently, in 1935, the department was placed under
the direction of the Island Government Treasurer.
In the ensuing years the annual income from ex-
ports often exceeded $50,000. *
During World War II the department was al-
lowed to lapse because of the war effort. However,
pursuant to Resolution No. 2 of the Annual Fono in
1945, the Department of Samoan Industry was es-
tablished April 26, 1945, under the direction of a
board of directors and a Samoan manager. The
initial capital was $2,500, later increased on July 1,
1947, to $12,500 by a loan from the Government of
American Samoa. The loan has since been paid
back from the operating profits. As presently con-
stituted, the purpose of the department is to serve
the people of American Samoa as a cooperative
marketing agency for local products, including but
not limited to laufala mats, purses and curios dis-
tinctly the product of American Samoa. The de-
partment has also been authorized to prescribe fair-
trade practices and inspection regulations designed
to improve the quality of Samoan mats and curios
and to secure a fair price for such products for the
Samoan craftsmen.
At various times during the naval administration
the Samoan people formed their own cooperatives.
Small shipping companies, the Manu'a Cooperative
Co., the South Pacific Co. and others between 1900
and 1930, were unable to continue in operation. In
1914 Governor Stearns pointed out that the Sa-
moans, due to their communal way of life, were not
able to manage their own financial affairs. In the
formative years the Governors tried to encourage
the formation of cooperatives. Continually, how-
ever, the owners were forced to come to the govern-
ment for help. One Governor himself kept the books
on one cooperative at the request of the owners.
Governor Stearns in 1914 recommended that private
cooperatives either be wiped out or run by the gov-
ernment alone. In view of the success of the gov-
ernment handling of copra and the government
sponsored Department of Samoan Industry, the
Samoan people, as indicated by their legislature,
have strongly approved participation by the gov-
ernment in these activities. Although not wholly
consistent with the principles of free enterprise, it
nevertheless fits the needs and wishes of the Samoan
community. The actual work of carrying on these
activities is done by the Samoans themselves.
At this point reference should be made to the
basic policy of the Navy concerning the protection
of the economic interests of the local inhabitants of
areas under naval jurisdiction. In his letter of Jan-
uary 29, 1948, to the High Commissioner of the
Trust Territory and the Governors of Guam and
American Samoa, the Secretary of the Navy out-
lined the naval policy governing the right and entry
into and the licensing of private enterprises within
certain areas under Naval jurisdiction. The Navy
Department has discouraged the immigration of
traders and alien merchants and has endeavored to
limit the licenses issued to new enterprises owned
by non-Samoans in order to encourage the partici-
pation of Samoans in private enterprises for their
own benefit.
This basic policy letter declares:
Under the authority of the Executive Orders which charge
the Secretary of the Navy with responsibility for the Gov-
ernment of . . . American Samoa . . . the Secretary is em-
powered to deny or to revoke the right of entry into the
territory concerned to any persons whose presence therein
is detrimental to the public interest. He is empowered
to grant, withhold or cancel permission to engage in com-
mercial or industrial enterprises where such enterprises are
detrimental to the public interest or inimical to the in-
terests of the local inhabitants.
This power has been invoked several times during
the period of the naval administration and the
policy of protecting the economic interests of the
Samoans against outside exploitation and the es-
tablishment of additional enterprises has received
the full support of the Samoan people through their
legislature. Where licenses have been granted to
outside firms, the interests of the Samoans have
been well protected.
In 1948, for example, Navy property was leased
to a cannery, Island Packers, Inc., for the purpose
of conducting a fish cannery, using Samoan labor.
The contract between the Navy and the company
fully protected the interests and welfare of the Sa-
21
moan in such matters as wages and salaries, impor-
tation of outside labor, sale of the canned products,
and limitations upon ownership of land.
During its 2 years of operations the firm based
its vessels in the Fiji Islands with plans to deliver
the quick-frozen fish to the cannery for processing.
An annual output of 125,000 cases of tuna was
planned by the company for the first year, with an
estimated capacity of 350,000 cases. It was antici-
pated that the operations of the company would be
beneficial to the Government of American Samoa
in making available wages and compensation for
the local population and would also provide an ad-
ditional source of food for the civilian economy. The
Company was incorporated in Delaware with an au-
thorized capital of $2,000,000 and a subcribed capi-
tal of $1,600,000.
Had it been successful, the project would have
employed about 150 people the first year, at wages
totaling approximately $135,000. This figure would
have been doubled with the plant running at full
capacity. Unfortunately, the company was forced
to cease operations in 1950 because of a shortage of
fish for processing. The assets of the company were
purchased recently by Wilbur Ellis & Co.
Bank of American Samoa
The Bank of American Samoa was established on
May 19, 1914, under official control of and with a
capital of $5,000 subscribed entirely by the Govern-
ment of American Samoa. It is the only bank in
American Samoa and has served the banking needs
of the community in a highly satisfactory manner.
One of the primary objects of the bank was “to
induce the natives to save money.” As has been
pointed out already, it is not in the Samoan char-
acter to save for a rainy day, and it was believed
that by encouraging small savings accounts in a
local bank, at least a dent would be made in this
deeply rooted national trait. On reviewing the ac-
complishments of the bank in this respect, after 37
years of operation, the casual observer might be
inclined to record no progress in cultivating a sense
of thrift in the Samoans. Fortunately this is not en-
tirely the case, for the bank has attained great pres-
tige in the eyes of the Samoans. They have learned
to entrust their money to it without question and,
most important, they now invariably recognize that
their financial obligations to the bank have prece-
dence over any other such obligations.
From time to time special dividends have been
declared and paid out of earnings, which for the
most part were reinvested in the bank by the pur-
chase of additional capital stock. In 1951 the bank
was capitalized at $50,000 with a surplus of $65,000,
and with undivided profits of $16,399.32. The ratio
of the capital accounts to the total liabilities com-
pared very favorably with banks in the United
States. w
The business of the bank grew steadily year by
year, along with the activities of the Government.
For example, assets increased from $179,331.73 in
1936 to $183,329.50 in 1940. Net earnings for the
corresponding period increased from $1,687.18 in
1936 to $2,954.81 in 1940. …
The war, with its resultant construction boom and
tremendous influx of military personnel, brought a
meteoric rise in the assets of the bank. The fol-
lowing comparative statement will indicate this in-
CI’ea.Sé . -
30 June :
1940 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $183,229.70
1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309,768.27
1942 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992,956.28
1943 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,253,780.70
1944 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,762,569.00
1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,804,280.70
Following the war and the subsequent shrinkage
in the island economy, the assets of the bank di-
minished as follows: -
30 June:
1946 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $1,607,672.53
1948 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,569,858.49
1949 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.503-307.77
1960 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,478,750.09
1951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,309,883.87
Net earnings in 1949 were the highest in history:
$18,646.39; 1950 earnings were about 20 percent
less: $15,051.05.
It is interesting to note that all the personnel of
the bank, with the exception of the manager, are
Samoans. In 1951 one Samoan was spending a year
in training at one of the correspondent banks, the
American Trust Co.—a forward step in personnel
training and management.
PUBLIC FINANCE
The financial activities of the government, its ac-
counts, and control of its expenditures and receipts
was a source of constant concern to the early Gov-
ernors. The first custodian of the island funds was
the customs officer, Chief Boatswain Henry Hudson,
U. S. N. In November 1901, Assistant Paymaster
E. E. Goodhue, U.S.N., attached to the U.S.S. Aba-
renda, became the custodian, and the custom-house
officer was directed to transfer to him, at the end of
22
each month, all public money in his custody. No
money was to be paid out except by order of the
Commandant. As of December 31, 1901, the island
accounts consisted of “Customs”; “Native Tax,”
mostly paid in copra; “Licenses,” used at the dis-
cretion of the Commandant, for such purposes as
feeding of prisoners; “Clothing,” started in 1900,
used to buy clothing (uniforms) for the Samoan
officials. The first uniforms were furnished, but
later the officials were required to purchase them.
The establishment of a “budget” system for
handling the finances of the various departments
of the island government was considered in 1913.
At that time the moneys of the island were in five
funds: Native Tax, Customs, Judicial, Samoan Hos-s
pital, and Clothing. The Naval Supply Officer rec-
ommended that they be reduced to two: Native Tax
and the General Fund. The Native Tax was to re-
main unchanged, to permit the independent and
proper handling of the copra contract surplus, and
the “General Fund” was to include the remainder
of the funds. But the Supply Officer was 37 years
ahead of his time. In fiscal 1951 the Treasurer of
American Samoa made a similar proposal and has
now streamlined the accounting system. In 1913
the Supply Officer had also proposed a “budget de-
partmental accountability system” on a monthly
basis but the change was not made.
The first positive forward step in ‘public finance
was made in 1923 when Governor Pollock called a
meeting of island government officials to discuss the
best method of handling the finances and the de-
partmental work of the various districts. During
the years previous to that time there had been re-
curring requests made by the Samoan Chiefs to
participate in audits and inspections of government
accounts.
Accordingly a budget was inaugurated in October
1923, and was so successful that it was permanently
adopted in January 1924. The setting up of the
budget was a painstaking task and each department
had to justify thoroughly its requests for funds.
To complete the financial system, the Office of
Comptroller was established on November 1, 1925.
In 1927 the plant account was first established, the
property of the government inventoried and ap-
praised, and a system of accountability put into
effect.
The laws regarding taxation and customs duties
which affected everyone alike often offended the
Samoan customs whereby the highest ranking chiefs
received special prerogatives. However, under the
new system, status as leader of a community did
not provide exemption from taxation.
In the early years, by choice of the Samoan
leaders, the taxes for the support of the government
were to be paid in produce to be sold by the govern-
ment for the benefit of the taxpayers. Based on
these recommendations, by Ordinance No. 21 of
1900, signed by the Commandant, it was stated that
the revenue raised under the ordinance should be
used in payment to Samoans only for services ren-
dered in behalf of the government. The latter point
is one which is often pressed by Samoan leaders.
The amount to be required by the government for
1901 was fixed at $7,500, this amount to be paid in
to the Treasurer, and the surplus returned for the
people and distributed through the chiefs under
government supervision. About $10,000 was col-
lected and 40 percent of that amount was returned
to the villages in cash. After numerous recommen-
dations made from 1914 to 1920, the system of pay-
ing in copra was changed in 1921 to an annual poll
tax to be placed into the Native Tax Fund.
As might be expected, there was little enthusiasm
among the Samoans for paying their taxes. In the
year 1926, for example, after a severe hurricane, the
chiefs pleaded that they could not pay their taxes
because of destruction to their plantations. However,
as Governor Bryan carefully noted, the hurricane
did not interfere with their making an unusually
large (in view of the situation) annual contribution
to the London Missionary Society in November of
that same year. The records are studded with the
strenuous exhortations of the Governors that the
people pay their taxes. Many delinquent taxpayers
were offered stevedoring employment, carpentering
and other jobs to afford them an opportunity to pay
their taxes. In isolated instances the salaries of
civil officials were suspended until all taxes were
paid. Although perhaps not in accord with the best
methods of enforcing of tax collections, the latter
proved effective in some instances as a last resort,
and it was not entirely without precedent in Sa-
moan custom.
The presence of the naval station in Tutuila and
its intimate association with the administration of
government affairs traditionally made separate
financial accountability a difficult one. The Navy
Department as early as 1902 recognized the need
for a distinction between expenses for purely naval
functions, as distinguished from the island govern-
ment. The outbreak of hostilities in 1941 did a
great deal to make the distinction more difficult due
23
to the fact that during the war there resulted an
almost complete cessation of Island Government
activities. Practically all Island Government build-
ings and facilities were used by the Navy and Ma-
rine Corps, and roads, quarters, and automotive
equipment were maintained and improved by naval
funds.
With the cessation of hostilities and the beginning
of the return to more normal conditions in 1945,
Governor Hungerford felt that the financial system
then being used was inefficient. Each of the nine
departments of the government collected and dis-
borne by the Government of American Samoa.
The plant account of the Government of Ameri-
can Samoa has been further increased by Over
bursed funds for the conduct of department business
including their own separate payrolls. To consoli-
date the financial activities of the government, Gov-
ernor Hungerford recommended to the Navy De-
partment that a naval supply officer be sent down
to “assume all the financial functions of collection
and disbursement of Government of American Sa-
moa funds, such as a city or state treasurer.”
This was the beginning of the system whereby an
experienced civilian specialist was employed by the
Island Government as treasurer, in whom all col-
lection and disbursement functions are centralized.
He has full financial control and, by means of con-
solidating all accounts into the general fund (except
a revolving account kept with a purchasing agent
in San Francisco), can tell at a glance the financial
condition of the government.
Island revenues grew from approximately $1,800
annually in 1900 to more than $407,000 in 1950.
The effect of the war upon this rise can be shown in
the following comparison of the net worth of the
Island Government general fund.
1941 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . S87,330.58
1942 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163,361.00
1943 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336,436.13
1944 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798,680.11
1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,046,430.65
1946 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,144,300.76
1949 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.215,500.71
1950 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,620,636.37
1951 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . *1,525,000.00
More than 60 percent of this net worth was
invested in U. S. Government securities in a long-
range investment program. The remainder repre-
sented the plant account which grew from a esti-
mated $280,000 in 1944 to $800,000 in 1950. In
addition, the Government of American Samoa Occu-
pied two Navy-owned buildings valued at $223,665,
the maintenance and operating cost of which was
1 Estimated.
$1,300,000 with the departure of the Navy on July
1, 1951, necessitating a further increase in the cost
of operation of the Island Government. With this
increase in plant account, the Navy has made avail-
able to the local government over $300,000 worth
of naval stock account supplies, including over a
year's supply of petroleum stock, thus lightening
the burden of the transfer. The Island Government
had an investment portfolio, as of June 30, 1950, of
$808,800 in U. S. Government bonds and $50,000 in
the capital stock of the Bank of American Samoa.
Thus the Government of American Samoa at that
time was one of the few in the world with no debts.
However, the war-time balance has since been re-
duced. Since the war, expenditures have consider-
ably exceeded receipts, due primarily to the policy
of expanding the public education and health pro-
grams, an ambitious public Works program, and
added expense of maintaining a larger plant ac-
count. It was felt by the Naval Government that
the expansion in the fields of education and public
health has been so essential to the well-being of the
Samoan people as to justify tapping the reserves.
In the fiscal year 1950, for example, expenditures
amounted to $606,426.46, while revenues amounted
to $407,713.26, a deficit of $198,713.20.
The main sources of revenue are the poll tax,
store taxes, taxes on personal vehicles, fees from
license, and customs duties, which are responsible
for more than one-half the gross revenues. A fur-
ther source of income has been an allotment from
the Navy since 1947 of $55,000, chiefly for public
health and for the salaries of the chief justice and
the clerk of the high court.
Communications and Transport
The subject of roads figured strongly in the minds
of the Samoans and the operations of the govern-
ment. Rarely an annual legislative session passed
without mentioning the roads. It was the earnest
desire of the whole population that all main roads
be paved; the increase in vehicular traffic raised a
considerable amount of dust in the villages and,
unless properly maintained, dirt and coral roads de-
teriorated rapidly in heavy rains. Successive Gov-
ernors from the beginning attempted to obtain Fed-
eral funds to build and maintain roads. There was
little success until the war, when the Navy and
Marines widened and extended the road system.
24
The roads were indeed important, not only to the
people but also to the administration. As the Gov-
ernor, Commander C. B. T. Moore, U.S.N., pointed
out to the Navy Department in a letter dated June
23, 1905, requesting Federal assistance, “roads are
an important factor in the advance of the people
by reason of increased facility of bringing the out-
lying villages under the civilizing influences of the
government.” Good roads were also largely respon-
sible for better attendance by the Samoans at the
Samoan Hospital for necessary treatment.
One of the first official acts by the Navy was an
ordinance issued by the Commandant, September 3,
1900, establishing a public highway around the bay
area. The Samoans were quite willing to work, but
had no experience or tools. The tools were provided.
On November 26, 1901, the Samoans were ordered
to build three principal roads, providing the labor
themselves. During that fiscal year approximately
15 miles of road were built. However, since no
island funds were available, all hands joined in, in-
cluding the high chiefs. The government assisted
with the difficult parts where blasting was needed.
Progress was so slow, however, that the Comman-
dant, Captain Underwood, requested a state-side
engineer and bridge builder who arrived July 1903,
with 16 contract personnel. With his arrival the
work was speeded up and island funds were used.
The roads were originally intended for pedestri-
ans and horses. With the introduction of carts in
1911 and automotive vehicles after World War I
in a steadily increasing number, further extension
and improvement became necessary.
The chiefs made so many continued requests con-
cerning roads that Governor Poyer in 1918, aware
that the free labor system often was not successful,
sharply told the Fono: “American Samoa has about
the worst roads in the world; the only way to secure
good roads is to subject yourselves to road taxation
as has been done by all the people in the world
having good roads.” To improve the organization
for road maintenance, a Public Works Officer of
the Naval Station was appointed by the Governor
in 1918 as engineer to supervise the roads.
It soon became apparent that the system of using
free labor for road maintenance and repair meant
in many cases uneconomical and inefficient expendi-
tures of island government funds. Too often, road
foremen, trucks and equipment would go to some
designated location and find that the full labor
force was not there to report for work. Conse-
quently, in 1927, the Public Works’ Officer recom-
mended a permanent road crew of 12 men for the
skilled labor and also recommended that the vil-
lages cooperate by keeping the road ditches and
drainage clear. This is essentially the system used
today except that village roads, apart from main
roads, must be maintained by the individual vil-
lages themselves.
During the war a tremendous impetus was given
to the road-building program. In 1948–49 an ex-
tensive road-building program was begun on which
$26,872 was spent during fiscal 1949. In 1951 there
were 3.5 miles of paved roads, 38 miles of improved
roads, 28 miles of secondary roads, and 50 miles of
trails.
º: º: + * º:
In many respects American Samoa benefited ma-
terially from World War II. However, shipping
conditions in the postwar period were worse than
before the war. In 1951 freighters of the Matson
Line were calling at Pago Pago six to eight times a
year on their southward passage, but approximately
only once a quarter on their northbound passage. The
gradual withdrawal of the Navy and the closing up of
the naval station have made it unprofitable to call at
Pago Pago more often. The freighters carry virtu-
ally no passengers for American Samoa. Air mail
is delivered via the roundabout route between Suva,
Fiji Islands, and Apia. There is no passenger travel
direct to the United States and the Island Govern-
ment must rely on the overtaxed New Zealand Air-
lines Corp. for air transportation from Apia to Suva
for its government employees, with consequent de-
lays due to bottlenecks and resultant increase in
travel expense.
This situation in regard to contact with the out-
side world is reminiscent of the period between
1904 and 1912 when the Ship Subsidy Bill failed in
Congress, and United States shipping to Samoa vir–
tually ceased. In his annual report to the Secretary
of the Navy in 1908, Governor Moore stated that
the failure of the bill “can be considered nothing
less than a calamity to this Island Government,
both in matters of mail communication and of reve-
nue.” In 1907 Governor Moore also complained of
discontinuing service of the Oceanic Steamship Co.
and deplored the necessity of the United States de-
pending on foreign lines of communications.” For-
tunately the Oceanic Steamship Co. (Matson) re-
sumed operation July 2, 1912.
Transportation improved steadily until just be-
fore World War II when American Samoa was
served by the Oceanic Steamship Co. 13 times a
25
year. Practically all imports and exports came and
Went by these steamers. However, bulk shipments,
diesel oil, kerosene, gasoline and lumber were re-
ceived twice a year on tramp steamers and the fuel
requirements of the naval station and station ship
Were furnished by a collier. Furthermore, the
Oceanic Steamship Co. utilized two passenger ves-
sels which made travel between American Samoa
and the United States relatively easy. These two
liners, the Mariposa and the Monterey, discontinued
their run during World War II.
+ º: + #. *.
During World War II and until June 20, 1950,
except for a brief period, American Samoa was
served by planes of the Naval Air Transportation
Service and the Fleet Logistic Air Wing, at inter-
vals of 1 to 2 weeks. Army and Navy cargo vessels
also served the islands until July 1, 1950, when,
with the beginning of the withdrawal of the Navy,
the service came to an end. In August 1950 the
last naval station ship, the U.S.S. Sharps (AKL 10),
departed.
Adequate and regular shipping is essential in
order to export the mats, curios, and copra of the
islands. The lack of regular transportation between
Tutuila and Honolulu has hurt the export trade
and it is the earnest hope of the new civilian ad-
ministration that adequate transportation can be
resumed.
From the beginning of the naval administration,
interisland transportation was carried on by small,
privately owned schooners which transported copra
and carried passengers. Official transportation to
and from the outlying islands of Manu'a and
Swains was provided by ships of the naval station.
At present, transportation between Aipa and Tu-
tuila is carried by the M. V. Samoa, owned by the
Steffany estate, which makes occasional interisland
trips within the American Samoan group. She is
a schooner, of 180 tons displacement, launched July
19, 1941, and built entirely by Samoan craftsmen.
During the war she was acquired by condemnation
proceedings by the military government for the use
and benefit of the war effort. She was operated
profitably by the government Samoan Navigation
Co. during the war and returned to her original
Owners in 1947, after she had been completely over-
hauled and placed in substantially the same con-
dition as when taken over by the government.
To fill the requirements for official transportation
brought about by the withdrawal of the Navy sta-
tion ship, the government of American Samoa char-
tered from the people of Manu'a a privately owned
vessel, the O. S. Manu'a Tele, a former United
States minesweeper. Although expensive to operate,
since she was in poor condition when chartered by
the government, some form of official interisland
transportation is necessary in order properly to dis-
charge the obligations of the administration toward
the outlying islands.
º: +: º:
+ º:
The U. S. Naval Radio Station maintained excel-
lent communication service on a 24-hour basis with
the outside world and also handled all classes of
messages as a service to the local civilians. Small
radio stations maintained on the islands of Ta'u
and Ofu have been in commission since 1926;
Swains’ has been operating since 1938. The opera-
tors were Samoans medical practitioners.
*.
º
From this brief economic survey it is obvious that
American Samoa has little commercial importance,
nor is it an area for the potential settlement of peo-
ple from more crowded regions. The new civilian
administration is faced with problems which include
a rapidly increasing population with limited re-
sources, an urban bay area that is too crowded in
relation to the outlying areas, an educated younger
generation seeking employment which may not be
forthcoming, and the adjustment of former Navy
civil-service employees to lesser Island Government
salaries. Last, but not least, it is faced with the
necessity of obtaining from Congress a heavy sub-
sidy in order to fill the income gap formerly pro-
vided by the operation of the naval station.
26
EDUCATIONAL
Historical Outline
In 1900 Commander Tilley found a greater de-
gree of literacy among the Samoan people in their
own language than among Americans in the United
States in the English language. The missionaries
had pioneered in furthering education in Samoa for
the purpose of training native pastors and they had
made the people literate in their own tongue. How-
ever, the naval administration, from the beginning,
adopted the policy of establishing a secular public
school system. In addition to the work of the mis-
sion schools, the Commandant, on July 6, 1901, re-
quested that the Navy Department allot money for
the purpose of establishing a primary day school
in Fagatogo at the naval station. This was the start
of many urgent appeals from Commandants and
Governors for Federal assistance to establish public
schools in American Samoa. Other petitions for
Federal assistance included one to the Navy De-
partment on July 11, 1903, by non-Samoan, mixed-
blood and Samoan residents of Tutuila; to the
President of the United States, in 1903, from Tui-
manu'a (District Governor of Manu'a); and in
1908 the chiefs of the western district asked the
Secretary of the Navy for $5,000 for building a
schoolhouse for a school already established.
In response to the plea that Federal assistance
be provided for administration of the local govern-
ment, the Secretary of the Navy, on September 14,
1922, wrote: “Government aid should be discour-
aged as far as possible and the people encouraged
to do more for themselves.” This was the general
policy of the Navy Department with regard to di-
rect appropriations for the conduct of the Island
Government. On this point Governor Crose wrote,
on December 24, 1910, in connection with an agri-
culture experiment station:
The Governor will not ask Congress for an appropriation
for any purpose. Repeated requests for money to establish
public schools have so far met with only silence. The most
necessary expenditure on the part of the Government, out-
side of purely naval affairs, will be for a public school
system.
On April 11, 1904, as a result of a circular letter
sent out November 20, 1903, by the Commandant,
a public school was opened in Fagatogo at the naval
DEVELOPMENT
station, to be used as a primary school for boys and
girls and paid for from the customs-fund. Due to
teacher shortages, it had a difficult time staying
open. Furthermore, as a result of the disinterest of
the Samoans in schooling for girls, it gradually be-
came a boys' school, with an enrollment of 40 to 50
pupils from 6 to 15 years old. The difficulties of
travel from the Manu'a and the western districts
tended to restrict the use of the school to those liv-
ing in the immediate vicinity of the naval station,
a cause of some annoyance to the chiefs of the west-
ern district. This was probably the main reason
for their petition of 1908 to the President requesting
funds for the construction of a schoolhouse in their
district.
There were four important landmarks in the his-
tory of education in American Samoa. The plan of
this brief survey is to introduce these landmarks
historically, and discuss them in terms of their de-
velopment, aims, organization, physical plants, cur-
riculum, vocational efforts, together with the schol-
arship programs of the Department of Education.
The first landmark in education developed under
the regime of Governor Crose, who took a great in-
terest in educational matters. In 1911 the Governor
tried to unify the somewhat disconnected elements
of the educational efforts in each district by estab-
lishing a board of education and by encouraging the
missions to teach English in their schools and to
produce some cooperation among themselves. Gov-
ernor Crose also supplied all the nonsectarian
schools with textbooks, stationery, slates, and other
supplies, from the customs funds. The first organ-
ized effort continued into the administration of
Governor Stearns who attempted to organize a pub-
lic school system in 1914 but efforts were not pro-
ductive until 1921.
January 1921 is significant as the second land-
mark in education when Governor Evans, at the
request of the Samoans, determined to set up a
public school system. An organization was finally
developed but was continually handicapped by lack
of money and an inadequate supply of trained
teachers. Nevertheless the number of schools and
pupil attendance continued to increase during the
twenties.
27
The congressional hearings of 1930 gave both
Samoans and non-Samoans an Opportunity to air
their views on education and brought about the
third landmark in education. Sufficient interest was
aroused in the educational system in American Sa-
moa for a complete revision in the Samoan educa-
tional program through the establishment in 1932
of a private foundation in memory of Frederic Du-
clos Barstow, a young man who before his death
had been interested in the Samoan people. A large
sum of money was made available for educational
purposes in American Samoa, and a representative
committee established to oversee the expenditure of
funds. A “Committee for Educational Reorganiza-
tion” was sent to American Samoa in 1933 to formu-
late a modern program of education. The completely
new set of objectives and practical plan of action
developed by this committee were followed by the
naval administration in later years. The program
laid out by the Barstow committee is still largely
in effect.
The education system improved steadily up to
Soon quadrupled.
So much time, money, and effort of the Depart-
ment of Education was directed toward the high
school, at the expense of elementary education, that
the present Director of Education, an experienced
and well-qualified educator, has set forth a policy
of strengthening the elementary system in order
better to prepare students for entry into the high
school. It was necessary to pare down the high
school budget in order to accomplish this objective.
Aims and Policies
The need for establishing a set of objectives
before laying out a positive plan for a desirable
system of education was recognized clearly by Gov- -
ernor H. F. Bryan. At the annual Fono held No-
vember 14–15, 1927, various resolutions were intro-
duced calling for drastic reductions in the number
of public schools and teachers. There were plain
indications that the people of American Samoa were
not satisfied with the results obtained by the
schools. The Governor prevailed on them to with-
World War II. However, because the full attention
of the Samoans was channeled into the war effort,
educational development was interrupted and cur-
tailed after December 7, 1941, and the policy was.
established that “education will be continued as
practicable not to interfere with defense.” In many
instances School buildings were actually occupied
of necessity by the Marines. A number of teachers
volunteered for the Marine Corps Reserve and
others went to better paying jobs in government or
contractors’ offices. School buildings fell into a state
of disrepair and in several instances were actually
demolished or removed as was the Poyer School.
Many older students accepted labor employment
instead of attending school.
The year 1946 is a fourth landmark in the his-
tory of education in American Samoa. Naval Re-
serve officers still on active duty, who were experi-
enced in the field of public education, were detailed
to direct the Department of Education. This was
the first official recognition that the Navy chaplain
who had heretofore been responsible for the depart-
ment was a much overworked individual and not
specifically trained or qualified for the job of Di-
rector of Education. A civilian from Honolulu, ex-
perienced as a teacher and administrator, was also
employed. Primarily, through his efforts, the level
of education was raised from the 10th grade to the
12th grade and the first high school along American
lines established. The budget for education was
draw their resolutions.
However, the Governor himself had many mis-
givings about public education. As he stated:
So much depends on the ultimate aim with regard to the
Samoans in determining whether it is desirable to attempt
to give all children education in English language in the
public schools patterned after American schools. Before
the establishment of the present school system the Samoan
people were almost 100 percent literate in their own lan-
guage and educated sufficiently for conditions in which they
pursued a happy existence.
From this statement the basic educational think-
ing of naval administrators in American Samao can
be discerned. It was not the aim of the Navy to
train large numbers of white-collar workers among
the natives. Such a course would be of small bene-
fit and lead to labor maladjustment and dissatis-
faction with the humble and necessary pursuits to
which they had long been accustomed. The measure
of success or failure in avoiding this pitfall marks
the degree to which our educators adapted western
educational training to Samoan needs.
The lack of continuity in administration from
one Governor to the next was perhaps nowhere more
apparent than in the educational program. One of
the first statements on policy, made by the Acting
Commandant in 1901 was: “There should be a
school system established under governmental con-
trol and all children should be taught to speak En-
glish.” The naval administration early planned on
28
adopting a secular public school system on Ameri-
can lines.
It had become apparent, however, that rapid
Americanization was not working out. In 1927,
when the Fono desired to pass resolutions curtailing
education, two main factors influenced the thinking
of the chiefs; first, the unsettling influences on the
pupils caused by new knowledge and behavior in
the schoolroom and the tendency of the students
to follow the example of the alien teachers, with
a lessening of respect for their own culture and re-
sponsibility to the Samoan society; second, the un-
conscious contravention of local customs by the
schools in such matters as using chairs and desks
instead of sitting cross-legged on the ground, stand-
ing in class when speaking instead of sitting as one
does in the presence of elders in the Samoan custom,
and the introduction of coeducation in the schools.
In other small but important ways the Samoans
felt that they were losing contact with their chil-
dren. Although the schools were not wholly respon-
sible for these conditions, they were associated with
the schools by the Samoan leaders.
what it is, for the first steps of the road. Hence it.
must have a respect for existing cultures. But
nothing is to be depended on as permanent. New
generations will reshape things to meet their own
needs. Ours is a philosophy of immediate needs,
not of final ends.”
Thus ample room is left to the student to choose
the type of life he wishes to lead, whether wholly
Samoan, wholly alien, or a mixture, rather than
letting the teacher atempt to force American ideas
and behavior on him.
As a result of the study made by this committee,
the Department of Education revised its objectives
and policy. The following statement has been
adopted as the official educational policy of the
Government of American Samoa:
It is recognized that much in Samoan ways and life is
good in itself and is admirably adapted to the people of
these islands, but that American Samoa is undergoing
change, especially through the influence of western civiliza-
tion. In view of this changing condition, which is likely to
Recognizing this situation, Governor Lincoln
started a new trend of thinking when he stated his
conception of education in a letter to the Board of
Education on November 6, 1929:
It seems reasonable that the children should be taught
Samoan and Samoan history that perhaps Samoan customs
should be taught at home; the objectives stressed in the
schools should be to help their own people learn agriculture
and how to improve it, rather than to get a government
job. It is not the object to educate the youth so that they
feel they are too good for agriculture and must have an
office job.
TV
This tendency toward adapting the school more
to the local Samoan setting and helping to develop
the children to solve Samoan problems in their own
locale evolved rapidly with the radical change in
emphasis instituted in 1933 by the committee of
educators sent from the University of Hawaii by
the Barstow Foundation. This committee consisted
of Dean Benjamin O. Wist, and Profs. Robert
Faulkner and William McCluskey from the Uni-
versity of Hawaii. The objective they set for the
school system was “to produce minds trained to
deal critically and effectively with the economic,
social, and ethical, religious, and other issues within
the setting in which the persons concerned are to
live.” Dean Wist says in this regard: “Education
must be a means of making life today richer and
more adequately lived. Education must work from
go much further as time goes on. . . . the objective of edu-
- cation is to conserve the best of Samoan culture and at
the same time to give acquaintance with the intellectual
tools and social concepts and institutions of the West, to
the end that Samoans may maintain respect for their native
heritage and skill in their traditional arts and crafts, and at
the same time may learn to meet on equal terms with other
peoples the conditions of the modern world.
With these enlightened aims in mind the Navy
Department, in a basic policy letter of January 15,
1948, outlined the following official objectives:
The type and extent of educational facilities will vary in
different localities according to local needs and the native
capability for assimiliation. The primary consideration is
a progressive development of each community along lines
which will raise the native standards by improvement in
health and hygiene, by betterment in methods of food pro-
duction and in the nature of food supply, and which will
equip the local inhabitants for the conduct of their own
government and the management of their trade and in-
dustry. &
Education programs shall foster and encourage instruction
in the native language and history and in native arts and
crafts. Instruction in the English language for inhabitants
of all ages is a prime necessity but this is not to be con-
strued as discouraging instruction in native languages and
culture. Vocational training in trades, skills, agriculture and
homemaking as suited to the particular local should be in-
cluded in all curricula. Tests and educational material
should be appropriate to the local environment, should be
geared to the capacity of the inhabitants to absorb and
should be calculated to effect the aims of the system as
enumerated above.
Maximum employment shall be given to local teachers
and programs for their progressive training and for the
training of additional native teachers shall be continued.
29
Organization
With practically no funds and no organization for
education there was, to all intents and purposes, no
government-sponsored education until 1921, and ed-
ucation remained primarily with the missions.
Unsuccessful efforts were made in the formative
years to obtain financial aid from the Federal Gov-
ernment for the employment of trained administra-
tors. In 1911 a Board of Education was appointed.
but did not function effectively because there was
no administrator to coordinate the program. A
State-side teacher was employed in the government
school (Poyer School, named in honor of Governor
Poyer, at Fagatogo, which was transferred across
the bay to its present site in 1914), but teacher
turnover was so rapid that the school functioned
ineffectively. In 1920 the Samoans requested the
Governor to widen the opportunities for their chil-
dren. Accordingly, Governor Evans energetically
set himself the task of organizing a system of public
Schools throughout American Samoa. He appointed
a Navy chaplain as Superintendent of Education
and a Board of Education, including three Samoans,
one representing each district, was made responsible
for overseeing the educational activities, and mak-
ing recommendations to the Governor. A Director
of Education was appointed as technical adviser to
oversee the school system, including the organiza-
tion and inspection and training of teachers. Pri-
mary schools to grade four and intermediate schools
to grade eight were established. The schools were
entirely secular and separate from the mission
schools, although the Brothers and Sisters' nonsec-
tarian schools at Leone and the Mormon school at
Mapusaga were by mutual agreement incorporated
in the school system.
Tutuila was divided into 15 school districts and
Manu'a into 4, the purpose being to establish a
graded school in each district and to change Poyer
School ultimately into a high School.
The Samoan people gave hearty support to the
Governor's plan for a public school system. At the
end of the calendar year 1921 there were 18 public
schools in operation, and by February 13, 1922,
when the Fitiuta School (Tau) was opened, the
school system as planned was complete. Poyer
School provided courses up to and including the
eighth grade, Leone Boys School to the fifth grade,
and all remaining schools courses through the fourth
grade.
By June 30, 1922, there were 19 schools, 29
teachers (5 American), and 1,567 pupils enrolled.
The twentieth school of the system was opened at
Masefau in March 1924.
By 1930, 21 government schools were in opera-
tion, 2 went through the eighth grade, 6 went be- .
yond the fourth grade, and 13 went to the fourth
grade. Two thousand and forty-four children were
enrolled and 49 teachers employed. Sixty percent
of the students were in the primary clases, 31 per-
cent in the first four grades, and only 9 percent in
the fourth to eighth grades. The system required
a budget of $20,000 a year. In 1933 the Barstow
Foundation, as we have indicated, gave great im-
petus to the educational development.
The general over-all organization of the school
system, however, did not radically change through
the years from 1921 to 1951. The Governor con-
tinued to be the head of public education and was
advised on policy matters by the Board of Educa-
tion consisting of eight members, five department
heads serving as ex officio members and three Sa-
moans appointed by the Governor to represent their
respective districts. The administrative staff of the
Education Department consisted of an American
Director of Education, a Samoan Assistant Director
of Education, a Samoan Superintendent of Elemen-
tary Education, an American High School Principal,
an American Vocational School Director, and an
American Elementary Curriculum Supervisor. The
high school staff, in addition to the principal, con-
sisted of a Samoan assistant principal and 15
American teachers. The elementary schools were
staffed by 140 Samoan teachers. -
In 1951 the number of schools had grown to 50,
the public elementary school enrollment was 3,498,
and private school enrollment 1,175; reflecting the
rapid increase in population. -
Following World War II, a positive move was
made in the direction of advanced education with
the establishment of the first high school of Ameri-
can Samoa, which opened on October 7, 1946, with
in an endeavor to place the high school on a State-
side basis. New teachers were hired from the United
States, modern textbooks and equipment were Or-
dered, and buildings obtained from the Navy De-
partment. -
The budget for the high school alone was $60,800
for the fiscal year 1951, almost three times as much
as the expenditures for the whole Department of
Education for the fiscal year 1940, and rose to
30
$71,960 in fiscal 1952. From the start the high
school was received with considerable enthusiasm
by the Samoans.
It became apparent, however, that only a few
Samoan students were capable of assimilating the
high school courses, primarily because of their lack
of reading comprehension in English. Efforts were
made to compensate for this by introducing a pre-
liminary “preparatory” course of 1 year in an effort
to make up the deficiencies in the student's elemen-
tary education. At present efforts are being directed
at strengthening the elementary school system to
prepare students better for high school work of
state-side standards. The first class graduated from
the high school in 1950.
School Buildings and Facilities
Traditionally Samoan schools were built along
the lines of Samoan houses (fales), with thatched
roofs of sugarcane leaves and coral floors. As the
years went by an increasing number of schools were
equipped in the higher grades with desks and
benches. -
The postwar years brought a marked change in
the style of the schoolhouses. Village after village
began to request palagi (American) style school-
houses. The job of conversion was made easier by
salvaging buildings abandoned by the Marines for
use as schoolhouses. A large percentage of the vil-
lage schoolhouses are now low-slung, screened,
frame structures with corrugated iron roofs and,
incidentally, are more expensive to maintain.
During the 1930's the Navy Department en-
deavored to refuse requests to build frame struc-
tures in various villages for several reasons: the
Samoan type of structure is cooler and more com-
fortable; it is less expensive to build and maintain;
and it can be built of materials already in the vil-
lages. In addition, the cost of maintaining frame
buildings is high and a burden on the government
Public Works Department. These arguments still
hold true, but to many Samoans frame buildings
are considered a mark of progress and prestige. As
of June 1951, there were 56 elementary school build-
ings belonging to the local school districts. Twenty
of these buildings were of Samoan construction and
36 were the American-type frame structures. There
were three central junior high schools, one in each
of the three political districts. In July 1948 the high
school moved to a new location into large frame
buildings formerly used as barracks by the Marines.
Curriculum and Language Instruction
We have already observed that from 1900 to 1932
the primary emphasis in education was upon the
teaching of English in the schools as an important
part of the program of Americanization. The ques-
tion of policy as to whether teaching was to be in
the Samoan language or in English was a funda-
mental one, directly related to the question of
whether the objective should be to Americanize the
Samoan rapidly or to enable him to live in his own
community happily and yet adjust himself to
changing conditions.
The adoption of the plan of reorganization of
1933, described in previous pages, stressed the
teaching of English. However, encouragement was
given to the pastors’ school as a means of providing
elementary education in the Samoan language. The
policy became one of adapting the school to the vil-
lage community life rather than trying to teach
alien ideas and customs.
The school system developed a compromise in the
use of the language of instruction beginning with
1938. At the present time, the primary grades are
taught in the Samoan language with English as the
Secondary language. In successively higher grades,
additional emphasis is placed upon the English
language as the learning processes of the pupils
become more developed. Upon reaching the high
school the English language is the primary language
used in school work. In this manner of teaching the
impact of a new language and the acculturation
processes incident to learning the new language are
not impressed upon a child before he is ready to
understand western ideas.
In the formative years of secular education the
subjects were the usual three R's with an American
emphasis and many of the textbooks used illustra-
tions inapplicable to Samoan experience. Also,
visiting instructors from the University of Hawaii
often prepared theme outlines which were poorly
adapted because the visitors had no background or
knowledge of Samoan culture or direct contact with
field conditions. For example, one group of teaching
instructions recommended that the children improve
their English by talking over the telephone and lis-
tening to the radio, and urged the children to read
newspapers and magazines at home and tell the
stories to their brothers, sisters, and parents. One-
theme outline even advised the teachers to have the
children answer the door bell at home as a means of
helping their parents. This, in a civilization whose
indigenous culture and possessions do not include
31
radios and telephones and most of whose houses do
- not even have doors, much less door bells!
Mimeographed text materials were produced in
the latter 1930's. Some of the Marist Brothers of
the Catholic schools put out good local text ma-
terial. Such material improved with the years, and
is considered to be satisfactory for local use.
The course of study adopted in 1933 provided for
a 9-year cycle of teaching with a theme for each
year. Theme topics assigned for each year as out-
lined in the 1933 plan of study were:
First: Home and Home Life.
Second: Community Life.
Third: Foods and How They Are Obtained.
Fourth: Clothing and Shelter.
Fifth: Transportation.
Sixth : Communication.
Seventh: Polynesian Environment.
Eighth: Government.
Ninth: Nations and Neighbors.
The theme is the key subject from which most of
the other subjects are developed. A daily “topic.”
is discussed during the first period in the morning
and plans are made to correlate all other subjects
for the day. For example, in teaching the theme,
“Homes and Home Life,” perhaps a topic might be
“Mats in the Home.” The class, under the guidance
of the teacher, discusses the use of mats in the home.
A simple story, which will constitute the day's read-
ing lesson, is developed on the blackboard as a re-
sult of the discussion. Certain new words from
graded vocabulary lists introduced into the stories
from time to time provide the spelling and vocabu-
lary lesson. Copying the story into a notebook
serves as writing material. The health lesson may
stress the way in which mats contribute to good or
poor health in the family. The arithmetic class will
have problems about mats. The agriculture class
will have a lesson in growing and caring for laufala,
while the crafts will make some article from cured
and prepared laufala.
Thus, under the new policy adopted in 1933, the
elementary work was fitted closely to the life in
the village in which the majority of pupils would
continue to live. The usual three R's were supple-
mented by history, hygiene, and geography; with
additional effort directed to the Bible and morals
in the mission schools. The academic program Was
varied by handicraft work and oftentimes by work
in a school garden or plantation. Additional at-
tempts were made to increase the number of schools
so as to decentralize the education system and focus
3.
the children more closely to village life.
Facilities are provided in the high school for
teaching science, agriculture, and some woodwork.
Commercial subjects, including bookkeeping, typing
and shorthand, are also taught.
Recently the local school authorities have en-
couraged the high school students to present plays,
a new form of entertainment in the Samoan culture.
In an effort to teach the student respect for his own
Way of living, courses in Samoan culture were
taught, and in 1951 an exhaustive study of Samoan
culture adaptable as a school course was being made
by a panel of educated Samoans selected by the Di-
rector of Education. -
Vocational Education
Before the war little effort was made in the di-
rection of vocational education. However, in 1941,
rapidly changing conditions created new local needs
and opportunities for Samoan youth. The defense
effort required additional structures and equipment
and needed men skilled in carpentry and related
shop activities. Likewise a demand arose for typists.
In the old way of thinking a typing course was not
considered justified, in view of the limited opportu-
nity for employment. It was considered that the
schools should train the students for life in the Sa-
moan village rather than for white collar jobs in
the naval station or in the Island Government. The
war, of course, changed this concept, and the 300-
odd Samoan veterans of the Marine Corps Reserve
were given an opportunity by the Veterans' Ad-
ministration to enjoy the benefits of the G.I. bill
of rights. In 1948 the Board of Education recom-
mended that the Governor authorize the organization
of a vocational school of the government of Ameri-
can Samoa in which the veterans could obtain a
vocational education under the G.I. bill. Some pre-
vious groundwork for classes in automotive repairs,
electricity, woodworking and metal shop had al-
ready been laid in 1947, and the school was started
in January 1949.
In September 1949, under the impetus of a new
administrator (now the Director of Education), the
vocational school was reorganized for the fiscal year
1950 and approved by a representative from the
Veterans' Administration who had been sent to
American Samoa to assist in the satisfactory reor-
ganization of the school along lines approved by the
Veterans' Administration.
In 1951 organized, reasonably well-equipped, and
well-staffed courses were conducted for about 250-
odd veterans in agriculture, auto mechanics, and
woodworking, with academic subjects taught in Or-
der to round out the veteran's education.
Scholarship Aids
In 1912, at the request of Governor Crose, three
boys were accepted by the Hilo Boarding School
in Hawaii at the expense of the Government of
American Samoa. This was the first experience of
the naval administration in providing scholarship
aid for Samoans in education higher than could be
furnished in American Samoa.
fied teachers was the most serious handicap in the
educational development of American Samoa.
Accordingly, the first extensive Teachers’ Train-
ing Institute in American Samoa was held at Poyer
School in 1933, a 10-week course from December
to February, all expenses borne by the Barstow
In 1933 two Samoans were sent to Honolulu on
a scholarship basis under the auspices of the Bar-
stow Foundation. One of these is now assistant to
the Superintendent of Education in American Sa-
moa and has been working for the Department of
Education for 31 years.
In 1947, in an effort to aid the Samoans in ob-
taining further education, the Navy Department
adopted a policy which provided free transportation
to Hawaii or the mainland on a space-available
basis for 20 students per year who could qualify
for and profit by such study. Free transportation.
was provided by the Navy for all veterans enrolled
in Hawaiian or state-side schools accredited by the
Veterans' Administration. Twenty-four such stu-
dents were being furnished transportation to Hono-
lulu and the United States in June 1951. This privi-
lege ended as of July 1, 1951, with the withdrawal
of the Navy.
The Training of Teachers
Aside from limited funds, the greatest problem of
the public school system in American Samoa had
been the lack of trained teachers, both Samoan and
non-Samoan. Even as late as 1945, the Director of
Education found the Samoan teachers’ lack of
knowledge of English “appalling.” In general, the
majority of the teachers at that time had no idea
of their responsibilities and needed more super-
vision, a condition largely caused by the war's dis-
rupting effect.
Valiant but unsuccessful efforts were made at in-
tervals during the first 33 years of the naval ad-
ministration to provide teacher training, but local
funds were simply not available. The Frederic
Duclos Barstow Foundation, to which the people
of American Samoa owe a large debt of gratitude,
started afresh in 1933 with a practical approach to
the teacher problem. The distinguished group of
educators quickly recognized that the lack of quali-
Foundation. Sixty were enrolled, including Samoan
teachers, of whom six were women. To assist in the
teachers’ institute, the Barstow Foundation Com-
mittee selected Dean Wist, and Profs. Robert
Faulkner and William McCluskey of the University
of Hawaii to assist the Superintendent of Education
and the Director of Education in revising school
laws and administration. Books and maps worth
$1,500 were provided. The work of the institute
marked a new epoch in education in American Sa-
moa and was the first positive effort to help the
Samoans adjust to the problems introduced by
Western civilization. • .
From 1933 on the teachers’ institute was con-
ducted annually with the assistance of the Barstow
Foundation. Improvement in morale was apparent
and the quality of instruction steadily improved.
Reports of the Governors indicate that the estab-
lishment of the institute was the biggest single fac-
tor in improving the quality of teaching between
1933 and the outbreak of war.
After the war the annual teachers' institute
Courses resumed their important place in the edu-
cational program. There were a sufficient number
of state-side teachers in the school program to con-
duct the Teachers' Training Institute without out-
side assistance.
Missions and Private Schools
It has already been noted that until 1921 the
mission schools provided the main basis for educa-
tion. During that time certain of the Governors,
notably Governors Crose and Stearns from 1911 to
1914, attempted to establish a secular System, but
funds, teachers, and equipment were unavailable.
The basis of the mission school education is the
Village pastor school, in which instruction is given
in the Samoan language and in which religious
instruction predominates. Since 1921 the pastor
schools have operated outside of school hours, usu-
ally early in the morning before the beginning of
public school hours. After the government estab-
lished the public school system, some of the Samoan
leaders were concerned lest the religious schools be
forced out of existence, but Governor Evans reas-
sured the members of the Fono:
33
“. . . in starting this school system it was done with I\O
idea whatever of putting the different denominational
schools out of existence, nor was it with the intention
of trying to put the pastor schools out. The idea of the
public schools is to provide for the teaching of English.
That is the intention of the schools: to enable the children
to write and speak English. I want the pastor schools and
the denominational schools to continue to teach arithmetic,
reading and writing, etc.; in fact everything that they can .
teach them.”
It was apparent that the Governor recognized
that the Government had neither the money nor
the facilities to match the quality of education pro-
vided by the private schools.
In 1900 when Commander Tilley arrived in Pago
Pago, he found four main parochial schools in ex-
istence: The London Missionary Society School at
Fagalele, the Atauloma Boarding School for Girls,
the Boys School at Papatea (Manu'a) and the
Catholic Convent School for girls at Leone, estab-
lished in 1897 by the Marist Sisters.
In April 1906 the Order of the Marist Brothers
established the Leone Boys School and late in 1909
the Marist Sisters Girls' School, in which all in-
struction was in English, was established at Atuu.
In the same year a religious boarding school for
girls was established at Lepua and in 1915 the Mar-
ist Brothers set up another boys school at Atuu.
With the establishment of the public school sys-
tem in 1921, it became the policy of the Island
Government to take over the facilities of some of
the denominational schools as they became available.
Vate schools to continue only if they met govern-
ment requirements and were placed under the su-
pervision of the Department of Education.
One of the most important and interesting of the
many contributions to education made by the Bar-
Stow Foundation was the establishment of an ex-
perimental school, the Frederic Duclos Barstow
Memorial (Feleti) School, which offered education
beyond the elementary level. The objective of the
school was “to educate a selected group of young
men of American Samoa in both Samoan and
American ways of life, so as to prepare them for
leadership of their people.” Enrollment was not to
In 1921, at the request of the Island Government,
the Leone Girls School became a public school for
all the girls of the district and was placed under
the direction of the Department of Education. The
contract of the Western District with the Order of
the Marist Brothers was taken over by the Govern-
ment of American Samoa and the Leone Boys'
School was incorporated into the public school sys-
tem. A similar arrangement was made for a period
with the Mormon School at Mapusaga which the
Government helped support with the payment of
$50 per month for one state-side teacher. No re-
ligious instruction was to be given in the denomina-
tional schools during the regular school hours.
The Leone Girls School was turned back to the
Catholic Church in 1944 by mutual agreement and
the Leone Boys School became what is now the Leone
Junior High School for the Western District. The
Boys' School at Manu'a Papatea, is now the Ta'u
Junior High.
In 1933 the policy was adopted of permitting pri-
exceed 18 and two non-Samoan instructors, man
and wife, and one Samoan were to be in full-time
residence for the school. It was to be a cooperative
venture between the Government of American Sa-
moa, the chiefs, the people, and outside groups and
individuals. The chiefs and the people were to fur-
nish the site for the schoolhouse and land for a
plantation for growing food. The school was to be
conducted as an experiment for 5 years and was to
be maintained from the income of the Barstow .
Foundation at no expense to the Government of
American Samoa. It offered a 3-year course in En-
glish and Samoan subjects and modes of living to
selected graduates of the ninth grade of the public
School system. General policies of the school were
supervised by the Governor of American Samoa and
the Superintendent of Education. Eight students
comprised the first class which graduated on June
16, 1937.
In May 1937 the Governor, Capt. M. Milne,
U.S.N., found the school so successful that he
recommended to the Barstow Committee that the
school experiment be continued for 6 years under
an American educator. The Governor further stated
that he approved the use of the bilingual method of
instruction in use at the Feleti School and expressed
the hope that it become a part of the public school
policy. - -
The advent of World War II necessitated the
closing of the school in May 1942. In the spring of
1945 two members of the Barstow Foundation, Dr.
Peter Buck and Mr. Frank E. Midkiff, visited Tu-
tuila and made arrangements for its reopening in
September 1946 under the name of Feleti High
School. However, continued administrative difficul-
ties in the school and the resignation of the princi-
pal, combined with a high cost per pupil, caused
the Board of Education to recommend that the
school be closed. Furthermore the establishment
34
of the public high school in the fall of 1946 over-
lapped the work of Feleti School. The funds from
the Barstow Foundation are now used for the pay-
ment of salaries of certain state-side teachers desig-
nated as “Feleti Memorial Teachers.”
Education in the Future
The fiscal year 1951 found a reexamination of
the objectives of education. Under the current long-
range plan, vocational training rather than the
academic aspect of education is stressed. High
schools try to teach the student to make a living
in his own community and to develop skills which
can be used locally, instead of training him solely
for a government job. The Samoans are primarily
an agricultural people and courses in the schools are
designed to increase interest in working the soil
and to direct the attention and ambitions of the stu-
dents along agricultural lines. Through the medium
of the Parent-Teachers Association and adult edu-
cation, Samoan parents are becoming acquainted
with the new types of learning absorbed by their
children. It is also planned that special attention
will be given to the gifted and exceptional students
to enable them to progress to higher education.
Great impetus has been given to the educational
program since the war by increased expenditures
and employment of additional state-side teachers.
With intelligent direction, the new civilian adminis-
tration under Governor Phelps should be in an ex-
cellent position to make an outstanding contribution
to the political, social, and economic development
of the Samoan people.
35
TEMPORARY DUTY COMPLETED
By the transfer of American Samoa from naval
to civilian administration July 1, 1951, the Presi-
dent has given notice that the “temporary duty”
given to the Navy in 1900 has now been completed.
# +: + + *
During the last 51 years American Samoa has
been the object of many investigations, commis-
sions, surveys and studies. These have been con-
ducted by men and women of national recognition,
many of them outstanding in ethnological, educa-
tional, political, literary, or scientific fields. Their
advice and criticisms have been constructive, ob-
jective, and well motivated, and were of inestimable
value to the naval administration in conducting the
affairs of American Samoa. Unfortunately American
Samoa has also been subjected to a host of pseudo-
scientists, do-gooders-for-a-salary, reformers, pro-
fessional agitators, and the merely curious, many
of whom recorded the observers’ preconceived ideas.
They have usually produced storms of criticism
against the Navy, very often confusing and mis-
leading the Samoans. This criticism varies widely
in severity and even more widely in substances, but
conforming however to the following general pattern
and ranging between the following familiar ex-
tremes:
(a) By a policy of overprotection, the Navy has
made the Samoan a permanent ward of the
Federal Government,
. . OT
The Navy has not been sufficiently alert to
the need of protecting the Samoan.
The Navy artifically supported an anachron-
istic feudal social order, the Matai system,
by the recognition and perpetuation of a
hierarchy of Samoan chiefs,
OT
The Navy has gone too far in undermining
the authority of the chiefs, thus sabotaging
Samoan custom and culture to the detriment
of the people.
(c) The Navy has pursued too idealistic, pater-
nalistic, and patronizing policies for the Sa-
moans' own good,
Ol'
An autocratic Navy, exercising authority
through an all powerful and merciless Naval
Governor, has ground the iron heel of the
military into the poor Samoan.
The Navy has repressed and retarded the
Samoans by failing to indoctrinate them
along Western democratic ideals,
OI’
The Navy has introduced Western culture
too rapidly, causing deterioration of the Sa-
moan way of life.
Final appraisal of the Navy's record in Samoa
must be objectively and exclusively based on the
extent to which the Navy has achieved the objec-
tives stipulated in the Deed and Cession of April
17, 1900:
(d)
To establish a good government.
To respect and protect the individual rights of all people
to their lands and property.
The promotion of peace and welfare of the people, for
the establishment of a good and sound government, and
for the preservation of rights and property of the inhabi-
tantS.
And later in the deed of cession of 1904, ceding the
Manua group,
That the rights of the chiefs in each village and all people
concerning their property according to their customs shall
be recognized.
The following indisputable results
record the judgment:
(a) More than 99 percent of the land remains in
the hands of Samoans of one-half or more
Samoan blood.
The living standard of the people is as high
as, or higher than, that of any of their in-
digenous neighbors in the South Pacific area.
(c) An increasing number of Samoan students
are attending schools and colleges in the
United States.
The health program has nearly wiped out
endemic diseases, the population has almost
doubled every 25 years since 1900, and the
Samoan Hospital has become the outstanding
institution of its kind in the entire area.
The majority of the positions in the Govern-
ment are filled by capable and trained Sa-
l]] Oa DS.
eloquently
(b)
(d)
(e)
37
(f) A legislative body patterned after democratic
lines is functioning in an advisory capacity.
(g) A healthy respect for law and order, com-
paring most favorably with that of any other
country, is firmly implanted in the people.
(h) The Samoans have been preserved as a race;
Samoan customs and culture persist as a part
of their everyday life. ze
(i) Poverty as we know it does not exist—a
reward could safely be offered for the detec-
tion of any Samoan, including the aged and
infirm, who does not have food, shelter, and
clothing sufficient to his daily needs.
(j) The fundamental rights guaranteed by the
Constitution apply to the Samoans and are
in force.
(k) The Government is solvent and without debt.
* º: + * *
As the last sizable naval contingent moved out of
Pago Pago Harbor June 25, 1951, aboard the mili-
tary transport U.S.S. General R. L. Howze, the last
scheduled naval transportation, work had already
begun on the demolition of the traditional land-
marks of Pago Pago Harbor, the gigantic 450-foot
naval radio towers. Removal of these great monu-
ments was symbolic of the passing of an era.
It is fitting, at this point, to echo the sentiments
of the legislature of American Samoa as expressed
in the printed program on the occasion of the de-
parture of the last naval Governor, Capt. T. F.
Darden, U.S.N. (Ret.), and the inauguration of the
first civilian Governor of American Samoa, The
Hon. Phelps Phelps, on February 23, 1951:
By means of the ceremonies set forth in the pages of this
program, The Fono, in behalf of the people of American
Samoa, wishes to place in the record of history the signifi-
cance of the termination of 51 years of naval administra-
tion. Mutual respect, understanding, and cooperation has
been the keynote of our long relationship. Our appreciation
for the guidance and léadership of the Navy in helping
American Samoa to move forward is deep-seated and ever-
lasting.
Turning its head to the past, Samoa is sorrowful to bid
farewell to a good and loyal friend, the Navy. At the same
time, turning its head to the future, Samoa bids welcome
to the new administration under the Department of the
Interior, and offer its loyalty, cooperation, and obedience
with bright hopes for the future. May God grant strength,
wisdom, and success to the new administration in its en-
deavors.
38
APPENDIX I
In so brief a history it is regretted that there is
insufficient opportunity to cite the names of all those .
who have played their part in making the history
of American Samoa during the period of naval ad-
ministration, 1900–1951. Any such list of naval
officers and men, Samoan families, and civilian em-
ployees would be long.
However, as this is a history of naval administra-
tion, the following list of naval governors is in-
cluded as part of the record: 1
Commander B. F. Tilley, U. S. Navy, Comman-
dant, February 17, 1900–November 27, 1901.
Capt. U. Sebree, U. S. Navy, Commandant, Novem-
ber 27, 1901–December 16, 1902.
Commander E. B. Underwood, U. S. Navy, Com-
mandant, May 1903—January 30, 1905.
Commander C. B. T. Moore, U. S. Navy, Governor,
January 30, 1905—May 21, 1908.
Capt. John F. Parker, U. S. Navy, Governor, May
21, 1908–November 10, 1910.
Commander W. M. Crose, U. S. Navy, Governor,
November 10, 1910–March 14, 1913.
Commander C. D. Stearns, U. S. Navy, Governor,
July 14, 1913–October 2, 1914.
Commander John M. Poyer, U. S. Navy, (Ret.),
Governor, March 1, 1915–June 10, 1919.
Commander Warren J. Terhune, U. S. Navy, Gov-
ernor, June 19, 1919–November 3, 1920.
Capt. Waldo Evans, U. S. Navy, Governor, Novem-
ber 11, 1920–March 1, 1922.
Capt. Edwin T. Pollock, U. S. Navy, Governor,
March 1, 1922–September 4, 1923.
Capt. Edward S. Kellogg, U. S. Navy, Governor,
September 4, 1923–March 17, 1925.
Capt. Henry F. Bryan, U. S. Navy (Ret.), Gover-
nor, March 17, 1925–September 9, 1927.
Capt. Stephen V. Graham, U. S. Navy (Ret.), Gov-
ernor, September 9, 1927–August 2, 1929.
Capt. Gatewood S. Lincoln, U. S. Navy (Ret.),
Governor, August 2, 1929–April 3, 1931.
Capt. Gatewood S. Lincoln, U. S. Navy (Ret.),
Governor, July 18, 1931–July 8, 1932.
Capt. George B. Landenberger, U. S. Navy, Gov-
ernor, July 8, 1932–April 10, 1934.
Capt. Otto Dowling, U. S. Navy, Governor, April
14, 1924–January 15, 1936.
Capt. MacGillvray Milne, U. S. Navy, Governor,
January 20, 1936–June 3, 1938.
Capt. Edward W. Hanson, U. S. Navy, Governor,
June 6, 1938–July 30, 1940.
Capt. Lawrence Wild, U. S. Navy, Governor, Au-
gust 9, 1940—June 5, 1942.
Capt. John G. Moyer, U. S. Navy, Governor, June
5, 1942–February 8, 1944.
Capt. Allen Hobbs, U. S. Navy, Governor, February
8, 1944–January 27, 1945.
Capt. Ralph W. Hungerford, U. S. Navy, Governor,
January 27, 1945–September 3, 1945.
Capt. Harold A. #: U. S. Navy, Governor,
September 10, 1945–April 22, 1947.
Capt. Vernon Huber, U. S. Navy, Governor, April
22, 1947–June 15, 1949.
Capt. Thomas F. Darden, U. S. Navy, Governor,
July 7, 1949–February 23, 1951.
NOTE-The first civilian Governor, Hon. Phelps
Phelps, was inaugurated on February 23, 1951.
1 When dates are not consecutive, the governorship was filled by
the senior officer present during the interim.
jºr U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINT ING OFFICE: 1952
39
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